Class 10

Context-Free Languages
Courtesy Costas Busch - RPI
{a b }
n n
{ww }
Regular Languages
{a b }
n n
{ww }
Regular Languages
Context-Free Grammars
Pushdown Automata stack automaton

Courtesy Costas Busch - RPI 4
Context-Free Grammars
Example
A context-free grammar
G:
S p aSb S pP
A derivation:
S aSb aaSbb aabb

G:
S p aSb S pP
Another derivation:
S aSb aaSbb aaaSbbb aaabbb

S p aSb S pP
L(G ) ! {a b : n u 0}
n n
Example
G:
S p aSa S p bSb S pP
A derivation:
S aSa abSba abba

G:
Another derivation:
S aSa abSba abaSaba abaaba

L(G ) ! {ww : w {a, b}*}

Example
G:
S p aSb S p SS S pP
A derivation:
S SS aSbS abS ab
G:
S p aSb S p SS S pP
A derivation:
S SS aSbS abS abaSb abab

S p aSb S p SS S pP
L(G ) ! {w : na ( w) ! nb ( w), and na (v) u nb (v)
in any prefix v}
14
Definition: Context-Free Grammars

Grammar Variables
G ! (V ,T , S , P)
Terminal symbols Start variables
Productions of the form:
A pE
E
is string of Courtesy Costas Busch - RPI terminals variables and
15
Notation: Context-Free Grammars

Lower case letters near beginning of alphabet (e.g. a, b, c, ) are terminal symbols Upper case letters near beginning of alphabet (e.g. A, B, C, ) are variables Lower case letters near end of alphabet (e.g. w, x, ) are strings of terminals Upper case letters near end of alphabet (e.g. X, Y, ) are either terminals or strings Lower case Greek letters (e.g. , , , ) are strings of terminals and/or variables
Definition: Context-Free Languages

A language
L is context-free
if and only if there is a grammar
G with L ! L(G )
17
Recall Language of a Grammar

For a grammar G with start variable
L(G ) ! {w : S w}
String of terminals
Derivation Order
1. S p AB
2. A p aaA 3. A p P
4. B p Bb 5. B p P
5
Leftmost derivation: 1 2 3 4
S AB aaAB aaB aaBb aab

Rightmost derivation: 1 4 5 2 3
19
S AB ABb Ab aaAb aab

S p aAB A p bBb B p A|P

Leftmost derivation:
S aAB abBbB abAbB abbBbbB abbbbB abbbb

Rightmost derivation:
S aAB aA abBb abAb abbBbb abbbb

Derivation Trees
21
S p AB
A p aaA | P
B p Bb | P
S AB
S A B
22
S p AB
A p aaA | P
B p Bb | P
S AB aaAB
S A
a a
B A
23
S p AB
A p aaA | P
B p Bb | P
S AB aaAB aaABb
S A
a a
B A B
b
24
S p AB
A p aaA | P
B p Bb | P
S AB aaAB aaABb aaBb

S A
a a
B A
P
25
S p AB
A p aaA | P
B p Bb | P
S AB aaAB aaABb aaBb aab

Derivation Tree A
a a
S B A
P
B
P
26
S p AB
A p aaA | P
B p Bb | P
S AB aaAB aaABb aaBb aab

Derivation Tree A
a a
S B A
P
yield
B
P
aaPPb ! aab
27
Partial Derivation Trees
S p AB
A p aaA | P
B p Bb | P
S AB
Partial derivation tree
A
B
28
S AB aaAB
S B A
29
A
a a
S AB aaAB
sentential form
S B A
yield
A
a a
aaAB
30
Sometimes, derivation order doesnt matter Leftmost:
S AB aaAB aaB aaBb aab

Rightmost:
S AB ABb Ab aaAb aab

S
Same derivation tree

A a a A P B P B
b
31
Ambiguity
32
E p E E | E E | (E) | a
a aa
E E
a
E E E a E a EE a a E a a*a
E

leftmost derivation
E
a
E
a
E p E E | E E | (E) | a
a aa
E EE E EE a EE E a aE a aa
leftmost derivation
E E
a
E
a
E
a
34
E p E E | E E | (E) | a
a aa
Two derivation trees
E E
a
E E

E E
a
E
a
E
a
E
a
E
a
35
The grammar
E p E E | E E | (E) | a is ambiguous:
string
a a a has two derivation trees

E E
E
E

E
E E
a
a
36
The grammar
E p E E | E E | (E) | a is ambiguous:
string
a a a has two leftmost derivations
E E E a E a EE a a E a a*a E EE E EE a EE a aE a aa

