EXERCISE SCIENCE EXAM REVIEW FRIDAY, JUNE 18, 2010

The field of anatomy is a branch of science that deals with the structural organization of living things, how they are built and what they are made of. Physiology is concerned with the basic processes such as reproduction, growth, and metabolism as they occur within the various systems of the body. Exercise physiology is a branch of physiology with the important distinction that exercise physiologists concentrate their research specifically on how the body responds and adapts to the stresses placed on it by exercise. CHAPTER ONE Anatomical Planes: Frontal plane (coronal): is a vertical plane that extends from one side of the body to the other Transverse Plane (horizontal): divides the body into upper and lower segments Sagittal plane (medium): a vertical plane that extends from the front of the body to the back Anatomical Axis: Longitudinal axis: a vertical axis running from head to toe Horizontal axis: extends from one side of the body to the other Antero-Posterior axis: extends from the front of the body to the back of the body Anatomical Position: Anterior vs. Posterior: anterior refers to the front surfaces of the body whereas posterior refers to the back surfaces Superior vs. Inferior: superior refers to upward surfaces whereas inferior refers to downward surfaces. Inferior is also called plantar Medial vs. Lateral: medial means towards the median plane whereas lateral means away from the median plane Proximal vs. Distal: proximal means towards the point of attachment whereas distal means away from the point of attachment Plantar vs. Dorsum: Plantar means on or towards the sole of the foot whereas dorsum refers to the uppermost surface of the foot Superficial vs. Deep: superficial means close to the surface of the body whereas deep means far from the surface of the body Joint Movements: Retraction: moving in a backward direction Protraction: moving in a forward direction Abduction: movement away from the median (occurs in the frontal plane) Adduction: movement towards the median plane Depression: pulling down to a more inferior position Elevation: raising to a more superior position Flexion: bending the joints to reduce the angle between two or more bones (occurs in the sagittal plane) Extension: straightening a joint to increase the angle between two or more bones Supination: the lateral rotation of the hand such that the palm faces upwards

Pronation: the medial rotation of the hand such that the palm faces downwards Opposition: occurs when the thumb comes into contact with a finger Reposition: occurs when the thumb is returned to the anatomical position Eversion: occurs when the lateral border of the foot is raised such that the sole of the foot is turned outward Inversion: occurs when the lateral border of the foot is raised such that the sole of the foot is turned inward Dorsiflexion: movement of the ankle in the sagittal plane that decreases the angle between the foot and the leg Plantar Flexion: movement if the ankle in the sagittal plane that increases the angle between the foot and the leg Internal Rotation: the internal rotation of a limb moves is anterior surface medially External Rotation: the opposite of internal rotation Circumduction: a circular motion combining flexion, extension, abduction and adduction CHAPTER TWO Functions of the Skeletal System: Structural support: structural support for soft tissue, including muscles and viscera Protection: protective cage for more delicate parts of the body (e.g. the brain is protected by the skull and the rib cage is protected by the heart and lungs) Growth center for cells: red blood cells and platelets are made in bones Reservoir for minerals: a reservoir that the body can call upon in order to regulate the level of calcium and phosphorus in the body Movement: muscles attach to bones by tendons, muscles contract and move bones to facilitate them Types of Bones: Long bones: found in the arms and legs, the femur is the longest bone Short bones: most common in the wrist (carpal bones), and ankles Flat bones: flat and thin, and as in the case of the parietal bone from the roof of the skull, often protect vital organs from injury Irregular bones: include such odd-looking bones as the vertebrae Sesamoid bones: unusual bones in that they are small, flat bones wrapped with tendons that move over body surfaces (e.g. patella) Axial Skeleton vs. Appendicular Skeleton: Axial skeleton: Contains 80 bones, comprised mostly of the vertebral column, skull and rib cage. Of these, the small, stacked vertebrae of the spine protect the spinal cord, the cranium protects the brain, and twelve pairs of ribs protect the lungs and heart. The muscles associated with this part of the skeleton include those of the face, tongue and neck, muscles for chewing and drinking as well as the muscles around the vertebrae of the spine. Most muscles anchor or originate here and insert on the appendicular skeleton. These muscles are often referred to as core muscles as they are centrally located and provide the body with stability and support e.g. rectus and transverses abdominus. These muscles help stabilize and support the axial skeleton thus providing proper posture and alignment. Appendicular skeleton: 126 bones, includes the movable limbs and the supporting

