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Handbook of Fruit Science and Technology : Production, Composition, Storage, and Processing Food Science and Technology (Marcel Dekker) ; 70 Salunkhe, D. K. CRC Press 0824796438 9780824796433 9780585157146 English

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subject publication date: lcc: ddc: subject:

Fruit-culture--Handbooks, manuals, etc, Fruit--Handbooks, manuals, etc. 1995 SB354.8.H35 1995eb 634 Fruit-culture--Handbooks, manuals, etc, Fruit--Handbooks, manuals, etc.

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Handbook of Fruit Science and Technology

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FOOD SCIENCE AND TECHNOLOGY A Series of Monographs, Textbooks, and Reference Books EDITORIAL BOARD Owen R. Fennema University of WisconsinMadison Marcus Karel Rutgers University Gary W. Sanderson Universal Foods Corporation Steven R. Tannenbaum Massachusetts Institute of Technology Pieter Walstra Wageningen Agricultural University John R. Whitaker University of CaliforniaDavis

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1. Flavor Research: Principles and Techniques, R. Teranishi, I. Hornstein, P. Issenberg, and E. L. Wick 2. Principles of Enzymology for the Food Sciences, John R. Whitaker 3. Low-Temperature Preservation of Foods and Living Matter, Owen R. Fennema, William D. Powrie, and Elmer H. Marth 4. Principles of Food Science Part I: Food Chemistry, edited by Owen R. Fennema Part II: Physical Methods of Food Preservation, Marcus Karel, Owen R. Fennema, and Daryl B. Lund 5. Food Emulsions, edited by Stig E. Friberg 6. Nutritional and Safety Aspects of Food Processing, edited by Steven R. Tannenbaum 7. Flavor Research: Recent Advances, edited by R. Teranishi, Robert A. Flath, and Hiroshi Sugisawa 8. Computer-Aided Techniques in Food Technology, edited by Israel Saguy 9. Handbook of Tropical Foods, edited by

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Harvey T. Chan 10. Antimicrobials in Foods, edited by Alfred Larry Branen and P. Michael Davidson 11. Food Constituents and Food Residues: Their Chromatographic Determination, edited by James F. Lawrence 12. Aspartame: Physiology and Biochemistry, edited by Lewis D. Stegink and L. J. Filer, Jr. 13. Handbook of Vitamins: Nutritional, Biochemical, and Clinical Aspects, edited by Lawrence J. Machlin 14. Starch Conversion Technology, edited by G. M. A. van Beynum and J. A. Roels 15. Food Chemistry: Second Edition, Revised and Expanded, edited by Owen R. Fennema 16. Sensory Evaluation of Food: Statistical Methods and Procedures, Michael O'Mahony

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17. Alternative Sweetners, edited by Lyn O'Brien Nabors and Robert C. Gelardi 18. Citrus Fruits and Their Products: Analysis and Technology, S. V. Ting and Russell L. Rouseff 19. Engineering Properties of Foods, edited by M. A. Rao and S. S. H. Rizvi 20. Umami: A Basic Taste, edited by Yojiro Kawamura and Morley R. Kare 21. Food Biotechnology, edited by Dietrich Knorr 22. Food Texture: Instrumental and Sensory Measurement, edited by Howard R. Moskowitz 23. Seafoods and Fish Oils in Human Health and Disease, John E. Kinsella 24. Postharvest Physiology of Vegetables, edited by J. Weichmann 25. Handbook of Dietary Fiber: An Applied Approach, Mark L. Dreher 26. Food Toxicology, Parts A and B, Jose M. Concon

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27. Modern Carbohydrate Chemistry, Roger W. Binkley 28. Trace Minerals in Foods, edited by Kenneth T. Smith 29. Protein Quality and the Effects of Processing, edited by R. Dixon Phillips and John W. Finley 30. Adulteration of Fruit Juice Beverages, edited by Steven Nagy, John A. Attaway, and Martha E. Rhodes 31. Foodborne Bacterial Pathogens, edited by Michael P. Doyle 32. Legumes: Chemistry, Technology, and Human Nutrition, edited by Ruth H. Matthews 33. Industrialization of Indigenous Fermented Foods, edited by Keith H. Steinkraus 34. International Food Regulation Handbook: Policy Science Law, edited by Roger D. Middlekauff and Philippe Shubik 35. Food Additives, edited by A. Larry Branen, P. Michael Davidson, and Seppo Salminen

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36. Safety of Irradiated Foods, J. F. Diehl 37. Omega-3 Fatty Acids in Health and Disease, edited by Robert S. Lees and Marcus Karel 38. Food Emulsions: Second Edition, Revised and Expanded, edited by Kre Larsson and Stig E. Friberg 39. Seafood: Effects of Technology on Nutrition, George M. Pigott and Barbee W. Tucker 40. Handbook of Vitamins, Second Edition, Revised and Expanded, edited by Lawrence J. Machlin 41. Handbook of Cereal Science and Technology, Klaus J. Lorenz and Karel Kulp 42. Food Processing Operations and Scale-Up, Kenneth J. Valentas, Leon Levine, and J. Peter Clark 43. Fish Quality Control by Computer Vision, edited by L. F. Pau and R. Olafsson 44. Volatile Compounds in Foods and Beverages, edited by Henk Maarse 45. Instrumental Methods for Quality Assurance

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in Foods, edited by Daniel Y. C. Fung and Richard F. Matthews 46. Listeria, Listeriosis, and Food Safety, Elliot T. Ryser and Elmer H. Marth 47. Acesulfame-K, edited by D. G. Mayer and F. H. Kemper 48. Alternative Sweeteners: Second Edition, Revised and Expanded, edited by Lyn O'Brien Nabors and Robert C. Gelardi 49. Food Extrusion Science and Technology, edited by Jozef L. Kokini, Chi-Tang Ho, and Mukund V. Karwe

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50. Surimi Technology, edited by Tyre C. Lanier and Chong M. Lee 51. Handbook of Food Engineering, edited by Dennis R. Heldman and Daryl B. Lund 52. Food Analysis by HPLC, edited by Leo M. L. Nollet 53. Fatty Acids in Foods and Their Health Implications, edited by Ching Kuang Chow 54. Clostridium botulinum: Ecology and Control in Foods, edited by Andreas H. W. Hauschild and Karen L. Dodds 55. Cereals in Breadmaking: A Molecular Colloidal Approach, Anne-Charlotte Eliasson and Kre Larsson 56. Low-Calorie Foods Handbook, edited by Aaron M. Altschul 57. Antimicrobials in Foods: Second Edition, Revised and Expanded, edited by P. Michael Davidson and Alfred Larry Branen 58. Lactic Acid Bacteria, edited by Seppo Salminen and Atte von Wright

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59. Rice Science and Technology, edited by Wayne E. Marshall and James I. Wadsworth 60. Food Biosensor Analysis, edited by Gabriele Wagner and George G. Guilbault 61. Principles of Enzymology for the Food Sciences: Second Edition, John R. Whitaker 62. Carbohydrate Polyesters as Fat Substitutes, edited by Casimir C. Akoh and Barry G. Swanson 63. Engineering Properties of Foods: Second Edition, Revised and Expanded, edited by M. A. Rao and S. S. H. Rizvi 64. Handbook of Brewing, edited by William A. Hardwick 65. Analyzing Food for Nutrition Labeling and Hazardous Contaminants, edited by Ike J. Jeon and William G. Ikins 66. Ingredient Interactions: Effects on Food Quality, edited by Anilkumar G. Gaonkar 67. Food Polysaccharides and Their

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Applications, edited by Alistair M. Stephen 68. Safety of Irradiated Foods: Second Edition, Revised and Expanded, J. F. Diehl 69. Nutrition Labeling Handbook, edited by Ralph Shapiro 70. Handbook of Fruit Science and Technology: Production, Composition, Storage, and Processing, edited by D. K. Salunkhe and S. S. Kadam 71. Freezing Effects on Food Quality, edited by Lester E. Jeremiah Additional Volumes in Preparation Food Antioxidants: Technological, Toxicological, and Health Perspectives, edited by D. L. Madhavi, S. S. Deshpande, and D. K. Salunkhe Handbook of Indigenous Fermented Foods: Second Edition, Revised and Expanded, edited by Keith H. Steinkraus

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Carbohydrates in Food, edited by AnnCharlotte Eliasson Handbook of Food Analysis: Volume 1, edited by Leo M. L. Nollet

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Handbook of Fruit Science and Technology

Production, Composition, Storage, and Processing
edited by D. K. Salunkhe Utah State University Logan, Utah S. S. Kadam Mahatma Phule Agricultural University Rahuri, Maharashtra, India

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MARCEL DEKKER, INC. NEW YORK BASEL

Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data

Handbook of fruit science and technology: producti edited by D. K. Salunkhe, S. S. Kadam. p. cm. (Food science and technology;) Includes index. ISBN 0-8247-9643-8 (hardcover: alk. paper) 1. Fruit-cultureHandbooks, manuals, etc. 2. FruitHa Salunkhe, D. K. II. Kadam, S. S. III. Series: Food s SB354.8.H35 1995 634dc20 95-32194 CIP

The publisher offers discounts on this book when o formation, write to Special Sales/Professional Mark This book is printed on acid-free paper.

Copyright 1995 by Marcel Dekker, Inc. All Righ

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Neither this book nor any part may be reproduced o means, electronic or mechanical, including photoco by any information storage and retrieval system, wi publisher.

Marcel Dekker, Inc. 270 Madison Avenue, New York, New York 10016 Current printing (last digit): 10 9 8 7 6 5 4 3 2

PRINTED IN THE UNITED STATES OF AMERI

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Preface
One of the most important considerations in the world today is increasing the production of nutritious food so that we can feed the hungry people on the planet. A major and often neglected step toward offering a greater volume of nutritious foods is to prevent loss of food between the time of harvesting and consumption. According to a report published by the National Research Council of the National Academy of Sciences (Washington, D. C., 1978), postharvest losses may be as high as 3040% in both developed and developing nations. Supplies of fresh fruits and vegetables can be increased by using technology to prevent their deterioration after harvest.

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Fruits and vegetables play an important role in human nutrition. They are vital sources of essential minerals, vitamins, and dietary fiber, and supply complex carbohydrates, and proteins. They are good sources of calcium, phosphorus, iron, and magnesium and contribute over 90% of dietary vitamin C. Green and yellow fruits and vegetables are a rich source of vitamin A (b-carotene). Thiamine, niacin, and folic acid, which are required for normal functioning of the human body, are also present in significant quantities.

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Recent developments in agriculture have contributed significantly to improved production of fruits throughout the world. Similarly, remarkable improvements have been made in the postharvest handling of various fruits and in controlling market diseases. Storage practices have been developed for each kind of fruit. Improved packages have been developed that protect the fruit and add to consumer appeal. The development of sizing equipment, conveyors, and package fillers all contribute to successful fruit handling. New chemicals have been developed that are more effective in decay control. Improvements in refrigerated rail wagons, trucks, and trailers have helped to reduce losses during transport. Precooling and cold-storage facilities have kept pace with the needs of the industry.

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Information on all these aspects of fruit science is scattered in many research papers, reviews, bulletins, and books; thus this book fills the need to have, in one volume, information compiled on preharvest production and postharvest handling and processing of fruit crops grown throughout

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the world. We hope this publication will be useful to students of horticulture, marketing, food processing, engineering, food science, and nutrition as well as to processors and shippers of fruits in both developed and developing countries. D. K. SALUNKHE S. S. KADAM

Contents
Preface Contributors 1. Introduction D. K. Salunkhe and S. S. Kadam

2. Grape Vedprakash K. Patil, V. R. Chakrawar, P. R. Narwa 3. Citrus P. N. Kale and P. G. Adsule 4. Banana P. M. Kotecha and Babasaheb B. Desai 5. Apple B. B. Lal Kaushal and P. C. Sharma

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6. Mango S. K. Kalra, D. K. Tandon, and B. P. Singh 7. Pineapple M. J. Salvi and J. C. Rajput 8. Pear P. Y. Kadam, S. A. Dhumal, and N. N. Shinde

9. Plum V. P. Bhutani and V. K. Joshi 10. Peach and Nectarine V. K. Joshi and V. P. Bhutani 11. Papaya U. T. Desai and A. N. Wagh 12. Berries P. M. Kotecha and D. L. Madhavi

13. Apricot V. M. Ghorpade, Milford A. Hanna, and S. S. Kada 14. Avocado S. S. Kadam and D. K. Salunkhe 15. Annonaceous Fruits A. G. Purohit 16. Ber (Jujube)

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O. P. Gupta and S. S. Kadam 17. Cherry Babasaheb B. Desai and D. K. Salunkhe 18. Fig U. T. Desai and P. M. Kotecha 19. Guava R. N. Adsule and S. S. Kadam 20. Lychee S. S. Kadam and S. S. Deshpande 21. Passion Fruit U. D. Chavan and S. S. Kadam 22. Pomegranate R. N. Adsule and N. B. Patil 23. Olive B. L. Raina 24. Sapota (Sapodilla)

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L. S. Kute and M. B. Shete

25. Coconut J. K. Chavan and S. J. Jadhav 26. Cashew R. T. Gunjate and M. V. Patwardhan 27. Other Nuts S. S. Deshpande, S. K. Sathe, and S. S. Kadam 28. Other Subtropical Fruits Susanta K. Roy, D. P. Waskar, and D. S. Khurdiya 29. Minor FruitsTropical Susanta K. Roy and G. D. Joshi 30. Fruits in Human Nutrition S. S. Kadam and D. K. Salunkhe Index

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Contributors
P. G. Adsule, Ph.D. Postharvest Technological Institute, Maharashtra State Agricultural Marketing Board, Gultekadi, Maharashtra, India R. N. Adsule, Ph.D. Department of Agricultural Chemistry and Soil Science, Mahatma Phule Agricultural University, Rahuri, Maharashtra, India V. P. Bhutani, Ph.D. Department of Pomology, Dr. Y. S. Parmer University of Horticulture and Forestry, Nauni, Solan, Himachal Pradesh, India V. R. Chakrawar, Ph.D. Department of Horticulture, Marathwada Agricultural University, Parbhani, Maharashtra, India

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J. K. Chavan, Ph.D. Department of Biochemistry, Mahatma Phule Agricultural University, Rahuri, Maharashtra, India U. D. Chavan, M.Sc. Department of Food Science and Technology, Mahatma Phule Agricultural University, Rahuri, Maharashtra, India Babasaheb B. Desai, Ph.D. Department of Biochemistry, Mahatma Phule Agricultural University, Rahuri, Maharashtra, India U. T. Desai, Ph.D. Department of Horticulture, Mahatma Phule Agricultural University, Rahuri, Maharashtra, India S. S. Deshpande, Ph.D. Department of Research and Development, Idetek, Inc., Sunnyvale, California

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S. A. Dhumal, M.Sc. Department of Horticulture, College of Agriculture, Kolhapur, Maharashtra, India V. M. Ghorpade, Ph.D. Industrial Agricultural Products Center, University of Nebraska, Lincoln, Nebraska R. T. Gunjate, Ph.D. Fruit Research Station, Vengurla, Maharashtra, India O. P. Gupta, Ph.D. Department of Horticulture, Haryana Agricultural University, Hissar, India Milford A. Hanna, Ph.D. Department of Biological Systems Engineering, University of Nebraska, Lincoln, Nebraska S. J. Jadhav, Ph.D. Alberta Agriculture, Food Processing Development Centre, Leduc, Alberta, Canada

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G. D. Joshi, Ph.D. Department of Horticulture, Konkan Agricultural University, Dapoli, Maharashtra, India V. K. Joshi, Ph.D. Department of Postharvest Technology, Dr. Y. S. Parmar University of Horticulture and Forestry, Nauni, Solan, Himachal Pradesh, India P. Y. Kadam, Ph.D. Department of Horticulture, College of Agriculture, Kolhapur, Maharashtra, India S. S. Kadam, Ph.D. Department of Food Science and Technology, Mahatma Phule Agricultural University, Rahuri, Maharashtra, India P.N. Kale, Ph.D. Department of Horticulture, Mahatma Phule Agricultural University, Rahuri, Maharashtra, India

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S. K. Kalra, Ph.D. Postharvest Technology Division, Central Institute of Horticulture for Northern Plains, Rehmankhera, Lucknow, Uttar Pradesh, India D. S. Khurdiya, Ph.D. Division of Fruits and Horticultural Technology, Indian Agricultural Research Institute, New Delhi, India P. M. Kotecha, M.Sc. Department of Food Science and Technology, Mahatma Phule Agricultural University, Rahuri, Maharashtra, India L. S. Kute, M.Sc. Department of Food Science and Technology, Mahatma Phule Agricultural University, Rahuri, Maharashtra, India B. B. Lal Kaushal, Ph.D. Department of Postharvest Technology, Dr. Y. S. Parmar University of Horticulture and Forestry, Nauni, Solan, Himachal Pradesh, India

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D. L. Madhavi, Ph.D. Department of Horticulture, University of Illinois, Urbana, Illinois

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P. R. Narwadkar, Ph.D. Department of Horticulture, Marathwada Agricultural University, Parbhani, Maharashtra, India N. B. Patil, M.Sc. Department of Water Conservation, Government of Maharashtra, Mantralaya, Bombay, India Vedprakash K. Patil, Ph.D. Marathwada Agricultural University, Parbhani, Maharashtra, India M. V. Patwardhan, Ph.D. Department of Fruit and Vegetable Technology, Central Food Technological Research Institute, Mysore, Karnataka, India A. G. Purohit, Ph.D. Section of Plant Genetic Resources, Indian Institute of Horticultural Research, Bangalore, Karnataka, India

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B. L. Raina, Ph.D. Food Technology Division, Regional Research Laboratory, Jammu, India J. C. Rajput, Ph.D. Department of Horticulture, Konkan Agricultural University, Dapoli, Maharashtra, India Susanta K. Roy, Ph.D. Division of Fruits and Horticulture Technology, Indian Agricultural Research Institute, New Delhi, India D. K. Salunkhe, Ph.D. Department of Nutrition and Food Science, Utah State University, Logan, Utah M. J. Salvi, Ph.D. Department of Horticulture, Konkan Agricultural University, Dapoli, Maharashtra, India S. K. Sathe, Ph.D. Department of Nutrition and Food Science, Florida State University, Tallahassee, Florida

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P. C. Sharma, Ph.D. Department of Postharvest Technology, Dr. Y. S. Parmar University of Horticulture and Forestry, Nauni, Solan, Himachal Pradesh, India M. B. Shete, M.Sc. Department of Horticulture, Mahatma Phule Agricultural University, Rahuri, Maharashtra, India G. S. Shinde, Ph.D. Department of Horticulture, Marathwada Agricultural University, Parbhani, Maharashtra, India N. N. Shinde, Ph.D. Fruit Research Station, Himayat Baug, Aurangabad, Maharashtra, India B. P. Singh, Ph.D. Postharvest Technology Division, Central Institute of Horticulture for Northern Plains, Rehmankhera, Lucknow, Uttar Pradesh, India

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D. K. Tandon, Ph.D. Postharvest Technology Division, Central Institute of Horticulture for Northern Plains, Rehmankhera, Lucknow, Uttar Pradesh, India A. N. Wagh, M.Sc. Department of Horticulture, Mahatma Phule Agricultural University, Rahuri, Maharashtra, India D. P. Waskar, Ph.D. Department of Horticulture, Mahatma Phule Agricultural University, Rahuri, Maharashtra, India

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1 Introduction
D. K. Salunkhe Utah State University, Logan, Utah S. S. Kadam Mahatma Phule Agricultural University, Rahuri, Maharashtra, India

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The Food and Agriculture Organization, Rome, in its report in the early 1980s, Agriculture Towards 2000, indicated that food production would have to be doubled in the last two decades of the twentieth century to avoid global famine. These predictions seemed both flawed and misleading to producers in developed nations who are awash in surpluses, who are unable to receive monetary returns equivalent to the cost of production, and who are not using a significant proportion of their production capacity. The predictions are far more realistic to the consumer in Africa spending 80% of disposable income on food, and where the absence of processing and storage facilities makes food supply subject to seasonal production and climatic variability. Clearly, food production, processing, and storage technology have shown a remarkable ability to meet global demands. The increasing disparity between the ability of nations to pay for the cost of food production coupled

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with the lack of infrastructure for global food distribution systems make these balance sheets meaningless to rich and poor nations. The real need is of appropriate technology to be developed and adopted through science and industry collaboration to enhance the economy of developing nations while increasing food selfsufficiency. They can then become real players in the global market economy. Developed nations must utilize appropriate technology to remain competitive in an ever more complex marketplace.

