Structure of the PSTN

• Transport or transmission (PDH, SDH)

• Switching (see previous lecture)
• Subscriber signalling (analog or digital)
• Network-internal signalling (SS7)
• Intelligent Network (IN) concept

• Basic components also for circuit-switched

core of mobile networks (PLMN)
 Basic functional parts of the PSTN

PSTN

Switching in
Transmission
exchanges
(PDH, SDH)

Databases in
Subscriber signalling the network
Network- (HLR)
(analog or ISDN=DSS1)
internal
signalling
(SS7)
 PSTN  Circuit-switched technology
Circuit-switched network
Based on 64 kbit/s channels
(TDM time slots)
Time Division Multiplexing
(TDM)
Connection-oriented
operation (setup & release
connection => call)
Charging is based on time
duration of connection
Optimized for delay-
sensitive services (speech)
Packet-switched network
No fixed channel concept
(bit rate is not constant)
Statistical multiplexing
(greater flexibility)
Connectionless operation
(independent routing of
packets) as default
More flexible charging
solutions
QoS solutions required for
delay-sensitive services
 IP network as alternative to PSTN

Voice traffic can PSTN

Switching in
naturally also be exchanges Transmission
(PDH, SDH)
carried over Packet-
switched (IP)
networks. Databases in
the network
Subscriber signalling (analog
This topic is covered or ISDN=DSS1) Network-
internal
(HLR)

in a future lecture. signalling

(SS7)

IP network

Quality-of-Service (QoS) support needed!

 Transmission: PDH or SDH systems

PSTN

Switching in
Transmission
exchanges
(PDH, SDH)

Databases in
Subscriber signalling the network
Network- (HLR)
(analog or ISDN=DSS1)
internal
signalling
(SS7)
 64 kbit/s channel (or TDM time slot)

This is the basic transport unit in both PDH and SDH transport
systems. Note that switching in exchanges in the PSTN is also
based on 64 kbit/s TDM time slots.

When used for voice transport, a 64 kbit/s channel contains PCM

(Pulse Code Modulation) speech, generated according to ITU-T
specification G.711.
Analog speech signal (300…3400 Hz)
Sampling produces 8000 samples/s
Each sample is encoded into
an 8-bit PCM code word
(e.g. 01100101)
time => 8000 x 8 bit/s
PDH and SDH transmission bit rates

PDH (Plesiochronous Digital Hierarchy)

Japan USA Europe

J1 1.5 Mbit/s T1 1.5 Mbit/s E1 2 Mbit/s
J2 6 T2 6 E2 8
J3 32 T3 45 E3 34
J4 98 T4 140 E4 140

SONET (North Am.) SDH

STS-1 51.84 Mbit/s

STS-3 155.52 STM-1
STS-12 622.08 STM-4
STS-48 2.488 Gbit/s STM-16
 Structure of E1 frame (2.048 Mbit/s)

012 16 31

32 TDM time slots (with 8 bits each / frame)

Time slots 1-31 carry digital signals (usually PCM speech) with
a bitrate of 64 kbit/s.

Time slot 0 is used for frame synchronization:

received bit stream ... where does a new frame begin?
... ...

Time slot 16 usually contains SS7 signalling information.

 Structure of STM-1 frame in SDH

9 261 bytes
SOH STM-1 payload (contains the STM = Synchronous
3
actual information) transport module
1 SOH = Section overhead
AU pointer indicates where AU = Administrative unit
the virtual container starts
5 SOH in the payload field

Higher-order STM-4 signal is generated using synchronous

byte interleaving:
byte from first STM-1 signal

… byte from second STM-1 signal

byte from third STM-1 signal

… byte from fourth STM-1 signal

 Bitrate of STM-1 signal

9 261 bytes
SOH STM-1 payload Basic idea: bytes
3
from a 64 kbit/s
1 channel are carried
in successive STM-1
frames (exactly one
5 SOH byte per frame).