structures. As such, the skeleton plays a key role in allowing us to move about. The upper limbs are attached to the pectoral girdle and the lower limbs are attached to the pelvis girdle. The pectoral girdle consists of two scapulae and two clavicles. The humerus attaches to the pectoral girdle at the glenoid cavity, the socket at the shoulder. The pelvic girdle consists of two sturdy hip bones. The two hip bones and the sacrum form the complete ring of the pelvis. On the outer side, where the fused bones meet, there is a socket (acetabulum cavity) into which the head of the femur fits. The muscles are associated with the appendicular skeleton include those muscles of the pectoral girdle, and those of the upper limbs (muscles around the forearm, wrist, hand and fingers). The muscles of this skeleton also include those of the pelvic girdle and those of the lower limbs (muscles around the thigh, leg, ankle, foot and toes). Osteoporosis: A degenerative condition that involves low bone mass as well as a deterioration of the bone tissue. It leads bones to fragility and therefore, an increased susceptibility to bone fractures, especially of the hip, spine and wrist. Whereas a certain amount of bone mass is lost naturally during aging, this process can be slowed down by good nutrition and moderate exercise throughout ones life. It is sometimes called the silent disease because people may not know they have it. According to the National Osteoporosis Federation women can lose up to 20% of their bone mass within 5-7 years after menopause making them more susceptible. This can be prevented by having a balanced diet rich in calcium and vitamin D, weight bearing exercise, healthy lifestyle, bone density, and medication when appropriate, there is unfortunately no cure. Types of Fractures: Simple fracture: occurs when there is no separation of the bone into parts, but a break or crack is detectable. This is also referred to as a hairline fracture or a greenstick fracture Compound fracture: occurs when the bone breaks into separate pieces (sometimes referred to as a transverse fracture). This would be the result of a major blow Comminuted fracture: occurs when the broken ends of the bone have been shattered into many pieces, as might occur in the case of a major automobile accident CHAPTER THREE Functions of the Muscular System: The muscular system helps the body with mobility, strength, heat production, shock absorption, shaping the body, maintaining posture, and respiration. In addition it plays a role in the digestive process by peristalsis to move the food through. It is also essential for pumping blood and plays a role in smooth muscles of the blood vessels to raise blood pressure during the stress response. Muscles help the body to have mobility through the environment, and motility inside the body for its processes. Types of Muscle Cells: Skeletal: these muscles are attached to the bones (by tendons and other tissue) and are the most prevalent in the human body. They comprise 30-40% of human body weight. Skeletal muscles are voluntary (conscious control over these). Skeletal muscle tissue is also referred to as striated because of its appearance under a microscope as a series of alternating light and dark stripes. Cardiac: these are found in only one place in the body-the heart. They are responsible for

creating the action that pumps blood from the heart to the rest of the body and form the hearts thick wall. Cardiac muscles are involuntary because they are not controlled consciously, and instead are directed to act by the autonomic nervous system. Like skeletal muscle tissue, cardiac tissue is also striated. Smooth: surrounding the bodys internal organs, including the blood vessels, hair follicles, and the urinary, genital, and digestive tracts, are smooth muscles. This type of muscle tissue contracts more slowly than skeletal muscles but can remain contracted for longer. Smooth muscles are also involuntary and their spindle-shaped fibres are usually arranged in dense sheets. Property of Muscle Fibre: Irritability: this refers to the ability of a muscle to respond to a stimulus Contractibility: this refers to the muscles ability to shorten in length Elasticity: this refers to a muscles ability to stretch and return to its normal position Extensibility: this refers to a muscles ability to extend in length Conductivity: this refers to a muscles ability to transmit nerve impulses Neuromuscular System: The neuromuscular system is a general term referring to these complex linkages between the muscular system and the nervous system. The motor unit: Nerves transmit impulses in waves that ensure smooth movements. A single nervous impulse and the resulting contraction is called a muscle twitch. One neuron or nerve may be responsible for stimulating a number of muscle fibres. The motor neuron, its axon, and the muscle fibres it stimulates are together referred to as the motor unit. The nerves that transmit the message directing the muscle to move come into contact with the muscles at points called neuromuscular junctions. The electrical impulse travels along nerve pathways to the contact point between the nerve and a muscle. There, a chemical is detected by receptors on the surface of the muscle fibre, and the process ultimately results in muscle contraction. Motor units also comply to a rule known as the all or none principle. This principle stipulates that, when a motor unit is stimulated to contract, it will do so to its fullest potential. Actin: a cellular protein that contains two other proteins-troponin, which has a binding site for calcium, and tropomyosin, which is the stringy looking cord-like structure that covers the binding site on actin. Together, these two proteins behave like a swivellocking mechanism-they will not allow the myosin head to attach until calcium is released by the sarcoplasmic reticulum. Myosin: a cellular protein comprised of a head and a tail, similar to the look of a golf club. The myosin head will have an attachment site for actin, and actin will have a binding site for the myosin head. The Sliding Filament Theory: A theory of muscle contraction that is accepted as a description of the process of muscular contraction. The discovery of sliding filaments dates back to the 1950s and accurately describes what happens during contraction. Muscles pull, they never push. A muscle will shorten (contract) and move the object if the load is light; it will remain the same length if the load equals the muscle strength. But the basic mechanism is one of contraction so as to move limbs or maintain a certain position or posture. Types of Muscle Contraction:

