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Hbrubbond
Hbrubbond
(Revised Edition)
rapra
TECHNOLOGY
All rights reserved. Except as permitted under current legislation no part of this publication may be photocopied, reproduced or distributed in any form or by any means or stored in a database or retrieval system, without the prior permission from the copyright holder. A catalogue record for this book is available from the British Library. Cover photograph reproduced with permission from Rubber Chemistry and Technology, 1994, 67, 4582. Copyright 1994, Rubber Division, American Chemical Society, Inc.
ISBN: 1-85957-394-0
Typeset by Rapra Technology Limited Printed and bound by Rapra Technology Limited
Contents
Introduction .......................................................................................................... 1 1 Substrate Preparation Methods ....................................................................... 3 1.1 Metal Preparation - General Techniques ................................................ 3 1.1.1 1.1.2 1.1.3 1.1.4 1.2 Structure of Metal Substrates - Metallography .......................... 3 Bonding ..................................................................................... 5 Rubber Component with Metal Support ................................... 5 Metal Pre-treatments ................................................................. 6
Pre-treatments of Plastics and Rubbers ................................................ 12 1.2.1 1.2.2 1.2.3 1.2.4 1.2.5 1.2.6 1.2.7 1.2.8 Introduction ............................................................................. 12 Studies of Pre-treatments for Plastics ....................................... 13 Hydrocarbon Rubbers with Little or No Unsaturation ............ 19 Unsaturated Hydrocarbon Rubbers ......................................... 20 Halogenated Rubbers .............................................................. 25 Miscellaneous Rubbers ............................................................ 26 Discussion ................................................................................ 27 Summary ................................................................................. 29
1.3
Bonding Rubbers to Plastic Substrates ................................................. 29 1.3.1 1.3.2 1.3.3 1.3.4 Introduction ............................................................................. 29 Plastics Substrate Preparation .................................................. 31 Degreasing and Solvent Cleaning ............................................. 35 Adhesive/Bonding Agent Choice .............................................. 36
1.4
Substrate Preparation for Bonding Using the Wet Blast Process ........... 42 1.4.1 1.4.2 Summary ................................................................................. 42 The Wet Blast Phosphating Plant ............................................. 42
Comparison Between Conventional and Wet Blast Phosphating .. 45 The Wet Blast Phosphating Plant ............................................. 46 Advantages of the Wet Blast Phosphating Plant ....................... 47
Rubber to Metal Bonding ............................................................................. 57 2.1 2.2 History................................................................................................. 57 Bond System Characteristics ................................................................ 62 2.2.1 2.2.2 2.3 2.4 2.5 2.6 2.7 2.8 2.9 Adhesive Characteristics .......................................................... 62 Compound Characteristics....................................................... 64
Adhesion .............................................................................................. 66 Effective Bond Formation .................................................................... 71 Post Vulcanisation Bonding ................................................................. 73 Factors Affecting Bond Integrity .......................................................... 73 Bond Failure Types .............................................................................. 74 Bond Test Procedures ........................................................................... 76 Summary .............................................................................................. 77
Rubber to Metal and Other Substrate Bonding ............................................. 81 3.1 Introduction ......................................................................................... 81 3.1.1 3.1.2 3.1.3 3.1.4 3.1.5 3.1.6 3.1.7 3.1.8 3.2 Foreword ................................................................................. 81 History .................................................................................... 81 Types of Bonding ..................................................................... 82 The Bonding Process - An Overview ........................................ 83 Development of Bonding ......................................................... 84 Bonding Agent Reliability ........................................................ 84 The Environment and Solvent Use ........................................... 86 Methods of Reduction in Solvent Emissions ............................ 87
Substrates and their Preparation .......................................................... 87 3.2.1 Mechanical Treatment of Metals ............................................. 88
ii
Contents
The Abrasion Process ............................................................... 90 Levels of metal cleanliness ....................................................... 92 Time Window .......................................................................... 93 Chemical Preparation of Surfaces ............................................ 94 Future Developments ............................................................... 96
3.4
Bonding Agent Application and Use .................................................... 98 3.4.1 3.4.2 3.4.3 Application Methods ............................................................... 98 Waterborne Bonding Systems ................................................... 98 Bonding Agent Thickness......................................................... 99
3.5
Post Vulcanisation Bonding ............................................................... 100 3.5.1 3.5.2 3.5.3 3.5.4 3.5.5 Post Vulcanisation Bonding Applications ............................... 100 Choice of Bonding Agent for Post Vulcanisation Bonding ..... 100 Rubber Substrate Preparation for PV Bonding....................... 101 Metal Substrate Preparation .................................................. 101 Methods of Application ......................................................... 101
3.6
Waterborne Bonding Systems ............................................................. 103 3.6.1 3.6.2 3.6.3 3.6.4 3.6.5 3.6.6 3.6.7 History .................................................................................. 103 Differences Between Solvent and Waterborne Bonding Agents .. 103 Suggested Spraying Equipment and Conditions ..................... 105 Application and Substrate Temperatures ............................... 105 Film Thickness ....................................................................... 106 Layover .................................................................................. 106 Progress in Performance......................................................... 106
3.7
Health and Safety in the Workplace ................................................... 109 3.7.1 3.7.2 The Safety Data Sheet ............................................................ 109 Perspective ............................................................................. 110
3.8
iii
3.9
Shelf Life Considerations ................................................................... 112 3.9.1 3.9.2 Shelf Life Categories .............................................................. 113 Procedures for Re-certification of Bonding Agents ................ 113
3.10 Troubleshooting ................................................................................. 115 3.11 Summary ............................................................................................ 120 4 Bonding Rubber to Metals with Waterborne Adhesive Systems .................. 125 4.1 Introduction ....................................................................................... 125 4.1.1 4.1.2 4.2 Solvent Elimination by the Rubber Industry .......................... 126 Techniques Necessary in Bonding of Rubber to Meet Local Environmental Pollution Limits ................................... 127
Waterborne Bonding Systems ............................................................. 127 4.2.1 4.2.2 4.2.3 4.2.4 4.2.5 4.2.6 4.2.7 4.2.8 4.2.9 Structure of Organic Solvent-based Bonding Systems ............ 127 Structure of Waterborne Bonding Systems ............................. 127 Fundamentals of Waterborne Bonding Agent Application ..... 128 Waterborne Bonding Systems in Factory Usage ..................... 128 Metal Preparation - For Waterborne Bonding Systems .......... 129 Waterborne Bonding Agent Application ................................ 129 Waterborne Bonding Agent Storage Stability ......................... 130 Non Bond Advantages of Waterborne Bonding Systems ........ 130 General Comments - Waterborne Bonding Agents ................. 130
4.3
Waterborne Bonding Agents - A Factory Experience ......................... 131 4.3.1 4.3.2 4.3.3 4.3.4 4.3.5 4.3.6 Thickness Effects ................................................................... 131 Pre-bake Resistance ............................................................... 133 Primers .................................................................................. 134 Polymer Range ....................................................................... 134 Product Range ....................................................................... 134 Current Disadvantages of Waterborne Bonding Agents ......... 134
Rubber to Rubber Bonding ......................................................................... 137 5.1 Bonding of Unvulcanised Rubbers ..................................................... 137
iv
Contents
Tack/Autohesion .................................................................... 137 Influence of Vulcanisation System .......................................... 139 Influence of Filler Type .......................................................... 140 Effects of Plasticisers/Process Oils .......................................... 141 Effects of Tackifiers ............................................................... 141 Effects of Other Ingredients ................................................... 142 Effects of Surface Modification .............................................. 142 Effects of Surface Roughness ................................................. 144 Influence of Contact Time/Pressure/Temperature ................... 144
5.1.10 Effects of Blooming ................................................................ 145 5.1.11 Effects of Ageing .................................................................... 146 5.1.12 Testing of Tack/Autohesion Levels ......................................... 147 5.1.13 Adhesion Theories ................................................................. 148 5.2 5.3 Bonding of Vulcanised Rubbers to Unvulcanised Rubbers ................. 150 Bonding of Vulcanised Rubbers ......................................................... 152 5.3.1 5.3.2 5.3.3 5.3.4 5.3.5 5.3.6 5.3.7 5.3.8 Strip Bonding of Tyre Retreading Components ...................... 152 Effects of Strip Thickness ....................................................... 155 Effects of Surface Roughness ................................................. 156 Effects of Temperature on Bonding ........................................ 156 Effects of the Chemical Nature of Polymers/ Polymeric Additives/Surface Roughness ................................. 156 Urethane Adhesive Systems .................................................... 158 Surface Treatments to Improve Bonding ................................ 158 Effects of Contact Time/Surface Bloom .................................. 159
5.4. The Mechanism of Adhesion of Fully Cured Rubbers........................ 159 6 Rubber-Brass Bonding ................................................................................. 163 6.1 6.2 Introduction ....................................................................................... 163 Mechanism of Rubber-Brass Bonding ................................................ 165 6.2.1 6.2.2 Reviews ................................................................................. 165 Recent Mechanistic Studies .................................................... 165