STM-1 frame contains 9 x 270 bytes

=> bitrate of STM-1 signal:

9 x 270 x 64 kbit/s = 155.52 Mbit/s

 Mapping into STM-1 frames

SOH

AU-4 pointer points to

first byte of VC
SOH
P VC-4 (Virtual container)
O
H
9
Virtual container
“floats” within the POH = Path overhead
payload of STM-1
frames
1 260 bytes
 Filling of STM-1 payload in practice

In reality, the
STM-1 payload
is filled like this: P

Beginning of
STM-1 frame N virtual container

Path overhead
bytes
P

Beginning of
STM-1 frame N+1 next virtual container
 SDH pointer adjustment (1)

When VC-4 clock rate is larger than STM-1 clock rate

=> pointer value is shifted forward three bytes

SOH old
Pointer new
value
updated
SOH VC-4 (Virtual container)

Three “empty”
bytes are
inserted here
 SDH pointer adjustment (2)

When VC-4 clock rate is smaller than STM-1 clock rate

=> pointer value is shifted back three bytes

SOH STM-1 payload old

Pointer new
value
updated
VC-4 (Virtual container)
AU-4 pointer

Three VC bytes
are stored here
Payload mapping

STM-1 can carry 63 E1 signals.

SDH systems nowadays also
carry ATM and IP traffic.

STM-1
 More about SDH…

• SDH pocket guide (there is a link to this material on the

course home page)

• www.iec.org/online/tutorials/sdh

• Section 4.4.1 in ”Understanding Telecommunications 1”

by Ericsson Telecom, Telia and Studentlitteratur 1998
(the corresponding online course is sometimes available
at www.ericsson.com)
 Subscriber signalling

PSTN

Switching in
Transmission
exchanges
(PDH, SDH)

Databases in
Subscriber signalling the network
Network- (HLR)
(analog or ISDN=DSS1)
internal
signalling
(SS7)
 Analog subscriber signalling

The calling party (user A) tells the local exchange to set

1
up (disconnect) a call by generating a short (open) circuit
in the terminal => off-hook (on-hook) operation.

The dialled called party (user B) number is sent to the

2 local exchange in form of Dual Tone Multi-Frequency
(DTMF) signal bursts.

Alerting (ringing) means that the local exchange sends a

3 strong sinusoid to the terminal of user B.

In-channel information in form of audio signals (dial tone,

4 ringback tone, busy tone) is sent from local exchange to
user. User can send DTMF information to network.
 Analog subscriber signalling in action

User A LE A LE B User B

Off-hook SS7 LE = local exchange

signalling
Dial tone (ISUP)
B number
Ringing
signal
Ringback
tone (or Off-hook
busy tone) (user B
answers)
Connection established
 ISDN subscriber signalling in action

User A LE A LE B User B

Off-hook SS7
DSS1 signalling
signalling
messages
Setup (ISUP)
B number
Call proc Setup

Alert Ringing
Tones Alert
generated Off-hook
Conn
in terminal (user B
Conn
answers)
Connection established
 What does ISDN originally mean?

1. End-to-end digital connectivity Idea originated

in the 1980’s
2. Enhanced subscriber signaling
3. A wide variety of new services (due to 1 and 2)
4. Standardized access interfaces and terminals

ISDN is not a “new” network separated from the PSTN.

Interworking with “normal” PSTN equipment is very
important.

interaction is
ISDN possible PSTN
terminal terminal
 PSTN vs. ISDN user access

PSTN 300 … 3400 Hz analog transmission band

“Poor-performance” subscriber signaling

Basic 2 x 64 kbit/s digital channels (B channels)

Rate 16 kbit/s channel for signaling (D channel)
Access => Digital Subscriber Signalling system nr. 1
ISDN (DSS1)

Primary 30 x 64 kbit/s digital channels (B channels)

Rate 64 kbit/s channel for signaling (D channel)
Access Mainly used for connecting private branch
ISDN exchanges (PBX) to the PSTN.
 End-to-end digital signalling

User interface PSTN Network User interface

Q.931 Q.931 ISUP SS7 ISUP Q.931 Q.931

DSS1 MTP 3 MTP 3 DSS1

Q.921 Q.921 MTP 2 MTP 2 Q.921 Q.921

I.430 I.430 MTP 1 MTP 1 I.430 I.430

contains the signalling messages for call control

 Signalling System nr. 7 (SS7)

PSTN

Switching in
Transmission
exchanges
(PDH, SDH)

Databases in
Subscriber signalling the network
Network- (HLR)
(analog or ISDN=DSS1)
internal
signalling
(SS7)
 History of inter-exchange signalling

CAS Before 1970, only channel-associated signalling (CAS)

was used. In CAS systems, the signalling is carried in-
band along with the user traffic.

CCIS SS6 = CCIS (common channel interoffice signaling) was

deployed in North America as an interim solution, but not
in Europe. CCIS is not the same thing as SS7.