Concentric (shortening): this occurs when muscle fibres shorten-for example, the biceps shorten when lifting an object Eccentric (lengthening): this occurs when the muscle fibres lengthen-for example, the biceps lengthens as the same weight is placed back on the ground Isometric (static): this occurs when the muscle fibres do not change in length- for example, when you try to lift an immovable object Muscle Contraction during Exercise: Isotonic exercise: involves a controlled shortening and lengthening of the muscle. An example is weight training with barbells. As the weight is lifted throughout the range of motion, the muscle shortens. Free body weight exercises are also a good example of isotonic exercise. These kinds of exercise include chin-ups, push-ups and sit-ups, all of which use body weight as a resistance force. Isometric exercise: the muscle fibres maintain a constant length throughout the entire contraction and there is no motion. These exercises are usually performed against an immovable surface or object. This kind of training is especially effective for developing particular muscles or groups and is used in rehabilitation exercise programs for just this reason. Isometric training provides a relatively quick and convenient method for strengthening muscles without special equipment and with little chance of injury. Isokinetic exercise: involves using machines to control the speed of contractions within the range of a muscles motion and thereby seeks to combine the best features of both isometric and isotonic training. Such devices allow for force to be exerted at a constant and pre-set speed through the full range of motion. For example, with isokinetic kneeextension machine, no matter how hard and fast the individual works, the apparatus will only allow him or her to exert a force equal to the selected speed or weight. Such advanced machines are used by high-performance training centres and professional teams and are not readily available to the public. CHAPTER FOUR Types of Joints: Fibrous joints: are bound tightly together by connective tissue and allow no movement. These are the joints between the interlocking bones of the skull, known as sutures. After birth, all the sutures joints become immobile. Cartilaginous joints: the body of one bone connects to the body of another by means of cartilage, and slight movement is possible. The intervertebral discs of the spinal column (of which there are 23) are of this type. These have a hard, elastic, outer ring with a soft core, permitting some movement while at the same time providing protection against severe jolts, such as landing hard on ones feet. Synovial joints: the joints that allow the most movement-that usually come to mind when we think of joints. In this type of joint, the bony surfaces are separated by a lubricating fluid (synovial) and by cartilage. They are also joined by ligaments, tough bands of elastic tissue that enclose the ends of articulating bones and form the capsule containing the synovial membrane. Typical synovial joints are the knee, the shoulder, and the ankle. Types of Synovial Joints: Gliding: this group connects flay or slightly curved bone surfaces. Examples include joints in the foot between the tarsals and in the hand among the carpals. Hinge: hinge joints have a convex portion of one bone fitting into a concave portion of

another, and allow movement in one plane. The joints between the bones of the fingers and between the ulna and the humerus are examples. Pivot: this joint allows rotation in one plane-a rounded point of one bone fits into a groove of another. An example is the atlantoaxial articular joint between the first two vertebrae in the neck, which allows the rotation of the head. Ellipsoid: these joints allow movement in two planes. An example is found between the second metacarpal and the first phalanx of the second finger. The wrist is also an example of this kind of joint. Saddle: these joints allow movement in two planes but do not allow for rotation like a ball-and-socket joint. A key saddle joint is found at the carpo-metacarpal articulation of the thumb. Ball-and-socket: in this type, the ball at one bone fits into the socket of another, allowing movement around three axes. The most familiar joints of this type are at the hip (the femur rests in the acetabulum of the pelvis) and at the shoulder (the humerus rests in the glenoid cavity). Knee and Shoulder Joints: Knee Joint: The knee joint is made up of the articulation of the femur and the tibia. The femur does not come into contact with the fibula; the fibula, however, does articulate with the tibia. The knee joint is known as a hinge joint, but it has the ability to slightly rotate the leg medially and laterally, classifying it as an ellipsoid joint. The distal end of the femur is covered with articulating cartilage that rests on the proximal end of the tibia which has two thick fibro cartilage articular discs. They sit on the tibial condyles that are located on either side of the intercondylar eminence. Two ligaments that cross each other, called the cruciate ligaments, also cross over the intercondylar eminence and extend into the intercondylar fossa of the femur. The anterior cruciate ligament (ACL) helps stop anterior movement of the tibia with respect to the femur, and the posterior cruciate ligament (PCL) prevents posterior movement of the tibia with respect to the femur. The knee joint is also held together by the fibrous capsule and medially by the medial collateral ligament (MCL) and laterally by the lateral collateral ligament (LCL). Muscles that help stabilize the knee on the anterior side are the quadriceps muscle that insert on the tibial tuberosity and posteriorly by the gastrocnemius and hamstring group. Injuries of the Knee Joint: The most common knee ligament tears involve blows to the lateral side of the knee. Generally when one sustains a blow to the lateral side of the knee, damage will result to the medial side. The first tissue to tear is the joint capsule, if the blow is of the severe variety, then damage to the medial collateral ligament, the medial meniscus and the ACL. If all three get torn, there must be reconstructive surgery. Another injury to the knee is known as the Osgood-Schlatter Syndrome. It is a result of a condition known as osteochondritis, a disease of the ossification centers in the bones of young children. Osgood-Schlatter Syndrome affects the epiphyseal plate of the tibial tuberosity. Patellofemoral Syndrome (PFS) has one major symptom; the gradual onset of anterior knee pain or pain around the patella. Similar to Osgood-Schlatter, the pain is aggravated by sports such as running, volleyball or basketball. Overuse, overloading, and misuse of the patellofemoral joint is what leads to this syndrome. Shoulder Joint: The shoulder joint is a very intricate joint that, for the most part is unstable. It is this unstableness that gives the shoulder such versatility including abduction, adduction, flexion, extension, elevation, depression, circumduction,

