Morphology and ultra structures of plant, animal and bacterial cells

S C Kundu Biotechnology

Microscopy
This is an aid to naked eye for mainly magnifying the image and to improve resolution of object. Dyes and stains Need for staining
Difference in transparency and refractive index

Fixation Effect of fixing solutions

Prevents bacterial decay Prevents autolysis Makes cell contents insoluble Reduces shrinkage of the cells Minimizes distortion Increases the visibility of the cell components Prepares the cell components for staining

Resolution The ability to distinguish between very closely positioned objects The resolution of a microscopic lens is numerically equivalent to D, the minimum distance between 2 objects (smaller the value of D, better the resolution)
D=
0.61 N sin

Where, = electromagnetic wavelength N= refractive index of the medium = Half angle of the cone of light entering the lens

Theoretically limit of resolution = 0.61 0.5m = 0.22 m

1.4

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Types of Microscopy
Dissecting microscope Stereo-zoom microscope Compound microscope Bright field microscope Dark field microscope Phase contrast microscope Interference microscope Fluorescence microscope Confocal microscope Electron microscope Transmission electron microscope Scanning electron microscope Microscopes to view ultrastructures Electron Microscope
Electromagnetic lens Focus high velocity electron beam (wavelengths, from 10 -13 centimeter to infinity) Ultra high vacuum

Transmission electron microscope

Used to view very thin sections (50-100nm) Electrically heated tungsten cathode as electron source Electrons transmitted from sample are projected on photographic film To view the surfaces of unsectioned specimens Samples are fixed, dried Coated with heavy metals like Excitedly released secondary electrons are focused onto Scintillation detector Magnification (up to 6 orders of magnitude from about 10 to 500,000 times)

Scanning electron microscope

For cutting ultra-thin sections Ultramicrotomy

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Differences between prokaryotic and eukaryotic cells

Parameters
Age differences

Prokaryotes
First life forms on earth (3.5 billion years ago) Unicellular DNA floats freely around in a unorganized manner (circular) Ribosomes (70S)

Eukaryotes
2 billion years later the formation of prokaryots Multicellular Held within the nucleus (linear) Nucleus, Ribosomes (80S), ER, golgi bodies, chloroplast, mitochondria Ten times larger than prokaryotic cells Some have cell wall but none made of peptidoglycan More than one chromosome Present Present Absent

Structural difference Differentiation DNA arrangements Cellular organelles

Size Cell wall Chromosome DNA wrapping on proteins Lysosomes and peroxisomes Special Structures

Smaller than eukaryotes Composed of peptidoglycan (amino acid and sugar) One-but not true chromosome: Plasmid Not present Not present

Mesosome, carboxysome, magnetosome

What is Ultrastructure?
Structures can be seen under electron microscope Structures having dimensions below limit of resolution of an optical microscope (~0.2 m) What is a Cell? Structural and functional unit of living system Optical Microscopic RBC (6 8 m) WBC monocyte (14 20 m) Plant cells (30 200 m) Ostrich egg (15 20 cm) E.coli (0.2-1.5 X 2-6 m) S cerevisiae (5-40 m) Mycoplasma (0.1-0.5 m) Human hair ( European - 40 m) (African - 250 m) Electron Microscopic Plasma membrane (6 10 nm) Pseudomembrane (~ 3.5 nm) Organells Cytoskeleton
Vacuole Chloroplast (0.1-50 m) (4-6 m) Microtubule (25 nm wide) Microfilament (4-6 nm ) Flagella

Mitochondria (< 0.1 m)

Lysosomes (0.4 m) (12-18 nm wide) Ribosomes (20-25 nm) Pilli Magnetosome (400-1000 A) (4-35 nm wide) Carboxysome (50-500 nm)

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Ultrastructure of a plant cell (Eukaryotic)

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Organelle of a plant cell

Cell wall

Morphology Middle lamella (Outermost layer rich in pectins, forms the interface between adjacent plant cells and glues them together.) Primary cell wall (thin, flexible and extensible layer, forms during cell growth) Secondary cell wall (thick layer inside the primary cell wall. Contains xylem. Made of lignin, which strengthens and waterproofs the wall.)