SS7 Starting from 1980 (mainly in Europe), CAS was being

replaced by SS7. The use of stored program control
(SPC) exchanges made this possible. Like CCIS,
signalling messages are transmitted over separate
signalling channels. Unlike CCIS, SS7 technology is not
monolithic, but based on protocol stacks.
 Channel-associated signalling (CAS)
CAS means in-band signalling over the same physical channels as
the circuit-switched user traffic (e.g. voice).

Signalling is possible
Exchange
Exchange Exchange
Signalling is not possible
before previous circuit-
Circuit switched connection switched link is established

CAS has two serious draw-backs:

• Setting up a circuit switched connection is very slow.

• Signalling to/from databases is not feasible in practice (setting

up a circuit switched connection to the database and then
releasing it would be extremely inconvenient).
 Common channel signalling (CCS)
In practice, CCS = SS7.

Signalling is possible anywhere anytime

Exchange Exchange Database

The packet-switched signalling network is totally separated from

the circuit-switched connections. Consequently:
• Signalling to/from databases is possible anytime.

• End-to-end signalling is possible before call setup and also

during the conversation phase of a call.

There is one drawback: It is difficult to check if the circuit-switched

connections are really working (= continuity check).
 Signalling example

Tokyo Exch Oulu

User A Exch User B

(calling Exch (called
user) user)
London

Database

A typical scenario:
User A calls mobile user B. The call is routed to a specific
gateway exchange (GMSC) that must contact a database
(HLR) to find out under which exchange (MSC) the mobile
user is located. The call is then routed to this exchange.
 Protocol layers (“levels”) of SS7

Application protocols (e.g.

ISDN User Part Mobile Application Part, MAP)
(ISUP)
Transaction Capabilities
SS7 application Application Part (TCAP)
protocol for managing
circuit-switched
MTP Signalling Connection
connections
user Control Part (SCCP)
MTP level 3 (routing in the signalling network)
MTP MTP level 2 (link-layer protocol)
MTP level 1 (64 kbit/s PCM time slot)
 SS7 protocols vs. OSI model

SS7 protocol stack OSI protocol

layer model
MAP …
Application
TCAP
ISUP Presentation
Session
Transport
SCCP
Network
MTP level 3
MTP level 2 Data link
MTP level 1 Physical
 OSI protocol layer model

User application (in this case,

Application layer
the actual signalling messages)
Presentation layer Data compression & coding

Session layer Dialogue control

Transport layer End-to-end flow & error control

Switching & routing through the
Network layer
communications network
Data link layer Link-layer flow & error control

Physical layer Multiplexing & transport of bits,

time slots in PDH or SDH systems
 Message Trasfer Part (MTP) functions

MTP level 1 (signalling data link level):

Digital transmission channel (64 kbit/s TDM time slot)

MTP level 2 (signalling link level):

Frame-based protocol for flow control, error control (using
Automatic Repeat reQuest, ARQ), and signalling network
supervision and maintenance functions.

MTP level 3 (signalling network level):

Routing in the signalling network between signalling points
(using signalling point codes).
MTP level 3 ”users” are ISUP and SCCP (other ”users” such
as TUP or DUP are not widely used any more).
 MTP level 2 frame formats

Level 3 user information

MSU (Message Signal Unit)
F CK SIF SIO LI Control F

LSSU (Link Status Signal Unit) Network:

• National
F CK SF LI Control F • International

User part:
• ISUP
FISU (Fill-In Signal Unit) • SCCP
F CK LI Control F • Signalling
network
LSB MSB management
 MTP level 2 frames

MSU (Message Signal Unit):

• Contains actual SS7 signalling messages
• The received frame is MSU if LI > 2
(LI = number of octets)

LSSU (Link Status Signal Unit):

• Contains signalling messages for MTP level 2
(signalling link) supervision
• The received frame is LSSU if LI = 1 or 2

FISU (Fill-In Signal Unit):

• Can be used to monitor quality of signalling link
at receiving end
• The received frame is FISU if LI = 0
 Signalling points (SP) in SS7

Network elements (relevant from signalling point of view) contain

signalling points identified by unique signalling point codes.

STP Signalling Transfer Points only relay signalling messages

STP Signalling Point (in a database,

SP
such as HLR in mobile network)
MAP
STP

SP Signalling Point (signalling

termination in an exchange)
ISUP
Exchange
 Signalling point code (SPC)
SS7 signalling messages contain MTP level 3 routing information in
the form of a routing label:

MSB LSB International (and most national)

SIO octet signalling networks (ITU-T):
DPC 14-bit Destination Point Code (DPC)
DPC OPC 14-bit Originating Point Code (OPC)
OPC
4-bit Signalling Link Selection (SLS)
OPC SLS North American national signalling
Signalling message network (ANSI):
payload 24-bit DPC and OPC, 5-bit SLS code

Format for international SPC:

Zone Area/Network SP For examples, see:
www.numberingplans.com
3 bits 8 bits 3 bits
 Same SPCs can be reused at different
network levels

International
SPC = 277

National SPC = 277

SPC = 277 means different signalling points (network elements)

at different network levels.