protraction, retraction and medial and lateral rotation. This synovial ball-and-socket joint is made up of two bones directly, the scapula and the humerus, and indirectly with the clavicle. The humeral head articulates within the glenoid fossa of the scapula, and it is held in place by the ligaments of the shoulder. The long head tendon of the biceps brachii also helps to support the shoulder joint anteriorly. Injuries of the Shoulder Joint: Bicep tendinitis is generally an overuse injury and happens when adequate rest is not given. The symptoms include pain on the proximal end of the biceps, making flexion painful. Shoulder Separation is a tearing of the acromioclavicular ligament which holds together the acromioclavicular joint. An X-ray will help show to what extent the clavicle has separated from the acromion. This injury usually occurs because of contact from another player and surgery may have to occur. Shoulder dislocations occur when the humerus pops out of the glenoid fossa. This is usually a result of a hit or fall resulting in a fear to the glenohumeral ligaments and joint capsule. Rotator cuff tears usually involve one or all four muscles that make up the rotator cuff: supraspinatus, infraspinatus, teres minor, and subscapularis. Supraspinatus, infraspinatus and teres minor share a common tendinous insertion on the greater tubercle of the humerus and therefore when a part of the tendon is torn, all three muscles are affected. Joint Injuries: Tendinitis: is an inflammation of a tendon cause by irritation due to prolonged or abnormal use. Treatment involves rest and cold and hear therapy, also may include cast, splints, or in severe cases, injections of anti-inflammatory agents. Dislocation: occurs when a bone is displaced from its original location. General symptoms are the joint looks awkward or deformed, it is painful to touch or move it, and it is not useable. Separations: occur when bones held together by fibrous ligaments such as the acromioclavicular and sternoclavicular joints, tear and separate from each other. SHARP: when an injury occurs, one or more of these signs will appear: Swelling: instantly or over time, Heat: or increased temperature of the area, Altered: the tissue will not function properly, Red: in colour, Painful: to touch or move. The P.I.E.R Principle: when an injury occurs it should immediately be followed by the pier principle which stands for pressure, ice, elevation, and restriction. Pressure and ice are used at the same time. Ice should be left on for no more than 20 minutes at a time with a 10-20 minute break in between and never directly touching skin. It should be elevated and restricted meaning that it cant move and should be rested on a surface. CHAPTER FIVE ATP: (the common energy currency) the energy that we use comes directly from the nutrients in the food we eat, particularly from the carbohydrate sources. But, to be useable, these nutrients need to be reconstituted into a free energy that can be used form muscle contraction and many other physiological processes. The final form this free energy takes is adenosine triphosphate (ATP) the common energy molecule for all living things. Anaerobic vs. Aerobic Systems:

Anaerobic: The anaerobic system (without oxygen) occurs relatively quickly in the muscle fibre, utilizing chemicals and enzymes readily at hand for powerful but relatively short-lived physical actions. Aerobic: (with oxygen) this is much more complicated and takes place in the mitochondria. The aerobic process, which involves many enzymes and several complex sub-pathways, leads to the complete breakdown of glucose. Fars and protein also enter the cycle at this time. Slow Twitch vs. Fast Twitch Muscle Fibres: Slow Twitch: slow twitch muscle fibres are red or dark in colour, and generate and relax tensions relatively slowly. They are however, able to maintain a lower level of tension for long durations. Slow twitch fibres have low levels of an enzyme called myosin ATPase, which the body uses to provide instant energy for muscle contraction. Slow twitch fibres can produce lower tension and or contraction levels over a longer period of time. This makes them the ones that are most active during activities such as long distance swimming and running. Fast Twitch: fast twitch muscle fibres are more pale in colour, have the ability to tense and relax quickly and can generate large amounts of tension with relatively low endurance levels. Fast twitch fibres have a high level or myosin ATPase and contain high levels of glycolytic enzymes. Fast twitch fibres can activate at a rate of two to three times faster than slow twitch, making them ideal for the fast, powerful muscle contractions needed for activities such as short sprints, and powerlifting. CHAPTER SIX Nervous Systems: Central: the central nervous system is divided into two parts: the brain and the spinal cord. The brain is the main control center for movement, sleep, hunger, thirst and virtually every type of activity necessary for human survival. Unable of performing any physical task, it sends out commands to other parts of the body to perform them. The brain has six main components: the cerebrum-contains the nerve centers that control the sensory and motor activities as well as intelligence, the cerebellum-coordinates muscle movement and controls balance, brain stem- responsible for autonomic functions, postural control, muscle tone and eye movement, diencephalon- consists of the thalamus and the hypothalamus. The thalamus controls awareness of pain, screening of incoming signals and focusing attention and the hypothalamus controls temperature, appetite, and emotions, limbic system- controls hunger, aggression and emotional drives, reticular activating system-network of neurons that fans out through the cerebral cortex and directs information to appropriate centers for interpretation, crucial for maintaining consciousness. The spinal cord is the main pathway for information connecting the brain and peripheral nervous system. The spinal cord runs through a column of irregularly shaped bones, called vertebrae. This is the vertebral column. Each of these vertebrae is separated from the other by cartilage that prevents the bones from grinding against one another. The spinal cord starts from the base of the brain stem and travels all the way down to the second lumbar vertebra. As the spinal cord travels down the vertebral column, spinal nerves branch off between each vertebra allowing nerves to travel to various organs and tissues. Spinal nerves carry sensory information towards the CNS and motor commands away from the CNS.