Updated Rubber-Brass Adhesion Model ................................ 170 New Evidence for Ageing of the Interfacial Sulphide Film ..... 177 Compounding for Brass Adhesion ......................................... 180 Additives to Compounds for Brass Adhesion ......................... 181 Developments in Metal Pre-treatments .................................. 184 Developments of Novel Alloys for Bonding to Rubber .......... 189 Miscellaneous ........................................................................ 190
6.2.10 Summary ............................................................................... 190 7 Review of Tyre Cord Adhesion ................................................................... 197 7.1 7.2 7.3 7.4 7.5 7.6 8 Introduction ....................................................................................... 197 Accepted Mechanisms of Rubber-Brass Bonding ............................... 198 Ageing of the Rubber-Brass Bond ...................................................... 200 Metal Organic Cobalt Salts ................................................................ 201 The Role of Resins and Silica/Resin Systems ...................................... 205 Summary ............................................................................................ 208
Rubber to Metal Bonding Using Metallic Coagents .................................... 213 8.1 8.2 Introduction ....................................................................................... 214 Metallic Coagents .............................................................................. 215 8.2.1 8.2.2 8.2.3 8.3 Scorch Safety ......................................................................... 217 Tensile Properties ................................................................... 219 Tear Strength ......................................................................... 220
8.4
Results and Discussion ....................................................................... 229 8.4.1 8.4.2 Adhesion to Metals ................................................................ 229 Adhesion to Fibres and Fabrics .............................................. 235
8.5
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Contents
Rubber to Fabric Bonding ........................................................................... 241 9.1 9.2 Introduction ....................................................................................... 241 Adhesive Systems ............................................................................... 241 9.2.1 9.2.2 9.2.3 9.3 Aqueous Fabric Treatments ................................................... 241 Solvent-Based Adhesive Systems ............................................ 248 In Situ Bonding Systems......................................................... 249
Mechanisms of Adhesion ................................................................... 250 9.3.1 9.3.2 Dip/rubber Interface .............................................................. 250 Dip/textile Interface ............................................................... 252
9.4
Other Factors Affecting Adhesion ...................................................... 253 9.4.1 9.4.2 Storage of Treated Textiles ..................................................... 253 Adhesion in Service ................................................................ 254
9.5
Environmental Aspects ...................................................................... 254 9.5.1 9.5.2 9.5.3 Storage and Handling ............................................................ 254 In Process ............................................................................... 255 Wastes and Disposal .............................................................. 255
10 Bonding Rubber with Cyanoacrylates ......................................................... 259 10.1 Introduction ....................................................................................... 259 10.2 Liquid Cyanoacrylates ....................................................................... 259 10.3 Curing of Cyanoacrylates .................................................................. 260 10.3.1 Factors Affecting Cure ........................................................... 261 10.3.2 Cure Speed ............................................................................. 263 10.4 Types of Cyanoacrylate ...................................................................... 263 10.4.1 Bonding to Acidic and Porous Substrates............................... 264 10.4.2 Toughened Cyanoacrylates .................................................... 265 10.4.3 Flexible Cyanoacrylates ......................................................... 266 10.4.4 UV Curing Systems ................................................................ 266 10.5 Design Considerations ....................................................................... 266
vii
Minimise Peel and Deavage Loads .................................... 267 Bond Line Thickness ......................................................... 268 Special Requirements for Bonding with Cyanoacrylates .... 269 Internal and External Mould Release Agents .................... 269 Successful Joint Design ...................................................... 269
Bonding to Silicone Rubber ............................................................. 270 Environmental Resistance ............................................................... 270 10.7.1 10.7.2 Glass Bonding ................................................................... 272 Hot Strength ..................................................................... 272
10.8 10.9
Activators ........................................................................................ 274 Application Methods for Cyanoacrylates ........................................ 275 10.9.1 10.9.2 Pressure/Time Systems ....................................................... 275 Syringe Systems ................................................................. 276
10.10 Health and Safety and Handling Precautions .................................. 276 10.11 Typical Applications........................................................................ 277 10.11.1 Bonding Nitrile, Polychloroprene and Natural Rubbers .... 277 10.11.2 Bonding EPDM ................................................................. 277 10.11.3 Bonding Santoprene and Silicone Rubbers ........................ 279 10.11.4 Bonding Medical Devices .................................................. 279 10.12 Troubleshooting .............................................................................. 280 10.12.1 Blooming of Cyanoacrylates ............................................. 280 11 Bonding Silicone Rubber to Various Substrate ............................................ 285 11.1 11.2 11.3 Introduction .................................................................................... 285 Why Bond Silicone Rubber? ............................................................ 286 Material Combinations of Interest - Examples ................................ 287 11.3.1 11.3.2 11.3.3 11.3.4
viii
Silicone to Silicone Bonding (Soft and Soft) ...................... 287 Silicone to Plastic Bonding (Soft and Hard) ...................... 288 Silicone to Metal Bonding (Soft and Hard) ....................... 288 Why Use Silicone Rubber for Such Composites? ............... 288
Contents
11.4 11.5
Some Applications of Silicone Rubber Composites ......................... 290 Bonding Concepts ........................................................................... 291 11.5.1 11.5.2 11.5.3 11.5.4 Undercuts .......................................................................... 291 Primers .............................................................................. 292 Self-adhesive Silicone Rubbers .......................................... 292 The Build-up of Adhesion ................................................. 292
11.6
Bonding of Liquid Rubber (LR) ...................................................... 293 11.6.1 11.6.2 Properties of Self-adhesive LR ........................................... 297 Limitations of Self-adhesive LR ......................................... 298
11.7
Bonding of Solid Rubber (HTV) ..................................................... 299 11.7.1 11.7.2 11.7.3 Self-adhesive HTV Silicone Rubber Applications .............. 299 Applications for Self-adhesive HTV .................................. 301 HTV Used in Other Bonding Applications ........................ 303
11.8
Processing Techniques ..................................................................... 303 11.8.1 11.8.2 Liquid Rubbers in Inserted Parts Technology .................... 303 LR in Two-component Injection Moulding Technology (Two Colour Mould) ......................................................... 306
11.9
11.10 Cable Industry ................................................................................ 309 11.11 Duration of Bonding Properties ...................................................... 309 11.11.1 Duration of Bonding - Chemically Bonded Composites .... 311 11.12 Alternatives to Injection Moulding ................................................. 313 11.12.1 Adhesives .......................................................................... 313 11.12.2 Welding ............................................................................. 313 11.12.3 Mechanical Bonding Techniques After Moulding .............. 314 11.13 Summary ......................................................................................... 314 12 Failures in Rubber Bonding to Substrates ................................................... 319 12.1.1 12.1.2 Introduction ...................................................................... 319 Incorrect Moulding Procedures ......................................... 328
ix
Incorrect Production Quality Testing Procedures .............. 329 Corrosion in Service .......................................................... 330 Product Abuse ................................................................... 333 Other Failure Modes ......................................................... 333 Factors Affecting Adhesion of Rubbers ............................. 334 Topography of Substrate ................................................... 335 Surface Conditions of Adherend ....................................... 335
12.1.10 Classification of Rubber According to their Wettabilities .. 336 12.1.11 Bonding - Interphase or Interface Considerations ............. 337 12.1.12 Problems in Adhesion........................................................ 339 12.2 Rubber Bonding in Power Transmission Belting ............................. 339 12.2.1 12.2.2 12.2.3 12.2.4 12.3 Introduction ...................................................................... 339 Power Transmission Belt Failure Modes ............................ 340 Adhesion Systems in Power Transmission Belts ................. 346 Adhesion Testing in Power Transmission Belts .................. 347
Undesirable Adhesion Occuring Under Service Conditions (Fixing) .. 349 12.3.1 12.3.2 12.3.3 Factors Affecting Fixing .................................................. 349 Prevention of Fixing ........................................................ 351 Other Methods of Preventing Fixing Examined Experimentally ................................................. 351
Abbreviations and Acronyms............................................................................. 357 Author Index ..................................................................................................... 363 Company Index ................................................................................................. 371 Main Index ........................................................................................................ 373
Contributors
Derek Brewis Loughborough University, Institute of Surface Science and Technology, Department of Physics, Loughborough, Leicestershire, LE11 3TU, UK. Richard Costin The Sartomer Company, 502 Thomas Jones Way, Exton, PA 19341, USA. Bryan Crowther 49 The Avenue, Bengeo, Hertford, Hertfordshire, SG14 3DS, UK. Kenneth Dalgarno School of Mechanical Engineering, University of Leeds, Leeds, LS2 9JT, UK. Steve Fulton OMG Limited, Ashton New Road, Clayton, Manchester, M11 4AT, UK. Robert Goss Henkel Loctite Adhesives Limited, Watchmead, Welwyn Garden City, Hertfordshire, AL7 1JB, UK. Jim Halladay Lord Corporation, Chemical Products Division, 2000 West Grandview Boulevard, PO Box 10038, Erie, PA 16514-0038, USA. Richard Holcroft 5 Brooklands Drive, Birmingham, West Midlands, B14 6EJ, UK. Peter Jerschow Wacker-Chemie GmbH, Johannes-Hess Strasse 24, D-84489 Burghausen, Germany. Rani Joseph Department of Polymer Science and Rubber Technology, Cochin University of Science and Technology, Cochin 682022, Kerala, India. Mike Rooke Henkel Loctite Adhesives Limited, Watchmead, Welwyn Garden City, Hertfordshire, AL7 1JB, UK.