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The most important consideration for the present is increasing the production of nutritious food so that we may adequately feed the hungry people on the planet (1). A major and often neglected step toward offering a greater volume of nutritious food is to prevent losses between harvesting and consumption (2). Fruits and vegetables being perishable, postharvest handling of these commodities warrants great care to avoid postharvest losses. According to a report published by the National Academy of Sciences, Washington, DC, in 1978, postharvest losses may be as high as 3040% in both developed and developing nations (1). These losses occur at various stages of postharvest handling and marketing (Table 1) and depend on the type of fruit or vegetable. Recent improvements in fruit production technology have increased the yield of fruit crops significantly. This has improved the supply of fruits to consumers in many regions of the

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P Table 1 Estimated Losses of Some Fresh Fruit Percent loss Fruit Wholesale Retail Consumer Strawberries 13.5 5.5 22.2 Apples 2.9 2.9 2.4 Peaches 12.3 5.8 10.8 Oranges 1.4 0.8 3.7 Source: Ref. 3.

world. Moreover, the supplies of fresh fruits can be creased to the extent of their existing postharvest losses with application of appropriate technology.

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Fruits are grown in temperate, subtropical, and trop regions of the world. Among the fruits grown in tem perate and subtropical regions, grapes are the major temperate fruit in term of quantity produced (Table (1), with large quantities being utilized to make win and dried fruits. The major grape-producing countr are Italy, France, the United States, Spain, and the USSR. Second in terms of quantity produced are or anges, many of which are processed into juice; and third are apples, probably the temperate fruit most o ten eaten fresh, although large quantities are also juiced, dried, and canned (4). In recent years, kiwi f has become increasingly popular in the internationa market. The production of this fruit is rapidly incre ing every year. Tropical fruit production is a rapidly expanding industry. Bananas, mango, pineapples, a papaya are important tropical fruits having commer significance in international trade (5). In addition, l chee is becoming a popular fruit in Asian markets. subtropical regions of the world have expanded the tropical fruit production over the last 20 years. In m

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of these countries, tropical fruits have become an im portant source of export revenue. The United States the leading producer of fruits in the world, followed Brazil, Italy, India, France, the USSR, and China (6

Fruits and vegetables are vital sources of essential m erals, vitamins and dietary fiber (Tables 35). In add tion to these constituents, they supply complex carb hydrates, proteins, and energy. Fruits and vegetable play an important role in human nutrition by supply certain constituents in which other food materials a deficient (6). They are good suppliers of calcium, phosphorus, iron, and magnesium. Vitamin C (asco acid) in fruits and vegetables contributes over 90%

Table 2 Major Fruit Crops Grown in Different Continents of t World Production (1000 Production (100 Fruit MT) Fruit MT) Grapes 59,943 Plums 6,518 Oranges 52,216 Peaches 8,586 Bananas 45,685 Papaya 3,866 Apples 40,226 Strawberries 2,362 Mangos 15,063 Apricots 2,162

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Pineapples Pears Source: Ref. 4.

9,791 9,675

Avocados

1,459

Table 3 Approximate Composition of Major Fruits Grown in Fruit Water Energy Protein Fat Carb Grapes 81.6 67 1.3 1.0 Oranges 86.0 49 1.0 0.2 Bananas 75.7 85 1.1 0.2 Apples 84.4 58 0.2 0.6 Mangos 83.4 59 0.5 0.2 Pineapples 85.4 52 0.4 0.2 Pears 83.2 61 0.7 0.4 Plums 81.1 66 0.5 0.2 Peaches 89.1 38 0.6 0.1 Papaya 90.7 32 0.5 0.1 Apricots 85.3 51 1.0 0.2 Avocados 74.4 80.5 1.8 20.6 Strawberries 89.9 37 0.7 0.5 Source: Refs. 5 and 6.

total dietary vitamin C (7). Green and yellow fruits rich source of Vitamin A (b-carotene). They contrib total vitamin A. Similarly, thiamin, niacin, and folic for the normal functioning of visual and several oth human body (7).

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A substantial proportion of complex carbohydrates ables is present as dietary fiber in the form of cellul pectic substances, and lignin. These materials neutr duced in the course of digestion of meat, cheese, an foods. The value of fruits and vegetables as dietary vegetables for human health is being reexamined w minimizing certain diseases related to lack of

Table 4 Mineral Contents of Major Fruits Grown in the World Calcium Phosphorus Iron Magne Fruit (mg) (mg) (mg) (mg Grapes 16 12 0.4 13 Oranges 41 20 0.4 11 Bananas 8 26 0.7 33 Apples 7 10 0.3 8 Mangos 12 12 0.8 Pineapples 18 8 0.5 Pears 8 11 0.3 7 Plums 18 17 0.5 9 Peaches 9 19 0.5 10 Papaya 20 13 0.4 Apricots 17 23 0.5 12 Avocados 14 27 0.7 23 Strawberries 21 21 1.0 12

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Source: Refs. 5 and 6.

Table 5 Vitamin Content of Major Fruits Grown in the World Vitamin A Thiamine Riboflavin Nic Fruit (IU) (mg) (mg) Grapes 100 0.05 0.03 Oranges 200 0.10 0.04 Bananas 190 0.05 0.06 Apples 90 0.03 0.02 Mangos 630 0.05 0.06 Pineapples 15 0.08 0.04 Pears 20 0.02 0.04 Plums 300 0.08 0.03 Peaches 1330 0.02 0.05 Papaya 110 0.03 0.04 Apricots 2700 0.03 0.04 Avocados 0.07 0.12 Strawberries 60 0.03 0.07 Source: Refs. 5 and 6.

fiber in the diet. Due to their high water content and fruits and vegetables probably aid in digestion and centrated foods in the human diet.

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Fruit is an important food in diets designed to reduc heart disease in developed countries. Recent reports role of avocado with respect to heart disease, possib the fat is monounsaturated (4). Many therapeutic dr medicine originated as plant extracts. It is not surpr fruit components exert pharmacological or therapeu nomilin are present in citrus plants such as orange, fruits. These compounds are believed to have a role opment of certain forms of cancer (4). The antioxid carotene may also play a role in prevention of some

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The suitability of a region for commercial productio ation of climate and access to labor and market. In with water for irrigation is ideal for fruit production cially grown fruits are propagated clonally (5). New quality, higher crop yield, and resistance to various available for almost all crops. The yield of fruit cro genetic as well as cultural factors. Fertilization of fr proved to be beneficial in increasing the yield of fru nitrogen, potassium and phosphorus requirements a Calcium and potassium concentrations can also sign quality. Inadequately fertilized trees result in poor f size, and increased susceptibility to pests and diseas pests and diseases are the major problems and mod pest control are usually effective, but the problem o been a issue of serious concern to consumers. There for chemical-free produce.

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Fresh fruits are perishable in nature. They are living Based on postharvest respiratory patterns, fruits are and nonclimacteric. If nonclimacteric fruits are pick generally sour or of poor eating quality; if picked to teriorate during marketing. The harvesting of fruit a important from postharvest shelf life and quality po fruits such as bananas and

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mango ripen after harvest, developing desirable color, texture, and flavor during handling and storage. All other fruits, such as grapes and oranges, show little or no improvement in quality during postharvest handling and storage. Packing and handling systems have been developed to move the product from farm to consumer expeditiously in order to minimize quality degradation. Procedures include (a) lowering the temperature to slow respiration and senescence, (b) maintaining optimal relative humidity to reduce water loss without accelerating decay, (c) adding chemical preservatives to halt physiological and microbial losses, and (d) maintaining an optimal gaseous environment to slow respiration and senescence. Longer shelf life can also be obtained by selecting cultivars that are more able to withstand the handling systems and by harvesting the crop at optimal maturity (9).

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The shelf life of fruits can be extended by storage at optimum refrigerated temperature and humidity. However, certain fruits exhibit damage when stored at a temperature lower than optimum. These fruits develop a disorder known as chilling injury. Although the cellular mechanism of chilling injury is not fully understood, most investigators attribute it to physical changes in the membrane lipids (8). The ripening of climacteric fruits is triggered by ethylene (9). These fruits can be harvested at an early mature stage and ripened artificially by introducing ethylene into the fruit environment. When harvested at a later stage of maturity, the fruit will produce its own ethylene and ripen on its own. These fruits can be kept in preclimacteric (nonripened) state by controlling atmospheric gas composition in special storage or modifying the atmosphere within a package (10). Packaging that absorbs ethylene, carbon dioxide, or oxygen is being developed to control or retard the

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ripening process (11). It is important to keep ethylene generatorsequipment as well as climacteric fruitseparated from ethylene-sensitive items during transport, storage, and display (12). Fruits are subjected to minimal processing to provide a convenient product with few or no preservatives (13,14). Innovative techniques being investigated include the use of hightemperature short-time treatment or low-dose irradiation to produce a product with freshlike quality and greater shelf stability than fresh item. The most promising technology in this area is a combination of low-temperature storage and modified-atmosphere packaging (10).

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Processing of fruits extends the season of a perishable crop. Preservation provides a shelfstable product but usually at the cost of color, flavor, and texture (15). Dried fruit products such as raisins and prunes offer very different attributes than their fresh counterparts. The effect of processing on nutritional composition has shown to result in nutrient loss due to heat treatment and leaching or other aspects of processing. Once processed, the nutrient content of the product remains relatively stable. Hence, processing conditions should be such that processed products will have minimum loss of nutrients compared to raw material.

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Recent developments in agriculture have contributed significantly to improve production of fruits throughout the world. Similarly, remarkable improvements have been made in the postharvest handling of various fruits and control of market diseases. Storage practices have been developed for each kind of fruit. Improved packages have been developed that protect the fruit and add to consumer appeal. The development of sizing equipment, conveyors, and package fillers all contribute to the success of fruit handling. New chemicals that are more effective in decay control have been developed by the chemical industry that serves the fruit industry. Improvements in refrigerated rail cars, trucks, and trailers have helped to reduce losses during transport. Precooling and cold-storage facilities have kept pace with the need of the industry. Information on all these aspects of fruits was scattered in many research papers, reviews, bulletins, and books of recent origin. In this

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volume, an attempt has been made to compile production, postharvest handling, and processing of fruits grown throughout the world. This

Page 6

attempt is aimed mainly at providing access to technology innovations to improve availability of fruits by increasing their production and prevention of postharvest losses in developing as well as developed countries. References 1. Salunkhe, D. K., and B. B. Desai, Postharvest Biotechnology of Fruits, Vol. I, CRC Press, Boca Raton, FL, 1984, p. 168. 2. Salunkhe, D. K., and B. B. Desai, Postharvest Biotechnology of Fruits, Vol. II, CRC Press, Boca Raton, FL, 1984, p. 147. 3. Sparks, W. C., Losses in potatoes and lesser fruits and vegetables, Proc. Natl. Food Loss Conf. (M. V. Zachringer and J. O. Early, eds.), College of Agriculture, University of Idaho, Moscow, 1976.

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4. FAO, Food and Agriculture Yearbook Statistics Series No. 94, Food and Agriculture Organization, Rome, 1990. 5. Smith, L. G., and S. M. Somerset, Fruits of temperate climate, (R. MaCrae, R. K. Robinson, and M. J. Sadler, eds.), Encyclopaedia of Food Science, Food Technology and Nutrition, Academic Press, London, 1993, p. 2083. 6. Underhill, S. J. R., Fruits of tropical climate, (R. MaCrae, R. K. Robinson, and M. J. Sadler, eds.), Encyclopaedia of Food Science, Food Technology and Nutrition, Academic Press, London, 1993, p. 2108. 7. Salunkhe, D. K., H. R. Bolin, and N. R. Reddy, Storage Processing and Nutritional Quality of Fruits and Vegetables, Vol. I, Fresh Fruits & Vegetables, 2nd ed., CRC Press, Boca Raton, FL, 1991, p. 1.

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8. Shewfelt, R. L., Postharvest treatment for extending the shelf-life of fruits and vegetables, Food Technol. 40(5):70 (1986). 9. Smock, R. M., Controlled atmosphere storage of fruits, Hort. Rev. 1:301 (1979). 10. Kader, A. A., D. Zagory, and E. L. Kerbel, Modified atmosphere package of fruits and vegetables, CRC Crit. Rev. Food Sci. Nutr. 28:1 (1989). 11. Labuza, T. P., and W. M. Breche, Application of active packaging for improvement of shelf-life and nutritional quality of fresh and extended shelf-life of foods, J. Food Proc. Preserv. 13:1 (1989).

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12. Hardenburg, R. E., A. E. Watada, and C. Y. Wang, The Commercial Storage of Fruits, Vegetables and Florist and Nursery Stocks, Agricultural Handbook 66, U.S. Dept. of Agriculture, Washington, DC, 1986. 13. Shewfelt, R. L., Quality of minimally processed fruits and vegetables, J. Food Qual. 10:143 (1987). 14. Shewfelt, R. L., Sources of variation in nutrient content of agricultural commodities from the farm to the consumer, J. Food Qual. 13:37 (1990). 15. Salunkhe, D. K., H. R. Bolin, and N. R. Reddy, Storage, Processing and Nutritional Quality of Fruits and Vegetables, Vol. II, Processed Fruits and Vegetables, 2nd ed., CRC Press, Boca Raton, FL, 1991, p. 27.

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2 Grape
Vedprakash K. Patil, V. R. Chakrawar, P. R. Narwadkar, and G. S. Shinde Marathwada Agricultural University, Parbhani, Maharashtra, India I. Introduction.

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Grapes were one of the earliest fruits grown by man. It is the most widely cultivated fruit crop in the world. The Old World species Vitis vinifera is the grape of antiquity, often mentioned in the Bible. Most table wines and raisin grapes are produced from this variety (2). Grape culture began in Asia Minor in the region between and to the south of the Black and Caspian seas. Most botanists agree that this region, which now is the Armenia district, is the home of Vitis vinifera (2). From there, culture of grape spread both west and east. The grape was carried from region to region by civilized man in all the temperate climates and has been grown more recently in subtropical and tropical climates. Before 600 BC, the Phoenicians carried wine varieties to Greece, Italy, and France. In the second century, the Romans took the vine to Germany. The raisin and table grapes moved around the eastern end of the Mediterranean sea to the countries of North Africa, Persia, and

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India. When Europeans colonized new lands, the grape was always among the plants taken along. Vitis vinifera was brought by Spaniards to Mexico. English settlers brought the grape with them to the colonies of New York, Pennsylvania, Virginia, Carolina, and Georgia. Likewise, grapes were brought to Latin America by European settlers (3). Among the continents, Europe is the largest producer of grapes (Table 1). Grapes are grown mostly for wine making in Italy, France, Spain, the United States, Turkey, Argentina, and South Africa (Table 2). The total area under grape in the world is estimated to be about 8.2 million hectares (4).

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Of the world's total production of 60 million tonnes, about 68% of grapes are used for wine making, producing 29 million tonnes of wine (3). The percentage utilization of the annual harvest approximates to 68% for wine, 1% for fresh juice, 20% for table grapes, and 11% for raisins (3). More than 10,000 grape cultivars are known, all of them can be fermented into kinds of wine when crushed, and most of them can be dried or eaten fresh. Only a limited number of cultivars, however, make wines of standard quality. Similarly, the raisins of commercial interest are produced mainly from three cultivars, namely, Thompson Seedless, Black Corinth, and Muscat of Alexandria. Most of the sweet juice produced in America comes mainly from Concord and only

Table 1 Production of Grapes in Different Continents of the W Area (1000 Yield (kg/ Produc Continent ha) ha) World 8,180 7,415 6 Africa 418 6,552 2 North and Central 353 17,284 6 America South America 380 10,528 4 Asia 1,353 6,948 9 Europe 4,799 6,844 3 USSR 816 5,559 4 Oceania 62 16,743 1 Source: Ref. 4.

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one or two seedless cultivars, viz., Thompson Seed Canner (1). The leading countries involved in the p and export of fresh table grapes and raisins are liste 3. The total export of table grapes and raisins is abo million metric tonnes and 0.53 million metric tonne ively, and the principal exporting countries are Italy ited States, Chile, Greece, Afghanistan, Turkey, and tralia (Table 4). Major importers are Germany, Can France, the United Kingdom, Russia, and Japan. Th ary turnover in world trade worth US $1976.62 mil US $1799.68 million was in the imports and export grapes, respectively, during the year 1991 (5).
Table 2 Major Countries Producing Grapes Area (1000 Yield (kg/ Production (1000 Country ha) ha) MT) Italy 978 10,430 10,178 France 901 9,453 8,514 Spain 1,480 3,835 5,676 United 299 18,427 5,508 States Turkey 590 5,864 3,460 Argentina 165 11,036 1,821

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Portugal Iran South Africa Greece Chile China Germany Yugoslavia Rumania Source: Ref. 4.

375 220 150 146 121 166 146 200 237

3,867 7,500 9,667 8,904 9,835 7,069 8,904 5,991 3,823

1,450 1,650 1,450 1,300 11,190 11,170 1,300 1,198 906

Table 3 Leading Countries in the Import and Export of Table Quantity (1000 Country MT) Country Table Grapes Raisins Imports Imports 344.1 United States Un Kin 269.0 Germany Ger 154.4 Canada US 122.4 France Can 121.0 United Jap Kingdom Wo Exports Exports 440.5 Italy Un 348.3 United States Tur 344.2 Chile Gre 112.6 Greece Afg 55.0 Afghanistan Au Wo Source: Ref. 3.