Peripheral: the peripheral nervous system consists of those parts of the nervous system that lie outside the central nervous system. The PNS includes the twelve pairs of cranial nerves that emerge from the brain as well as the thirty-one pairs of spinal nerves that leave the spinal cord for various parts of the body. Each of these spinal pairs have two roots (an anterior root, carting motor nerve fibres and a posterior root, carrying sensory fibres). Motor nerves carry information from the CNS to the bodys organs. Sensory nerves carry information from the sensory receptors to the CNS. The peripheral nervous system contains both autonomic and somatic components. Autonomic: the involuntary contraction of our cardiac muscles and the smooth muscles of our internal organs are regulated by the autonomic nervous system. This is comprised of two branches, which frequently act as opposing systems. The sympathetic system causes localized bodily adjustments to occur (sweating) and it prepares the body for emergencies. This involves the release of adrenaline from the adrenal gland, an increase in heart rate, a widening of the blood vessels, and similar fight or flight responses to deal with imminent danger. The parasympathetic system helps to return the body to normal after it has been altered by the sympathetic system. On a daily basis, these two systems work in unison to prepare the body for emergencies or to return to normalcy. Somatic: controls our awareness of the external environment and the corresponding motor activity allowing us to cope with it. The somatic division contains both afferent and efferent nerve fibres. Afferent nerves send information to the CNS and efferent nerves send instructions to the skeletal muscle. Through this process, the PNS receives and processes information from receptors in the skin, in voluntary muscles, tendons, and joints, and gives us the sensations of touch, pain, heat, cold, balance, body position, and muscle action. It is through this system that we are able to move our arms and legs. Impulses: Reflex Arc: this is the pathway along which the initial stimulus and the corresponding response message travel. The basic arrangement of the reflex arc involves a receptor, an adjustor and an affector. The afferent impulse form the receptor is passed along the sensory nerve axon to the adjustor, which then interprets the message and sends an efferent impulse along the motor nerve axon to the effector organ or muscle. The five parts of the reflex arc are: the receptor, the sensory nerve, the intermediate nerve fibre, the motor nerve, and the effector organ. Golgi Tendon Organs: sensory receptors that terminate where tendons join to muscle fibre. Aligned in series with the muscle such that any muscle stretching also stretches the GTO receptor, tendon organs are ideally positioned to detect increased tension exerted on the tendon. When a change in tension is detected, an impulse is sent along afferent neurons to the central nervous system, where they synapse with motor neurons of that same muscle. The efferent neurons instantly transmit an impulse, causing the muscle to relax and therefore preventing injury. Muscle Spindles: lie parallel to the main muscle fibre and send constant signals to the spinal cord. Muscle spindles help to maintain muscle tension, but, unlike the Golgi tendon organs, they are sensitive to changes in muscle length rather than tension. The muscle spindle contains two afferent and one efferent nerve fibre. It detects changes in the muscle fibre length and responds to it by sending a message to the spinal cord, leading to the appropriate motor responses. The resulting contraction allows the muscle to maintain proper muscle tension.

Effects of a Concussion: A concussion results from a blow literally shaking the brain within the skull and often involves injury to nerve fibres. With a concussion, brain cells become abnormal and do not function properly. The main symptoms are headache, dizziness, fatigue, and memory issues. A second direct or indirect impact to the injured brain can send a person into coma or death. There is a huge pressure on players to continue player even after suffering multiple life threatening injuries. CHAPTER SEVEN Arteries, Veins, and Capillaries: * know the path blood takes through the body * Arteries: arteries are vessels with thick muscular walls, which carry blood away from the heart to the different organs. Even though the walls of arteries are thick, they are still elastic and can stretch and recoil. This is important in assisting the movement of blood during diastole (relaxation phase of the heart). Blood pressure is measured in the arteries, systolic blood pressure is the pressure cause by the contraction of the heart, while the recoil of the arteries causes diastolic blood pressure during diastole. Capillaries: capillaries are the smallest vessels within the body and have the most important function of all the vessels. Capillaries are so small that the red blood cells can barely fit through, and the walls are very thin. Capillaries are in all body tissues, and if you were to form a line up of all capillaries in one persons body, they would form a line more than 40,000 km long. It is in the capillaries where the main function of the cardiovascular system occurs, as well as the exchange of gases and nutrients with the tissues. The transfer of gases and nutrients from the blood to the tissues depends on diffusion. Veins: return blood to the heart and become larger as they move away from the capillaries many smaller veins, called venules, come together to form larger veins until they all come together to form either the superior or inferior vena cava. The walls of the veins also contain smooth muscle, which allows the veins to dilate and contract, similar to the arterioles. Veins have the ability to dilate and contract to make sure that enough blood is returned to the heart, so that the heart can meet the needs to of the body. Veins usually carry deoxygenated blood with the only exception being the pulmonary veins that carry oxygen rich blood. Veins have one way valves, which ensures that blood can only go back to the heart. The pressure in veins is low which creates a problem for the cardiovascular system, how to get all of the blood in the veins back to the heart. ECG: Electrocardiogram: the electrical activity of the heart can be measured using an electrocardiogram. The ECG provides a graphical representation of the electrical sequence of events that occur with each contraction of the heart. Types of Blood Cells: Blood is the specialized fluid that is found in the heart and all of the vessels. Its main role is to act as a transport medium for O2 and CO2 and nutrients. Blood is made up of two main components: plasma and blood cells. Plasma is the fluid component made up of mostly water and makes up about 55% of blood. Plasma is made up of 90% water, 7% plasma proteins and 3% acids and salts. Red blood cells: also known as erythrocytes, transport O2 and CO2 in the blood. Erythrocytes contain a protein called hemoglobin which can bind O2 and CO2 together, it