Commercial rubbers
Berndt Stadelmann Wacker-Chemie GmbH, Johannes-Hess Strasse 24, D-84489 Burghausen, Germany. Walter Strassberger Wacker-Chemie GmbH, Johannes-Hess Strasse 24, D-84489 Burghausen, Germany. Wim van Ooij Department of Chemical and Materials Engineering, University of Cincinnati, Cincinnati, OH 45221-0012, USA. Patrick Warren Lord Corporation, Chemical Products Division, 2000 West Grandview Boulevard, PO Box 10038, Erie, PA 16514-0038, USA. Ron Woodcock 5 Lower Leicester Road, Lutterworth, Leicester, LE17 4NF, UK. David Wootton 95 Greenhill Road, Bury, Lancashire, BL8 2LL, UK Keith Worthington Chemical Innovations Limited (CIL), 217 Walton Summit Centre, Bamber Bridge, Preston, PR5 8AL, UK.
Introduction
Although many volumes of information have been published about the subject of adhesion of materials in general, it is some forty years since a publication has been devoted solely to the subject of the bonding of rubbers to various substrates. Three very successful Rapra Technology, conferences on the subject of the bonding of rubber have shown that there is clearly a need for such a publication to be devoted to this topic of wide industrial significance. Although from time to time manufacturers of bonding agent systems publish papers in trade journals there is generally a dearth of available information for the factory practitioner to consult. The subject matter for this present volume has been selected to cover a wide range of interests, both in terms of products and applications. Rubbers in many applications need the support of, or reinforcement by, a variety of materials ranging from fibres to metals. To ensure optimisation of the properties from these composites it is necessary to ensure that the optimum adhesion levels are achieved, both initially and to be maintained throughout the service life of the products. Rubbers are bonded to a variety of substrates in many products, in numerous applications, to meet the needs of the modern world. The Rubber Bonding Handbook draws together the expertise of a number of world authorities engaged in improving the bonded product to meet the ever increasing demands placed on composites and components manufactured from rubbers bonded to metals, fabrics, fibres and plastic substrates. The papers included in this volume have been written by experts in their fields, many of whom have world-renowned reputations. Thus the information they include in their chapters can be considered to be the most up-to-date, state-of-the-art discussions of their respective areas of research and knowledge. The topics range from in depth discussions of such fundamental topics as the mechanisms of bonding of rubbers to brass, bonding techniques for adhesion to fabrics through to methods of preparation of substrates and the development of bonding agent systems for adhesion to metals and plastic substrates. Bonding with silicone rubbers and cyanoacrylate adhesives for post vulcanisation bonding are also included. A section dealing with information related to adhesion, failure and other adhesion related topics such as fixing and practical reasons for a variety of bond failures, either during production or service are also covered.
The Handbook of Rubber Bonding Although there is some discussion of relevant theory in various sections of text, the emphasis in this volume has been to concentrate on the practicalities of bonding of rubbers, to themselves and substrates. It is considered that this type of information is of immediate interest to the practising technologist dealing with shop floor problems on a daily basis. It is hoped that the publication of definitive papers on the subject of adhesion of rubbers will be of considerable value to the practitioner in factories engaged in the previously seldom discussed variety of bonding applications being carried out by the rubber industry. Because of the legislation now in progress of being implemented by the rubber industry to eliminate sources of environmentally hazardous chemicals, there is information on the development and applications of waterborne bonding systems.
Acknowledgements
I would like to express my appreciation of the help and assistance given to me in the editing of this publication. To Claire Griffiths (Editorial Assistant), Sandra Hall for typesetting, to Steve Barnfield for the cover design, Rebecca Dolbey for editorial advice and particularly to Frances Powers (Commissioning Editor), for her support, patience and guidance on general editorial matters. Bryan Crowther November 2000
Commercial rubbers
The Handbook of Rubber Bonding steel consists of iron mixed with carbon in varying proportions to produce the different grades of commercial product. Also minor proportions of other metals are added to give different processing and end use characteristics to the steel, e.g., chromium, manganese, molybdenum, nickel, tungsten. The finishing processes of steels can also seriously alter the ability of adhesive to bond to them, due to the altered surface microstructure. With a pure metal its strength will depend on the size of the crystals making up its structure. In general small crystals make strong metals, whilst metals with large crystals, such as zinc, are weaker. The strength of a metal is also affected by the amount of impurity which may be present, as the impurities tend to arrange themselves at the interfaces between the crystals, thus preventing perfect crystal contact. In most metal alloys, as with rubber alloys or blends, the individual metals remain in discrete, but dispersed domains within the metal alloy structure. In an alloy the metal crystals involved, during cooling, have different shrinkage values and thus tend to move apart, allowing either voids to occur or when chemically hardened, other metals to infiltrate into these voids or interstices, at or near the surface. The individual crystals of the metals during cooling and shrinkage can join together to form chain structures, giving interlocking of the various metallic crystals. In some metal mixtures there is a mutual solubility and in these cases all crystals of the metal are the same. Although as a rubber to metal bonder one is not very interested in the metals structure within the mass of the metal, one must consider what is happening in and on its surface layers. Most metals form oxide layers on their surfaces, some of which, like iron are porous and thus continual oxygen ingress enables the oxide layer continually to increase whilst in aerobic conditions. Other metals such as aluminium form a dense oxide film which does not permit oxygen ingress and thus protects the metal underneath from further oxidation. Both metals types are being oxidised, albeit at different rates and this oxidation can be termed as a form of corrosion. Although the rubber to metal bonder must take the precautions necessary to prevent this type of corrosion continuing under his processing conditions, once the bonding agent has been applied, the condition at the metal interface becomes anaerobic and thus further oxidative corrosion is prevented (see Sections 12.1.2.2 and 12.1.5). There are a great variety and complexity of steel microstructures available to the component specifier, which complicate any cleaning procedure carried out prior to bonding. Incorrect chemical cleaning of low carbon and stainless steels, for example, can result in iron oxide smutting of the surface leaving a deposit difficult to remove entirely [1] during metal cleaning. These deposits may subsequently give an extremely weak bonding surface and, as a result a bonded product which fails easily under low working stresses in service.
Substrate Preparation Methods However, as far the rubber to metal bonder is concerned he must avoid situations which can cause galvanic corrosion, a far more serious condition, which can propagate under the bonding system to cause eventual degradation of the bond and inevitable failure. Galvanic corrosion [2] is caused by the formation of an electrolytic cell between the different metal crystals within a structure in the presence of such agents as acids and salt water. Acids can be generated from degeneration of compounding materials or cleaning and degreasing fluids (see also Section 12.1.4). Certain metals are manufactured for their ability to prevent corrosion, e.g., stainless steel, and they contain chromium to enhance their corrosion resistance. If the level of chromium used in the metals makeup is high, then the very tough layer of chromium oxide, which forms on the metals surface as the anti-corrosion layer, is also exceedingly difficult to bond to rubbers. Wherever possible therefore stainless steels to be used in conjunction with bonding systems for rubbers should contain as low a chromium level as possible.