The Service Information Octet (SIO) indicates whether the DPC

and OPC are international or national signalling point codes.

F CK SIF SIO LI Control F

 ISDN User Part (ISUP)
ISUP is a signalling application protocol that is used for establishing
and releasing circuit-switched connections (calls).

• Only for signalling between exchanges (ISUP can never be

used between an exchange and a stand-alone database)

• Not only for ISDN (=> ISUP is generally used in the PSTN)

Structure of ISUP message:

SIO (one octet)

Routing label (four octets)
CIC (two octets) Must always be included in ISUP message
Message type (one octet) E.g., IAM message
Mandatory fixed part
Mandatory variable part E.g., contains called (user B) number in
Optional part IAM message
 ISUP signalling messages
Basic ISUP signalling messages:

Call setup:

IAM (Initial address message) From LE A to LE B

ACM (Address complete message)

From LE B to LE A
ANM (Answer message)

Call release:

REL (Release message) Direction depends

on releasing party
RLC (Release complete message) (user A or user B)
 Difference between SLS and CIC

The four-bit signalling link selection (SLS) field in the routing

label defines the signalling link which is used for transfer of the
signalling information.

The 16-bit circuit identification code (CIC) contained in the

ISUP message defines the TDM time slot or circuit with which
the ISUP message is associated.

Signalling link
STP

Exchange Exchange

Circuit
 Signalling using IAM message

STP
STP
SL 4
SL 7

SPC = 82 SPC = 22 Circuit SPC = 60

20
Circuit
14
Exchange Exchange Exchange

Outgoing message: Processing in (transit) exchange(s):

OPC = 82 CIC = 14 Received IAM message contains B-number.
DPC = 22 SLS = 4 Exchange performs number analysis (not part of
ISUP) and selects new DPC (60) and CIC (20).
 Setup of a call using ISUP

User A LE A Transit exchange LE B User B

Setup IAM
IAM
Setup
DSS1
signalling Number analysis
assumed Alert
ACM
ACM
Alert
Connect
ANM
ANM
Connect
Charging of call starts now
 Call setup: Signalling sequence 1

User A LE A TE LE B User B

Off hook
Local exchange detects setup
Dial tone request and returns dial tone

B number Local exchange:

• analyzes B number

• determines that call

should be routed via
transit exchange (TE)
 Call setup: Signalling sequence 2

User A LE A TE LE B User B

Initial address message (IAM)

ISUP message IAM is sent to transit exchange (TE).

TE analyzes B number and determines that call should
be routed to local exchange of user B (LE B).
IAM message is sent to LE B.
There now exists a circuit-switched path (the path is
“cut through”) between user A and LE B.
 Call setup: Signalling sequence 3

User A LE A TE LE B User B

Address complete Ringing signal

Ringback
message (ACM)
tone

or

Ringing signal is sent to user B (=> user B is alerted).

Ringback tone (or busy tone) is sent to user A.
(Ringback/busy tone is generated locally at LE A or is
sent from LE B through circuit switched path.)
 Call setup: Signalling sequence 4

User A LE A TE LE B User B

User B answers
Charging Answer message (ANM)
starts now

Conversation over this “pipe”

User B answers, connection is cut through at LE B.

Charging of the call starts when ISUP message ANM is
received at LE A (the normal case).
The 64 kbit/s bi-directional circuit switched connection
is now established.
 E.164 numbering scheme

In each exchange, the B number is analyzed at call setup

(after the IAM message containing the number has been
received) and a routing program (not part of ISUP)
selects the next exchange to which the call is routed.

00 358 9 1234567 International number

0 9 1234567 National number

1234567 User number

Prefix

Country code 358

Area code 9 or mobile network code, e.g. 40

 E.164 number structure

Max. 15 digits

00 358 9 1234567

Prefix Subscriber number

Country code National destination code (1-3 digits)

(1-3 digits)
Area code, e.g. 9
Mobile network code, e.g. 40

For examples, see:

www.numberingplans.com MSISDN number
 Signalling sequence for call release

User A LE A TE LE B User B

Conversation over this “pipe”

On hook
Release message (REL)

Charging
Release complete message (RLC)
stops

The circuits between exchanges are released one by one.

