WEBSITE USABILITY TESTING FOR LOW-LITERACY USERS 1 Abstract Despite the vast numbers of published website usability studies

and design interface developments by website designers, little has been documented about website usability studies and design interfaces for low-literacy computers users between the ages of 18 to 20. This study examines whether current website interfaces are usable for low-literacy computer users who have low access to computers and the Internet based on their socioeconomic background. This study also analyzed literature about the usability of website interfaces and website navigation behaviors of these computer users. In addition, it examined data gathered from observing the navigation and browsing behaviors of 18 computer users. The results gathered through observation in some ways support the findings reported in the literature about the web browsing behaviors of low-literacy users. However, the results challenged those findings with respect to the preferred navigation tactics of low-literacy users. This study also includes a brief overview of future research that will examine dyslexic computers users as a classification of low literacy and how these computers users interact with current website interface designs.

WEBSITE USABILITY TESTING FOR LOW-LITERACY USERS 2

Introduction The use of websites for accessing information remains as common today as ordering a Whopper at Burger kings but as complex as rocket science for low-literacy computer users. Almost 40% of the American population has low-literacy skills, and yet only a few websites are designed for low-literacy users (Nielsen, 2006). According to a website usability study conducted by Pfizer, some common behaviors of low-literacy users are ineffective navigation skills, trepidation of using search engines, lack of scannability, and even reading dysfunctions (Summers, 2006). The reason for the low-literacy skills can be attributed to socioeconomic status, race, geography, age, disability, or education. Whatever the reason for the low literacy, it argues the fact that websites are not democratized for universal usage and accessible for all users. According to Nielsen: Lower literacy users are the webs biggest accessibility problem, but nobody cares [emphasis mine] about this massive user group. Generally, people with lower-literacy tend to use the Internet less than people with higher-literacy. For obvious reasons, web design is concerned only with web users and not the population at large (Nielsen, 2006). Websites are now an integral part of American society, and as a result, computer users who have low-literacy website navigation and browsing skills are considered less fortunate and divided from mid- to high-literacy computer users. In fact, this group of low-literacy users is considered so removed from website technology and the Internet that they have been grouped into a sub-society called the Digital Divide. According the report Toward Equality of Access published by Bill & Melinda Gates Foundation, The term digital divide has been used since the 1990s to describe patterns of unequal access to information technologyprimarily computers and the Internet based on income, ethnicity, geography, age, and other factors (Toward Equality of Access, 2008).

WEBSITE USABILITY TESTING FOR LOW-LITERACY USERS 3 The digital divide has existed for quite a while, and throughout its existence, millions of Americans have been deprived of equality in website accessibility and Internet opportunities in this age of technology. Since the beginning of the divide, Bill and Melinda Gates have been vocally opposed it. In fact, they have created opportunities for low-literacy users to have access to computer and the Internet. The Gatess have pioneered efforts to bridge the digital divide by making sure that every public library in low-income communities throughout America has access to computers and the Internet. According to the report Toward Equality of Access, Funding for public libraries was supplemented further in 1997 with a $250 million commitment from Bill & Melinda Gates Foundation (Toward Equality of Access, 2008). The philanthropic efforts of Bill and Melinda Gates have worked in conjunction with other charities and the U.S. Government to give access to computers and the Internet to millions of Americans. Nearly one-third of Americans age 14 or older-roughly 77 million peopleused a public library computer or wireless network to access the Internet in the past year . . . (Toward Equality of Access, 2008). Bill and Melinda Gatess effort to narrow the digital divide have produced enormous success, but it is not enough. According to the report Toward Equality of Access, [D]espite these gains, recent government data show that significant gaps remain between the so-called haves and have-nots. In particular, traditionally disadvantaged groups continue to be less likely than other segments of the population to have the access and skills to effectively use computers and the Internet (Toward Equality of Access, 2008). The Gatess Foundation, other large charities, and government agencies have provided funding to public libraries for computers, Internet access, and basic computer training but not for funding website usability studies to redesign website interfaces to include all users. If their funding also provided opportunities for extensive website usability studies, then the digital divide could be potentially narrowed. Nevertheless, the digital divide is