is this protein that gives blood the ability to transfer and deliver O2 to tissues, and remove CO2 from the lungs. White blood cells: also known as leukocytes make up less than 1% of blood and are an important part of the immune system. They protect the body from disease. Platelets are also found in blood, they are not complete cells, but fragments and they are important in the regulation of blood clotting. Functions of the Respiratory System: The three main functions of the respiratory system are: to supply O2 to the blood, to remove CO2 from the blood and to regulate blood pH. How Does Breathing Work? The movement of air from the outside of the body to the inside and into the lungs is dependent on differences in air pressure. Air moves form regions of higher pressure to regions of lower pressure, and the body uses this principle to mediate breathing. The lungs are found in the chest cavity, which is separated from the abdominal cavity by a large flat specialized muscle called the diaphragm. With stimulation from the brain, the diaphragm contracts and moves downward towards the abdominal cavity, creating more space in the chest cavity. This results in a decline in air pressure within the chest and lungs. With the contraction of the diaphragm the air pressure within the chest and lungs is lower than the air pressure outside the body. The lower air pressure in the chest causes air to rush into the lungs and results in an inspiration equalizing this pressure differential. Quiet breathing: the delicate elastic fibres lining the alveolar sacs recoil passively as the diaphragm relaxes and air is expelled. During quiet breathing expiration is similar to the release of air from an inflated balloon. Forced breathing: the passive recoil of the lungs is not fast enough to keep up with the required rate of respiration. Thus, muscles in the thoracic and abdominal wall contract, actively decreasing the volume of the thoracic cavity and increasing the air pressure within the lungs. This process forces air out of the lungs rapidly as when one attempts to blow out candles. VO2 max: maximal rate of oxygen consumption. The maximum volume of oxygen in milliliters that the human body can use in one minute, per kilogram of the body weight, while breathing air at sea level Effects of Altitudes: At high elevations, there is less oxygen in the air, which means less oxygen in the blood. Through training, athletes adjust to conditions at high altitudes, therefore increasing your VO2 max. At high altitudes, you have an increase of red blood cells in order to compensate for the lack of energy. The oxygen in our blood begins to rapidly decrease at high elevation. CHAPTER TEN Macronutrients: Protein: When proteins are ingested, the body breaks them down into amino acids. Each gram of protein when used as fuel yields 4 Calories of energy. Human proteins are composed of at least twenty different amino acids, nine of which are supplied by food we eat. Foods that contain all twenty amino acids are known as complete proteins, including animal products. Vegetable proteins often contain one of more amino acid in limited amounts and are called incomplete protein. Protein helps with growth and repair, and is a

critical component of hormones, enzymes, the immune system, and the bodys fluid balance. It is recommended that 10-15% of our daily caloric intake consists of protein. Carbohydrates: these are the most accessible source of energy for the body and we need more of these than anything else excluding water. Each gram yields 4 Calories of energy. It is recommended that 55-60% of our daily caloric intake come from carbs mostly from complex carbohydrates like cereal, fruits, and veggies. Foods such as sugar and honey have a high glycemic index, meaning their digestion leads to a quick rise in blood sugar accompanied by a rise in the hormone insulin, responsible for the uptake of glucose by body tissues. Fruit and lentils have a low glycemic index. Fats: saturated fats are fats the come from animal sources and tend to have higher concentrations of low-density lipoprotein. Polyunsaturated fats come from plant sources and have a higher concentration. An excess of saturated fats, raises cholesterol levels in the blood. It tends to build up in artery walls, which will in time lead to heart disease. Fats are however, important sources of energy, they are less oxygen rich than other nutrients and consequently release more energy, more quickly. Dietary fat provides the body with a concentrated source of energy-1 gram of fat yields about 9 Calories, compared with 4 Calories per gram of carbohydrates or protein and it is recommended that 25-30% of our daily caloric intake comes from fats. Factors Involved in Obesity: Contributing factors include: activity levels, diet, genetics, rates of metabolism, and environmental, social and psychological factors. The two primary factors are inactivity and poor diet. CHAPTER ELEVEN Aids: Nutritional: vitamins, minerals, protein, amino acid supplements, carnitine, creatine, caffeine Pharmalogical: pain-masking drugs, anabolic steroids, prohormones, human growth hormone, erythropoietin. Restricted pharmalogical substances: alcohol, marijuana, local anesthetics, corticosteroids, beta blockers Physiological: blood doping, drug masking Ben Johnson: In 1988 Ben Johnson won the 100 meter sprint in the Seoul Olympics, setting a world record. A post-race drug test proved that Ben Johnson was on steroids. Johnson returned to the sport in 1991, after being banned by track and fields governing body, the International Amateur Athletic Federation. He was again kicked out in 1993, for testing positive for steroid use for a meet in Montreal. Because of Johnsons disqualification in the Olympics, Canada started an investigation in 1989 called the Dubin Inquiry. This inquiry also exposed associated issues, such as the potential for tampering with an athletes urine samples during testing. What is EPO? Erythropoietin: a natural protein hormone that is produced primarily in the kidneys. Synthetic erythropoietin has been shown to cause an increase in levels of hematocrit and hemoglobin, and this increases the oxygen-carrying capacity of red blood cells. CHAPTERS 13&14