1.1.2 Bonding
The bonding mechanisms of the multiphase systems involved in making a rubber to metal component are complex and the chemistry of the reactions involved not totally disclosed or understood. In the region of the metal contact the interactions are deemed to be a combination of mechanical and chemisorption processes. From the patent literature and some of the more recent reviews of rubber to metal bonding [3, 4], it can be seen that the primers contain a variety of halogenated rubbers and resins, which are known to have a high ability to wet out metal surfaces, thus ensuring the greatest degree of interface contact. In addition these rubbers and resins act as barriers to the migration of external corrosion catalysts of the metal surface. The resins and rubbers probably form an interpenetrating network of polymer chains within the adhesive system, thus giving strength and structure to the primer and rubber bonding coats. Bond quality depends to a large extent on the ability of all interfaces to freely exchange chemical entities. Any contamination of surfaces will upset the surface chemistry at that point and will reduce the bond strength.
The Handbook of Rubber Bonding metal part must be carefully considered to ensure that no undue stress concentrations are created in the area of the bond between the rubber and the metal. Components consisting of moulded rubber bonded to metal, carried out during high temperature vulcanisation, can have inherent stresses simply due to shrinkage of the rubber when cooling from the vulcanisation temperature and the coefficient of thermal expansion relationship of the rubber/metal combination. The shrinkage of the rubber in the system will be different for each type of rubber being used and is dependent also upon the compound hardness, or degree of filler present. Allowances for the rubber shrinkage must be made in determining the shape of the mould cavity and hence the components final shape. The environment in which the component is to work will also affect the stresses to which the rubber-metal bond will be subjected. Some oil and solvent environments will penetrate a bond at the interface and thus may weaken or destroy the integrity of the bond until the stress becomes relieved by failure. Corrosion of the metal component of the bonded unit by salt environments can also be a major problem and thus due concern and allowance must be made for the service conditions in which the rubber to metal component will be resident. Corrosion of the bonded metal under the bonding system can also occur if the metal pre-preparation is carried out with acidic degreasing fluids. Care must be taken that degreasing fluids are and remain, neutral in pH throughout their use in the application. Recovery of used solvents and redistillation can significantly change the pH of a solvent. This can be a particular problem with chlorinated solvents, where after redistillation the distillate can be acidic in nature. To effect good long-lasting bonds between rubber and metals it is essential that both materials presented to the interface be clean and free from detritus. The presence of oils and the possibility that compounding ingredients can exude or bloom from the rubber surface, before or after moulding, or during the service life of the component must also be taken into consideration and remedied.
Initial degreasing
Metals must be degreased as the first step in any metal preparation process, otherwise oil and grease contamination of blasting media, chemical treatments and machinery can result in severe factory quality problems and unreliable and variable bonding. Traditionally the most usual method of grease and oil removal from the metal surface has been by degreasing in the vapour of a chlorinated solvent such as trichloroethylene or 1,1,1-trichloroethane or perchloroethylene. The chlorinated solvent used must have a neutral pH, otherwise the acidic condition can cause the initiation of underbond corrosion. Re-distilled chlorinated solvents, especially if recovery is carried out in-house, must be adequately checked for neutrality. The metal parts must dwell in the solvent vapour until such time as the metal reaches the temperature of the vapour and condensation has ceased. The solvent will have had the best opportunity to work at its most efficient in grease removal under these conditions. Direct contact with the degreasing solvent is not an efficient way of removing greases from metal surfaces, always leaving a molecular layer at least, still lying on the cleaned surface. This cleaning method should not be used for metals to be used in bonding. All air lines in the bonding shop must have oil/water filters connected to them to remove the possibility of oil/water emulsion being sprayed onto the metal surfaces before, after or during bonding agent application. Air compressors are notorious for allowing oil seepage into the pressure vessel, together with an amount of water, which then usually causes an oil/water emulsion to be formed. This emulsion in contact with cleaned metal surfaces will give corrosion or reduce bond formation to a minimum level through the deposit of a film of oil.
The Handbook of Rubber Bonding The current legislation trend and environmental pressure for the industry is to move towards the use of alternative means of removal of contaminants from the metal surfaces (see Section 1.4). Equipment is available which uses water and detergents to remove these oils and thus present a more environmentally favourable working atmosphere. The action of the detergent can be supplemented by the use of ultrasonic agitation to remove oxide flakes. These systems being water-based require efficient drying of the metals, especially in the areas between contacting metals, otherwise further oxidation of the cleaned metal will rapidly take place. Careful choice of the detergent is also necessary otherwise its residues can detract from the bond strength achievable. The water quality being used in the degreasing system final wash process will have to be determined to prevent deposit of any salts or metallic ions. The ideal final wash is with de-ionised water. Alternative solvents, if used in a vapour degreasing system must have a similar evaporation rate to that of the presently used chlorinated solvents. Otherwise too rapid evaporation of the condensed solvent on withdrawal of the metals from the solvent vapour will result in rapid surface cooling of the metal, with resultant condensation of water, especially in conditions of high humidity.
The Handbook of Rubber Bonding treated with bonding agent, be handled with press gloves. Press gloves are usually heavily contaminated with a variety of materials, from oil, to mould release agents and sweat. Clean, frequently discarded cotton gloves are the best protection for handling metals. They should not be allowed to become dirty and sweat ridden.
10
Substrate Preparation Methods The nature of the phosphate deposited on the surface of the steel depends to a large extent upon the nature of the microstructure of the steels and the orientation of its underlying crystal lattice. Hardened steels having a martensite structured surface (consisting of interlacing rectilinear fibrous elements arranged in a triangular shape) support a fine flake phosphate structure. Cold-rolled steel can, having acquired a different surface orientation structure during the rolling process, acquire a lumpy large flake phosphate structure, which is easily broken apart under service stress. Any water going to drain from these processes is a potential pollution hazard and must be tested for zinc content, as this is a hazardous material. Any zinc present must be removed or limited to 1 2 parts per million.
Zinc sheradising
A method used to give what is in effect a fused zinc surface to a steel component can be specified which gives very good environmental protection for the steel component.
11
The Handbook of Rubber Bonding The steel part to be bonded is baked whilst being tumbled in zinc dust. The process is not generally suitable for delicate metal parts and causes problems with zinc build-up in screw threaded components (the latter must be protected by a sleeve or require a die running down the thread to clear it). After treatment exposed zinc surfaces do of course oxidise if stored incorrectly, but this is not usually a problem. The oxide forms after both methods of zinc coating.
Aluminium - anodising
Aluminium is usually electrolytically anodised, in the presence of an acid, either sulphuric, chromic or phosphoric, to give a tough resistant oxide film, which usually forms good bonds with the usual bonding systems. The anodising must be carried out with care and with a mind to the type of crystalline structure being formed on the aluminium surface. A uniform reticulated structure is desired, not a microscopically fragmented rippled surface, sometimes called ice flows [7], which are unstable, easily fractured, and therefore too unstable to maintain good adhesive quality. If anodising is to be carried out by a custom plater he will need to be informed of the type of anodised structure desired. N.B. The final stages of any wet metal preparation process for metals to be bonded to rubber is to ensure that all chemicals used in the processes have been removed in the final water rinse tank, and then to ensure that all faces of the metal parts are fully dried prior to bonding agent application. All warehouse metal storage areas must be held at least 5 10 C above the dew-point and ideally as near to ambient temperature in the bonding agent application shop which should be in the region of 18 22 C minimum.