WEBSITE USABILITY TESTING FOR LOW-LITERACY USERS 4 still the Americans nightmare, and it will continue to be unless the problem is studied extensively and /or triangulated by bringing together the funding from charities and government agencies along with website interface designers and educators. This particular research, however, examined the behaviors of low-literacy users as they relate to socioeconomic status and examines current website usability studies and design interfaces to find out whether design interfaces are usable for them. Statement of Problem Website technology created opportunities for mid-to high-literacy computer users to explore the World Wide Web (WWW), but ushered in extreme difficulties for users with low literacy. When the WWW was introduced to the mainstream population, the digital divide began, and users with low literacy became Americas bastard children. These users could not afford computers nor could they purchase services from Internet providers. As a result, website technology continued to evolve, and users with low literacy became isolated from the information age and the equality to be a part of the technology era. Today, it is estimated that more than 44 percent of people living below the federal poverty line used computers and the Internet at their public libraries (Shepard, 2012). This socioeconomic group of people is one of many groups that are considered low-literacy computer users. They use the public library to gain access to computers and the Internet because they have low or no access to computers and the Internet at their homes. As a result, the computers and the Internet accessibility that they are offered at public libraries remain their only resource for gaining knowledge and skills to access websites in this age of technology and information. It is stunning to know that in 2012 such a large group of Americans fit into this socioeconomic, low-literacy category although America is a first-world nation. And yet, what is

WEBSITE USABILITY TESTING FOR LOW-LITERACY USERS 5 more compelling about this large group of Americans is that they are not regularly considered in the development of website interface designs, or in previously conducted website usability studies. In fact, despite the vast amount of website usability studies conducted today by website designers, only Pfizers study examined the behaviors of low-literacy users website browsing and reading strategies in comparison to their counterparts. According to Summers: The goal of this two-year study, sponsored by Pfizer, was twofold: 1) to understand the differences between the reading and navigational strategies of the users with medium to high-literacy skills and those with lower-literacy skills; 2) to learn how to make web-based medical content usable and accessible for lower-literacy adults (Summers, 2006). Pfizers research examined the behaviors of low-literacy users as they related to socioeconomic status, education, and elderly people to develop better methods to make web-based medical content easily accessible. Although Pfizers study succeeded in its objective, its purpose was not to give low-literacy users equality in website accessibility. But the study revealed poor navigation strategies of low-literacy users and established the need for further research that targets this users group. Pfizers study gave researchers the blueprint for the behavior patterns of lowliteracy users without disabilities, and this blueprint has been used in recent website usability studies. Regardless of the low-literacy behavior blueprint and recent studies using the blueprint, website accessibility still plagues inner and rural cities throughout this country. As a result, more research needs to be conducted to improve the quality of website usability for low-literacy users with socioeconomic hindrances. Purpose of Research

WEBSITE USABILITY TESTING FOR LOW-LITERACY USERS 6 The purpose of this study was to observe low-literacy computer users with socioeconomic backgrounds between the ages of 18 to 20 perform website browsing and navigation tasks to evaluate whether these users experience difficulties with website browsing and navigation that their high-literacy counterparts do not. This study offers insight into the plight of the digital divide and provides empirical data that shows that websites are not accessible for all users. Background: The Advent of the World Wide Web The WWW is the product of a scientist who sought for an efficient way to share knowledge with other scientists. According to an article published by European Organization for Nuclear Research, Tim Berners-Lee, a scientist at CERN, invented the World Wide Web (WWW) in 1989. The Web was originally conceived and developed to meet the demand for automatic information sharing between scientists working in different universities and institutes all over the world (Where the web was born, 2008). Tim Berners-Lee developed the worlds first web server and Internet browser, which he named the WWW. An Internet browser is an engineered software application that functions as a portal for delivering and retrieving information via the Internet. The Internet browser was designed to retrieve hypertext documents from web servers and present them on the Internet. The standard language for hypertext documents is HTML, which means Hypertext Markup Language. Dr. Berners-Lees innovative thinking spurred the growth of hypertext technology and delivered Internet and website technology to the global community. When the Internet community began to experiment with this new hypertext technology, academic institutions developed programs that made learning Internet and website technology accessible. Computer science is one of three disciplines that made learning this technology accessible. Computer scientists study behaviors of the human mind to develop technologies that

WEBSITE USABILITY TESTING FOR LOW-LITERACY USERS 7 make human tasks less bothersome and efficient. The base of their studies is demographics and branch out to more complex analogies. Their findings are used for software engineers to develop system technologies that make everyday labor-intense processes less intensive and computable. In fact, software engineers offer architectural design and development of computer products, software programs, and computer user interfaces for human computing. Technical writing and graphic art designing are the other two disciplines that made learning Internet and website technology accessible. According to Dr. Mike Markel of Boise State University, Technical writers develop technical-communication documents that whether they take the form of e-mails, reports, websites, or any of a dozen other forms, are meant to be used by people to help them learn, carry out tasks, and make decisions (Markel, 2010, p. 2). Technical writers seek to make web navigation easy, simple, and less frustrating for all users. They are trained to remove confusion from documents whether HTML or non- HTML. And they collaborate with software engineers and graphic design artists to develop user-centered design products for human computing. Graphic design artists develop icons and interactive graphic user interfaces (GUIs) that aid software and website navigation. One of the most common icons is the shopping cart. When Internet surfers purchase online items, they look for the shopping cart to place their items. The Internet shopping cart is a visual composition of a physical shopping basket that lines the entrance lobby of every neighborhood Wal-Mart. One of the most impressive GUIs is Microsoft Office. Although its screen presence looks like just another icon, it is a state-of-the-art software engineering masterpiece. Microsoft Office has a built-in user interface that makes difficult officerelated tasks easy, efficient, and organized. Graphic design artists are tasked to develop visual