F.I.T.T Principle (building blocks of an exercise plan) Frequency: the frequency of training sessions within an overall plan depends on several factors including, an athletes age, conditioning, and competitive aspirations Intensity: the most accurate way of determining training intensity is to undergo a lab test to find out ones VO2 max, the Borg Scale of Perceived Exertion, a percentage of maximal heart rate, and the Karvonen method. Type: the type of training an athlete needs (anaerobic or aerobic) Time: time of exercise depends on previous conditioning and overall goal. Types of Training: Periodization: the breakdown of an overall training plan into distinct training periods in an attempt to maximize performances at peak times, and to reduce the risk of injury and mental burnout Concurrent: an attempt to train multiple energy systems by performing different types of training simultaneously Interval: a popular form of training based on the idea that the bodys energy systems can make both aerobic and anaerobic gains, not only by steady and uninterrupted exercise but also by alternating periods of relatively intense exercise with periods of recovery within the same workout Fartlek: consists of running at alternating speeds over varied terrain continuously Resistance: a form of training in which a weight or some other force or object provides resistance to the muscles, which in turn work to move the weight, thereby gaining strength in accordance with the principle of overload Plyometrics: a form of resistance training that its advocates use for its potential to develop strength and power Environmental Factors on Training: Body temperature: core measurements generally fluctuate between 36-40 degrees Celsius. The average body temperature is 37 degrees Celsius, but the body cannot adapt to vast fluctuations, dropping more than 10 degrees, or more than 5. Maintaining a thermal balance is essential for survival. Heat transfer: the bodys temperature is maintained by a group of neurons at the base of the brain called the hypothalamus. Heat exchange can be accomplished by radiation, conduction, convection, and evaporation. Clothing: clothing plays a key role in most sports, including protection against cold, rain, sun, as also to identify teammates and opponents. In the sun, loose clothing is recommended. In cold weather, it is recommended that you wear multiple light layers. Atmospheric altitude and pressure: because as we climb, there is less oxygen in the air, there is also less oxygen in our blood, making it harder to achieve. Altitude acclimatization and training: acclimatization means t hat an athlete would train at high altitudes and then come perform at lesser altitudes, with an increase in oxygen carrying capacity, thus enhancing the performance. Air pollution: it is more difficult to train in air that is contaminated with pollutants such as lead, ozone, nitrogen dioxide, carbon monoxide, and sulpher dioxide. Health problems can occur when excessive amounts of pollutants are brought into the body through respiration and passed into the lungs, heart, and other key organs. Fitness Components and Types of Assessments: Cardiovascular: this is the ability of the lungs, heart and blood vessels to deliver

adequate amounts of oxygen to the cells to meet the demands of prolonged physical activity. The level of cardiovascular fitness is determined by the maximal amount of oxygen that the human body is able to utilize per minute of physical activity. Body composition: is often in reference to the fat mass and lean fat mass. Body composition can be determined through several procedures, the most common being: underwater weighing, bioelectric impedance, skin fold thickness, and girth measurements. Muscular strength and endurance: muscular strength is the maximum tension or force a muscle can exert in a single contraction. Muscular endurance is the ability of the muscle to perform repeated or sustained contractions over a period of time. Both age and gender can significantly affect muscular strength and endurance. These can be measured using dynamometers, cable tensiometers, electromechanical devices, and constant-resistance. Muscular strength is usually determined by the maximal amount of resistance that an individual can lift in a single effort. Muscular endurance is assessed by the number of repetitions that an individual can perform against a sub-maximal resistance or by the length of time a contraction can be sustained. Flexibility: refers to the ability of a joint to move freely through its full range of motion. Because flexibility is specific to each joint, it is difficult to have one general flexibility test. Most athletes forsake working on their flexibility as they feel it cuts into their training time. CHAPTER FIFTEEN Newtons Three Laws of Motion: Law of Inertia: every object in a state of uniform motion tends to remain tin that state of motion unless an external force is applied to it Law of Acceleration: the relationship between an objects mass, its acceleration, and the applied force is F=ma Law of Reaction: for every action there is an equal and opposite reaction 7 Principles of Biomechanics: Principle 1: STABILITY-the lower the center of mass, the larger the base of support, the closer the center of mass to the base of support, and the greater the mass, the more stability increases Principle 2: MAXIMUM FORCE- the production of the maximum force requires the use of all possible joint movements that contribute to the tasks objective Principle 3: MAXIMUM VELOCITY-the production of maximum velocity requires the use of joints in order-from largest to smallest Principle 4: IMPULSE-the greater the applied impulse, the greater the increase in velocity Principle 5: REACTION-movement usually occurs in the direction opposite that of the applied force Principle 6: TORQUE-angular motion is produced by the application of a force acting at some distance from an axis, that is, by torque Principle 7: ANGULAR MOMENTUM-angular momentum is constant when an athlete or object is free in the air CHAPTER EIGHTEEN