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II. Botany A. Type

The grape vine belongs to the genus Vitis of the fam (Vitaceae), which includes several species (2). The lineated by the chromosome number of 2n = 38, an zones of the Northern Hemisphere with a few outly ward to the tropical zone (3). The genus Vitis includ true grapes and Muscadinia. Various species of Viti in

Table 4 Leading Countries in the Import and Export of Grape World Trade Year 1991 Imports ($ million) Country Amount Percent of world trade Country Germany 429.20 21.75 Chile United States 347.45 17.60 Italy Great Britain 193.04 9.78 United State Canada 129.24 9.74 Turkey France 185.82 9.42 Greece Netherlands 120.88 6.13 South Africa Other countries 504.99 25.58 Other countr Total 1973.62 Total

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Source: Ref. 5.

different regions of the world. V. vinifera produces are either pure vinifera or vinifera hybridized with o divided into three groups principally on general mo distribution. The occidentalia group includes the w compact clusters and berries and considerable winte Eastera group are the large clustered table grape va papery leaves of light color, and often showing tend winter hardiness. The pontica represents as interme Europe (6).

The Muscadinia grapes have chromosome number humid parts of the United States. Peynaud and Ribe according to their origin into four groups:

1. Vitis vinifera or European grape, which is subdiv white, red, or green grapes

2. American vines, Vitis riparia, Vitis rupestris, Vit grapes

3. French hybrids and V. rotundifolia or Muscadine

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4. Asian vines, Vitis amurensia B. Cultivars

The well-known European cultivars are Thompson grape cultivars are classified as wine, raisin, and tab grown for specific purposes are listed in Table 5. 1. Table Grapes

Table grapes are consumed as fresh fruit. They hav appearance and fine flesh with low acidity and few from selection in a desert environment of middle A tion (3) to ensure yield and maturity of fruit. 2. Wine Grapes

Wine grapes are processed by yeast and microbial f distillation into a plethora of beverages. Most wine berries set compactly, with soft, juicy flesh of high
Table 5 Commercially Grown Cultivars of Grapes

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Table varieties Raisin varieties Wine varieties

Almeria, Calmeria, Cardinal, Datties, Emperor, Malaga, Ribie, Rish Baba, Tokay, Thompson Se Thompson Seedless, Muscat of Alexandria, Blac

Red wine: Aleatico, Alicante Bouschet, Barbera ache, Nataro, Missim, Refosco, Ruby Cabernet,

White wine: Aligote, Burger, Chardonna Gray Riesling, Muscat Blanc, Orange M White Riesling

MultipurposeRegina (Italy), Dattier de Beirut (France), Rhaza Italia (Italy), Oval Kishmish-Sultania, Thompso

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3. Raisin Grapes Raisin grapes are a special class derived from middle Asian table grapes, principally in Iran and Afghanistan. Occasionally, when left on the vine in the dry desert environment, the fruit shrivels from water loss and produces a dried product in situ, suggesting this type of exploitation. These varieties have thin skin and firm flesh, with high sugar content and moderate to low acidity, with berries loosely arranged in the cluster (3). C. Structure of Vine 1. Morphological Character.

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The grapevine consists of two basic portions: the roots, which are normally underground; and the trunk, arms, and shoots, which are usually above ground. The shoot consists mainly of stems, leaves, and flowers or fruit. Roots. The root system of the vine is the entire collection of roots. The root system of the cultivated vine is both spreading and descending (8). The root system often penetrates deeply and spreads laterally in the soil to a greater degree than the tops of the vines. It is a major component of the vine in terms of both absolute bulk and function. It often consists of one-third or more of the dry weight of entire vine. Most of the roots are usually located in the upper 1.5 m (5 ft) of soil, but they can penetrate much deeper, often 1.8 to 3.0 m or more.

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Roots arise from meristematic regions near the surface of the cuttings. At the start of each growing season, the roots develop new absorbing roots from many growing points. As the root system develops and enlarges, root branches that arise from the root may in turn produce new branch roots. The finest roots, known as rootlets or feeder roots, are important because they increase the absorption region of the roots. Trunk and Arms. The trunk is the main stem of the vine that supports the canopy of leaves and other upper vine parts, and is the connecting link between the top of the vine and the roots. The main branches of the trunk older than one year are called arms. They bear the spurs and canes kept at pruning for the production of following year's crop. The water and minerals absorbed by the roots are translocated to the leaves through the trunk and arms.

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Shoots. The succulent stem with leaves that arise from a bud is termed as the shoot. It is current-season growth and is a mature shoot after it has lost its leaves. The spur is the portion of cane which remains after pruning. Tendrils. Tendrils as well as the inflorescence can be considered to be lateral branches. Leafless coiling tendrils occur opposite to or alternating with the leaves and branches by attaching to wires or other vine supports.

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Buds. Buds develop from meristems axillary to leaf. According to their behavior, they can be classified as lateral, primary, secondary, and tertiary buds. The primary shoot usually develops from a primary bud on the spur or cane. The lateral shoot arises from the primary shoot soon after the primary shoot begins active growth. The leaf bud produces shoots that bear only leaves; flowers or fruit buds contain a shoot possessing both rudimentary leaves and flower clusters.

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Leaves. The three parts of the leaf are the blade, the petiole, and two stipules. The pair of stipules can be seen on young leaves early in the growing season, but they soon dry up or fall off. About 3040 days are required for full expansion of the blades, and senescence begins about 45 months after unfolding in full sunlight. Leaves also thicken with age. There are a few or no stomata in the upper epidermis, but the lower epidermis has many. The cuticle consists of overlapping platelets of soft wax containing hydrocarbons, esters, aldehydes, alcohols, and unknown acids. The leaf blades are usually indented, and most have five lobes. The margins of

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grape leaves are also often toothed. The primary functions of the leaf are photosynthesis and transpiration (8). Flowers. The flower and fruit comprise the reproductive parts of the vine. The cluster occurs opposite to a foliage leaf in the same position as a tendril. The flowers are borne in clusters. The rachis is the main axis of the cluster, and the individual flowers are borne on a pendicel or capstem. The main parts of a complete flower are the calyx, usually with five partly fused sepals; the corolla, with five green petals united at the top to form a cap which falls at blooming; five stamens consisting of the filament and pollenproducing anther; and a pistil. The pistil consists of three parts, a stigma, a short style, and an ovary with two locules.

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Fruits. Fruits or berries always occur in clusters. A cluster consists of peduncle, capstem, rachis, and berries. The bunch shape is cylindrical, conical, pyramidal, or globular. The berry consists of skin, pulp, and seed. The skin comprises of about 512% of the mature grape cluster. It contains most of the aroma, coloring, and flavoring constituents. The skin-to-pulp ratio is greater in smaller berries than in larger ones. The pulp or fleshy pericarp is the portion surrounded by skin in which the seeds are embedded. The juice accounts for 8090% of the crushed grapes. The flesh of most grapes is translucent, with colorless juice; in some varieties, however, the pulp is light or dark red. The skin of European-type grapes adheres strongly to the flesh so that they are eaten together, but American varieties have slip skins. The seeds consist of 0.5% of the weight of grapes. Seed number usually varies between 0 and 4 per berry. Seeds are high in tannin (58%) and oil (1020%).

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2. Anatomical Character Roots. At the apex of the root is the root cap, a mass of cells covering and protecting the apical meristems. Behind the root tip is a zone of elongation a few millimeters long. Proximal to this is the zone of absorption of water and salts from the soil, about 10 cm long, and many epidermal cells elongate perpendicularly to the surface to form root hairs that increase the absorbing area. This portion of the roots, also known as the root hair region, is often yellowish. This zone is constantly replenished by new growth. Shoots. The stems have rays that break up the secondary xylem (wood) into radial block. The vessels are very large. There are also tangentially and radially defined blocks of phloem fibers as well as excessive food storage tissues.

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Leaves. The palisade cells consist of one layer of cells containing many chloroplasts. The spongy mesophyll cells are lobed cells containing many small chloroplasts and numerous air spaces. D. Berry Development, Maturation, and Ripening

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The grape berry consists of an epicarp (skin), a juicy and fleshy mesocarp, and an endocarp, the tissue surrounding the seeds which is indistinguishable from the pulp. Its growth follows a double sigmoid pattern, the I and III growth phases being separated by a II phase (lag phase), when growth is relatively standstill (914). The berry increases in size by cell division and expansion during stage I and in stage III by cell expansion only. During the first rapid phase, the berry is hard and green (15,16). The second rapid growth phase is characterized by tissue softening, loss of green color, and the development of anthocyanin pigment in the colored varieties.

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The inception of ripening in grape is called veraison and marks the beginning of sugar accumulation, loss of acids, berry softening, skin coloring, and renewed cell expansion. Grape, being a nonclimacteric fruit, does not develop color or taste after harvest.

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Grape berries respire very actively during the early stages of growth, but the intensity of respiration slows down as they advance in age. The rate and pattern of respiration of detached as well as attached berries was found to be the same (17). Respiration in terms of O2 uptake decreases and RQ increases throughout from anthesis to maturity. The respiration rate expressed on fresh weight basis was high at earlier stage and decreased up to over ripe stage. The berries after 46 h of detachment from the vines showed very little or no respiration (18).

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Berries exhibit a constant low level of ethylene throughout the ripening process, and endogenous ethylene can be detached in the developing berry only at the end of stage I. It reaches a peak during stage II and drops rapidly at the beginning of stage III (16). The total sugars, TSS, and reducing sugars increase as the maturity advances. A sharp increase in TSS total sugars, sucrose, glucose, and fructose with ripening is reported (18,19). Sucrose was in very low amounts up to 23 weeks after anthesis. Sharp increase in fructose and decrease in glucose was associated with ripening. Very little starch prevailed in the berries, which decreased during ripening. Glucose: fructose ratio also decreased during ripening (19). Ripening in Thompson Seedless grape was accompanied by an increase in the levels of sucrose, glucose, and fructose (20). Tartaric and malic acids account for 90% of the total acidity in berries, and citric acid is the third major constituent. Other acids present

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in small amounts are succinic, fumaric, pyruvic, a-ketoglutaric, glyceric, glycolic, and shikimic. The concentration of malic, tartaric, and citric acids declines during ripening (19).

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The total N in developing berries of the four varieties increased rapidly during the initial period after anthesis and subsequently declined until ripening (21). The total free amino acids increased continuously from anthesis to ripening in Pusa Seedless variety. The proline level increased at the height of the ripening process. (22). Eighteen amino acids were identified in varying concentrations from anthesis to ripening in Anab-e-Shahi grapes (18,19). The most characteristic compounds of skin are red and yellow pigments and leucoanthocyanins. At veraison, the chlorophyll started to break down and other pigments were unmasked (23). Chromatographic fractionation of anthocyanins present at the ripe stage indicated the presence of eight different anthocyanins in the skin (24). Tannins are complex esters of phenolic acids and sugars and give astringent taste to grapes. White grapes contain phenolic compounds in lesser amounts than black grapes. In Bangalore Blue berries, the

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concentration of tannins increased with maturity (10), whereas concentration of calcium, magnesium, and potassium decreased with ripening. The concentration of iron and phosphorus remained more or less constant throughout berry development (10).

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The aroma compounds, which are mostly confined to skin, start accumulating only during the last stages of ripening. The muscat flavor in grape has been assigned to linalool and geraniol. Methyl anthranilate is the major substance responsible for the foxy aroma of V. labrusca. Hexan-1-ol, hex-3-enal, and hex-2-enal are identified as the aroma compounds of Sultana grapes (25). The volatiles extracted from ripe berries of Gulabi and Arka Kanchan were resolved to 43 compounds (26). In Anab-e-Shahi and Bangalore Blue, catalase activity showed two peaks of increased activity at 45 and 75 days of anthesis that declined sharply thereafter until ripe stage (18). Bangalore Blue showed a sharp increase in peroxidase activity during ripening, whereas in Anab-e-Shahi the highest activity was observed at preripening stage, followed by its decline at ripe stage. Increase in amylase activity gradually up to 60 days and then rapidly up to ripe stage was observed in

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both varieties. Invertase activity decreased a little during preripening stage and then increased during ripening in these varieties. The increase in protein content was observed after 60 days of berry development, which was generally associated with enhanced enzyme activity (18,20).

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The ripening of grape berry could be controlled by exogenous application of ethylene, GA3,ABA, cycocel, or thiourea. Ethylene in the form of Ethephon or Etherel promoted ripening in Perlette, Beauty Seedless, Bangalore Blue, and Gulabi grapes (26). However, ethylene did not show effect on fruit ripening in Pusa seedless variety. Ethylene also reduced uneven ripening of colored varieties. Application of GA3 promoted maturity and ripening by increasing proline, protein, and enzyme synthesis in grape. E. Genetic Improvement

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Vitis vinifera is commonly grown in all continents of the world. Hence, efforts were made to improve the grape varieties through breeding in different grape-growing areas. Several reports are available on genetic improvement of grapes (2739). These include development of root stock resistant to nematodes and unfavorable soil conditions, development of cultivars having high adaptability to high and low temperature, and disease and pest resistance. Attempts have been made to develop seedless varieties with improved berry quality. 1. Dessert Grapes

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General objectives of table grape breeding are better eating quality and extension of season, either with early-maturing types or with latestorage types (40). Seedless grapes have gained in use as table grapes in recent decades. The Thompson Seedless owes its popularity to its use as a table grape. Perlette and Delight are very early-maturing seedless cultivars introduced to California. Other seedless introductions are Beauty Seedless, Emerald Seedless, and Ruby Seedless (41). 2. Raisin Grapes The raisins of commerce are produced mainly from three cultivars, Sultanina, Black Corinth, and Muscat of Alexandria. These were introduced in different grape-growing regions. 3. Wine Grapes

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High-quality wines are made from the cultivars White Riesling, Chardonnay, Cabernet Sauvignon, and Pinot Noir, when they are grown under favorable climatic conditions. Olmo (42) has combined the Cabernet Sauvignon aroma with high production and excellent vineyard performance of Carignane to produce the Ruby Cabernet (42). A deficiency of color for red wines of various types has also been a problem in warmer areas. The most common source of color has been Alicante Bouschet, an old cultivar with intense red color in the juice but producing poor wine. Ruby Red and Royalty are results of programs that combine high color with improved wine quality and excellent vineyard performance (43). 4. Juice Grapes

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Grapes used for sweet or unfermented juice retain a fresh grape flavor when the juice is preserved by pasteurization or rendered sterile by ultrafiltration or by a high concentration of SO2. Concord cultivar retains its characteristic flavor of the juice during preservation. III. Production. A. Climate and Soil The important factors governing successful grape growing are soils and climate. However, the climate is of major importance in limiting commercial grape growing. Among different climatic factors, special significance is attached to temperature and distribution of rainfall.

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The grape is primarily a fruit of the semiarid and subtropical regions of the world. It requires a hot, dry, rainless summer and a cool winter. It is grown predominantly in areas from 20 to 50 north and from 20 to 40 south of the equator. With suitable cultivars and cultural practices, it is grown successfully in the tropics. During berry development and ripening period, dry atmosphere, moderate temperature (1540C), and plenty of sunshine are essential for production of healthy, attractive, and quality bunches. Rainfall should not coincide with the fresh growth after pruning or during fruit ripening (8). Cloudy weather, high humidity, low temperature, and precipitation during flowering and berry development are detrimental, as they are highly congenial to the spread of diseases.

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The grape is adapted to a wide range of soil types. It performs best on a deep, loamy soil with good structure and high organic matter content. Any soil with 5080% fine sand, 2040% clay, and 0.50.8% organic carbon ensures good drainage, plenty of free soil aeration, and a moderate nutrient and water-holding capacity. The soil should also be salt free, having a pH around 6.57.5. At pH higher than 7.5, the availability of soil macro- and micronutrients is adversely reduced. The extent of free lime content should be less than 6%. At higher lime content, phosphate, iron, boron, zinc, and manganese become unavailable. Shallow (3060 cm deep), medium black, loamy soils containing a small admixture of lime nodules, overlying a porus subsoil and murum (disintegrating rock) stratum have been found to be most suitable. Light, friable soils are better than compact clays. However, wine grapes can be grown successfully in infertile and rocky soils.

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B. Propagation

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There are two types of reproduction in grapevines; the first one being sexual, which involves the production of vines by seeds. The second type is asexual, in which vines are propagated by vegetative means from parts of existing plants other than seeds. Among the different asexual methods, the most common method of grape propagation is by hardwood cutting. Grapes are also propagated by grafting or budding, layering, and tissue culture. One-seasonold canes of medium thickness (0.70.8 cm) are cut to obtain cuttings of about 2530 cm in length, having at least three to four buds. The buds on the cuttings should be prominent and healthy. The lower cut should be made about 1.0 cm below the basal node, and the upper cut, about 1.001.25 cm above the top node. The upper cut should be a slanting one, and the basal cut plain. Prior to planing, these cuttings should be soaked for a day in a mild solution of 0.5% each of urea and diammonium phosphate or

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naphthylene acetic acid (NAA) or indolebutyric acid (IBA) solution. The cuttings are planted either in polybag, flat/raised bed or in a permanent field leaving two nodes above soil surface. The rooted cuttings will be ready for planting in a field in about 34 months after planting in the nursery. Phylloxera-resistant (Riparia Glorie, St. George) and nematode-resistant (Dogridge, Salt Creek, 1613, 1616) rootstocks should be used. C. Cultural Practices 1. Planting

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The site/soil selected should be leveled thoroughly, prepared, and manured. On slopy land, a contour system is adopted. In plains, a square system is followed for planing of vineyards. Spacing varies with varieties. The commonly followed spacings are 4.5 m 4.5 m and 3.0 m 3.0 m. Pits (90 90 90 cm size) are dug according to the layout plan. The pits are filled back with a 1:1 mixture of top soil and organic manure. Then 1 kg of super phosphate, 500 g of sulfate of potash, and 30 g of aldrin are added and mixed thoroughly with the soil. Four- to twelve-month-old rooted cuttings are planted.

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2. Training Bower, kniffin, telephone trellis, and head training systems are followed. The bower (arbor or pergola or pendal) system is suited to vigorous cultivars which do not perform well on other systems. It envisages the distribution of growing apex at many points and spread of the branches horizontally. The kniffin system is suitable for moderately and less vigorous varieties with less apical dominance. Closer planting is adopted (1.6 3 m) for this training system. The vine is trained on a two- or three-wire horizontal trellis. The bearing units and renewal wood are regulated on four/six permanent arms through pruning.

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The telephone trellis (overhead) system is suitable for moderately vigorous varieties with more apical dominance. In this system, the vines are allowed to grow straight up to a height of 1.51.6 m and then trained overhead on a canopy of usually three to four wires (4560 cm apart) fixed to the crosssingle arms supported by vertical pillarsand the vines are trained to the wires. The head system is suited to the cultivars Beauty Seedless and Perlette, which produce fruitful shoots from basal buds. The vine is allowed to grow single stem with the help of stakes, the plant is topped at 1.0 m above ground level to encourage two laterals, and the plant is topped again at 1.3 m height to encourage two more laterals. Fruiting canes are developed on these laterals.

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In the cordon system, the vine is trained into a long straight trunk which is bent and fastened horizontally on a wire trellis. Some varieties (Perlette, Muscat, Beauty Seedless, etc.) bear near the base of the cane and are thus pruned to short bearing units or spurs retaining three to four buds near the base of canes. In other varieties (Thompson Seedless, Anab-e-Shahi, etc.), the buds toward the base are less fertile and are thus pruned, keeping long bearing units of canes having 8 to 12 buds (Kismis Chorni). The time of pruning depends on annual growing cycles under the prevalent climatic conditions. In temperate zones, the vine remains dormant during winter and bursts into new growth once a year in summer. Pruning is therefore done during the dormant period in January.