WEBSITE USABILITY TESTING FOR LOW-LITERACY USERS 8 landscapes and user interface compositions that may or may not represent physical products, yet establish a universal presentation for computer users. Computer scientists, including software engineers, technical writers, and graphic design artists together are the indivisible team that helped to propel the HTML boom to its height. Their efforts, along with the World Wide Consortium (WC3) headed by Dr. Berners-Lee to make complex coding for website designs easy and uniformed for lay web designers, have improved website accessibility for mid-to high-literacy users, but not exactly for low-literacy users. The history of the Internet and the WWW is intriguing, but website usability studies and website interface designs are the point of reference in this study. Literature Review This literature review examines website usability studies, design strategies, and interface designs of website designers. The literature review is threefold: 1) first, it discusses current website design strategies as they relate to user experiences, user-centered-design, information content, navigational aids, and user interfaces; 2) second, it discusses how low-literacy users from socioeconomic backgrounds interact with current website design interfaces; 3) third, it briefly discusses opportunities for future research. This literature review examines reports, books, conference material, and peer-reviewed literature of scholars in the disciplined of computer science, professional and technical writers, and graphic designer artists to see whether website usability studies and website interfaces are usable for low-literacy users.

Part 1: Current website usability studies and interfaces The User Experience

WEBSITE USABILITY TESTING FOR LOW-LITERACY USERS 9 A website is a complex, software-engineered technology that offers users no advance notice for new interface designs. The user has to adapt to the rapid changes of website interfaces and learn how to navigate the technology through trial and error and cognitive experience. For instance, the user must figure out a way to successfully accomplish his or her goal without becoming impatient or frustrated. If the user experiences a degree of navigational difficulty, the users interest begins to plummet unless he or she has had prior experience with the specific website. According to Dr. Noorfadzilah Zainudin of the Department of Computer and Information Science at University Technology, Eighty-seven percent of unsatisfied users will never come back without any complaints. They will just simply go away from the page if they encounter difficulty in reaching their goals such as finding information and finding goods they wish to buy (Zainudin, Wan, Nee, 2010). The goal of website designers is to make website usage intuitive. Website users are goal seekers who visit the web for information content and products. According to Dr. Janice Redish, People come to websites for content they think (or hope) is there (Redish, 2007, p. 1). They have a goal in mind when they go to the web. The average website visitors purposefully choose the site where they navigate because they seek something specific; something they have desired before they ventured onto the journey of the spatial world. If they stumble into navigational difficulty, the odds are that they will abandon their quest and seek other sites that are user-friendly.

The User-centered Design User-centered design is a process of developing technology with the user in mind.

WEBSITE USABILITY TESTING FOR LOW-LITERACY USERS 10 According to Dr. Ji-Ye Mao of Renmin University of China, User-centered design is a multidisciplinary design approach based on the active involvement of users to improve the understanding of user and task requirements (Mao, Vredenburg, Smith, Carey, 2005, p. 105). User-centered design includes human activity and behavior when designing technology. Users actually test websites for information architectural inaccuracies, interface interactions, and etc. before the site is published. This process continues till the inaccuracies are minimized or no longer exist. According to Dr. Redish, User-centered design means that you are using technology to help people achieve their goals in ways that work for them (Redish, 2007, p. 7). This study discusses four standardized strategies: audience demographics, personae, task analyses, and user testing. The demographics of targeted audience of website interfaces should be researched before designing websites. According to Dr. Redish, If you are writing content for a particular age group for example, for young children or for teensthat will likely affect your writing style as well as the design for your site (Redish, 2007, p. 18). In essence, interface designs for a website should be specific for its audience and meet the needs of its targeted demographics. Thus, when designing website interfaces, website designers must consider the targeted audiences Internet experience, values, culture, age, and social background. According to Dr. Redish, Understanding your audience and what they need is critical to deciding what to write, how much to write, the vocabulary to use, and how to organize the content on your website (Redish, 2007, p. 11). According to Weber developed the list below that characterizes information for conducting a usability study. Demographics: age, gender, education level, socioeconomic level, cultural background, disabilities, Previous experiences with computers and with this type of product,

WEBSITE USABILITY TESTING FOR LOW-LITERACY USERS 11 Reason for using product: business or job, personal work, pleasure, and Role: What will the audience members are doing with the product (Weber, 2004, p. 23).