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Organelle of a plant cell

Chloroplast
Key features Photosynthesis Contain the chlorophyll pigment Members of plastids Plastid transformation in genetically modified plants

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Ultrastructure of an animal cell (Eukaryotic)

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Organelle of an animal cell

Lysosome

Key features
Contains acid hydrolase enzymes to break down waste materials and cellular debris They are created by the addition of hydrolytic enzymes to early endosomes from the Golgi apparatus Some important enzymes found within lysosomes include:
Lipase, which digests lipids Amylase, which digests amylose, starch, and maltodextrins Proteases, which digest proteins Nucleases, which digest nucleic acids Phosphoric acid monoesters

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Some common organelle of eukaryotic cells

Mitochondria Morphology
Contains outer and inner membranes composed of phospholipid bilayers and proteins Five distinct compartments:
The outer mitochondrial membrane
Porins forms channels Associated with the ER membrane

The intermembrane space (the space between the outer and inner membranes) The inner mitochondrial membrane Contains proteins with five types of functions
Those that perform the redox reactions of oxidative phosphorylation ATP synthase, which generates ATP in the matrix Specific transport proteins that regulate metabolite passage into and out of the matrix Protein import machinery. Mitochondria fusion and fission protein

The cristae space (formed by infoldings of the inner membrane) The matrix (space within the inner membrane)

Mitochondria-associated ER membrane Pyruvate and the citric acid cycle NADH and FADH2: the electron transport chain

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Some common organelle of eukaryotic cells

Nucleus Morphology

Contains
Nuclear envelope and pores Nuclear lamina Chromosomes Nucleolus Other subnuclear bodies

Anucleated
Human red blood cell

Multinucleated cells
Acantharean species of protozoa and some fungi in mycorrhizae Intestinal parasites in the genus Giardia (2 nuclei per cell) Humans, skeletal muscle cells, called myocytes (More than 2 nuclei per cell) Gene expression Cell compartmentalization Processing of pre-mRNA

Function

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Some common organelle of eukaryotic cells

Ribosome Key features

Synthesizes protein chains from mRNA molecules (Translation) Made of Ribonucleoproteins Contains two subunits
The smaller subunit binds to the mRNA Larger subunit binds to the tRNA and the amino acids

Free ribosome (in cytosol) Membrane bound ribosome (with ER) Prokaryotes have 70S ribosomes
consisting of a small (30S) a large (50S) subunit

Eukaryotes have 80S ribosomes

each consisting of a small (40S) large (60S) subunit

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Some common organelles of eukaryotic cells

Endoplasmic Reticulum and Golgi Apparatus
Morphology

The endoplasmic reticulum (ER) is the transport network for molecules targeted for certain modifications and specific destinations
Rough ER Smooth ER

The primary function of the Golgi apparatus is to process and package the macromolecules such as proteins and lipids that are synthesized by the cell

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Some common organelle of eukaryotic cells

Peroxysome and centrosome

Features
Peroxisomes have enzymes that rid the cell of toxic peroxides. The cell could not house these destructive enzymes if they were not contained in a membrane-bound system The centrosome produces the microtubules of a cell a key component of the cytoskeleton.
It directs the transport through the ER and the Golgi apparatus. Centrosomes are composed of two centrioles, which separate during cell division and help in the formation of the mitotic spindle. A single centrosome is present in the animal cells.

Peroxysome

Centrosome

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Ultrastructure of a bacterial cell (Prokaryotic)

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Ultrastructure of a typical bacterial cell

Organells Magnetosomes (Magnetic crystals Fe3O4 ) impart a permanent dipole moment to the cell swim along the geomagnetic field (magnetotaxis movement in response to magnetic field of earth) 35-120 nm Carboxysomes Ribulose 1,5bisphosphate carboxylase or RuBisCo (CO2 fixation) PHB (Polyhydroxy Butyrate) A raw material for making biodegradable plastic Chlorophyll Containing vesicle in photosynthetic bacteria [having chloroplast equivalent to eukaryotic cells]

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