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In tropical areas, the vine continues to grow all year round and does not undergo dormancy. Pruning is therefore done twice a year, once in summer and again in winter. In the subtropical regions, pruning is done only once in a year. Early February is considered to be the most optimum time to prune the vines (44). The low latitude is the winterless tropical region where the temperatures are higher throughout the year. To obtain growth and fruiting simultaneously (45) under tropical conditions, practice of getting two crops in a year by manipulating pruning practices is possible (4448). 3. Manuring and Fertilization

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Nutrients influence the yield and quality of grapes through vine growth (59,60). Vigorous and healthy growth during the preinitiation stage of floral primordia and slow and less growth during fruit bud differentiation help fruiting. It has been estimated that an average crop of grape removes from soil 4060 kg of N, 1015 kg of P, and 5070 of K per hectare (50). Based on experience in several grape gardens, it is estimated that, per 100 kg of crop removed, 1 kg of N, kg of P2O5, 2 kg of potash, and kg of magnesium sulfate per year is found to be the most beneficial schedule for Anab-e-Shahi grapes in red sandy soils (51).

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Popov (52) concluded that a single application of 120 kg of N, 100 kg of P, and 120 kg of K per hectare was sufficient compared with two splits and foliar applications. Georgieva (53) reported that application of N, P2O5, and K2O at 300 kg, 500 kg, and 300 kg, respectively, increased fruiting coefficients (53). In France, grapevines for production of quality wine rarely needed more than 30 to 40 kg N/ha (54,55). In Australia, manurial requirement of Sultana vines is estimated at

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50 kg N/ha (56). In South Africa, grapevines utilize about 3.9 kg N to produce 1 tonne of grapes (57). For Anab-e-Shahi variety (750 vines/ha), an application of 500 kg N + 125 kg P2O5 + 750 K2O for the age 3- to 5-years vine and 500 kg N + 500 kg P2O5 + 1000 kg K2O/ha/year (5th year onwards) has been recommended. The fertilizers are to be applied in split doses (60% at April pruning and 40% at October pruning) in central and south India. The foliar applications of boron (0.2% boric acid, 0.2% zinc sulfate, 0.1% iron, 0.3% magnesium sulfate) were found to be beneficial in reducing bud, flower, and berry drop and improving berry quality (78). The combinations of 180 g N + 80 g P2O5 and 80 kg K2O + 2 g boron + 2 g zinc per vine in Thompson Seedless were the best in giving greater weight to berries.

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4. Irrigation The yield and quality of grapes is influenced significantly by irrigation (6166). Grape vines need 40 cm of irrigation per year (2). After October pruning, irrigation is withheld for about 2025 days. It is resumed from November to February under tropical conditions. The interval between two irrigations may vary from 10 to 14 days during November to February and from 7 to 9 days during February to March (ripening period). Drip irrigation has been found to be effective in production of dessert grapes in India.

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In India, Beauty Seedless cultivar showed best results with regard to shoot growth, berry size, and yield/water efficiency when irrigation was provided in a basin (61). Under a drip system, at spacing 10 5 ft, the vines are supplied with 10, 7, and 5 liters of water per vine during summer, rainy season, and winter based on evaporation and vine spread. In medium black soils, irrigation up to 90 cm with medium intervals was found beneficial for Bangalore Purple grape (61). D. Growth, Flowering, Pollination, and Fruit Set.

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Under temperate and subtropical climate, the vine sheds its leaves and enters a dormant period. In the tropics, grapevines do not shed their leaves naturally. The buds of the vine may be vegetative or reproductive. After bud break (bud burst), with a rise in temperatures, the shoots grow rapidly in length and thickness. Full bloom usually occurs 68 weeks after bud break.

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In the tropics, vines come to bearing 1820 months after planting, while it takes 3 years under temperate conditions. Under subtropical conditions, the formation of flower buds occurs on the current growth emerging from 1-year-old cane in the preceding spring (April) when the vine is already carrying the current crop load of the season. In the tropics, flower bud differentiation takes place on growing shoots emerging from the buds left on the vine after the foundation pruning in April. The time of fruit bud differentiation varies according to variety and climatic conditions. Under subtropical conditions, April, May, and June favor maximum fruit bud differentiation, while in tropical conditions fruit bud differentiation takes place 90120 days after pruning, i.e., May to August (67).

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Bud break takes place in FebruaryMarch under subtropical conditions, whereas under tropical conditions, bud break for vegetative growth takes place in AprilMay and that for fruiting in OctoberNovember. Fruiting primordia are multilobed, undifferentiated masses of tissue which are located on the bud axil opposite to leaf primordia. The flowers are fully differentiated at 34 weeks after bud burst. The grape flowers are borne in clusters. Most vinifera cultivars have perfect or hermaphrodite flowers. Flowering takes place in MarchApril (subtropical) and in OctoberNovember (tropical) at an optimum range at 1820C. Self-pollination is the rule in vinifera grapes (2). There are many kinds of cultivated grapes which are more or less self-

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sterile. The American grapes range from complete loss of femaleness to almost complete loss of maleness. Thompson Seedless and Black Corinth, Perlette, and Beauty Seedless set fruit by stimulative parthenocarpy. The berry set and development are controlled by gibberellins, auxins, cytokinins, ethylene inhibitors, and their interactions.

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Grape cultivars differ markedly in the extent of fruit setting. Stenospermocarpic and some seeded varieties set so heavy that they require thinning to improve the size and quality of berries (68). Gibberellins and NAA (1020 ppm) improve the fruit set. Auxins and kinins generally increase fruit set in seedless cultivars. Pollination studies in grape cultivar indicated that Cheema Sahebi exerts superior metaxenia with respect to berry weight and juice percentage (27). The berry development stages are green stage, ripening stage, ripe stage, and overripe stage. The green stage is characterized by rapid increase in berry. The ripening stage extends from the beginning of ripening until the grapes are fully ripe. The overripe stage starts when the grape has passed the peak quality for its intended use. Induction of seedlessness with prebloom application of 400 ppm GA3 in Bhokri cultivar (69) and 15 ppm GA3 in Hur cultivar has been reported (70).

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E. Improvement of Grape Quality The thinning, girdling, and use of growth regulators for improvement of grape quality are very essential (7174). In seedless varieties, which generally result in excess crop, thinning of flower clusters (at opening of flower) is essential for improving quality (2). In the operation of clusters thinning, undersized, misshaped, and oversized clusters are removed (at berry set stage). The berry thinning practice consists of removing parts of clusters (terminals); the rachis of the cluster is cut and only the desired number of berries is retained. Chemical thinning of berries is a cheaper and easy method. GA, 50100 ppm, NAA, 2550 ppm, and Sevin, 100 ppm, cause satisfactory thinning of berries and proper development of bunches (75).

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Girdling or ringing consists of removing a narrow ring of bark (45 mm) entirely from the trunk, arms, or spurs. Girdling the trunk is found to be beneficial to improve berry set, increase berry size, and advance maturation. In case of topping of shoots, removal of 30 cm or more in length, and in pinching, 7.5 cm or less succulent shoot tip is removed (at the 12th bud). Beneficial effects of artificial pollination on improvement of quality of seedless and seeded variety are reported.

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Gibberellins at early stages of bloom is applied for thinning, fruit set, and seedlessness purposes. During fruit development, they are applied to increase the size of fruit. The application is made either by spraying or by bunch dipping in different concentrations at different stages of cluster and berry development (76,79). The increase in yield is nearly 50% with 100 ppm GA given at prebloom stage and at shattering stage (80). The auxin 4-CPA is used to increase fruit set (81) and reduce berry drop (82). Growth retardants such as cycocel sprayed on foliage or fruit clusters from 1 to 3 weeks before bloom increase fruit set and yield in seeded and seedless varieties (83). The application of SADH as prebloom sprays to Concord and Seedless Himrod increased fruit set (8486).

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Preharvest spray of 15 ppm NAA in combination with 100 ppm Cytokinin arrests postharvest berry drop in Cheema Sahebi (87). An application of 200 ppm Ethrel, 4 weeks before harvest of Gulabi and Bangalore Purple varieties, significantly decreased the extent of uneven ripening in both varieties (88). Similarly, Ethephon, 1000 ppm concentration, is used to increase bud burst in Thompson Seedless grapes. Thiourea (2%) is also useful to hasten bud burst and fruit maturity in seedless grapes (89). Foot (90) reported significantly higher yields in vines treated with 2.5% hydrogen cyanamide before bud break (90).

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F. Diseases and Pests 1. Diseases Grapes are susceptible to a number of diseases, caused mostly by fungi. Diseases spread relatively more under warm humid conditions. Anthracnose, powdery mildew, and downy mildew, occur very commonly in vineyards. The most destructive disease is powdery mildew, caused by the fungus Uncinula (91). This fungus attacks leaves, tender shoots, and berries. Whitishgray patches appear on leaves and berries. Control measures include spraying of wet-table sulfur, 0.2%, or dusting of sulfur at 57 days' interval during infestation.

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Anthracnose (Elsinoe ampelina or Gleosporium ampetophaghum) fungus infects all the green parts of the vine, including fruits. Dark brown spots (canker) with a darker margin are formed on leaves; lesions on canes are elongated, sunken dark brown with dark purple raised margin; and on berries spots are light brown in color and turn gray as they grow in size. The most effective control measures include destruction of the affected part, spraying of copper fungicide (0.25%), or Bordeaux mixture (0.51%) or carbendazim (0.2%).

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Downey mildew is another serious fungus disease which flourishes in wet weather. It is caused by Plasmopara viticola Bert. The fungus first develops on the center of the lower side of the leaves. The spots look translucent and light yellow in color on the upper surface of the leaves. The fungus infects flowers and young berries also. Like anthracnose, this fungus can also be controlled by spraying copper fungicide, 0.2% capton, Bordeaux mixture (2:2:50), and Diathene M-45. 2. Pests

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The grape suffers from a large number of pests, during both pre- and postharvest periods in different grape-growing regions of the world. The aphid Phylloxera vastarix causes significant loss of grapes in Europe and America. The use of resistant root stock is recommended. An important insect pest is Scedolonta srigicollis, the flea beetle. This small beetle eats swollen buds and tender shoots. Grubs feed on the root. It can be controlled with monocrotophos (0.5%) or carbaryl (0.15%). Thrips are serious in both hot weather as well as relatively mild weather. They suck the sap from tender shoots, leaves, flowers, and fruits. Thrips can be controlled by spraying carbaryl (0.5%), malathion (0.5%), and Dimecron (0.2%).

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Mealy bugs and scale insects attack vegetative parts and bunches. They can be controlled with monocrotophos (200600 g a.i./ha) and dimethoate (0.05%). Mites are sucking types of insects which cause severe damage to leaves and affect photosynthesis. Spraying dimethoate (0.05%) or phenitrothion (0.05%) can control this pest. Termites damage the roots and make trunks hollow, so that vines dry up. Mixing of 30 g of Aldrin dust per pit at the time of planting and application of 5 ml of Endrin 30 EC in 5 liters of water in the vine basin is also recommended. Nematodes damage the roots and thus affect growth adversely. Application of nematicides (Nemagon, Neemark) and nematode-resistant root stocks are recommended. G. Harvesting

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Quality table grapes should have well-developed clusters, be well filled, and have fresh, strawcolored or yellow clusters stems and cap stems. The berries should be firm, plump, and have the typical shape and uniform color for the cultivar. Clusters should be free of sunburn or spot berries and berries scarred by thrips, powdery mildew, or wind damage. Firm berry attachment to the cap stems is also important. The berries should not be shriveled, crushed, or decayed. Undesirable aging is shown by brown, dry stems, shriveled and dull berries, and visible mold on stems or

Page 20

berries. Cushion pads at the tops and bottoms of boxes help prevent fruit wetting from juice released from damaged berries. Wine grapes are picked by hand or mechanical harvesters. The proper picking time for wine grapes depends mainly on the kind of wine to be made. Grapes for dry wine should have high acidity and moderate sugar content. Therefore, such grapes are usually harvested from 2024 Brix. Grapes for sweet wines should be high in sugar and moderately low in acid, and should attain as high a sugar content as possible, usually around 24 Brix or higher.

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The higher the degree Brix at harvest time, the better will be the quality of raisins produced. It is best if the berries are at least of 2022 Brix. Picking time is determined by ripeness of fruit and the risk of unfavorable drying conditions if the grapes are allowed to remain on the vine too long. Sun-drying is performed in the vineyard, where raisins are dried between the rows of vines. Around 90% of California raisins are sundried in this manner.

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Table grapes are harvested based on the texture of the pulp, peel, color, easy separation of the berries from the bunches, and characteristic aroma. Besides these, 1214% TSS for Anab-eShahi, and 1920% TSS for Thompson Seedless and Selection-7 are used in commercial practice. Lodh and Selvaraj (10) showed that mature stage in Bangalore Blue and Anab-e-Shahi grapes was reached after 90 days of flowering with a ratio of 0.8 for glucose and fructose. Sugar content is used as an indicator of maturity for grading table varieties.

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The grapes are considered ripe when the fruits have reached the condition best suited for the intended use. In table grapes, consumer acceptability should always be considered above all maturity standards. At harvest, the grapes should be attractive in appearance, have good eating and keeping quality, and reach the market when prices are most favorable. Ripening is indicated by the increase in sugars and decrease in acidity, and the development of color, flavor, and texture characteristics of the cultivar. Total soluble solids are generally used to determine the maturity of grapes, as it has a high correlation with palatability. However, relative amounts of acidity and TSS affect the taste. A cultivar may be more palatable with even low TSS provided the acidity is also low, e.g., gold cultivars. Therefore, acidity at a given Brix is also very important. The maturity standard can also be predicted to some extent on the basis of TSS/acid ratio. Most growers consider color and softening

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along with taste as the maturity standards for harvesting grapes. The time taken from fruit set to ripening depends largely on the cultivar, crop load, and atmospheric temperature. Therefore, for a given locality and cultivar, the number of heat units
Table 6 Relative Productivity of Selected Countries Productivity Country (tonnes/ha) Iran 5.2 Korea 9.0 Japan 11.0 Switzerland 14.7 Germany 19.0 India 21.7 Netherlands 27.0 Source: Ref. 8.

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(degree days) required for ripening may be calculated, which provides a suitable standard for deciding the harvesting time. The ripeness of the individual bunch is judged by observing the berries at the distal end of the cluster, which are the last to ripen. The productivity of grapes in some countries is given in Table 6. Thompson Seedless gives a yield of 1230 tonnes/ha. Likewise, a well-maintained vineyard of Perlette and Thompson Seedless can yield 2530 and 1520 tonnes/ha, respectively (92). IV. Grading and Packaging Grapes harvested at firm-ripe stage ship and store better than the underripe or overripe stages. Overripe berries rapidly lose resistance to the attack of decay organisms, and in some varieties they tend to shatter rapidly.

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The extent of postharvest losses depends on the type of container used for packing. Losses in grapes packed in wooden crates and bamboo baskets are greater than in corrugated fiber board (CFB) cartons. The percent produce packed in wooden boxes, corrugated cartons, and bamboo baskets in India is estimated to be 45, 35, and 20, respectively (93). The preharvesting application of fungicides or growth regulators has been found to increase the shelf life of grapes. The application of 0.75% calcium nitrate as a preharvest spray on Perlette grapes 10 days before harvest reduced weight loss, berry drop, and decay (94). Ladania and Bhullar (95) indicated that cycocel and Alar (20004000 ppm) and kinetin (50150 ppm) used as preharvest spray reduced berry rot and berry shatter during storage. Planofix at 100150 ppm as a preharvest spray 2 weeks prior to harvest reduced berry drop. Cycocel and Alar at 100 ppm treated at

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harvest stage reduced storage losses from 8.5% to 4.2%. A. Grading Grading of grapes can be done according to size, sugar content, and appearance. After grading of grapes, culled produce is separated and can be used for other purposes such as wine making, feed for cattle, or for making any other byproduct. Grading of grapes on the basis of size of bunch, color, texture, flavor, and aroma is also done. Mechanical graders for size and color are now used for raisins in different grape-growing areas of the world; color graders are used in Australia, and size graders are used in India. B. Packaging.

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Grape packing should be done at a place that makes possible minimum and careful handling, through trimming, least exposure to severe temperatures, and a uniform, attractive pack. In field packing, the grapes are placed directly in the regular shipping or marketing container. The picker does the trimming as well as picking. There is no rehandling and little investment in equipment, but this technique requires expert packers. Avenue packing is done on roadways by a small number of skilled packers. The pickers and packers are separate, and packs are more uniform.

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House packing is properly organized and more advantageous in tropical areas but more expensive. In packing grapes, different types of containers are used: Lug boxes are most generally used, and the depth of the lug is varied according to variety and consumer preference. Sawdust chest packs are used for grapes to be exported. These packs contain 3234 lb of grapes and 911 lb of sawdust. Crates have now been discarded because they lack firm packing of fresh grapes. Consumer units are usually of 2-lb capacity, and climax baskets are used principally for marketing American grapes.

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Bhujbal et al. (96) found that for a 4-kg carton, a pack of 1.5 g of sodium metabisulfate was best for Thompson Seedless grapes. Dhillon et al. (97) used KMS and silica gel (1:1) vials as an SO2 generator, placed in perforated polythylene bags holding three bunches of grapes. Rao (98) recommended that good bunches should be placed horizontally at the bottom and small bunches should be used to fill the gaps. The use of corrugated fiber board boxes was found to be economical in exporting grapes by air transport (99). Anand (99) reported that Maharashtra grapes are exported in telescopic CFB cartons of 2- and 4-kg capacity. The high-density packs with more depth reduced berry shattering during handling and shipment of grapes. Prepacking at distribution points in supermarkets is recommended (100) to meet consumer demand. The mechanized system of packing grapes in plastic or woodpulp trays (14 lb capacity) with plastic

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film overwrap was feasible and gave good results. Grape bunches can be arranged in different ways in the containers. In the stem-up pack arrangement, cluster stems are in full view but packs are attractive. Fresh grapes can be packed in this manner with very little handling injury. Faced packages are attractive but the arrangement of grapes cannot take the manipulation required without injury. Faced packaging requires skill and it is not suitable for freshly harvested grapes. V. Chemical Composition

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The chemical composition of grapes varies according to variety and the environment under which the grapes are grown. Among different environmental factors, temperature, soil fertility, moisture, and light have distinct influence. The range of important organic and inorganic components of fresh juice is given in Table 7.
Table 7 General Composition of Grapes Freshly expressed juice by Constituents volume (%) Water 7080 Carbohydrates 1525 813 Dextrose (glucose) 712 Levulose (fructose) 0.010.05 Pentoses 0.010.10 Pectin 0.020.08 Inositol Organic acids 0.31.5 0.21.0 Tartaric 0.10.8 Malic

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Citric Tannins Nitrogenous compounds Protein Amino Humin Minerals Source: Ref. 161.