Webers list offers audience characteristics that are imperative for developing effective personae, task analysis, profiles, and scenarios. These four categories are instrumental in developing the perfect the user-centered design. Personae are fictional individuals who have characteristics of real people. Personae have names, ages, personalities, educational levels, and demographic locations. Computer scientists, technical writers, and graphic design artists develop personae when designing software applications, technical online manuals, and GUIs. According to Weber, Choose personas that are relevant to your situation, but dont develop any more than the minimum necessary to include the major characteristics that are important to consider when writing help (Weber, 2004, p. 26). The following persona is an example of a low-literacy computer user: Melvin Rivers is an African American male who plans to enroll into the University of Memphis in the fall of 2012. He graduated from Melrose High School with a 2.5 cumulative GPA. Throughout his secondary education, he struggled with sentence mechanics and punctuation. He also avoided high school algebra as much as possible until forced to take it. In addition, Mr. Rivers had low computer access so simple computer tasks frustrated him. Mr. Riverss goal is to become a college professor when he graduates, but presently, he must focus on simple computer competencies. The persona of Mr. Riverss is a real-life model of a low-literacy computer user, and his description is typical of low-literacy users throughout the nation. According to Dr. Redish, A great way to bring your web users alive for your team is to create personas (Redish, 2007, p.

WEBSITE USABILITY TESTING FOR LOW-LITERACY USERS 12 19). However, personae are not the only way to develop effective user-centered design websites; task analyses are considered as well. Task analyses are well developed task lists that computer scientists, technical writers, and graphic art designers use when designing software technologies and website applications. According to Weber, Organize the tasks into groups, identify the subtasks, and determine which tasks are required (Weber, 2004, p. 27). Task analyses include a list of what the audience will do with the software, why they will do it, and how they will do it. The object is to describe all of the tasks that users of the software or website will perform so that the website interfaces will be engineered to accommodate all of the users commands. Listed below is a typical task analysis: Enter information by typing, Enter information by importing from another source, Organize information into nodes, Move information from one node to another, Copy information from one node to another, Edit information or nodes, Delete information or nodes, Format information, Find information in the database by using various selection criteria or filters, and Sort retrieved information. (Weber, 2004, p. 28). Webers task list includes the basic layout for a perfect task analysis. Effective task analysis is the glue for the ideal user-centered design, and it is a guide for website designers in their quest to develop the perfect website interface. User testing is another important process for gathering data when developing websites that are a user-centered in its design. Before launching a new or redesigning a website, the designer should conduct an extensive testing of the site. When conducting usability test, human subjects are

WEBSITE USABILITY TESTING FOR LOW-LITERACY USERS 13 instructed to complete tasks that directly relate to the purpose of the website. According to Spool, There are many ways of conducting usability testing of websites, depending on the purpose of the site (Spool et al, 1999, p. 143). For instance, a testing strategy could request the user to locate information on the website, perform a specific command, and /or use the search engine. The purpose of user testing is to test the efficiency of website and identify with problem areas prior to publishing the website. The following is an example of a user-testing task: 1. Search for Steve Berrys novel The Jeffersons Key. Print one of the book reviews. Next, search for Eleanor Hendersons Kindle e-book titled A Cold Winter. Print one of the book reviews. User-testing tasks are proven ways to test the usability of website technology and to remove inaccuracies prior to launching any website. When website designers use this method for low-literacy users, they minimize the complexities of websites. Information Content One of the main purposes of a website is to deliver content to the user population. According to Nielsen, Web pages should be dominated by content of interest to the user (Nielsen, 2000, p. 18). Users visit websites for content that satisfy their goals and objectives. As a result, the content needs to be formatted in chunks, designed for scannability, and understandable. According to Markel, People understand information best if it is delivered to them in chunks small unitsrather than all at once. For single-spaced type, chunking involves double-spacing between paragraphs (Markel, 2010, p. 263). Chunking is the natural order of perfect document design. Chunking divides paragraphs for spacing so that readers can see a separation to pause if necessary; paragraphs that look seamless cause readers to tire when reading. In addition to chunking, scannability is essential. According to Nielsen, Skimming instead of reading is a fact