Chronological, Skeletal, and Developmental Age: Chronological age: age measured in years Skeletal age: age as indicated by the physical maturity of the skeleton Developmental age: age as expressed in ones ability to perform certain tasks Human Morphology: Endomorphic: people with this body type tend generally to have more fatty tissue and thicker body parts Mesomorphic: often maturing early as children, people with this body type tend to develop stocky, heavily muscled, and broader bodies Ectomorphic: generally later to reach maturity, people with this body type develop a thinner body, characterized by narrow hips and longer legs and arms Stages of Physical Development: Infancy/Toddler: (zero to two to three years old) infancy is the period between birth and one year of age, marks the time of the most marked growth in humans. The head and chest rapidly grow allowing the brain, heart and lungs to quickly develop. The bones harden considerably during this time, and by the time they are two the brain has reached approximately 75% of its adult weight. Weight will increase by about 300 percent and height will increase by 50 percent. Childhood: (four to ten years old) from four until six, children are still growing at a rapid rate and from six to ten years; the body undergoes something of a stabilizing period in which a uniform relationship between bone and tissue growth and development occurs. Puberty/Adolescence: (eleven to eighteen years old) there is a major growth spurt during this time, puberty occurs when the pituitary gland secretes chemicals known as hormones that in turn cause the sex organs to grow and develop making them capable of reproduction. The average age for a girl to hit puberty is from 12-13 years and 13-14 for boys. Adulthood: (18 years and older) most of the bodys growth is finished, and mostly everyone does not grow any taller. Physical changes that adults do go through include gains in weight, reduced capacity to take in and utilize oxygen, a rise in blood pressure and resting heart rate, and various deteriorations in joints of the lower body. Factors Affecting Physical Development: Glandular/Hormonal activity: numerous glands secrete hormones that travel in the blood to the bodys various organs and tissues thus affecting the metabolism of the tissue. The glands can suffer from disease which can affect their production of hormones and ultimately, human growth. Heredity: gaining physical features passed on through genes Nutrition: an inadequate or unbalanced diet can lead to serious problems in physical development. Malnourishment early in life can lead to reduced growth and diminished intellectual capacity. Physical Activity: there is evidence to suggest that physical activity early in life can promote an individuals growth and development. Sociocultural Factors: a person in a low income household may have a poor diet and may not have the opportunity to exercise regularly. Piagets Stages of Cognitive Development: Sensorimotor: occurs between the ages of zero to two, where infants can crawl but

cannot read or recognize letters, numbers, and other symbols. Their knowledge is purely based on his or her experience. Pre-operational: occurs between the ages of two to seven, where children can demonstrate intelligence through symbols, such as letters, numbers and pictorial representations of real-life objects. Language abilities also begin to develop and their memory and imagination starts to expand. Concrete operational: occurs between seven and eleven, where children develop logical thinking. Children begin to understand that number, length, liquid, mass, weight, area and volume can all be manipulated, added to and subtracted from. Children start to understand logical sequences in reverse, and also start to develop the ability to feel empathy for others. Formal operational: occurs between the ages of eleven to fifteen, where the child will begin to demonstrate intelligence through their ability to solve complicated abstract problems. They will begin using logic and by understanding how to use symbols related to abstract concepts. Sports in Social Development: The context of sports and physical activity can provide one of the best ways of establishing and continuing friendship. Sports can also further develop the cooperation among young athletes in team sports. Through patient coaching, children can develop the ability to work with teammates in teach of team goals, which represents an invaluable lesson in social interaction and building relationships with peers. CHAPTER NINETEEN Stages of Motor Learning: Cognitive stage: people come to the basic understanding of tasks, and learners will also commit to relatively large errors in performing their tasks. When children in this stage do something wrong they will know and commit to it but may need some specific instructions on how to improve. Associative stage: learners will begin to refine the skill they had been trying to master during the cognitive stage. Learners will go beyond the basic mechanics of the skill and develop some awareness of the mistakes they are making, which leads to fewer errors. This stage is characterized by consistent efforts. Autonomous stage: skills become basically automatic; people will not spend that much time thinking about the basic fundamentals of their activity. They will be able to just do the activity and focus in on specialized aspects of the skill. This skill phase is also a high level of self-awareness, people will be extremely aware of the mistakes they are making and know what they must do to correct them. Singers 5 Steps to Teaching a Skill: Readying: the teacher and learner work to attain the ideal mental and emotional state for learning a skill. This might involve making sure the learner has the correct equipment, and has completed a proper warm up. Imaging: the learner must develop a picture in his or her mind of the correct execution of the skill components. The teacher can assist in this process by demonstrating the skill. Focusing: requires teaching the learner to block out all internal and external distractions. Executing: occurs when the learner actually attempts the desired skill after completing the three previous preparatory steps and using them to perform the task with what Singer

calls a quiet mind. Evaluating: the learner and coach attempt to assess which aspect of the skill were performed successfully, and which need improvement. CHAPTER 21 Coaching Styles and Characteristics: Authoritarian: emphasizes discipline in practice and competition, well organized, teams are characterized by good team spirit when winning only, and may be feared by athletes Business-like: adopts a logical and professional approach to training and competition, plans and organizes practices and competitions thoroughly, remains current on new technologies, expects top effort from athletes, may set goals too high Nice guy/gal: usually well liked, players may take advantage of his or her cooperative nature, works particularly well with athletes of similar temperament Intense: emphasizes winning above all, his or her high anxiety often translated to players, may alienate easy-going athletes Easy going: casual approach to training and competition, often gives the impression of not taking the sport seriously, may not be prepared to push athletes in training, usually well liked by athletes but some may find his or her approach not serious enough NCCP: NCCP stands for the National Coaching Certification Program, which is a series of instructional courses for coaches. This is offered in Canada only. The NCCP instructs sport coaches in the basics of coaching and progresses all the way to advanced coaching theory and technique and recognizes coaching competence by awarding certificates at various levels. The philosophy of the NCCP is fair play, which has five key principles: respecting the rules of the game, respecting the officials and accepting their decisions, respecting the opponent, providing all participants with equal opportunity, and maintaining dignity under all circumstances.

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