0.010.05 0.010.10 0.030.17 0.0010.1 0.0170.11 0.0010.002 0.30.6

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A. Sugars The sugars of vinifera grapes are primarily glucose and fructose, generally accounting for 99% or more of carbohydrates in the must (crushed grapes) and from 12% to 27% or more of the weight of the mature fruits. In addition to glucose and fructose, several other sugars are present in small amounts in grapes, such as sucrose, raffinose, stachyose, metibiose, maltose, and galactose. The main sugar translocated from the leaves to the fruit is sucrose, but small amounts of other sugars, especially raffinose and stachyose, may also be involved in carbohydrate movement (102). Once sucrose reaches the fruit, it is hydrolyzed by invertase. At veraison, the ratio of glucose to fructose is around 1, and fructose exceeds slightly in ripe grapes. B. Acids

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Tartaric and malic acids constitute 90% or more of the total acidity. Citric acid, the third acid in grapes, constitutes only 0.020.03%. There are more than 20 other nonnitrogenous organic acids in grapes in small amounts. The amount of free tartaric acid and malic acid in berries decreases markedly during ripening (18). The total acidity ranges from 0.4 to 1.2% with a pH of 3.03.8. Although the amount of acids is very specific, it varies widely depending on climatic conditions and is higher in cooler climates. C. Proteins

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Ammonium cation and organic compounds such as amino acids, hexose, amines, peptides, nucleic acids, and proteins constitute the major part of nitrogenous compounds in grape berries. Total nitrogen in must (crushed grape) ranges from 10 to 200 mg/100 ml (8). The amount of amino acids differs considerably depending on cultivar, location, maturity, cultural conditions, and method of extraction (7). D. Tannins

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Tannins are complex esters of phenolic acids and sugars. They occur primarily in the skin, stem, and seed of grapes (103107). Tannin content influences the palatability of grapes and their products. However, in minute to small amounts, tannins add to flavor. Singleton (108) found 3770 mg/kg total phenols (as galic acid) on average in mature berries of 12 cultivars (108). The tannins give an astringent taste. If crushed while extracting juice, seeds which contain tannins also give an astringent taste to the wine; however, tannins in wine stabilize the color in fining. E. Minerals

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The mineral content of grapes, which constitutes 0.20.6% of fresh fruit weight, is taken from soil. Most of the minerals are present in trace amounts. Apart from the elements shown in Table 7, traces of bromine, iodine, and fluorine are also found in grapes. F. Vitamins Fresh grapes contain many vitamins. A fairly good amount of vitamin A is present, which is retained in dehydrated grapes. However, natural raisins contain no vitamin A or B complex. Vitamins of grapes are thiamine, riboflavin, pyridoxine, pantothenic acid, nicotinic acid, inositol, biotin, and folic acid (109).

G. Pectin.

Pectins are derivatives of polygalacturonic acid. Pe stituents of fruit during ripening. The protopectin, w in the primary cell wall, is transformed to pectin an removal of middle lamella pectate. Vinifera grapes tin compared with American grapes, which form sta H. Pigments

Generally, pigment in grapes is found only in the sk outer three layers of cells. In fruits of some red or b when ripe or overripe, the inner cells of the skin rup pulp, especially near the skin, becomes colored. In Bouschet, juice is colored in both the skin and the p anthocyanins (red, blue, purple, and black) modifie glucose. Five anthocyaninscyanidin, peonidin, delp make up the basic part of grape pigment (Table 8).

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Grapes are usually classified as white, black, or red also exist. Black vinifera varieties usually contain m highest percentage (3). Yanidin is usually the predo The Muscadine cultivars contain diglucoside. Yello ments (anthocyanins) in the skin appear at varaison complete maturity (3). Other pigments that commo fruit are carotenoids, xanthophylls, and chlorophyll harvest. The color (pigment) development is influen The pigment syndrome or pinkberry disorder has be less grapes in Maharashtra, India (106). This is man and dull pink color development during ripening of thocyanins and leukoantho-cyanins is significantly growth substances (106). I. Flavor Constituents

During ripening, grapes develop some volatile com emitting a special aroma. The principal flavor const acids, anthranilate, volatile ester acids, alcohols, an niol have been shown to be contributors to the arom closely resembles that of methyl anthranilate (3,110

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Table 8 Proportionate Percentage of Various Anthocyanin Pig

CyanidinPeonidinDelphi Species 1 2 1 2 1 Vitis rotundifolia - 9 - 6 Vitis riparia 2 5 - 2 14 Vitis rupestris - 2 - 8 9 Vitis labrusca 5 - 10 1 21 Vitis aestivalis 31 3 11 4 31 Vitis vinifera 3 - 15 - 12 In column 1 are 3-glucoside relative percentages. In column 2 percentages. Source: Ref. 7.

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but not all of the aromatic compounds are concentrated in hypodermal tissue. The grape varieties are known to have natural aroma typical of most varieties of the Vinifera. The waxes covering the surface are aliphatic n-alkenes and n-alkanes. Some aromatic hydrocarbons, including xylene, toluene, and alkyllenzene, have been reported (3). Their presence in processed products is not expected because they are insoluble in water. Muscat varieties often contain the acetates of some monoterpene alcohols. The Concord and Niagara have strong foxy flavors, which is attributed to the presence of methyl anthranilate. The most representative terpene alcohols in common muscat varieties are lianlool and geraniol, nerol, citronellol, terpinool, and hortrienol (3). J. Enzymes

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Polyphenoloxidase is the main oxidizing system of grapes and is confined mainly to the skin in berries. Other enzymes such as phenolase, phosphatase, proteinase, and invertase are also found in grape berries. Polyphenoloxidase and catalase activities are found more in late- and earlyripening cultivars, respectively. VI. Storage

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Grapes become spoiled more quickly than other fruits during handling, transport, and storage. It is therefore essential that grapes after harvest be properly graded, neatly packed, and carefully handled. Grapes are susceptible to mechanical injury during postharvest handling. Besides damage from careless handling in packing, a surface injury referred to as bruising may occur in handling and in transit to market. It is usually confined to berries that rub against the sides or are pressed against the bottom of the rough wood of the containers. In the market, the bruised areas of these varieties turn brown, and bruises, either brown or bleached, render the fruit unattractive (111,112). A. Precooling

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The usual harvest temperatures of table grapes are favorable for rapid transpiration and for the development of decay-causing fungi. The loss of water is more damaging to the grape quality. Winkler et al. (2) indicates the benefits of precooling in the general rule that within the limits at which fresh grapes are usually handled, a reduction in temperature of 9.5C halves the rate of respiration and doubles the shelf life. A fruit temperature below 4.4C greatly retards the development of all fungi and prohibits their growth. The best means of maintaining the initial quality of the fruit is therefore prompt removal of the field heat of the grapes after packing. Precooling thus checks stem desiccation, browning, and berry shattering (113). B. Low-Temperature Storage

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Grapes may be cold-stored to prolong shelf life and to relieve seasonal gluts by extending their market period. The most important factors influencing the storage life of grapes are temperature, relative humidity, air movement, and fumigation with SO2. A relative humidity of 8595% is recommended to prevent water loss from grapes when cold stored. The bunches of grapes are stored at -1 to 0C, and the temperature is kept constant to avoid condensation of water on the surface of the grapes that would lead to rapid fungal attack. To prevent shriveling and loss of weight, the relative humidity of the store is maintained at 8595% (113). Vinifera grapes are fumigated with sulfur dioxide soon after harvest and at intervals during storage to reduce spoilage caused by decay organisms (114120). Initially, SO2 concentration of

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0.5% is applied for 20 min just before or during precooling. A 0.25% concentration is used at weekly or 10-day intervals during storage. Excess fumigation can result in SO2 injury, which is characterized by bleaching of the skin of the fruit around the cap stem. Sodium bisulfite packets placed in containers of grapes can substitute for the fumigation treatment during several weeks' transit. Concord (Labrusca) grapes can be stored for 47 weeks at 0C (121,122). After that, grapes begin to deteriorate in flavor and considerable decay and shattering may develop, particularly if the temperature is not kept close to 0C (123125). American grapes are not fumigated with sulfur dioxide because of their susceptibility to injury. However, SO2-releasing pads are used for decay control in storage of Concord grapes in the northeastern states. Low humidities are undesirable for grapes, since they cause shriveling of stems and berries. Controlled atmospheres or use of carbon monoxide is

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effective in maintaining the shelf life of grapes but not in controlling decay (126). C. Postharvest Diseases and Their Control The most common fungus to attack the fruit of grapes is Botrytis cinerea, which causes gray rot (127129). Damage can be severe if there is a simultaneous attack by Penicillium or Aspergillus. Although fungal decay reduces the commercial value of black grapes, the attack on overripe white grapes by B. cinerea has been utilized to produce a special type of wineSauternes. Eckert (129) stated that gray mold is the most serious disease of grapes during storage at low temperature, and it originates from late-season infections in the vineyard.

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Grapes are highly perishable in nature. Therefore, they cannot be stored for long periods or transported long distances at ambient temperature. The storage of grapes at room temperature results in loss of weight, berry drop, and rotting of berries, resulting in heavy loss to the producer (130,137). The storage life of grapes can be prolonged by preharvest application of growth regulators (131137). The preharvest application of fungicides also prevents postharvest berry rot, thus reducing postharvest losses of grapes (138). Sulfur fumigation after harvest and/or use of grape guards have been shown to reduce postharvest losses significantly (138). The fungus may infect berries in vineyards, particularly when extended periods of rainy weather occur before harvest. However, wounds are common entry points for the fungus. A frequently invaded wound is at the stem where berries are joined and may be partially loosened by harvesting and handling. Other organisms

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frequently found in stored grapes include Penicillium expansum, Alternaria alternata, and Cladosporium herbarum (139).

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Fumigation with SO2 reduces microbial spoilage of grapes. Sulfur dioxide is produced by burning elemental sulfur. It is lightly toxic to fungi and bacteria. The toxicity increases with the percent relative humidity. In the initial fumigation under favorable conditions, a concentration of 0.5% SO2 for a period of 20 min is adequate. Refumigation is done if infections within berries occurred before the fumigation. Sodium bisulfite can also be used to fumigate grapes. SO2 is released as the bisulfite reacts with the moisture in the air of grape containers. Bisulfite treatment is used exclusively for grapes to be exported. Wrapping grape clusters in tissue paper impregnated with sodium O-phenylphenate (SOPP), Ophenylphenyl acetate, or O-phenylphenyl butyrate and sodium metabisulfite reduces postharvest decay of grapes in cold storage (140,141). A problem associated with SO2 fumigation of grapes is the constant potential for injury to the fruits and stem (142). Another problem with

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SO2 fumigation of grapes is the level of sulfite residues remaining at the time of final sale. Sulfur dioxide was included on the Generally Recognized as Safe (GRAS) list of chemicals, for which no registration is required. Heavy use of sulfites in some other foods has caused a change in the regulation because some people are allergic to sulfites. A tolerance limit of 10 ppm sulfite residue has been established (142).

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D. Irradiation. Salunkhe (143) irradiated Thompson Seedless grapes with 0 (control), 1, 2, 3, 4, and 5 105 rad and stored them at 4.4C for 1 month. Based on adjusted taste preference stores, calculated from mold and color points of view, he concluded that fruits irradiated with 1 and 2 105 rad were well liked and in marketable condition up to 1 month. The fruits irradiated at 3, 4, and 5 105 rad, however, turned unmarketable due to the development of a deep brown color. The browning was attributed to the possible activation of certain enzymes by the higher doses of irradiation. There was no mold or off-flavor with all treatments up to 3 months, while the control fruits were inedible due to the profuse development of mold. VII. Processing

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A. Juice Grapes are processed into nonalcoholic grape juice, which is an important commercial product. In many developed countries, colored as well as white grapes are used for making grape juice. In the case of colored varieties, it is necessary to heat the crushed berries for 1015 min at 6063C to extract the coloring matter (144). White grapes are not heated. Juice is extracted from the crushed grapes by means of a basket press. The extracted juice is filtered through cloth and bottled. The bottled juice can be preserved by pasteurization or by addition of sodium benzoate (145). Addition of sulfur dioxide is not recommended, as it imparts a bitter taste to the juice (146). Nearly all grape juice prepared in the United States is made from Concord grapes (147,148). Hot pressing of Concord grape is essential in order to bring into solution the color and other ingredients of the fruit.

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Cold pressing of grapes has an advantage over hot pressing in that a fresh grape flavor is more readily obtained from many varieties of grapes than is obtained by hot pressing. Some color will be extracted from many varieties of grapes. Even Concord will yield a pink-colored juice. However, yields of juice from Concord-type grapes may be as much as 20% lower than yields obtained by hot pressing. Cold-pressed, light-colored juices are invariably muddy and may have sediment. This necessitates clarification to produce an appealing product. Clarification can be achieved by kaoline or bentonite treatment, freezing, or enzyme treatment (149). B. Concentrates

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Preparation of fruit juice concentrate is one of the methods for utilization of excess production during peak season. One of the most common methods of concentration is evaporation by heat. The main disadvantage is loss of flavor. Freeze concentration, reverse osmosis, and ultrafiltration are the alternative processes by which the deteriorative effects can be almost eliminated (154157). Frozen grape juice concentrates are available commercially, but their production is low compared to orange juice concentrate. Bolin and Salunkhe (157) prepared concentrates from several fruits and evaluated the reconstituted concentrates for organoleptic characteristics.

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Before grape juice is concentrated, a part or all of its acidity is removed by adding Ca(OH)2 and CaCO3. After removing about 25% of the water in the juice by refrigeration, it is evaporated under low pressure at a temperature of 3540C until a density of 1.381.44 is reached, when a semisolid mass-grape honey containing minute crystals of dextrose and levulose is obtained. Vacuum distillation is the most usual technique used in juice concentration, and the methods in current use have been reviewed by many authors (154156). Freezing techniques are also used,

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but to a lesser extent, the ice being separated from the concentrate by centrifugation or other means (157). C. Wines

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Grapes are used extensively for production of wine. The world production of wines is estimated to be 29 million tonnes. France, Italy, the USSR, Germany, and the United States are the major producers of wine (Table 9). Wines are classified into two groups, table wines and dessert wines. Table wines contain less than 14% alcohol and are produced from varieties with moderately high sugar content, while dessert wines are produced from grapes high in sugar content and low in acid. Apart from this, the varieties must retain their particular aroma and flavoring constituents even after venification and aging (180,181). For wine making, a variety should possess sufficient sugar, total soluble solids of more than 24% and acidity ranging from 0.50 to 0.70%, so as to give a good body to the wine. Padshetty et al. (162) showed that grapes harvested at postmature stage followed by mature storage were found to be better for production of quality wines. Similarly, wines

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prepared from the grapes of the hot season were better in quality than those from the cold season. The production of wines involves complex biochemical processes in transforming grape juice into wine. A pure culture of yeast is multiplied, prior to adding it to the must in barrels or vats. To the culture in the bottle, pasteurized juice is added and the yeast multiply rapidly. This fermenting starter juice is inoculated into a larger volume of pasteurized juice in a larger container, by adding it in the proportion of 1:10. After this, a water seal is attached to the barrel in order to permit the release of any accumulated pressure during the subsequent slow fermentation. The rate of
Table 9 Major Wine-Producing Countries of the World Raisins (1000 Production (1000 Country MT) MT) World 1,104 28,825 France 6,522

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Italy Spain Argentina USSR United States Portugal Germany (FR) South Africa Yugoslavia Hungary Greece Romania Australia Chile Austria Source: Ref. 4.

3 8 298

6,380 3,472 1,150 1,800 1,545 724 1,340

40

930 523 500 450 750 459 320 258

120 82 17

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fermentation will depend on the Brix of the fermenting must. When fermentation is complete, the clear wine is syphoned, filled completely, and sealed air-tight to exclude all air. In the course of time, the wine matures. During the maturing or aging process, which takes from 6 to 12 months, the wine loses its raw and harsh flavor and acquires a smooth flavor and characteristic aroma. During the maturation process, there is natural clarification of the wine. Filter aids, white of egg and bentonite, can also be employed to bring about clarification. It is desirable to pasteurize the wine to destroy spoilage organisms and coagulate colloidal materials which cause cloudiness in the wine. Wines are generally pasteurized for 12 min at 82 to 88C and then bottled. The bottles are closed with bark corks of good quality and then the bottle is labeled.

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The production of red wines involves the components of the skin and seeds as well as the pulp. These components, especially the phenolics, give the characteristic color and flavor to the product. The first operations are the prefermentation processes, which liberate the cell sap and allow the various enzymes and substrates to come into contact with one another. Pectolytic enzymes and phenolases are responsible for most of the visible changes. Under anaerobic conditions, the crushed grapes undergo and intracellular fermentation without the participation of yeasts which yields 23% alcohol. The concentration of malic acid decreases and secondary products of fermentation appear. This is known as carbonic maceration, and the characteristics of red wine depend on this process. The control of subsequent alcoholic fermentation by yeasts is dependent on providing the best conditions for the complete fermentation of the sugars. This involves temperature control and the

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prevention of abnormal fermentation by unsuitable bacteria. The best red wines are prepared by alcoholic fermentation followed by the fermentation of malic acid by lactic bacteria (malolactic fermentation), which are able to multiply at low pH and in the presence of alcohol. This process is particularly important since the quality of red wines is dependent on the decrease in acidity thus brought about.

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White wines are the result of fermentation brought about by the fermentation of grape juice only. This process of production seeks to avoid direct or enzymic breakdown of the components of the skin, seed, or stalk, and therefore pressing and filtration precedes the fermentation processes. While red wines tend to have a relatively constant character, white wines exhibit a variety of characteristicsmildly or strongly aromatic dry, medium dry, or sweet (163). They may be natural, self-, or artificially carbonated (sparkling). The initial processes are carried out rapidly to reduce the time of contact between the juice and the solid parts of the grape. Malolactic fermentation is kept to a minimum, so white wines still contain malic acid. Champagne and other sparkling wines may be carbonated under pressure or allowed to continue fermentation in the bottle. Dessert wines may be fortified by added alcohol so that they retain some of the sugars present in grapes. They develop their special

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quality by being allowed to undergo a prolonged slow oxidation. In order to improve wine color and quality, use of thermovinification technique has been investigated with some colored grape varieties. In general, heating the grape must to 70C for 30 min or dipping the grape bunches in boiling water for 5 min prior to crushing results in the improvement of color in wines (163). D. Raisins Raisins are the second most important product of the grapevine, wine being the first (164). The quality of raisins depends on the size of the raisin berries, the uniformity and brilliance of the berry color, the condition of the berry surface, the texture of the skin and pulp in the berry, moisture content, chemical composition, and presence of decay, mold, yeast, and foreign matter (35).

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Based on the method of preparation and variety of grapes used for raisin making, they are called by various names. 1. Natural: Raisins of Thompson Seedless grapes are dried in natural conditions, without dipping treatment, mainly in California, Iran, and the USSR. In California, they are called Thompson Seedless or naturals. In California, more than 90% of total raisin production is from Thompson Seedless grapes, and of these raisins more than 90% are of the natural sun-dried type.

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2. Sultana: In Australia and South Africa, the name Sultana is applied to the light-colored, tender raisins made from the variety called Thompson Seedless in California and prepared by various processes other than natural sun drying. Most commonly the grapes are dipped into a solution containing potassium carbonate, with an emulsion of olive oil; they may be dried in direct sunlight. 3. Golden bleached: In California, light-colored (bleached) raisins are produced mostly by the golden bleach process. First, Thompson Seedless grapes are sorted, then they are dipped to produce slight checking (cracking) of the skins, and then they are cooled and washed in a spray of cold water. They are exposed to the fumes of burning sulfur in a sulfur house. After being sulfured, the grapes are dehydrated at a temperature of 6070C.