WEBSITE USABILITY TESTING FOR LOW-LITERACY USERS 14 of the web, and it been confirmed by countless usability studies. High-literacy users scan website content instead of reading it. Reading content is a contradiction to the purpose of website design. There is too much content on the average website for users to read there way to their desired destination. According to Marnell, Once a user has found the information they are after, they need, of course, to be able to understand it (Marnell, 6, 2009, p. 5). When users find the information content they are looking for, the content should be clear, concise, and understandable. Basically, the content should be presented flawless and filled with substance. According to Nielsen, If they decide that the content is not of interest to them, they will scan the navigation area of the page for ideas of where else to go (Nielsen, 2000, p. 100). Content is one of the main purposes why users visit websites. Thus, the content should always be presented in an organized and understandable fashion. However, in addition to content, understanding navigational aid is very important. Navigational Aids Website navigational aids are designed to make website navigation easy and efficient. Common navigational aids are search engines, tabs, text-based hyperlinks, graphic images, table of contents, and indexes. The purpose of navigational aids is to help users reach their destination. According to Zainudin, A good navigation design will make it easy for the users to move through the site. Hence, design navigation must be straightforward, insightful, and clear . . . navigation controls must be located in the same location on every page (Zainudin, Wan, Nee, 2010, p. 163). Navigational aids are a part of the website interface where they border the top, sides and bottom of a web page. Tabs are generally centered across the top of the web page, the search engine is located in the top right corner, the table of content and index are located in the left top corner, and the text-based hyperlinks are located in the left column. Although navigational aids have common

WEBSITE USABILITY TESTING FOR LOW-LITERACY USERS 15 locations for cognitive recognition, they make website navigation easy and efficient. Depending on the website interface, some navigational aids offer complex applications. The User Interface The user interface is the operational dashboard of a websitethe control panel. It is the final product of software-engineered technology that users interact with when commanding websites to perform specific tasks. It should be the final product that designers concluded with after the results of an extensive usability study, but this is not always the reality. Thus, website interfaces should be designed for user manipulations. Users should be able to give commands website interfaces and expect the desired correspondence. When users shift a mouse, users expect the cursor to move according to their command. If the cursor does otherwise, the user interface has failed to follow the command of the user. A search engine is an example of a user interface. According to Zainudin, The search engine function must be visible and easy to find. To prevent website visitors from making queries that return no results or irrelevant items, the site should use feature that suggests common searches as user-type in the keyword (Zainudin, Wan, Nee, 2010, p. 164). The design of user interface should meet the users cognitive expectation to have success. Similar to a vehicles dashboard, the website interface design should have standards that all users can naturally relate to without complex thoughts or guesses. The user interface must be design with the user in mind to remove the complexities of website interactions. Part 2: How do low-literacy users interact with current website strategies? Low-literacy users have unusual website behavior practices that high-literacy users do not possess. These unusual behaviors are directly attributed to low access to computers and the Internet. Just imagine the outcome of a pilot who never had access to a commuter plane; yet, he decides to take the plane for a flight throughout the countrytotal chaos should be expected. This

WEBSITE USABILITY TESTING FOR LOW-LITERACY USERS 16 analogy also applies to computer users who have low access to websites and the Internettotal chaos should be expected. The low-literacy users unusual behaviors make simple website tasks difficult, taxing, and frustrating. In fact, most of the current website design strategies are not operable for low-literacy users. For instance, scanning, which is one of the most effective writing tactics for navigating through large sums of information, is avoided by low-literacy users. Lowliteracy users prefer to read large sums of information content instead of skimmings through the text. As a result, the strategy is meaningless and ineffective for low-literacy users. The browsing behaviors of low-literacy users were first examined in a website usability study conduced by Pfizer. According to Pfizers report, Low-literacy users focus on narrow fields of view, skip chunks of text, and avoid searches (Summers, 2006). The low-literacy users computer illiteracies make comprehending current websites design strategies and applications difficult. And there are many documented website behaviors of low-literacy users to discuss, but this literature review discusses low-literacy users behaviors as they relate to the following current website strategies: information content, user-centered-design, user interface, and navigational aids. Information Content Website content is designed for scannability and not for reading. According to Nielsen, Skimming instead of reading is a fact of the web, and it been confirmed by countless usability studies. Scannability is deemed the necessary design strategy for presenting content on websites. This design strategy is very efficient for high-literacy users and inefficient for low-literacy users. According to Pfizers research, Scanning is very hard for lower-literacy users. Reading itself takes a great deal of concentration and effort . . . some lower-literacy users compensate by reading every word on the page so that they didnt miss the answer (Summers, 2006). Low-literacy users have unforgiving reading patterns that prevent them from the capabilities of scanning website