37
Definition:
A context-free grammar if some string
G is ambiguous
w L(G ) has:
two or more derivation trees
38
In other words: A context-free grammar if some string
G is ambiguous
w L(G ) has:
two or more leftmost derivations (or rightmost)
39
Why do we care about ambiguity?
a aa
E E
a
take
a!2
E
E

E

E
a
E
a
E
a
E
a
E
a
40
2 22
E E 2

E E

E E 2 E 2

E 2
41
E 2
E 2
2 22 ! 6
6 E 2 E 2

2 22 ! 8
8 E
4 E

4 E 2 E 2 2 E 2

2 E 2
42
2 E 2
2 E 2
Correct result:
2 22 ! 6
6 E
2 E 2
4 E

2 E 2
2 E 2
43
Ambiguity is bad for programming languages
We want to remove ambiguity
44
We fix the ambiguous grammar:
E p E E | E E | (E) | a
New non-ambiguous grammar:
E p E T E pT T pT F T pF F p (E) F pa
45
E E T T T F T a T a T F a F F a aF a aa
a aa
T T F
a
46
E T F
a
F
a
Unique derivation tree
E E T F

a aa
T T F

a
The grammar
G:
is non-ambiguous: Every string w L(G ) has a unique derivation tree

Inherent Ambiguity
Some context free languages have only ambiguous grammars Example:
L ! {a b c } {a b c } S1 p S1c | A A p aAb | P
n n m
n m m
S p S1 | S 2
S 2 p aS2 | B B p bBc | P
49
The string
a b c
n n n
has two derivation trees
S S1 S1
S S2
S2
50

Class 10

Uploaded by

Document Information

Copyright

Available Formats

Share this document

Share or Embed Document

Sharing Options

Did you find this document useful?

Is this content inappropriate?

Copyright:

Available Formats

Class 10

Uploaded by

Copyright:

Available Formats

Context-Free Languages

Courtesy Costas Busch - RPI

Courtesy Costas Busch - RPI

Courtesy Costas Busch - RPI

Pushdown Automata stack automaton

Courtesy Costas Busch - RPI

S aSb aaSbb aabb

S aSb aaSbb aaaSbbb aaabbb

Courtesy Costas Busch - RPI

S aSa abSba abba

S aSa abSba abaSaba abaaba

L(G ) ! {ww : w {a, b}*}

S SS aSbS abS abaSb abab

Courtesy Costas Busch - RPI

Definition: Context-Free Grammars

Productions of the form:

Notation: Context-Free Grammars

Definition: Context-Free Languages

if and only if there is a grammar

Courtesy Costas Busch - RPI

Recall Language of a Grammar

S AB aaAB aaB aaBb aab

S AB ABb Ab aaAb aab

S p aAB A p bBb B p A|P

S aAB abBbB abAbB abbBbbB abbbbB abbbb

S aAB aA abBb abAb abbBbb abbbb

Courtesy Costas Busch - RPI

Courtesy Costas Busch - RPI

Courtesy Costas Busch - RPI

Courtesy Costas Busch - RPI

S AB aaAB aaABb aaBb

Courtesy Costas Busch - RPI

S AB aaAB aaABb aaBb aab

Courtesy Costas Busch - RPI

S AB aaAB aaABb aaBb aab

Courtesy Costas Busch - RPI

Partial Derivation Trees

Partial derivation tree

Courtesy Costas Busch - RPI

Partial derivation tree

Courtesy Costas Busch - RPI

Sometimes, derivation order doesnt matter Leftmost:

S AB aaAB aaB aaBb aab

S AB ABb Ab aaAb aab

Same derivation tree

Courtesy Costas Busch - RPI

Courtesy Costas Busch - RPI

Courtesy Costas Busch - RPI

Courtesy Costas Busch - RPI

a  a  a has two derivation trees

Courtesy Costas Busch - RPI

a  a  a has two leftmost derivations

E E  E a E a EE a  a E a  a*a E EE E  EE a EE a  aE a  aa

two or more derivation trees

Courtesy Costas Busch - RPI

In other words: A context-free grammar if some string

two or more leftmost derivations (or rightmost)

Courtesy Costas Busch - RPI

Why do we care about ambiguity?

Courtesy Costas Busch - RPI

Courtesy Costas Busch - RPI

Courtesy Costas Busch - RPI

Courtesy Costas Busch - RPI

Ambiguity is bad for programming languages

a a a has two derivation trees

a a a has two leftmost derivations

E E E a E a EE a a E a a*a E EE E EE a EE a aE a aa