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4. Sulfur-bleached: Grapes for making sulfurbleached raisins are treated in the same way as the golden-bleached up to the start of drying. Then the grapes are exposed on trays to direct sunlight. 5. Soda oil dipped: Grapes are dipped in a sodium carbonate solution having a thin film of olive oil floating on the surface. The dipped grapes are dried on trays in direct sunlight. 6. Black Corinth: Raisins of this variety are all dried in direct sunlight or in a shed without pretreatment. 7. Muscat: Natural sun-dried raisins are produced from Muscat of Alexandria grapes. The California raisins are called Loose Muscats if they are stemmed and not seeded, and Seeded Muscat if the seeds have been removed.

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8. Valencians and lexias: In Spain and Australia, large quantities of muscats are dipped before drying. The Spanish raisins are dried in direct sunlight but may be covered with muslin sheeting at night or during rain. When dry, they are stemmed and sold as Valencias. The Australian product is rack-dried in the same way as the Sultana and is called lexia, a term sometimes also applied to the Valencia raisins of Spain.

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For efficient drying, grapes should have a high sugar content of 2024 Brix. The high-sugarcontent grapes are dried without any sulfuring until there is no exudation of juice upon pressing the dried grape between the fingers. The yield and quality of the final dried product depend on the Brix of the fresh grape taken for drying. Bhutani et al. (165) found that drying of berries proceeded at a faster rate in a cross-flow dehydrator than under sun drying. Treatment of berries with alkali reduced the drying time. Raisins of fairly good quality were produced in a cross-flow dehydrator when the berries were treated with alkali followed by oiling and sulfuring.

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The bulk of the world's raisins are dried in yards, outdoors, by spreading clusters on tamped earth floors that are well exposed to sunshine. After 78 days, the clusters are turned by hand to complete drying. These are called natural raisins. Many modifications of drying and processing of raisins are used (166170). To shorten the drying period, Middle Eastern growers dip the fruit in a hot water bath, prepared by adding ashes from vine canes or other shrubs. This alkaline solution produces minute cracks in the berry skins, reducing the drying period. In the Greek process, olive oil is used with potassium carbonate in the dip; this results in a softer and lighter-colored raisin. In Iran and

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Afghanistan, the grape clusters are threaded on a vertical string suspended from the ceiling in the home, drying very slowly in the shed, but producing light-colored raisins of excellent quality (3). This has led to the construction of special drying houses in the vineyards, with slitted walls for air circulation and yet protected from rain. A similar method is used by the Eastern Mediterranean and Australian growers to dry the fruits in open-sided sheds. The fruit is spread on horizontal frames of wire netting that are movable and loaded from the lowermost rack. A metal roof protects from rain damage. When drying is complete, the wire racks are shaken to remove the berries. The raisins produced are soft, amber to brown in color, and shiny due to the use of a mineral or olive oil dip before drying.

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After drying the fruit to about 15% moisture, it is bulked in larger containers to equalize the moisture content and then riddled to remove most of the dried cluster stems. The next operation is destemming by passing the raisins into a horizontal cylinder of metal screen which is rotated at an appropriate speed. The raisins are then passed through sizing screens and washers. They may be further dehydrated if necessary and treated with a light coating of mineral oil to improve handling and prevent stickiness and clumping together when packaged.

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Raisins are commonly used in bakery and confectionery products. Raisins are popular as dry fruits and are commonly used in many traditional recipes of Asian countries. Raisin extracts are widely used as a raw material for alcohol production (171) by fermentation with S. cerevisiae. Zymomonas mobilis has been shown to be more advantageous than yeasts in wide use, since it gives higher ethanol productivity, yield, and ethanol concentration. E. Jelly

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Grape jelly is a popular product in the United States, accounting for about 30% of the total production (172). Dark- and light-skinned grapes can be utilized for production of jelly (173175). Most of the commercial jelly manufactured in the United States is from Concord grapes (176). Grape juice is tested for pectin content by the alcohol precipitation method or a jelmeter and used for preparation of jelly. The required quantity of sugar is added to the extract, and the mixture is boiled to the desired consistency. The finished jelly is packed in glass containers. Freezing storage is used to hold juice for manufacture of jelly and jam. Frozen juice retains its flavor well and does not deteriorate due to oxidation. Juice to be held in freezing storage should be precooled before freezing. References

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1. Salunkhe, D. K., and B. B. Desai, Grape, Postharvest Biotechnology of Fruits, Vol. 1, CRC Press, Boca Raton, FL, 1984, p. 95. 2. Winkler, A. J., J. A. Cook, W. M. Kliewer, and L. A. Lider, General Viticulture, University of California Press, Berkeley, CA, 1974, p. 543. 3. Olmo, H. P., Grapes, Encyclopaedia of Food Science, Food Technology and Nutrition (R. MaCrae, R. K. Robinson, and M. J. Sadler, eds.), Academic Press, London, 1993, p. 2252. 4. FAO, Production Year Book, Food and Agriculture Organization, Rome, 1992, Vol. 46, p. 164. 5. International; Fruit World, The Clipper 15 (Statistical Supplement), 1993.

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6. Negrul, A. N., Question of the origin and breeding of the grapevine on a genetical basis, Genetika 4(3):84 (1968). 7. Peynaud, E., and P. Ribereau-Gayon, The grape, Biochemistry of Fruits and Their Products (A. C. Hulme, ed.), Academic Press, New York, 1974, p. 201. 8. Patil, V. K., and S. D. Chavan, Bhartiya Draksh Sheti, Vols. 1 and 2, Marathwada Agricultural University, Parbhani, India, 1989.

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9. Padmanabhaiah, D. R., Studies on the influence of some plant growth regulators on certain morphological and biochemical changes in the developing grape berry, Ph.D. thesis, Tamil Nadu Agriculture University, Coimbatore, India, 1973. 10. Lodh, S. B., and Y. Selvaraj, Biochemical changes associated with growth and development of grape Var. Bangalore Blue, Indian J. Hort. 31:232 (1974). 11. Rao, M. M., and R. M. Pandey, Studies on the physiology of berry growth with special reference to factors governing lag phase of berry development in Pusa Seedless grapes, Indian J. Plant Physiol. 19:178 (1976).

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12. Saidha, T., Studies on the endogenous cytokinins like substances in developing berries of grape variety Bangalore Blue, M.Sc. (Agri.) thesis, University of Agricultural Sciences, Bangalore, India, 1976. 13. Singh, N. S., and S. D. Khanduja, Physical and biochemical changes during maturation of grapes (Vitis vinifera), Indian J. Hort. 34:354 (1977). 14. Shankaranarayana, H. N., Effect of growth regulators and horticultural practices on ripening and quality of gulabi grape (V. vinifera L.), M.Sc. thesis, University of Agricultural Sciences, Bangalore, India, 1979. 15. Pratt, C., Reproductive anatomy in cultivated grapes. A review. Am. J. Enol. Vitic. 22:92 (1971).

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16. Coombe, B. G., Research on development and ripening of grape berry, Am. J. Enol. Vitic. 43:101 (1992). 17. Lutra, J. C., and I. S. Cheema, Some studies in respiration and other metabolic activities in berries of the grape vine, Indian J. Agric. Sci. 1:695 (1931). 18. Selvaraj, Y., D. K. Pal, N. G. Diwakar, E. R. Suresh, and A. G Purohit, Changes in respiration rate and certain enzyme activity during growth and development of grape variety Anabe-Shahi and Bangalore Blue, Indian J. Exp. Biol. 15:400 (1977). 19. Selvaraj, Y., D. K. Pal, N. G. Diwakar, A. G. Purohit, and S. D. Shikhamany, Sugars, organic acids and amino acids in Anab-e-Shahi grape during growth development, J. Food Sci. Technol. 16:136 (1978).

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20. Palejwala, V. A., H. R. Parikh, and V. V. Modi, The role of ABA in the ripening of grapes, Physiol. Plant 65:496 (1985). 21. Patil, A. V., and P. K. Gupta, Sugar-acid and nitrogen in developing berries of some grape varieties, Vitis. 12:214 (1973). 22. Pandey, R. M., M. M. Rao, and R. N. Singh, Studies on the metabolism of amino acids during development, ripening and senescence of Pusa seedless grapes, Sci. Hort. 2:385 (1974). 23. Bhatia, V. K., R. Madhav, and T. R. Seshadri, A note on the proanthocyanidine of white grapes, Curr. Sci. 37:582 (1968). 24. Lodh, S. B., and Y. Selvaraj, Preliminary studies on the separation and identification of anthocyanin pigments in Bangalore Blue grape by paper chromatography, Indian J. Hort. 30:514 (1973).

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25. Salunkhe, D. K., and J. Y. Do, Biogenesis of aroma constituents of fruits and vegetables, Crit. Rev. Food Sci. Nutr. 8:161 (1977). 26. Selvaraj, Y., Annual Report, Indian Institute of Horticulture Research, Bangalore, India. 27. Shinde, B. N., and V. K. Patil, Pollination studies in Anab-e-Shahi grape, Punjab Hort. J. 9(34):130 (1979). 28. Lider, L. A., Nematode resistant rootstocks for California vine yards, Div. Agr. Sci. Univ. Calif. Leaflet 114, 1959. 29. Eineet, J., and C. Pratt, Giant sports of grapes, Proc. Am. Soc. Hort. Sci. 63:251 (1954). 30. Dunstan, R. T., Hybridization of Euvitis Vitis rotundifolia back cross of Muscadine, Proc. Am. Soc. Hort. Sci. 84:238 (1964).

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31. Kuzmin, Characteristic of early ripening hybrids of grape, cited in Jawanda, J. S., Grape breeding, Punjab Hort J. 11(1/2):105 (1971). 32. Hacatrjan, S. S., The relation between start of fruiting in initial forms and earliness in hybrid progenies in the vine, Agrobiologija (Agrobiology), p. 589 (1964).

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33. Patel, G. L., and H. P. Olmo, Induction of polyploidy in the sterile F-1 hybrids of Vitia vinifera Linn. and Vitia rotundifolia Michx., Phyton 7:63 (1956). 34. Dermen, H., Colchiploidy in grapes, J. Heredity 45:159 (1954). 35. Olmo, H. P., Plant breeding programme aided by radiation treatment, Calif. Agr. 14(7):4 (1960). 36. Janick, J., and J. N. Moore, Advances in Fruit Breeding, Purdue University Press, West Lafayette, IN, 1979, p. 140. 37. Loomie, N. H., and L. A. Lider, Nomenclature of the Salt creek grape, Fruit Vet. Hort. Dig. 25:41 (1971).

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38. Stover, L. H., Progress in the development of grape varieties for Florida, Proc. Fla. St. Hort. Soc. 73:320 (1960). 39. Das, P. K., and S. K. Mukherjee, Effect of gamma radiation and ethylmethane sulphonate on seeds, cuttings and pollen in grape, Indian J. Plant Breed. 28:347 (1968). 40. Snyder, E., and F. N. Harmon, Grape breeding summary19231951, Proc. Am. Soc. Hort. Sci. 60:243 (1952). 41. Olmo, H. P., Perlette and Delighttwo new early maturing seedless table grape varieties, Calif. Agr. Exp. Sta. Bull., p. 705 (1948). 42. Olmo, H. P., Ruby Cabernet and Emerald Riesling two table wine grape varieties, Calif. Agr. Exp. Sta. Bull., p. 404 (1948).

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43. Olmo, H. P., and A. Koyama, Rubi Red and RoyalityNew grape varieties for color, concentrate, and port-wine, Calif. Agr. Exp. Sta. Bull., p. 789 (1962). 44. Arumugam, R., and V. N. M. Rao, Effect of some growth retardants and inhibitors on grape var. Anab-e-Shahi (Vitis vinifera L.) Viticulture in Tropics, Proc. Working Group on Viticulture in South East Asia, 1972, p. 270. 45. Srinivasan, P. S. Proc. 1st Int. Workshop on Postharvest Management of Grapes, Pune, 1985, p. 269. 46. Venkatratnam, L., Grape culture means rich food, better returns, Indian Hort. 8(2):5 (1964). 47. Chakrawar, V. R., Influence of pruning time of forcing two successive crops as related to growth and production of Gulabi grapes, M.Sc. thesis. Nagpur University, Nagpur, India, 1966.

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48. Phad, V. S., Studies on double cropping in Gulabi, Bhokri and Cheema Sahebi varieties of grape (Vitis vinifera L.), M.Sc. thesis, Marathwada Agricultural University, Parbhani, India, 1982. 49. Chadha, K. L., and L. Singh, Effect of varying levels of nitrogen on growth, yield and quality of Thompson Seedless and Kandhari varieties of grapes, Indian J. Hort. 28:257 (1971). 50. Nijjar, G. S., Fertilisation of grapes, Prog. Farming 6(7) (1970). 51. Venkatratnam, L., Grape in Andhra Pradesh, Grape Report, Andhra Pradesh Grape Growers Association, Hyderabad, India, 1968, p. 7. 52. Popov, T., Pocvozn Agrohim 3: 2934 (1968), cited in FruitsTropical and Sub-tropical (T. K. Bose, ed.), Naya-prokash, Calcutta, India, 1985, p. 221.

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53. Georgieva, S., Lozarstov Vinarstvo 25:2224 (1976), cited in FruitsTropical and Sub-tropical (T. K. Bose, ed.), Naya-prokash, Calcutta, India, 1985, p. 221. 54. Conradie, W. J., and D. Saayman, Effect of long-term nitrogen, phosphorus and potassium fertilization on chenin blanc vines, Am. J. Enol. Vitic. 40(2):85 (1989). 55. Conradie, W. J., and D. Saayman, Effects of long term nitrogen on chenin blanc vines. II. Leaf analysis and grape composition. Am. J. Enol. Vitic. 40(2):91 (1989). 56. Alexander, D. M., Seasonal fluctuation in nitrogen content of the Sultana vine, Austral. J. Agr. Res. 8:162 (1957). 57. Conradie, W. J., Seasonal uptake of nutrients by Chenin Blanc in sand culture. I. Nitrogen. S. Afr. J. Enol. Vitic. 1:59 (1980).

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58. Alexander, D. M., Seasonal fluctuation in nitrogen content of the Sultana vine, Austral. J. Agr. Res. 8:162 (1957). 59. Gopalaswamy, N., and V. N. Madhav Rao, Effect of graded doses of potash on yield and quality of grapes var. Anab-e-Shahi, South Indian Hort. 20:41 (1972). 60. Sood, S. K., Effect of FYM, ammonium sulphate and super phosphate on the quality of Bhokari grapes, Punjab Hort J. 7:71 (1967).

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61. Patil, V. K., Studies on the irrigation of Bangalore purple grapes, Haryana J. Hort. Sci. 6:20 (1977). 62. Morris, J. R., and D. L. Cawton, Effect of irrigation and potassium fertilization on yield, quality, and petiole analysis of Concord (Vitis labrusca L.), Am. J. Enol. Vitic. 33:45 (1982). 63. Spayd, S, E., and J. R. Morris, Influence of irrigation, pruning severity and nitrogen on yield and quality of Concord grapes in Arkansas, J. Am. Soc. Hort. Sci. 103:211 (1978). 64. Christenson, P., Response of Thompson Seedless grapevines to the timing of pre-harvest irrigation cut off, Am. J. Enol. Vitic. 26:188 (1975).

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65. Hardie, W. J., and J. A. Considine, Response of grapes to water deficit stress in particular stages of development, Am. J. Enol. Vitic. 27:55 (1976). 66. Nijjar, G. S., and I. Sharma, Effect of different levels of irrigation on vine growth, yield and fruit quality in grape (Vitis vinifera L.) Cv. Anab-e-Shahi, Haryana J. Hort. Sci. 2: 1 (1973). 67. Patil, V. K., Grape pruning practices in different climatesA review, Maharashtra J. Hort 5()1):97 (1989). 68. Nath, N., I. S. Yadav, S. N. Pandey, and A. N. Singh, Girdling for better seedless grapes, Indian J. Hort 28:176 (1973).

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69. Rao, S. N., R. N. Reddy, and P. Sreeramulu, Studies on the effect of GA on fruit set, size, weight, seed content and quality of grapes, Andhra Agr. J. 9:166 (1962). 70. Yadav, I. S., S. N. Pandey, P. C. Bose, and K. Singh, Induction of seedlessness by gibberellic acid in grape Cv. Hur (V. vinifera L.), Prog. Hort. 9:75 (1977). 71. Lider, L. A., A. N. Kasimatis, and W. M. Kliewer, Effect of pruning severity on growth and fruit production of Thompson Seedless grapevines, Am. J. Enol. Vitic. 26:175 (1974). 72. Weaver, R. J., Relation of time of girdling on ripening of Red Malaga and Ribier grapes, Proc. Am. Soc. Hort. Sci. 64:183 (1961). 73. El-Banna, G. I., Effect of girdling and ethepon on ripening of Thompson Seedless grapes, Egyptian J. Hort. 8:55 (1981).

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74. El-Banna, G. I., and R. J. Weaver, Effect of ethephon and gibberellin on maturation of ungirdled Thompson Seedless grapes, Am. J. Enol. Vitic. 30:11 (1978). 75. Patil, V. K., Improvement of grape quality, Advances in horticulture, Vol. 5 (K. L. Chadha and O. P. Parekh, eds.), Malhotra, New Delhi, 1993. 76. Jadhav, J. G., Studies in the improvement of the quality of some commercial varieties of grape vine (Vitis vinifera L.) by chemical and physiological methods, M.Sc. (Agr.) thesis, Poona University, Poona, India, 1968. 77. Nijjar, G. S., and G. G. Bhatia, Effect of growth regulators on fruiting of grapes, Punjab Hort. J. 5:141 (1965).

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78. Venkatraman, L., Effect of gibberellic acid on Anab-e-Shahi grape (Vitis vinifera L.), Proc. Am. Soc. Hort. Sci. 84:225 (1964). 79. Manivel, L., and J. S. Sunderaraj, A note on the effect of GA on Anab-e-Shahi and Pachadraksha varieties of grapes, South Indian Hort. 16:65 (1968). 80. Das, H. C., and G. S. Randhawa, Response of seedless and some seeded varieties of Vitis vinifera to GA application, Proc. Int. Symp. on Sub-tropical and Tropical Horticulture, Today and Tomorrow Publishers and Printers, New Delhi, 1973. 81. Bajwa, M. S., S. N. Singh, and S. S. Deol, Proc. 3rd Int. Symp. on Tropical and Sub-tropical Horticulture, HSI, Bangalore, India, 1972, p. 128.

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82. Sharma, S., and P. C. Jindal, Effect of 4-CPA and benzyladenine on colour development in Beauty Seedless grapes, Haryana Agr. Univ. J. Res. 12(4):679 (1982). 83. Shikhamany, S. D., and N. N. Reddy, Effect of growth retardants on growth, yield and quality of grapes, Cv. Thompson Seedless, Indian J. Hort. 46(1):31 (1989). 84. Tukey, L. D., and H. K. Flemming, Alar, a new fruit setting chemical for grapes. Pa. Fruit News 46:(6):12 (1967). 85. Tukey, L. D., and H. K. Fleming, Chemical to increase grape set may develop table fruit industry, Pa. Agr. Exp. Sta. Sci. Farmers 14(3):11 (1967).