12
Substrate Preparation Methods second group, it is often necessary to pre-treat the rubbers before bonding. Pre-treatments range from physical methods such as a solvent wipe or abrasion to chemical methods such as treatment with trichloroisocyanuric acid (TCICA). Physical methods may remove cohesively weak layers from the polymer. This is essential to good bonding unless these layers can be absorbed by the adhesive. However, physical methods will only be effective if the underlying rubber possesses suitable groups which can interact strongly with the adhesive. Chemical methods may also remove weak layers or chemically modify them so that they are more compatible with the adhesive; in addition chemical methods may roughen a surface. However, an effective chemical method will also modify the chemistry of the rubber so that the interaction with the adhesive is increased. In general, rubbers contain a greater variety and quantity of additives than plastics; fifteen components in a particular formulation is quite common. These additives or compounding ingredients as they are often called, may well create a cohesively weak layer on the rubber surface. On the other hand, plastics usually contain a small number of additives and usually in relatively low concentration. Over the last 50 years many methods have been developed to pre-treat plastics and rubbers. Partly because of the much simpler formulations, pre-treatments for plastics have been the subject of much greater scientific interest. Our understanding of pretreatments for plastics is therefore much greater than that for rubbers. Some of the key studies on pre-treatments of plastics will therefore be outlined in Section 1.2.2. Pre-treatments for rubbers have been developed on an empirical basis but some scientific studies of successful pre-treatments have been undertaken. Methods for different rubbers will be reviewed in Section 1.2.3. Rubbers will be considered in groups, namely hydrocarbons that possess little unsaturation, unsaturated hydrocarbons, halogenated rubbers and miscellaneous materials.
The Handbook of Rubber Bonding sufficiently surface-sensitive. However, in the 1970s a new method for studying surface chemistry became available, namely X-ray photoelectron spectroscopy (XPS) which is also known as electron spectroscopy for chemical analysis (ESCA). This method is able to characterise and quantify the chemical changes caused by pre-treatments. XPS analyses the first few atomic layers of a material. This is important as some pre-treatments only modify a few nanometers of a polymer. Reflection infrared techniques in the 1970s were often unable to detect changes to the surface chemistry of polymers caused by the pre-treatments. Three of the earliest pre-treatment studies were by Dwight [15], Collins [22] and Briggs [23]. Dwight treated polytetrafluoroethylene (PTFE) and fluorinated ethylene-propylene copolymer (FEP) with sodium in liquid ammonia and sodium naphthalenide in tetrahydrofuran (THF). X-ray photoelectron spectroscopy showed extensive defluorination of the polymers together with formation of carboncarbon double bonds and various oxygen-containing groups. Collins treated PTFE with ammonia and air plasmas. Again, XPS showed extensive defluorination and in the case of the ammonia plasma, nitrogen containing groups were introduced. Briggs [23] was the first to quantify the chemical modification caused by a pre-treatment. Briggs studied the changes caused by chromic acid etching of low density polyethylene and polypropylene. Some of the results are given in Table 1.1. Angular variation studies, i.e., the angle of incidence of the X-ray beam was varied, showed that in the case of polypropylene, the depth of the chemically modified layer was only a few nanometers.
Table 1.1 XPS data for polyolefins treated with chromic acid [23]
Polymer LDPE Treatment None 1 min/20 C 6 h/70 C None 1 min/20 C 6 h/70 C Surface composition (atom %) C 99.8 94.4 85.8 99.8 93.4 94.0 O 0.2 5.2 13.1 0.2 6.3 5.7 S 0.4 1.1 0.3 0.3
PP
NB: The sulphur originates from the attack of the polyolefin by the sulphuric acid present in the chromic acid LDPE: low density polyethylene PP: polypropylene C: carbon O: oxygen S: sulphur Reproduced with permission from D. Briggs, D. M. Brewis and M. B. Konieczko, Journal of Materials Science, 1976, 11, 7, 1270. 1976, Kluwer Academic Publishers
14
Substrate Preparation Methods A given pre-treatment may result in the introduction of several different chemical groups. There are two methods by which these groups may be quantified and both involve XPS. The first method involves derivatisation reactions and the second method the use of high resolution spectra. The basic idea behind the derivatisation method is to use several reagents each of which will react with only one of the groups introduced by the pre-treatment. There are two other requirements. Each reagent should introduce an atom, e.g., fluorine, that is not already present in the surface and each reaction should proceed to 100% conversion. The method is illustrated by the work of Gerenser [24] where some corona treated polyethylene was derivatised. The reagents and derivatisation reactions are shown in Figure 1.1 and the results of the experiments are shown in Table 1.2.
Figure 1.1 Derivatisation reactions to identify functional groups introduced by pretreatments; a) peroxide groups reacting with sulphur dioxide, b) alcohol group reacting with hexafluoroacetic anhydride, c) carbonyl group reacting with hydrazine, d) epoxide group reacting with hydrogen chloride, e) carboxylic acid group reacting with tertiary amine. (Reprinted from L. J. Gerenser, J. F. Elman, M. G. Mason and J. M. Pochan, Polymer, 1985, 26, 8, 1162. 1985, with permission from Elsevier Science)
15
Table 1.2 Quantification of surface functionalities after corona treatment using derivatisation
Functional group Group conc. X 102 * Initial 1.2 Washed 0.9
OOH
OH
1.7
1.1
1.8
0.9
O C C
2.3
1.1
O C OH
Footnote: Allowing for the fact that some of the groups contain more than one oxygen atom, it can readily be calculated that the concentration of oxygen atoms involved in the derivatisation reactions was 13.8%; this is the amount of oxygen tagged. The actual amount of oxygen incorporated the corona treated surface was found by XPS to be 18%. This means that other oxygen-containing groups were present and/or the reactions with the above groups did not go to completion. *Moles of functional species per unreacted initial carbon atom Reprinted from L. J. Gerenser, J. F. Elman, M. G. Mason and J. M. Pochan, Polymer, 1985, 26, 8, 1162. 1985, with permission from Elsevier Science
The second method to quantify the chemical groups introduced by a pre-treatment involves obtaining a high resolution spectrum of the photoelectrons from the C1s core level and resolving this into the various contributions. This approach is illustrated by Beamson [25] who examined a rubber-modified polypropylene which had been subjected to a corona discharge treatment. The high resolution C1s spectrum is given in Figure 1.2 and
16
the information on the groups introduced is given in Table 1.3. This method is much quicker than the derivatisation approach but requires an instrument with very good energy resolution and great care in attribution of the various peaks.
Figure 1.2 High resolution C1s spectrum of corona treated polypropylene [25]
17
The Handbook of Rubber Bonding Strobel [12] compared the effectiveness of various gas-phase reactions for polypropylene, by determining how much oxygen was introduced into the polymer surface (the O:C atomic ratio) in a given time. These results are summarised in Table 1.4. It can be seen that to achieve a given level of chemical modification, flame, corona and plasma require much shorter treatment times than ozone or UV or a combination of UV plus ozone. The pre-treatments described above represent just a few of the many studies relating to the mechanisms of pre-treatments for plastics. However, it is clear that much is known about pre-treatments of plastics relating to: Quantification of the chemical changes caused by pre-treatments, The depth of the chemical modification, Identification and quantification of chemical groups, The rate of chemical modification. In contrast, much less work has been done relating to the mechanisms of pre-treatments for rubbers.
*The plasma was produced by a microwave generator and passed 100 mm down a tube onto the polymer surface Reproduced with permission from M. Strobel, M. J. Walzak, J. M. Hill, A. Lin, E. Karbashewski and C. S. Lyons, in Polymer Surface Modification, Ed., K. L. Mittal, VSP, Utrecht, 1996, 233. 1996, VSP BV
18
Surface analysis
19
20
I - apparent interfacial ; R - cohesive in rubber Reproduced with permission from D. Oldfield and T. E. F. Symes, Journal of Adhesion, 1983, 16, 2, 77. 1983, Gordon and Breach Publishers
Extrand [39] treated NR surfaces in an acidified sodium hypochlorite solution and used contact angle measurements and reflection FTIR to study the changes caused by the chlorination. They studied pure NR, a peroxide cured formulation and a conventionally cured formulation. Contact angles of glycerol on the rubber surfaces reduced after chlorination as shown in Table 1.6.
Table 1.6 Effect of chlorination on the contact angles between glycerol and various rubber surfaces [39] Substrate Contact angle () Before treatment Pure rubber Peroxide cured Conventionally cured 64 46 82 After treatment 11 30 30
Reproduced with permission from C. W. Extrand and A. N. Gent, Rubber Chemistry and Technology, 1988, 61, 4, 688. 1988, Rubber Division, American Chemical Society
Peel strengths 21
The Handbook of Rubber Bonding With regard to the infrared study, bands at 660, 750 and 1260 cm-1 were assigned to the effects of chlorination. In addition, bands at 780, 916 and 1410 cm-1 were almost certainly due to chlorination. Kusano [40] found that neither corona nor plasma treatments improved peel strength with a polyurethane adhesive despite improved wettability as indicated by water contact angles. FTIR indicated substantial oxidation after the corona treatment but only minor oxidation after the plasma treatment.