(The generation of “hanging circuits” should be avoided,
since these are blocked from further use.)
Signalling Connection Control Part (SCCP)
SCCP is required when signalling information is carried between
exchanges and databases in the network.

An important task of SCCP is global title translation (GTT):

STP with GTT capability

Exchange STP Database

1. Exchange knows the global title (e.g. 0800 number or IMSI

number in a mobile network) but does not know the DPC of
the database related to this global title.
2. SCCP performs global title translation in the STP (0800 or
IMSI number => DPC) and the SCCP message can now be
routed to the database.
 Why GTT in STP network node?

Global title translation (GTT) is usually done in an STP.

Advantage: Advanced routing functionality (= GTT) needed

only in a few STPs with large packet handling capacity,
instead of many exchanges.

Exchange Exchange Database

Database STP Exchange

Exchange Exchange Exchange

 Example: SCCP usage in mobile call
Mobile switching center (MSC) needs to contact the home location
register (HLR) of a mobile user identified by his/her International
Mobile Subscriber Identity (IMSI) number.

SCCP/GTT functionality

STP

SCCP SPC = 32 SCCP

MSC located in Espoo HLR located in Oslo

SPC = 82 SPC = 99

Outgoing message: Processing in STP:

OPC = 82 DPC = 32 Received message is given to SCCP for GTT.
SCCP: IMSI global title SCCP finds the DPC of the HLR: DPC = 99
 More about SS7…

• Chapter 4 in ”Engineering Networks for Synchronization,

CCS7, and ISDN” by P.K.Bhatnagar 1997 (this belongs to
the distributed course material)

• www.iec.org/online/tutorials/ss7

• Part E in ”Understanding Telecommunications 2” by

Ericsson Telecom, Telia and Studentlitteratur 1998
(the corresponding online course is sometimes available
at www.ericsson.com)
 To sum it up with an example…

Part B, Section 3.3 in ”Understanding

Telecommunications 2” PSTN

Typical operation of
Transmission
a local exchange
(PDH, SDH)

Databases in
Subscriber signalling the network
Network- (HLR)
(analog or ISDN=DSS1)
internal
signalling
(SS7)
 Basic local exchange (LE) architecture
Modern trend: Switching and control functions are separated into
different network elements (separation of user and control plane).

Subscriber stage
Switching system
TDM links
LIC Time ETC to other
Group
switch Tone network
switch
LIC Rx ETC
elements

Tone generator Sign. Exchange

Line terminal
interface circuit
• Switch control
circuit
• E.164 number analysis
SS7 Signalling
• Charging
equipment
• User databases
• O&M functions Control system
 Setup of a call (1)
Phase 1. User A lifts handset and receives dial tone.

Local exchange of user A

4. Tone Rx is connected Switching system

1. Off hook LIC Time ETC

Group
switch Tone switch
LIC Rx ETC

5. Dial tone Tone generator Sign.

is sent
(indicating
“network is 2. Check user database. For instance, is
alive”) user A barred for outgoing calls?
3. Reserve memory for user B number

Control system
 Setup of a call (2)
Phase 2. Exchange receives and analyzes user B number.

Local exchange of user A

Switching system

LIC Time ETC

Group
switch Tone switch
LIC Rx ETC

1. User A 2. Number (DTMF

signal) received Sign.
dials user B
number
3. Number analysis
4. IN triggering actions? Should an external
database (e.g. SCP, HLR) be contacted?

Control system
 Setup of a call (3)
Phase 3. Outgoing circuit is reserved. ISUP Initial address message
(IAM) is sent to next exchange.
Local exchange of user A

Switching system E.g.,

CIC = 24
LIC Time ETC
Group
switch Tone switch
LIC Rx ETC

1. Tone receiver IAM

is disconnected Sign. (contains
information
CIC = 24)
2. Outgoing circuit is reserved
3. Outgoing signalling message (ISUP IAM)
contains user B number

Control system
 Setup of a call (4)
Phase 4. ACM received => ringback or busy tone generated. ANM
received => charging starts.
Local exchange of user A

Switching system

LIC Time ETC

Group
switch
switch
LIC ETC
ACM,
2. Ringback Tone generator Sign. ANM
or busy tone
is locally
generated 1. ISUP ACM message indicates free or busy
user B
3. Charging starts when ISUP ANM message
4. Call is received
continues…
Control system