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86. Tukey, L. D., and H. K. Flemming, Fruiting and vegetative effects of N-dimethylaminosuccinamio acid on Concord grapes (Vitis labrusca L.), Proc. Am. Soc. Hort. Sci. 93:300 (1968). 87. Das, H. C., G. S. Randhawa, and S. S. Negi, Effect of growth regulators on postharvest berry drop in Cheema sahebi (Vitis vinifera L.), Indian J. Hort. 31:131 (1974). 88. Chakrawar, V. R., and D. A. Rane, Effect of growth regulators on uneven ripening of grape (cv. Gulabi and Bangalore Purple), Vitis 16(2):9799 (1976). 89. Singh, D. S., R. A. Pathak, and R. D. Singh, A note on the effect of thiourea on yield, ripening and quality of grape Cv. Pusa Seedless, Prog. Hort. 18(34):216 (1986).

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90. Foot, J. R., A comparison of three methods of pruning of grapes, Calif. Agr. 41(1/2):9 (1987). 91. Hayes, W. B., Fruit growing in India, 3rd rev. ed. Kitabistan. Allahabad, India, 1966. 92. Balasubrahmaniam, V. R., When grapes are not sour, Farmer's J. 1(6):41 (1981). 93. Directorate Marketing Inspection, Marketing of Fruits and Vegetables, Agricultural Marketing Series, Ministry of Food and Agriculture, Government of India, 1985. 94. Gupta, O. P., P. C. Jindal, and S. P. Singh, Effect of pre-harvest spray of calcium nitrate on the storage behaviour of grapes Cv. Perlette, Haryana Agr. Univ. J. Res. 10(2):204 (1980).

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95. Ladania, M. S., and J. S. Bhullar, Effect of plant growth regulators on the storage behaviour of Perlette grapes, Punjab Agr. Univ. J. Res. 22:467 (1986). 96. Bhujbal, B. G., J. D. Patil, D. S. Kolhe, and B. B. Chougule, Effect of packaging of grapes on keeping quality, Packaging of Fruit and Vegetables in India, Agricultural and Horticultural Society, Public Gardens, Hyderabad, India, 1988, pp. 6567. 97. Dhillon, B. S., J. S. Randhawa, S. S. Sadhu, and J. S. Bhullar, Effect of growth regulators and wrappers on the shelf life of grapes during cold storage, Proc. 1st Natl. Workshop on Postharvest Management of Grapes, Pune, India, 1985, p. 56. 98. Rao, M. M., Problems and prospects of postharvest handling of grapes in India, Punjab. Hort. J. 9:1 (1969).

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99. Anand, J. C., Postharvest management of Indian grapes, Proc. 1st Natl. workshop on Postharvest Management of Grapes, Pune, India, Feb. 46, p. 19. 100. Nelson, K. E., High picking temperature and rough handling can reduce consumer acceptability of California fresh table grapes, Blue Anchor 32:6, (1955). 101. Amerine, M. A., H. W. Beng, and W. V. Cruess, The Technology of Wine Making, 3rd ed., AVI Publishing, Westport, CT, 1972. 102. Kliever, W. M., The sugars of grapevines. II. Identification and seasonal changes in the concentration of several trace sugars in Vitis vinifera, Am. J. Enol. Vitic. 16:168 (1965). 103. Lee, C. Y., and A. Jaworski, Major phenolic compounds in ripening white grapes, Am. J. Enol. Vitic. 40:43 (1989).

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104. Lee, C. Y., and A. Jaworski, Phenolic compounds in white grapes grown in New York, Am. J. Enol. Vitic. 38:277 (1987). 105. Lin, T. Y., and R. P. Vine, Identification and reduction of ellagic acid in Muscadine grape juice, J. Food Sci. 55:1607 (1987). 106. Khilari, J. M., and D. K. Salunkhe, Pigment syndrome in Thompson Seedless grapes, Am. J. Enol. Vitic., in press. 107. Boyle, J. A., and L. Hsu, Identification and quantification of ellagic acid in Muscadine grape juice, Am. J. Enol. Vitic. 41:43 (1990). 108. Singleton, V. L., The total phenolic content of grape berries during the maturation of several varieties, Am. J. Enol. Vitic. 17(2):126 (1966).

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109. Burger, M., L. V. Hein, L. J. Teply, P. H. Derse, and C. H. Drieger, Vitamin, mineral and approximate composition of frozen fruits, juices and vegetables, J. Agr. Food Chem. 4:418 (1956). 110. Bolin, H. R., and D. K. Salunkhe, Physicochemical and volatile flavour changes occurring in fruit juices during concentration and foammat drying, J. Food Sci. 36:665 (1971). 111. Rao, M. M., Factors governing physiological deterioration and wastage of grapes in handling and cold storage, Drakshavrutta (Marathi) 1(5):61 (1981).

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112. Wills, R. H. H., T. H. Lee, D. Graham, W. B. Meglasson, and E. G. Hall, Postharvest: Introduction to the Physiology, Handling of Fruits and Vegetables, New South Wales University Press, Kensington, Australia, 1981. 113. Nelson, K. E., Harvesting and handling California table grapes for market, Univ. Calif. Div. Agr. Nat. Res. Bull. 1913, p. 72 (1985). 114. Ballinger, W. E., and W. B. Nesbitt, Quality of Muscadine grapes after storage with sulphur dioxide generators, J. Am. Soc. Hort. Sci. 107:827 (1982). 115. Blanpied, G. D., and K. D. Hickey, Concord grape storage trials for control of Botrytis cinerea and Penicillium sp., Plant Dis. Rep. 47:986 (1963).

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116. Couey, H. M., Inhibition of germination of alternaria spores by sulphur dioxide under various moisture conditions, Phytopathology 55:525 (1965). 117. Couey, H. M., and M. Uota, Effect of concentration, exposure time, temperature and relative humidity on the toxicity of sulphur dioxide to the spores of Botrytis cinerea, Phytopathology 51:815 (1961). 118. Nelson, K. E., Some studies on the action of SO2 in control of Botrytis rot of Tokay grapes, Proc. Am. Soc. Hort. Sci. 71:190 (1957). 119. Nelson, K. E., Factors affecting removal of sulphur oxide from atmosphere of table grapes, Am. J. Enol. Vitic. 33(2):61 (1982).

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120. Nelson, K. E., and H. B. Richardson, Further studies on factors affecting concentration of sulphur dioxide in fumigation atmosphere for table grapes, Proc. Am. Soc. Hort. Sci. 77:337 (1961). 121. Lutz, J. M., Factors influencing the quality of American grapes in storage. U.S. Dept. Agr. Tech. Bull. 606, 27 (1938). 122. Smith, C. J., H. L. Cancel, and T. O. Nakayama, Refrigerated storage of Muscadine grapes, Am. J. Enol. Vitic. 24:22 (1971). 123. Hedberg, P. R., Table grape storage, Food Technol. (Austral.) 31(2):80 (1979). 124. Guelfat-Reich, S., B. Safran, S. Gattenio, and N. Metal, Long term storage of table grapes: Use of liquid SO2 generators, Vitis 14:220 (1975).

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125. Jacob, H. E., The utilization of sulphur dioxide in shipping grapes, Calif. Agr. Exp. Sta. Bull. 471, 1 (1929). 126. Yahia, E. M., K. E. Nelson, and A. A. Kader, Postharvest quality and storage life of grapes as influenced by adding carbon monoxide to air to control atmosphere, J. Am. Soc. Hort. Sci. 108:1067 (1983). 127. Harvey, J. M., and W. T. Pentzer, Market diseases of grapes and other small fruits, U. S. Dept. Agr. Handbook 189, 1960, p. 37. 128. Cappellini, R. A., M. J. Ceponin, and G. W. Lightner, Disorders in table grape shipments to the New York Market, 19721984, Plant Dis. Rep. 70:1075 (1986).

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129. Eckert, J. W., Pathological diseases of fresh fruits and vegetables, Postharvest Biology and Bio-technology (H. O. Hultin, and M. Milner, eds.), Food and Nutrition Press, Westport, CT, 1978, p. 161. 130. Rao, M. M., Effect of benzyladinine on postharvest berry drop in Anab-e-Shahi grapes, Vitis 9:126 (1970). 131. Pool, R. M., R. J. Weaver, and W. M. Kliwver, The effect of growth regulators on changes in fruits of Thompson seedless grapes during cold storage, J. Am. Soc. Hort. Sci. 97:67 (1972). 132. Randhawa, J. S., B. S. Dhillon, and S. S. Mann, Effect of preharvest application of CCC and kinetin on cold storage of Perlette grapes, Punjab Agr. J. Res. 13(3):267 (1976).

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133. Narasimhan, P., M. M. Rao, N. Nagara, and B. Anandaswamy, Effect of preharvest application of growth regulators on the control of berry drop in Bangalore blue grapes, J. Food Sci. Technol. 4:162 (1967). 134. Desai, U. T., A. V. Patil, and S. N. Kaulgud, Effect of different chemicals on keeping quality of Thompson Seedless grapes, South Indian Hort. 28(2):56 (1980). 135. Hifney, H. A. A., and R. S. Abdel-Ali, Effect of GA and CCC on physical and chemical changes in seedless grape under cold storage conditions, Vitis 16:27 (1977). 136. Kokate, A. S., and B. S. Dhillon, Physiological weight losses in Perlette (Vitis vinifera) grapes during

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cold storage as affected by CCC, Proc. First Natl. Workshop on Postharvest Management of Grapes, Pune, India, Feb. 46, 1985, p. 146. 137. Bramlage, W. J. M., M. Drake, and J. B. Baker, Relationship of calcium content to respiration and postharvest conditions of apple, J. Am. Soc. Hort. Sci. 99:736 (1974). 138. Chundawat, B. S., and P. C. Jindal, Control of pre- and post-harvest berry drop in grape (vitis vinifera) cv. Beauty Seedless, Udyanika 3:17 (1979). 139. Cappellini, R. A., M. J. Ceponis, and G. W. Lightner, Disorders in table grape shipments to the New York market 19721984, Plant Dis. Rep. 70:1075 (1986).

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140. Pentzer, W. T., C. E. Asbury, and K. E. Hammer, Effects of fumigation of different varieties of vinifera grapes with sulphur dioxide gas, Proc. Am. Soc. Hort. Sci. 29:339 (1933). 141. Ryall, A. L., and J. M. Harvey, The cold storage of vinifera grapes, U. S. Dept. Agr. Handbook 159, 1959, p. 1. 142. Mitchell, F. G., Postharvest handling systems: Small fruits (table grapes, strawberries and kiwi fruit), Postharvest Technology of Horticulture Crops, University of California Publication No. 3311, 1992, p. 223. 143. Salunkhe, D. K., Gamma radiation effects on fruits and vegetables, Econ. Bot. 15(1):28 (1961).

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144. Joslyn, M. A., Fruits juices and concentrates, Fruit and Vegetable Juice Processing Technology (D. K. Tressler and M. A. Joslyn, eds.), AVI, CT, 1961, p. 314. 145. Khurdiya, D. S., and M. Muralikrishna, Studies on juice making qualities of some varieties of grapes grown in North India, Indian Food Packer 26(5):9 (1970). 146. Lal, G., G. S. Siddappa, and G. L. Tandon, Grape fruit beverage, Preservation of Fruits and Vegetables, ICAR, New Delhi, 1967, p. 129. 147. Sistrunk, W. A., and H. L. Gascoigne, Stability of colour in Concord grape juice and expression of colour, J. Food Sci. 48:430 (1983). 148. Sinstrunk, W. A., and J. R. Morris, Changes in Muscadine grape juice quality during cold stabilization and storage of bottled juice, J. Food Sci. 49:239 (1984).

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149. Dan, A., Product improvement and new product development in grapes, Proc. Natl. Workshop on Postharvest Management of Grapes, Pune, India, Feb. 46, 1985, p. 281. 150. Patwardhan, M. V., and A. M. Nanjundaswamy, New trends in processing of grapes, Proc. Natl. Workshop on Postharvest Management of Grapes, Pune, India, Feb. 46, 1985, p. 277. 151. Balsubrahmanyam, V. R., and S. D. Khanduja, A preliminary study of processing of vinifera grapes into juices, raisins and wines, Proc. Natl. Workshop on Postharvest Management of Grapes, Pune, India, Feb. 46, 1985, p. 357. 152. Adsule, P. G., and S. S. Negi, Screening grape varieties for juice product, Second Indian Convention of Food Scientists and Technologists, CFTRI, Mysore, 1983.

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153. Pruthi, J. S., Processing of grape juice, juice products and by-products, Indian Food Packer 25(1):38 (1971). 154. Tressler, D. K., and M. A. Joslyn, The Chemistry and Technology of Fruit and Vegetable Juice Production, AVI, New York, 1954. 155. Deshpande, S. S., H. R. Bolin, and D. K. Salunkhe, Freeze concentration of fruit juices, Food Technol. 36(5):68 (1982). 156. Amerding, G. D., Evaporative methods as applied to food industry, Adv. Food Res. 15:305 (1966). 157. Bolin, H. R., and D. K. Salunkhe, Physicochemical and volatile flavour changes in fruit juices during concentration and foam-mat drying, J. Food Sci. 36:665 (1971).

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158. Muller, J. G., Freeze concentration of food liquids, theory practice and economics, Food Technol. 21(1):49 (1967). 159. Morgan, A. I., Jr., E. Lowe, R. L. Merson, and E. L. Durkee, Reverse osmosis, Food Technol. 19(12):52 (1965). 160. Amerine, M. A., The maturation of wine, Grape Wines 11:53 (1956). 161. Amerine, M. A., H. W. Berg, and W. V. Cruess, The Technology of Wine Making, 2nd ed. AVI, Westport, CT, 1967, p. 76.

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162. Padshetty, N. S., R. B. Patil, M. S. Subbarao, and B. L. Amla, Maturity, stage and harvest season effect on dry wine variety Bangalore Blue, Indian Food Packer 36(1):81 (1982). 163. Suresh, E. R., and S. Ethiraj, Effect of grape maturity on the composition and quality of wines made in India, Am. J. Enol. Vitic. 38:329 (1987). 164. Shanmugavelue, K. G., Postharvest handling and marketing of grapes, Vitic. India, 390 (1989). 165. Bhutani, V. P., T. C. P. Negi, and T. R. Chandra, Studies on raising making of grapes under dry temperature conditions, Punjab Hort. J. (20):203 (1980).

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166. Grncarevic, M., Drying and processing grapes in Afghanistan, Am. J. Enol. Vitic. 20(3):118 (1969). 167. Grncarevic, M., Effect of various treatments on the drying rate of grape for raisins, Am. J. Enol. Vitic. 14(4):230 (1963). 168. Bolin, H. R., V. Petrucci, and G. Fuller, Characteristics of mechanically harvested raisins produced by dehydration and by field drying, J. Food Sci. 40:103 (1975). 169. Radler, F., The prevention of browning during drying by the cold dipping treatment of Sultana grapes, J. Sci. Food Agr. 15:864 (1964). 170. Ponting, J. D., and D. M. McBean, Temperate and dipping treatment effect on drying rates and drying times of grapes, prunes and other waxy fruits, Food Technol. 24:85 (1970).

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171. Kana, S., M. Kanellaki, J. Kouinis, and A. A. Koutinas, Alcohol production for raisin extracts: Volatile by-products, J. Food Sci. 53:1723 (1988). 172. Salunkhe, D. K., H. R. Bolin, and N. R. Bolin, and N. R. Reddy, Jams, jellies and preserves, Storage, Processing and Nutritional Quality of Fruits and Vegetables, Vol. II, Processed Fruits and Vegetables, CRC Press, Boca Raton, FL, 1991, p. 105. 173. Flora, L. F., Processing and quality characteristics of Muscadine grapes, J. Food Sci. 42:935 (1977). 174. Flora, L. F., Storage stability of juices and jellies made from Muscadine grapes (Vitis rotundifolia Michx), Am. J. Enol. Vitic. 28:171, 1977.

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175. Sistrunk, W. A., and J. R. Morris, Influence of cultivar, extraction and storage temperature and time on quality of Muscadine grape juice, J. Am. Soc. Hort. Sci. 107:1110 (1982). 176. Carroll, D. E., Muscadine grape: Factors influencing product quality, Evaluation of Quality of Fruits and Vegetables (H. E. Pattee, ed.), AVI, Westport, CT, 1985, p. 177.

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3 Citrus.
P. N. Kale Mahatma Phule Agricultural University, Rahuri, Maharashtra, India P. G. Adsule Maharashtra State Agricultural Marketing Board, Gultekadi, Maharashtra, India I. Introduction

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The genus Citrus includes several important fruits such as oranges, mandarins, limes, lemons and grapefruits. The sweet orange probably originated in Southeast Asia, from which it spread to Arabia and Southern Europe. It is, however, produced in all subtropical areas of the world. The mandarins are also believed to have originated in Southeast Asia. The lemons (C. limon) probably originated as hybrids between the citron and the lime and are native to Southeast Asia, perhaps Burma or Southern China. They were widely distributed in the Middle East and Southern Europe by the twelfth century, from which they have spread to many countries. The limes probably originated in India and then spread to the Middle East and other tropical and subtropical countries. The Mexican or Key lime is a somewhat smaller and smoother type of the same species. The grapefruit, which is generally classed as a separate species (C. paradisi), is assumed to have originated in the West Indies,

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possibly as a seedling mutant from Citrus maxima or a hybrid of shaddock. The seedless cultivars with pink or red flesh are of commercial importance. The grapefruit is grown in many subtropical countries, including the United States (Florida and Texas), South Africa, and Israel (1), and is commonly used as a breakfast fruit.

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The world production of all citrus fruits in 1980 was 56.61 million metric tonnes (2), while in 1990 it was 67.63 million metric tonnes (3). More than one-fourth of the world's oranges are produced in the United States (Table 1). Brazil contributes significantly to the world's orange production. Japan is the leading producer of Mandarins. Spain, the United States, Brazil, Italy, China, and Argentina produce substantial quantities of Mandarins. Lemons and limes are produced mainly in Italy, the United States, Mexico, India, and Argentina. Oranges contribute 71% to the citrus fruit production in the world (Table 2).

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The rapid growth of the citrus fruit industry in the past 25 years is due largely to population increase and improved economic conditions in the consuming nations of the world, together with the rapid advance of agricultural sciences and technology of by-products. Also, because of the nutrition-conscious consuming public and the natural distinctive flavor of the citrus, the demand

Page 40 Table 1 Major Producers of Important Citrus Crops Production (1000 tons) Country 1980 1990 Oranges 10,740 7,084 United States 8,948 17,488 Brazil 1,830 1,820 Italy 1,741 2,567 Spain 1,630 2,220 Mexico 1,150 1,854 India 1,092 1,420 Egypt 38,798 52,216 World Mandarins 2,987 1,200 Japan 968 1,508 Spain 756 326 United States 469 640 Brazil 355 480 Italy 256 385 China 222 250 Argentina

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World Lemons and Limes Italy United States Mexico India Argentina World Source: Ref. 3 and 4

7,605 802 756 504 475 370 4,870

8,792 610 706 612 563 450 6,618

Table 2 Relative Production of Different Citrus Fruits in the World Fruit Percent world citrus production Oranges 71 Mandarins 13 Lemons and limes 10 Grapefruit 6 Source: Ref. 5.