Table 1.7 Effect of pre-treatments on the peel strengths (N mm-1) of SBR-epoxide-SBR joints [37]
Pre-treatment Toluene wipe Abrasion on grinding wheel Acidified hypochlorite Cyclisation TCICA in ethyl acetate Peel strength 0. 2 1 12 12 11 Locus of failure I I R R R
I - apparent interfacial; R - cohesive within rubber Reproduced with permission from D. Oldfield and T. E. F. Symes, Journal of Adhesion, 1983, 16, 2, 77. 1983, Gordon and Breach Publishers.
22
Substrate Preparation Methods Using X-ray fluorescence, they estimated the chlorine concentration in the first few microns of the SBR after treatment with TCICA at various concentrations. With a 3% solution, the resulting chlorine concentration was 16.1% w/w. Pastor-Blas [41] found that physical treatments such as abrasion did not result in significant increases in the peel strengths obtained with a polyurethane adhesive. On the other hand, treatment with TCICA in ethyl acetate resulted in large increases in peel strength. On the basis of the relative amounts of chlorine and nitrogen introduced into SBR, Lawson [30] concluded that both substitution and addition reactions were significant when this rubber was treated with TCICA in ethyl acetate. Similar results were obtained with polybutadiene. Pastor-Blas [42] studied the effect of TCICA concentration in ethyl acetate. For solutions up to 2% w/w mainly chlorinated hydrocarbon and CO species were reported. At between 2 and 5% w/w an excess of unreacted TCICA was indicated while above 5% w/w there was a detrimental effect on adhesion due to a weak boundary layer consisting of isocyanuric acid. Pastor-Blas [43] treated an SBR formulation with TCICA solutions in ethyl acetate having concentrations ranging from 0.5 7% by weight. The chemical changes caused by the pre-treatments are shown in Table 1.8. Rubber strips were bonded with a solvent-based polyurethane (PU) and the joint strengths determined in a T-peel test. After peeling, the test pieces were examined using a variety of techniques; XPS and FTIR confirmed that the treatment introduced various chemical groups. The peel strengths were obtained after treatments with 0.5, 2 and 7% w/w. The highest peel strength was obtained with the 2% solution.
Table 1.8 XPS studies of SBR treated with solutions of TCICA in ethyl acetate [43] Wt% concentration of TCICA 0 2 7 Surface analysis (atom %) C 92.27 92.7 91.5 O 2.8 4.3 4.6 Si 1.5 1.0 0.7 N 1.0 1.9 Cl 0.8 0.9 S 0.2 0.4
Reproduced with permission from M.M. Pastor-Blas, J.M. Martn-Martnez and J.G. Dillard, Journal of Adhesion, 1997, 62, 1/4, 23. 1997, Gordon and Breach Publishers.
Peel strengths
23
The Handbook of Rubber Bonding In a related publication, treatments with fumaric acid in a butan-2-ol/ethanol mixture and TCICA in butan-2-ol were compared [44]. In general, the TCICA was more effective at enhancing the peel strength achieved with a solvent-based PU adhesive. Infrared analysis indicated the treatments were probably effective by removing zinc stearate (reduction in peak at 1540 cm-1) and the introduction of carbon-oxide functionalities (1704 cm-1 and 1670 cm-1 for the TCICA and fumaric acid, respectively). With TCICA, CCl bonds were also observed. Pastor-Sempere [45] treated two styrene-butadiene rubbers with fumaric acid in a butan2-ol/ethanol mixture. This resulted in improved adhesion in both cases, but the improvement with one formulation was significantly greater than the other. The lower peel strength was attributed to the presence of paraffin wax and zinc stearate. Roughening prior to treatment with fumaric acid resulted in additional improvements with both rubbers. Infrared analysis indicated that the fumaric acid was effective by introducing C=O bonds and by reducing the concentration of zinc stearate. In addition, the fumaric acid caused a roughening of both rubbers. Later Pastor-Blas [46] demonstrated that high concentrations of TCICA could lead to the formation of weak boundary layers. Treatment of two SBR materials with a 7 wt% solution of TCICA in ethyl acetate resulted in poor peel strengths unless the treated surfaces were vacuum dried for one hour at 1.34 Pa. Other methods have been shown to considerably improve the bondability of SBR materials. Aqueous solutions of an organic chlorine donor or the use of an electrochemical method resulted in large increases in peel strength with a water-based PU adhesive [47]. Kusano [40] found that corona and plasma treatments resulted in large increases in peel strength with a PU adhesive. Lawson [31] reported that a 10 second corona treatment improved the water wettability of an SBR. He also reported cracking of the rubber which he ascribed to the ozone generated in the discharge. Styrene-butadiene block copolymers SBS thermoplastic rubbers have a low surface energy. Therefore, to achieve good adhesion to SBS a chemical pre-treatment may be necessary. A complicating factor is that migratory organic additives may lead to a weak layer. Pettit [36] found that treatment of SBS with chlorine gas, acidified sodium hypochlorite or an organic donor in an organic solvent resulted in large increases in peel strength with a polyurethane adhesive. As with SBR, aqueous solutions of an organic chlorine donor and an electrochemical method were also effective with SBS [47]. Pastor-Blas [48] treated SBS with TCICA solutions (0.5, 2 or 7 wt%) in ethyl acetate. The SBS was bonded with a PU and the joint strengths determined in a T-peel test. The failed surfaces, after peeling, were examined by a variety of techniques including XPS and FTIR.
24
Substrate Preparation Methods It was concluded that the highest strength (3.3 N mm-1) was obtained with the 0.5% solution. It was concluded that the stronger solutions weakened the surface regions. FTIR and XPS showed that the treatment introduced chlorine and oxygen functionalities.
Table 1.9 Effect of pre-treatments on the peel strengths (N mm-1) of bromobutyl rubberepoxidebromobutyl rubber joints [37] Pre-treatment Toluene wipe Abrasion on grinding wheel Acidified hypochlorite Cyclisation TCICA in ethyl acetate Peel strength 1 1 3 0.1 20 Locus of failure I I I I R
I - apparent interfacial; R - cohesive in rubber Reproduced with permission from D. Oldfield and T. E. F. Symes, Journal of Adhesion, 1983, 16, 2, 77. 1983, Gordon and Breach Publishers.
25
The Handbook of Rubber Bonding Polychloroprene (CR) has much more chlorine than the chlorobutyl rubber examined by Lawson and good adhesion to untreated CR would be expected provided there was no weak layer was on the surface. If such layers exist a suitable solvent treatment or abrasion should result in good adhesion. Cyclisation has been recommended as a pre-treatment [50, 51]. Lawson noted a large uptake of chlorine, nitrogen and oxygen on treatment of polychloroprene with TCICA, indicating addition across the carboncarbon double bond. Lawson [31] reported that a corona discharge treatment of CR increased its surface energy, but did not improve the peel strength with a polyurethane coating. Minagawa [32] reported large increases in adhesion with CR after UV irradiation or sputter ion etching. However, the treatment times were long, being 10 minutes with ion sputtering and one hour with the UV treatment. SEM indicates that the two methods caused considerable roughening of the surface. XPS and FTIR indicated the introduction of substantial quantities of oxygen-containing groups.
1.2.6 Miscellaneous Rubbers 1.2.6.1 Silicone Rubber (see also Chapter 12)
Adhesion to untreated silicone rubber is difficult. The poor adhesion may be due to a low surface energy (approximately 24 mJ m-2) or a layer of low cohesive strength or a combination of these two factors. Plasma treatment has been shown to substantially improve the wettability of silicone rubber [50-57]. Peel strengths were measured in one study and found to be much increased by plasma treatment [53]. Swanson [58] found that coating a silicone rubber with photoactive reagents and then exposing the surface to UV resulted in a large increase in joint strengths obtained with a cyanoacrylate adhesive. Combette [59] reported that microwave or radio frequency plasma treatment of silicone rubber with a gas rich in oxygen gave high peel strengths with an epoxide adhesive.
I - apparent interfacial; R - cohesive in rubber Reproduced with permission from D. Oldfield and T. E. F. Symes, Journal of Adhesion, 1983, 16, 2, 77. 1983, Gordon and Breach Publishers.
1.2.6.3 Polyurethanes
Polyurethanes (PU) have relatively high surface energies. Adhesion problems with PU substrates are, therefore, likely to be due to cohesively weak material, such as mould release agents on the surface. Abrasion is one of the main methods recommended as a pre-treatment [50]; such a pre-treatment can remove cohesively weak material and expose strong material of relatively high surface energy. Cryoblasting, in which carbon dioxide particles are fired at a substrate, has been shown to be capable of removing silicone release agents from PUs and thus giving large improvements in adhesion [47].