WEBSITE USABILITY TESTING FOR LOW-LITERACY USERS 17 content, and these unforgiving reading patterns are attributed to their low access of computers and the Internet in addition to reading comprehension, cognitive disability, and other hindrances of the low-literacy population. Nevertheless, websites that are strategically designed for scanning and chunking offer efficiency for the high-literacy population and frustration for the low-literacy population. Those websites also help to sustain and widen the digital divide. User-centered Design The basic concept for a user-centered design is to develop software programs and website applications with users who represent a targeted audience. According to Moore, It is imperative to have a clear understanding of demographics when designing and evaluating such a website (Moore, M, et, al, 2009, p. 2). Low-literacy users, however, are not represented when conducting usability test studies, so they are not even considered a factor in the scheme of the design. Thus, their limited capability to navigate websites is magnified by the website interface design of the website. According to Dr. Mary Moore: User-centered design is especially important when website developers are not representatives of the target audience. Failure to conduct appropriate testing with a representative audience can substantially reduce use and value of the website (Moore, Bias, Pretence, Fletcher, Vaughn, 2009, p. 2). User-centered design strategies are universally effective when they include all users and not just high- literacy ones. Whenever websites designers develop websites without including low-literacy users in their user-centered design studies, they design websites that frustrate low-literacy users and prevent them from succeeding in their efforts of using the website. User Interface Design

WEBSITE USABILITY TESTING FOR LOW-LITERACY USERS 18 User interface design is the basic structure where technology meets human interaction. The best user interface designs allow all users to give commands to software applications and for software applications to respond in the appropriate way to satisfy the users orders. Websites that are results of usability studies are designed with a built-in user interface that can potentially accommodate all users. For instance, the interfaces of most the search engines are supposed to be designed to accommodate all users, but unlike Googles search engine, the majority of search engines only accommodate high-literacy users. The search engine requires users to type in words and commands the search engine to find it within the website. If the word is misspelled or is not in the search engines database, the search engine messages, No results. Some low-literacy users are poor word spellers. When they encounter search engines, they are prone to misspell the desired word and get the No result message. As they encounter these messages, they become frustrated and consciously avoid any and all search engines. According to Summers, Search requires spelling and typing, and not all search engines can deal with spelling errors. And the format of search results makes them unusually difficult to process for lower-literacy users (Summers, 2006). Although low-literacy users are challenged by interface designs like the search engine, this is only one aspect of a websites interface design. Interface designs of websites are the control panel of the system. If the interface is incapable of delivering the desired command, then the interface is useless. Website interface designs are developed specifically for high-literacy users and not the low-literacy users. In fact, website designers are not even concerned with website accessibility of the low-literacy users. Thus, the low-literacy user is actually denied access to website technology. However, whenever user interfaces of websites are developed without including representative from the all user populations, the interface design will not be successful in its purpose and function.

WEBSITE USABILITY TESTING FOR LOW-LITERACY USERS 19 Navigational Aids Navigation is not the goal for visiting a website, but it is the tool for finding desired content information. According to Nielsen, Navigation is a necessary evil that is not a goal in itself, and it should be minimized (2000, p. 18). Low-literacy users rely on navigation not for the purpose of its functionwhich is to expedite the findings of desired goalsbut whenever they tire from reading large sums of content. According to Summers, Some lower-literacy users tried to minimize the amount of reading they would have to do by focusing on finding links instead of reading content. These users skipped from link to link throughout the site, often ignoring page content completely (Summers, 2006). For low-literacy users website navigation is both a good and an evil. Given that low-literacy users have not faith in other functions of website interface designs, they tend to rely heavily on navigation, which offers the potential of failure. Until website interfaces become more usable, low-literacy users will continue to abuse web navigation. Description of Research Methodology The methodologies used in this study were both qualitative and quantitative. The qualitative approach examined current scholarly literature that relates to website interface designs and website strategies. The research reviewed published peer-reviewed journal articles written by website designers who have contributed to todays website interface designs and strategies as well as conference materials and published books. The quantitative approach assessed whether website interface designs are usable for lowliteracy users. Eighteen students were recruited from the Student Success Center (SSC) at the University of Arkansas at Little Rock (UALR) participated in the study. The SSC program provides opportunities for academic development, assists students with basic college requirements, and serves to motivate students toward the successful completion of their postsecondary education.

WEBSITE USABILITY TESTING FOR LOW-LITERACY USERS 20 Eighteen participants completed a Recruitment Qualifier Assessment Survey (RQAS) to determine whether they classified as low-literacy or high-literacy computer users. The RQAS solicited information about the participants history of website interaction and experience. The RQAS questions were rated from one to five, and the participants rated themselves. Thirteen participants were classified as high-literacy users and five as low-literacy users (See Table 1).

Survey Results
Survey Users with Low-literacy (3.0 and below) Users with High-literacy (3.5 and below) Combined Users
two user groups.

Total Participants 5 13 18

Score Means* 2.67 4.3 4.12

Score Mode* N/A 4.6 4.6

Table 1: The table describes the survey results of in relations to the computer literacies of

Both groups completed a series of website usability studies (website navigation and browsing tasks) that were performed on the following three websites: UALR, Black Entertainment Television (BET), and Amazons online bookstore. The website usability study was privately conducted; there was only one participant per usability study. During each session, the participants navigation and browsing behaviors were observed as they attempted to complete each task. Immediately after the usability study, the participants were interviewed, which they were asked to discuss their successes, difficulties, and navigation and browsing strategies. All of the data gathered from the usability studies and interviewees were compiled together, analyzed, and interpreted, and the results confirmed that websites are not usable for all users. Results The website usability study results were based on empirical data gathered from the 18 participants survey scores, time on task, rate of successes, and observations. The subjectivity of how participants answered the Recruitment Qualifier Assessment Survey (RQAS) could have

WEBSITE USABILITY TESTING FOR LOW-LITERACY USERS 21 possibly affected the scores of this study, although user groups were determined based on their RQAS. Nevertheless, both user groups had successes and difficulties in navigating certain website interfaces. The success rate percentages listed in Figure 1 show the combined average percentage scores of both high-literacy and low-literacy groups. The low-literacy users achieved success on both Amazons and UALRs websites but did not achieve any on BETs. Their success could be attributed to two main factors: Amazon is considered one of the most tested and the model website interface design of all websites and UALRs website is relatively common for all of the participants given that they all attended UALR. BETs website, however, offered the most difficulty for low-literacy users to navigate, and this fact was attributed to its ineffective search engine. Whenever the low-literacy participants used the search engine, they never reached their desired goals. The search engine sent them to other websites, which frustrated them severely. But they refused to stop using the search engine although they were unable to find their desired goals. As a result, the success rate percentages appear skewed.

Figure 1: The Figure describes the success rate of high- and low-literacy users in relation to completing their usability study.

The time used on the tasks offered a unique data set for the research because the average scores revealed that there was a large separation between the high-literacy users and low-literacy users (See Table 2). On average, the low-literacy users spent more time on each task than the

WEBSITE USABILITY TESTING FOR LOW-LITERACY USERS 22 high-literacy users. The large sum of time that low-literacy users spent on their tasks is attributed to the newness of the website technology, reading instead of scanning, and the lack of navigation skills. The majority of low-literacy users read as much information content as possible before attempting to complete the tasks, which in return caused their time to balloon.

Time on Task
Time on Task Users with Low-literacy 8.2 Users with High-literacy Combined Users 5 5.8 3.2 3.3 4.1 4.9 3.6 7.2 BET Amazon UALR

Table 2: The Table describes the time used by both user groups in their attempt to complete the usability study.

Below are additional findings from this study: Low-literacy users spend more time reading content although they will scan, High-literacy users scan instead of reading content. They read only if needed, High-literacy users rely heavily on search engines, The preferred navigation tactic of both groups is the search enginedrop-down menus were ranked second and text-based hyperlinks third, and Two of three website interfaces offered optimal navigation: Amazon and UALR. Based on the results of this study, low-literacy users are truly the bastard children of the website era. Whenever they mustard the nerves to attempt to gain access to website technology, they have trepidations because of the negative experiences they have had. Current website interfaces are only designed for high-literacy, and low-literacy users have to figure out their way through complex interface designs and pray that they reach their goal. Conclusions

WEBSITE USABILITY TESTING FOR LOW-LITERACY USERS 23 This study examined whether current website usability design strategies and website interfaces were usable for low-literacy users. Throughout the literature review, current usability website strategies and interfaces were discussed and their applications explained. In relations to usability, current website strategies were proven to be usable for high-literacy users and not necessary usable for low-literacy users. According to Shneiderman, Understanding the differences in users is another way designers can get insight that lead to technology improvements and breakthroughs (Shneiderman and Hochheiser, 2001, p. 6). The results of such a small pool of participants is not sufficient for proving or disproving the success or failure of current website interface designs. The data gathered from the usability study show that low-literacy computer users from socioeconomic backgrounds struggled more than their counterparts to complete the modules. This user group spent more time on modules and successfully completed fewer tasks than their counterparts. As a result, the research concluded that low-literacy users need to be included in website usability test studies and need more experience with website browsing to make them more efficient in this age of technology. Discussion/Recommendation Low-literacy users have struggled to gain equal access to computers and the Internet since the advent of website technology. Their struggle for equality in website accessibility has brought enormous attention to their literacies; yet, it has also left them divided from the mainstream computer users. This user group has garnered attention from many small and large charity institutions, non-profit organizations, and even government agencies. This attention, however, is still not enough because the plight of low-literacy users have been somewhat ignored. Today, the category for low literacy is very diverse and larger than most would expect. Low-literacy computer skills are not only attributed to users from a socioeconomic status, but also