1.2.7 Discussion
As noted in Section 1.2.1, there have been many detailed studies relating to the pretreatment of plastics. Much is now known about these pre-treatments including the chemical groups introduced, their concentrations and the depth of chemical modification. In contrast, the number of studies involving rubbers is much lower and in general the studies have been much less informative. One of the reasons for this is that rubbers usually contain several additives, often in relatively high concentrations. These additives make an understanding of the pre-treatments much more difficult. Because of the wide range of formulations for a particular rubber, it is also more difficult to generalise about pre-treatments than it is with plastics. For example, it is known that some formulations of SBR are considerably easier to pre-treat than others.
27
Peel strengths The Handbook of Rubber Bonding The four groups of rubbers considered above will now be discussed. Conclusions about pre-treatments for rubbers will then be presented. Hydrocarbon materials with few carboncarbon double bonds will be considered first. The most important examples in this group are ethylene-propylene rubbers which may be crosslinked with peroxides or sulphur systems in which case small quantities of dimers are polymerised with ethylene and propylene (EPDM). As EP rubbers contain no polar groups it will normally be necessary to chemically modify the polymers to enable them to interact strongly with polar adhesives such as epoxides and polyurethanes. In the case of plastics such as polyethylene and polypropylene, large increases in adhesion can be achieved by treating with a flame [9, 10], corona [11, 13], plasma [18, 19], or etching solution [23]. It would be expected that EP rubbers would respond in the same way to these pre-treatments. However, this is not always the case. Thus, Lawson [31], found that a corona treatment of an EPDM did not improve the peel strength to a polyurethane coating. It is probable that the reason for the poor adhesion is a layer of low molecular weight material on the EPDM. During corona treatment this layer, rather than the underlying polymer, would be oxidised. Hence, the polyurethane coating would not be able to interact strongly with the EPDM. Even if the EPDM was oxidised by the corona treatment, there would still be a cohesively weak layer on its surface. Many rubbers possess carboncarbon double bonds. In such cases there is the possibility that pre-treatment may be effective by addition or substitution reactions. Thus some reagents may be effective with unsaturated hydrocarbons such as SBR and SBS but not with EP rubbers. This is demonstrated by the work of Lawson [30] who found that treatment with TCICA in ethyl acetate resulted in the introduction of substantial quantities of chlorine into SBR, polybutadiene and NR, but not into EPDM. Several methods have been shown to be effective at pre-treating unsaturated hydrocarbon rubbers. These include treatment with concentrated sulphuric acid, acidified sodium hypochlorite and TCICA in ethyl acetate. The last method is the most commonly used commercially but in many countries legislation is being introduced to reduce the use of organic solvents. Promising results have been obtained with new solvent-free methods, namely an electrochemical method involving a highly reactive complex ion, and a method involving a water-soluble organic chlorine donor [47]. Like hydrocarbon rubbers, silicones have low surface energies and interactions with polar adhesives will be low unless the surface chemistry is modified. Plasma treatments improve the wettability [52, 53, 54, 55, 56, 57] or bondability [58, 59] of silicones. It is generally accepted that the introduction of a wide range of functional groups makes a polymer much more bondable. The effect of introducing individual chemical groups into polyethylene was demonstrated by Chew [60]. Thus, bromine, carbonyl, hydroxyl
28
Substrate Preparation Methods and carboxylic acid groups were all shown to greatly increase the bondability of polyethylene to an epoxide adhesive. This is in line with the general experience that polymers possessing halogens or oxygen-containing groups are much easier to bond than polyolefins. Whether rubbers containing such groups are easy to bond depends very much on whether the bonding surface is covered by low molecular weight (MW) additives or contaminants. On the one hand, Oldfield [37] achieved high peel strengths with chemically unmodified nitrile rubber whereas Brewis [47] obtained low peel strengths with an as-received polyurethane. However, after the removal of a silicone release agent by cryoblasting, much higher peel strengths were obtained [47].
1.2.8 Summary
Methods are available to pre-treat all rubbers but additives or processing aids may make successful pre-treatment much more difficult. TCICA in various organic solvents is very effective with those rubbers possessing carbon-carbon double bonds. However, legislation restricting the use of organic solvents is being introduced in many countries. Promising new pre-treatments include the use of water-soluble organic chlorine donors and an electrochemical method in which a highly active complex ion is generated. With some polymers containing suitable chemical groups, e.g., PU, simply removing cohesively weak material from the surface may be all that is necessary to achieve good adhesion.
29
30
Substrate Preparation Methods Of course there is always the potential to mould the plastics material onto the vulcanised rubber, but this is rare. In practice, this type of moulding is an example of post vulcanisation bonding.
Fortunately for the commonly used metals this controlled oxidation occurs naturally after grit blasting or acid etching. In the case of plastics, no such convenient oxidation process takes place. However, each material will have a unique surface layer containing potential sites for bonding:
Polyamides
The polar group NH-C=O is capable of hydrogen bonding through the activated C=O group and via the N-H group. The N-H leaves a reactive site for chemical reaction with silanes, epoxies, isocyanates and any chemical adducts, which can release such species or any other species, which can react with an active hydrogen. Of course the amide group needs to be on the surface to be able to undergo hydrogen bonding or chemical reaction and steric hindrance will reduce the capability of such groups to partake in bonding, which is especially so in the case of aromatic polyamides.
31
Polyesters
The C(=O)O, ester group will partake in hydrogen bonding through both oxygen atoms, especially the activated carbonyl group. Some polyesters will be less easy to bond if steric hindrance is likely. Even PBT proves difficult to bond and often requires further treatment.
Polyurethanes
In theory PU should be very active towards bonding, with an activated N-H and a carbonyl group, as described for polyamides. However PUs are never that easy to bond and could be due to surface oxidation and/or surface hydrolysis, it is normal to remove the surface, degrease and prime before the surface is too old.
Polyureas
The sites for hydrogen bonding and chemical reaction are significant and polyureas are generally easy to bond. Being more oxidation resistant and hydrolysis resistant than the urethane group is significant.
Polycarbonates
A regular repeating stable carbonyl group is available for polar attraction and hydrogen bonding.
32
Substrate Preparation Methods As for polycarbonates, a regular repeating stable polar sulphur (oxygen) atom allows for polar attraction and hydrogen bonding. However, in the case of the polyolefines, there are no obvious adhesion sites:
Polyethylene
Polypropylene
For the bonding of these an oxidation process is essential. When one looks at the surface of metals and plastics under an electron microscope the disruption in that surface explains why bonding is never straightforward. The surface is often described as a weak surface layer and in the case of plastics one can include the surface stresses, general contamination, the presence of abhesive ingredients, i.e., process aids which have migrated to the surface. Some high temperature moulding processes may lead to variable and unwanted oxidation and/or reversion (crosslink degradation) at the surface. Therefore, one can accept the general opinion that the surfaces of plastics do need some form of abrasive or chemical treatment to remove the weak surface layer, or at least reduce it to an adequate level, as shown by the number of publications on the subject [61-69]. Putting it in simple terms the level of surface preparation depends on the performance requirements of the bond. To apply a pressure sensitive decal, no surface treatment is a feasible option, but to make a suspension mount then the plastics surface will require controlled treatments. Most engineering plastics can be treated with alumina or steel grit as for metals. However, in the real world it is quite normal to find that grit blasting is impractical for many reasons, including: Loss of shape, especially in thin sections, The reduction in dimensions is not reproducible,
33
The Handbook of Rubber Bonding Surface damage, such as fibrillation and plastic flow, Trapped (embedded) grinding media and other contaminants. The harder and the thicker the surface to be bonded the better it is for grit blasting. Similarly, the more highly filled plastics respond much better to blasting than unfilled plastics, and thermosets, especially glass-filled thermosets, are usually very successfully prepared by blasting. If a standard grit blasting process gives problems then the use of a finer grit in any standard grit blasting machine should be thoroughly tested to determine if there is an effective optimum grit size. Abrasive and chemical techniques include the following: Treatment with abrasive belts, Hydrosonic/ultrasonic cleaning, High pressure water/detergent cleaning, Acid etching, but effluent control means that this is not feasible for anything other than high priced specialities and for long running applications, The satinisation process for POM is an example of acid etching and involves a slurry containing p-toluene sulphonic acid, Phenol treatments of polyamides. This includes RFL treatments, Alkali etching. As for acid etching, the action is mild surface hydrolysis and loosening of debris on the surface, Oxidation with relatively mild oxidising agents. Hydrogen peroxide and sodium hypochlorite are often cited, but a low hazard system worthy of testing out is ammonium persulphate, Powerful oxidising agents, such as sulphuric dichromate etching, Abrasion in an aqueous abrasive slurry. Since this involves effluent waste, it is seldom used on a large scale, but is an effective laboratory method, especially when combined with a mild acid, alkali or oxidising agent, Direct oxidation by flame, or hot air. Normally only applicable to simple shapes, like extruded film, tube and rod,
34
Substrate Preparation Methods UV treatments. Again this has restricted use, mainly films, Plasma treatments. Yet to become a mainstream treatment for rubber to plastics bonding, Corona discharge, Chlorination.