WEBSITE USABILITY TESTING FOR LOW-LITERACY USERS 24 race, geography, age, disability, or education. This study in particular identified with the plight of the low-literacy users as it related to socioeconomic status. According to Pfizers study, the browsing behaviors of low-literacy users were so unique and totally ineffective in regards to currents website strategies and interface designs that their behaviors contradicted all website strategies. Most website usability studies today approach the website accessibility problem from an independent perspective and a narrow vision. The charities and non-profit organizations believe that funding public libraries and urban-city community centers will solve the low literacy plight; most educators believe that teaching students user-friendly website designs will solve the low literacy plight; and the World Wide Web Consortium (WWWC) believes that developing guidelines for policing the WWW will solve the low literacy plight. The independent approaches to resolve the concern with website accessibility have effectively impacted the problem but with minor implications and at a slow and inefficient pace. The only method that might solve the web accessibility problem is the Triangulation Interface Design Strategy. This strategy should be utilized to narrow the digital divide and issue with low computer literacy. The triangulation strategy follows:

Triangulation Interface Design Strategy

Funding and Infrastructure

Training/Educating

Designing Interfaces

Figure 2: The Triangular Interface Design Strategy identifies with the three groups that can narrow the digital divide.

WEBSITE USABILITY TESTING FOR LOW-LITERACY USERS 25 The Triangulation Interface Design Strategy might solve the digital divide crisis. This strategy combines three current website accessibility efforts under one direction and for a single cause. The three collaborated efforts of triangulation are 1) funding and infrastructure, 2) designing interfaces, and 3) training and educating. When compartmentalizing the three collaborated efforts, they include the following:

Triangulation Categories
Funding and Infrastructures Philanthropies and government Public libraries and community centers Computers and installations and Internet provision Computer scientists Software engineers/programmers Graphic design artists Technical writers Low/mid/high-literacy users Usability testing facilities Designing Interfaces Computer scientists Software engineers Graphic design artists Technical writers Low/mid/high-literacy users WC3 organization Training/Education Technical writers Educators Staffing for computer training Low-literacy users

Table 3: This Table lists the three categories that make up the Triangular Method and personnel in their groups should be actively involved in redesigning website interfaces.

The Triangulation Method includes a committee of operatives who are directly involved in the reformation of website interfacing and the reduction of the digital divide. The operatives are associated with one of the three elements of the triangular, which they are the experts. For instance, Bill Gates can be the head of the funding and infrastructure element, Dr. Berners-Lee can be the head of the redesigning element, higher educators and technical writers can be the head of the training/educating element. The purpose of the triangulation committee members is to meet, discuss ways to improve website accessibility, narrow the digital divide, and to develop userfriendly websites for all users. Until the independent teams of website accessibility studies are

WEBSITE USABILITY TESTING FOR LOW-LITERACY USERS 26 triangulated, website accessibility will continue to be a plight for computers users with low literacies. Direction for Future Research Researchers estimate that 10-17 percent of the population in the U.S. has dyslexia (JonesLondon, 2007). According to the National Institute of Neurological Disorder and Stroke: Dyslexia is as a brain-based type learning disability that specifically impairs a persons ability to read. These individuals typically read at levels significantly lower than expected despite having normal intelligence (NINDS Dyslexia Information Page, 2009). Dyslexia is a disability that impacts learning and the retention of information. This disability has been over looked by most educators and especially website designers. According to a research conducted by Jacob McCarty, Dyslexia is more common than many realize. Prevalence is sometimes reported at 10%, but it has been estimated that up to 17% of school-aged children in the U.S. experience dyslexia (McCarty & Swierenga, 2009). Comparable to other low-literacy user groups, dyslexic computers users are considered low-literacy users as well. But their low-literacy behaviors are more intense than other lowliteracy users groups. They have learning disabilities that prevent them from relating to website strategies such as scanning web content, recognizing current website interfaces, retaining content after reading it, and visual interactions with certain website color schemes. There has been a significant body of research dedicated to dyslexia and its ramification to website technology. The research includes experiences of website users with cognitive disabilities, how computer-based media affect dyslexic learning performance, evaluating education software that dyslexic students identified more issues with greater specificity, how to develop a website for dyslexia users. The studies added value to the subject of website accessibility for users with

WEBSITE USABILITY TESTING FOR LOW-LITERACY USERS 27 dyslexia, but they did not solve the problem because current website strategies and design interfaces frustrates users with dyslexia. The World Wide Web Consortium has actually developed the Web Content Accessibility Guideline (WCAG) 2.0 for website users with disabilities in pursue of standardizing website interfaces for this user group. The guidelines were published in 2008, and one of many standard rules states: If a web page contains five images that do not have alternative text associated to them, this would count as five instances of violation of checkpoint 1.1 in WCAG 1.0 (Caldwell, Cooper, Reid & Vanderheiden, 2008). Website accessibility for users with dyslexia has been overlooked and has not a priority for website designers. Until extensive research is performed on this user groups, this group will continue to struggle with current website technology. In the near future, this research will include further studies on how dyslexic users interact with current website strategies and interfaces.

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