35
Yes
No
Yes Yes Avoid ketones Unless <50 alcohols are safer Shore D Yes No Solvent attack on Unless > 50 PVC and PVDC. Shore D Avoid aqueous degreasing of PU PTFE, PVF treat with sodium naphthalene PTFE, PVF prime with a thin coat of Cilbond 30/31, dry and fuse at >200 C
be as little as 10 minutes at 70 90 C, which could be part of the drying process, up to 30 minutes at 150 C, which would be an additional process (see Table 1.11). For plastics group definitions see Appendix 1.1
36
Degrease
Grit blasting
This may be the only method of manufacture for some products and there is a host of adhesives available for plastics, some of which are described in the literature [63 69] for example. The main adhesives for bonding plastics to rubbers include cyanoacrylates, two-part urethanes, two-part epoxies, hot melt reactive urethane prepolymers, heat reactive contact cements and silane treatments. Many adhesive bonding applications require a unique answer and it is difficult to make generalised recommendations, as you can within limits, with vulcanisation bonding.
37
The Handbook of Rubber Bonding 4. If the grafted monomer retains reactivity it can take part in chemical bonding. Such reactivity could include isocyanates, silanes, epoxides, or even heat reactive adducts, such as blocked isocyanates. 5. If the grafted monomer results in a large and highly polar site, it is possible for this moiety to behave in a way which appears similar to solvent welding (surface softening), but in this case the solvent is the polar moiety. This phenomenon is a particular feature of one type of speciality one coat technology, because this welding not only applies to the plastics surface, but also to the rubber surface, whether the rubber is in an uncured state or cured state. Though it has been compared to solvent welding the phenomenon described above shows no thermoplasticity, in fact heat and solvent resistance are the big features of this type of technology, along with the capability of post vulcanisation bonding. 6. The ability of the polymer and resin in the primer to react with each other generally improves the environmental resistance of both the bond and the bonding agent. 7. For improved heat resistance, aliphatic chlorine should be avoided in the polymers. For general purpose vulcanisation bonding, conventional primers are available from the established suppliers of bonding agents and all such suppliers can cite many examples of rubber to plastics bonding (see Table 1.12). For improved adhesion and improved environmental resistance the more reactive primers can exhibit advantages, such that in some tough applications, they are the only choice.
Summary
With attention to detail, most plastics can be bonded to rubbers, provided one accepts the limitations of the rubbers, the plastics and the adhesive system chosen to bond them. It is the aim of those who recommend the adhesives/bonding agents to ensure the bonds are fit for purpose, but it is normal to find that the component manufacturer wants to see no failure attributable to the adhesive.
38
PPS POM
NR SBR VMQ
>170 C
PTFE
FKM
PP FILLED GRP
EPDM
Water to 100 C
Cilbond 89
PU rotation cast
PET
TPU
Heat to 140 C
Cilbond 49SF
39
APPENDIX 1.1
Plastics are divided into groups, loosely based on factors such as surface preparation and bonding characteristics:
Group A1 Plastics
Engineering Thermoplastics
Acrylics POM - Acetals Polyesters - PET, PBT Polycarbonate, PC PES PPO PPS Polyamides - Nylon 6, 66, 11, 12 Aramids PEEK
40
Conventional Rubbers
NR SBR IR BR CR CSM ACM, VAMAC NBR, XNBR, HNBR EPDM IIR ECO EVM CPE Millable PU
Others
PUs - TPU and castable PU Thermoplastic rubbers VMQ FKM Polyolefins
41
1.4 Substrate Preparation for Bonding Using the Wet Blast Process
1.4.1 Summary
Abrasive Developments have, in conjunction with their Japanese licensee, developed a wet blast phosphating plant that raises the quality standard within the industry. The solution achieved delivers high quality components from an automatic machine that combines both the cleaning and phosphating processes. The cleaning section benefits from the unique degreasing and surface treatment properties of the VAQUA process. Wet blast phosphating was first developed some 15 years ago in co-operation with the Yamashita Rubber Company, who make anti-vibration rubber and bond it to supporting metal parts exclusively for the Honda Motor Company. Yamashita had two main objectives to achieve from the development of a wet blast phosphating plant: To increase the strength of adhesive bonding between the anti-vibration rubber and the metal parts, To improve the corrosion resistance of the metal parts and hence their useful life under any weather conditions. In addition to these objectives, the demand from the automotive industry as a whole for this type of component was increasing, and the requirement was for it to be phosphated prior to bonding whilst still keeping the cost at an acceptable level. To achieve the improved quality and reduced cost requirements the wet blast phosphating plant had to operate continuously and automatically process the metal parts for phosphating.
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Wet blasting removes the oxide film covering the metal parts and exposes the pure metal under the film offering an ideal condition for the phosphate treatment which follows. The process is so efficient that even cast components, if wet blasted, can be treated with phosphate which was impossible using traditional methods.
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The Handbook of Rubber Bonding 4. Phosphate treatment, 5. Water rinse, 6. Hot water rinse, 7. Drying.
Process Wet blasting 1st rinsing Degreasing (non-solvent type) 2nd rinsing 3rd rinsing 1st phosphating 2nd phosphating Dipping for rinse Dipping for hot rinse Drying Total process time
Performance Wet blasting with satin finish and degreasing Rinsing work to remove remaining media Degreasing areas of the work piece that could not be degreased by wet blasting Removing degrease chemicals Removing degrease chemicals Phosphate coating Phosphate coating Removing phosphate Removing phosphate and warming up work for drying Drying work completely
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1.4.5 Advantages of the Wet Blast Phosphating Plant 1.4.5.1 Product Quality
High quality phosphate film. The plant produces high quality phosphate film for a number of reasons as listed below: The quality of the phosphating achieved is very dependent upon the surface finish of the component prior to phosphating. The surface finish achieved through wet blasting is ideal for the phosphating process, hence the high quality film. The wet blast section connects with the phosphate treatment plant and therefore the metal work pieces are treated with phosphate immediately after blasting. During transit from the wet blast section to the phosphating plant the work pieces are covered with water so eliminating the possibility of oxidation of the components. A rust inhibitor in the blast system also prevents the oxidation of the components.
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1.4.5.4 The Wet Blast Phosphating Plant Can Process Any Type of Material
The wet blast process physically removes the surface oxide film and does not rely on a chemical reaction, therefore the range of materials that can be processed can be anything from common steel and steel alloy to special steels. This physical scraping off of the oxide layer means the process is consistent for each work piece and also does not require change of chemicals between different types of component metals. The universal nature of the wet blast process can significantly reduce process times if alternative processes require chemical or other changes between different types of components.
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Substrate Preparation Methods been designed to prevent the components slipping inside the barrel whilst the barrel oscillates. Components such as tubes, struts and flat washers are all being successfully processed with the wet blast phosphating plant.
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1.4.5.11 Maintenance
Maintenance is significantly reduced, with the wet blast phosphating machine not requiring all barrels to be regularly maintained but only the phosphating vessels and the following water rinse vessel. If the maintenance is not sufficient in conventional machines, sludge can be transported into the drying section giving poor quality components with sludge sticking to them.
2nd and 3rd rinse tanks Removed grease and media are rinsed off with water Surface adjustment tank Pre-processing is done so that a stable phosphate film can be made in the phosphating process Phosphate tanks Water rinse Two tanks are used to form the phosphate film Two water rinse tanks are used to remove residual chemicals from the components Two water rinse tanks are used to remove residual chemicals from the components Water is cut off and the components dried by hot air Processed components are unloaded
Stage 10 Hot water rinse tanks Stage 11 Dryer Stage 12 Unload conveyor
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