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for citrus fruits and citrus products has increased and is likely to increase further. Citrus fruit is fast becoming a staple food product in the daily diet of many people, and large consumption of citrus fruit is also attributed to other types of food and beverage industries which require the flavor of citrus. II. Botany A. Types

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The genus Citrus is very often distinguished from the crop citrus, since the latter comprises not only the edible species of Citrus with their cultivars, hybrids, and rootstocks, but also those of Poncirus, Fortunnela, and other related genera. Citrus belongs to the large family Rutaceae (130 genera), in which the leaves usually possess transparent oil glands and the flowers contain an annular disk. Tribe Citreae (28 genera) and subtribe citrinae (13 genera) can be split into three groups: primitive, near, and true citrus groups. The true citrus groups consist of six genera including the genus Citrus with 16 species. All have orange- or lemonlike fruits with stalked, spindle-shaped, inward-growing juice sacs. The genus Citrus consists of two subgenera: papeda and Eucitrus. Fruits of papeda are inedible because of numerous droplets of acrid oil in the juice sacs. Eucitrus consists of 10 species, eight of which are cultivated. The botanical and English names of these are as follows:

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C. sinensis

Sweet orange

C. quarantium Sour orange (Seville orange) C. reticulata C. paradisi C. grandis C. limon C. medica Mandarin (tangerine) Grapefruit (pomelo) Shaddock (pummelo) Lemon Citron

C. aurantifolia Lime

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1. Sweet orange: A highly polyembryonic species of Chinese origin. Fruits subglobose to oval in shape, orange colored, tight skinned, with a solid central core. Fruit is sweet and flesh color is usually orange. Important varieties are Mosambi, Malta Blood Red, Sathgudi of India, Valencia, Pineapple, Washington Navel, Shamouti of Israel. 2. Mandarin: A highly polyembryonic species of Chinese origin. Fruits medium sized, globose, sweet in taste, segments easily separable, loose skinned, orange in color. Important varieties are Nagpur, Coorg, Khasi and Darjeeling Mandarin of India; Ponkan of China and Kinnow Mandarin (a hybrid of King and Willow Leaf Mandarin) of California.

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3. Grapefruit: A monoembryonic species with large-sized fruits. Fruits large, subglobose to pyriform in shape, with thick and spongy rind. Fruits sweet and moderately juicy. Some of the named varieties are KaoPan of Thailand and Buntan of Formosa. 4. Lemon: A weakly polyembryonic species with the fruit surface smooth, light yellow and core solid. The species is of great commercial importance and varieties such as Eureka and Lisbon (United States), Femminellow and Monachello (Italy), and Bernia (Spain) are important. The Kaghzi Kalan, Italian Round, Assam Lemon, etc., of India are not true lemons. Lemon oil is one of the most important citrus oils used for flavoring purposes in soft drinks, baked foods, and confectionery, and is in good demand. 5. Lime: A highly polyembryonic species with the fruit surface smooth, greenish-yellow in

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color, and thin skinned. Core solid at maturity, flesh greenish in color, and juice highly acidic. The Kagzi lime is the most important commercial variety of India. B. Cultivars

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There are literally thousand of citrus cultivars. The great majority are well-established clones owing to polyembryony and vegetative propagation. Mutations appear regularly and are usually undesirable. The most important common cultivar of the sweet orange is the Valencia, next in importance being the Shamouti. The latter has a narrow range of adaptation to climate and soil. Mosambi is the main orange cultivar of India. It is moderately seeded, early maturing, and has low acidity, which makes it unsuitable for export and processing. Person Brown is very early and moderately seedy. Pera is the main sweet orange cultivar of Brazil; it has few seeds and is late maturing, holds well on the tree, and is very productive. The most prominent common mandarin is Clementine, which grows best in the coastal region of western Morocco. Dancy is the most important Mandarin cultivar of the United States. Ponkan, the foremost tropical Mandarin, is also known as Nagpur Santra. It has a large

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fruit with few seeds, but these are polyembryonic. It is a highly productive midseason cultivar, but suffers from alternate bearing (4). The West Indian lime, also called Mexican and Key lime, is round, small fruited, moderately seedy, and highly polyembryonic. It has a thin and smooth rind and a greenish flesh. The citric acid content ranges from 7 to 8%. Although Cuncan grapefruit still occurs in tropical countries, it has been replaced by Marsh in Florida. Thompson is a pink-fleshed mutant of Marsh. Redblush, with much deeper color of flesh and rind, is now a popular grapefruit of Florida and Texas. C. Morphology of Citrus Fruit

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Citrus fruit is composed of three distinctly different morphological parts. The epicarp consists of the colored portion of the peel and is known as the flavedo (5). In the flavedo are cells containing the carotenoids, which give the characteristic color to the different citrus fruits, i.e., orange, tangerine, grapefruit, lemon, etc. The oil glands, also found in the flavedo, are the raised structures in the skin of citrus fruits that contain the essential oils characteristics of each citrus cultivar (5). Immediately under the epicarp is the mesocarp or albedo (Fig. 1). This is typically a thick, white, spongy layer. The albedo consists of large parenchymatous cells that are rich in pectic substances and hemiceluloses. The combined albedo and flavedo are called the pericarp, commonly known as the rind or peel.

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Fig. 1 Cross section of a citrus fruit.

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The edible portion of the citrus fruit, or the endocarp, is composed of many carpels or segments. Inside each segment are located the juice vesicles, which are attached to the segment membrane by the vesicle stalk. Many chemical constituents are distributed among the various tissues. Some are more concentrated in one tissue than another. For instance, flavanone glycosides are found in higher concentration in the albedo than in either the juice vesicle or the flavedo (6); and the bitter compound limonin is highest in the seeds and membrance (7). D. Physiology of Citrus Fruit

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The growth and development of citrus fruits take place in three definite stages (8). Stage I, lasting between 4 and 9 weeks after fruit set, is distinguished as the period of cell division. Fruit size and weight increase mainly due to growth of the peel by cell division and some cell enlargement, increasing both the fresh and dry weight of the fruit. Stage II is essentially a cell enlargement period. The fruit increases in size accompanied by cell enlargement, differentiation, and expansion of albedo spongy tissue. The peel begins to change color when the fruit approaches maturity. Stage III is the maturation period, in which the yellow color of the peel changes to orange. The acid in the juice decreases and the peel increases a little in thickness (9). Most citrus fruits have a period of rapid size increase which varies in length according to the variety and environmental factors. During fruit development, the major changes in chemical constituents include those in fruit color

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(carotenoids), total nitrogen, carbohydrates, organic acids, flavonoids and limonoids, lipids, volatile compounds, waxes, steroid, terpenoids, vitamins, and inorganic mineral constituents. III. Production A. Soil and Climate. Citrus can grow well in a wide range of soils. It thrives well in deep, loose, well-aerated soils devoid of any hardpan layers of calcium carbonate in the rooting zones. Ideal pH for citrus is considered to be between 5.5 and 7.5. It is also highly sensitive to overly moist soil conditions within its root zone, while defective drainage causes nutritional imbalance. Citrus trees are susceptible to salt injury, and they cannot thrive in saline-alkaline soil. It appears that loamy soil with heavier subsoil or even heavy soil with good drainage can be ideal for citrus.

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Citrus belongs to the tender subtropical group and thrives in frost-free subtropical to semitropical climates. Climatic factors such as temperature, moisture, wind, and light intensity are of principal importance for citrus, for which temperature plays a key role. Usually, a low temperature (-6.66 to -4.44C) is considered to be injurious to young trees, while mature old trees are killed at a temperature of about -11.11 to -8.88C. Different climatic factors influence both the vegetative growth of citrus plants as well as the productivity and physicochemical characteristics of the fruits. B. Propagation

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Various types of citrus of commercial importance are propagated differently. While budding is almost universally practiced in the case of sweet orange, mandrin, grapefruit, etc., seedlings are used for limes. In the case of lemons and sweet lime, air layering and even cuttings are being employed for raising plants. Rootstocks have profound effect on tree vigor, productivity, fruit quality, and longevity of scion. The most commonly used citrus rootstocks in the world include sour orange (C. auran-

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tium), rough lemon (C. jambhiri), Rangpur lime (C. limonia), and trofoliate orange (Poncirus trifoliate). C. Cultural Practices 1. Planting Usually, citrus is planted in pits of 50 50 50 cm size in a square system with a spacing of 58 m depending on the species and rootstocks. Mandarin orange orchards are usually planted at a distance of 56 m. Though the planting is usually done during the monsoon (rainy) season, it is better not to plant at the time of heavy rains to avoid waterlogging near the planting pit. The weather should not be too dry at the time of planting. 2. Irrigation

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Citrus trees can withstand a drought of 4 months if grown on deep soil with good water-holding capacity, especially if Rangpur lime is the rootstock. However, irrigation will be necessary if the dry season lasts longer than 3 months. The amount of water to be supplied depends on rainfall, evapotranspiration, and soil type. As a rule, the maximum amount is 100 mm at intervals of 3 weeks. 3. Manuring and Fertilization Citrus is a nutrient-loving plant, and about 15 elements have been known to have important roles to play for proper growth and development of citrus. The nutritional requirements of sweet oranges (10,11) and Mandarin (12) have been reported. 4. Resting or Bahar Treatment

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Citrus trees normally set fruits in the fourth year. Flowers and fruits that may set earlier must be carefully removed before they develop, because the early bearing may weaken the plants. Flower initiation in sweet orange is presumably correlated with low levels or absence of flower inhibitors and follows a period of low temperature (13). High temperature or presence of the previous season's fruits on trees is detrimental to the process of flower formation. Under the existing conditions, the flowering is stimulated by forcing the plants into rest by withholding irrigation. This rest or dormancy resulting from moisture stress is a substitute for the low-temperature treatment under tropical and subtropical conditions, which is known as bahar treatment. Application of 1000 ppm Cycocel in the second week of August and September to lime improves fruiting in following summer (14).

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5. Fruit Set and Fruit Drop Plant growth regulators to improve fruit set and check fruit drop have been tested extensively in citrus crop (15). The use of bromouracil has been considered to stimulate flower formation in sweet oranges (16). However, its use has remained of academic interest, since the concentration and number of applications and the cost makes its use unpractical for commercial purpose. Application of 2,4,5-trichlorophenoxyacitic acid (2,4,5-T) (15 ppm) at the time of first irrigation after the rest period is highly useful in stimulating flower formation in sweet orange (17). Sometimes, flower inhibition to control biennial bearing (in trees of rootstocks from the Jambhiri group) becomes necessary. Two applications of GA at 10 ppm during the process of flower initiation have been observed to be useful in reducing the number of buds formed (16).

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The process of fruit set in citrus is triggered by a rise in endogenous ethylene level (17). Gibberellic acid (GA) applied at 10 ppm after the first set was observed to be useful in reducing the abscission process. However, the practical use of GA would depend on the magnitude and reliability of the response, and the cost in relation to additional income. Reduction in fruit drop is

Page 45

possible by application of alpha-naphthaleneacitic acid (NAA) (10 ppm) or 2,4,5-T (100 ppm), 21 days after fruit set (12). Normal irrigation and plant protection practices are followed to reduce fruit drop of other nature. Fruit moth is one of the major causes of fruit drop, hence necessary insecticidal spray needs to be done in such cases. 6. Diseases and Pests.

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A great number of fungi, bacteria, mycoplasmas, viruses, insects, mites, and nematodes attack citrus. One of the most dangerous citrus enemies is the fungal genus Phytophthora. Its members cause foot rot, collar rot, crown rot, brown rot, root rot, gummosis on stems, blight of seedlings, and brown rot of fruit. Two other forms of fruit decay are important, stem-end rot and mold rot. The dieback and gummosis are caused by Phytophthora palmivora Butler (18). This malady was also attributed to tristeza virus infection alone (19) and fungal complex (20). Recent studies, however, indicate that dieback of sweet orange is a complex phenomenon produced by the combination of viral, fungal, and mycoplasmal disorders. Three fungus diseases cause serious blemishes on leaves and fruits: meplanose, greasy spot, and scab. Citrus canker is a destructive bacterial disease in many countries. Tristeza is a viral disease transmitted by aphids. Greening is even more dangerous than

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tristeza, as no resistant rootstocks are known. Exocortis causes bark scaling, stunting, and certain leaf and twig symptoms. Psorosis is a whole complex of virus diseases. Among insects, lemon butterfly (Papilio spp), leaf miner (Phyllocnistis citrella Stainton), Scales (Chrysomphelus aonidum L. Syn.), Psylla (Daphorina citri), citrus bark borer (Inderbela quadrinotata w.) citrus white fly (Dialeurodes citri), and fruit sucking moth (Othris fullonica) do most damage to citrus. Aphids (Toxoptera citricidus) transmit tristeza and cause injury to young leaves, shoots, and flowers. Mites (Panonychus citri McGregor) and nematodes (Tylenchulus semipenetrans Cobb) are important pests of citrus. IV. Harvesting, Grading, and Packaging A. Harvesting

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A citrus fruit stays on the tree from 6 to 12 months; in the subtropics it may stay even longer. Fruit color can indicate the correct harvest maturity of citrus, but this is not a reliable index in the tropics. The development of orange color requires cool nights, yet in the tropics there is a color break from hard green to light green that usually coincides with maturity. Later the fruit becomes yellow. Taste is another possibility (4), but this too is not reliable. Owing to their reliability, objective standards are preferred to taste and color. The percentage of total soluble solids (Brix) and the percentage of water-free citric acid of the juice are generally employed. Sometimes, the percentage of juice may also be used as a maturity index, which should be about 50%.

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As long as the fruit hangs on the tree, the Brix continues to rise, quickly at first, then gradually, and slowly it may go up to 13 or even higher. Mean while, the acid content steadily decreases from 2.5 to 1% or lower. As long as the Brix/ acid lies between 10 and 16, a large majority of consumers will be satisfied. However, if fruit remains too long on the tree, it becomes overripe and unpleasantly sweet, with ratios of 20 or higher. Such fruit is not acceptable for processing or export (4). Unlike bananas, citrus fruits contain no starch, and they cannot be picked green for after ripening. There is no postharvest improvement in fruit quality, although taste becomes slightly sweeter upon holding because acid is broken down faster than sugar.

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Citrus fruits are harvested either by using snubnosed clippers or by pulling. Mandarins should be clipped to avoid damage and plugs. Oranges and grapefruits are clipped in dry regimes where Penicillium rots prevail. Rains during or after harvest cause losses due to mold; the fruit should

Page 46

therefore be harvested in a dry condition. Fruits must be handled carefully during and after picking. B. Grading

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Wherever possible, the fruit should be pregraded in the orchard; this saves transportation costs (4). All rotten and damaged, too small, too big, hard green or overripe and badly blemished fruits are removed at this stage. Various packing-house treatments include degreening, washing, brushing with soap, disinfection, drying, color-adding, waxing, grading, sizing, and packing. Most citrus fruits are presently packed in cardboard boxes holding 1820 kg of fruit. Packed fruits can be stored for several months at temperatures of 38C. The relative humidity should be kept at 8590%. Ships carrying citrus fruit must be cooled quickly to 15C, below which growth of most decay organisms stops.

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As soon as possible after the fruit is taken into the packing shed, it is carefully washed. In California, growers use a fungicidal cleaning solution of 0.51.0% soap and 2% soda or 0.51.0% sodium-O-phenyl phenate, dipping fruits for 45 min. After light brushing and washing, the fruit is dried, rewaxed, and polished with soft brushes in order to substitute the natural wax coat lost in washing. C. Packaging

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The harvested fruits are graded roughly according to size and appearance near the center of production. The fruits should be polished lightly with a piece of cloth and individually wrapped in tissue paper (21). Rapid packing after harvesting should be done where high temperature and low relative humidity tend to cause excessive loss of moisture from harvested fruits (22). In India, citrus fruits are usually packed in wooden boxes for transport to the distant markets within the country, while for nearer markets bamboo baskets of various shapes are used. Chopped straw and dry grass are mostly used for padding.

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Plastic films of low permeability to water vapor generally cause an increase in decay unless they are adequately ventilated. The merits of film wraps for citrus fruits, with respect to both weight loss and decay, have been examined (23), and it was concluded that ventilation is essential for humidity release to prevent excessive decay. Citrus fruits grown in arid climates are frequently held under cover for several days before washing and packing so as to reduce infection of harvest injuries and to reduce the turgidity of the fruit slightly so that the peel becomes more resistant to mechanical damage during handling (24).

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Individual seal packaging of citrus fruits in a 0.01-mm-thick film of high-density polyethylene (HDPE) markedly inhibited development of fruit blemishes such as red blotch of lemon, mechanical harvest damage, and chilling injury of grapefruits (25). The inhibition of red blotch was related to prevention of dehydration of the peel, and the inhibition of mechanical damage was related to the saturated humidity around the fruits, which probably accelerated the healing of the small wounds before they turned into visible scars. Waxing of citrus as well as thiabendazole treatment reduced chilling injury of grapefruit, but seal-packaging was found to be much more effective in reducing postharvest damage. The seal-packaging of oranges, grapefruits, and lemons with HDPE film (0.01 mm in thickness) delayed softening and inhibited weight loss and deformation of the fruit more than cooling (26). Sealed fruits at 20C and 85% relative humidity had better appearance and were firmer than

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nonsealed fruits at the lowest possible temperature without chilling injury and 8590% relative humidity. Chilling injury of citrus fruit can be inhibited by seal-packaging of fruit in HDPE film. The decay of citrus fruits depends more on the storage temperature than on the type of packaging (26).

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The introduction of new handling techniques to extend the shelf life of citrus includes chemical treatments (27), waxing (28,29), individual packaging in high-density polyethylene, film packing (30,3239), and cold treatment (31). However, several studies suggest that flavor quality decreases in packaged fruits (29) though visual attributes are maintained. V. Chemical Composition

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The composition of citrus fruit is affected by such factors as growing conditions, maturity, rootstock, variety, and climate. In the process of juice extraction, as pressure and tearing forces are exerted upon the various tissues of the orange to varying degrees, the extracted juice contains substances from these tissues. Some of these elements may be responsible for undesirable changes occurring in processed orange juice, and a knowledge of these constituents of the fruit will be of value in helping to combat these changes (40). A. Proteins (Nitrogenous Constituents)

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The nitrogen content of whole citrus fruits varies between 0.1 and 0.2% on a wet basis (41). The nitrogenous constituents of citrus fruit include proteins, simple peptides, amino acids, phosphatides, and related substances. The proteins in citrus fruits are relatively insoluble and are found to be associated with the solid portions of the fruit, such as seeds, flavedo, albedo, and pulp. Amino acids are found in the juice of the edible portion of the fruit and in the aqueous alcohol-extractable fraction of the peel. Alanine, asparagine, arginine, proline, and serine have been reported in California Valencia juice (42). B. Lipids

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Oleic, linoleic, linolenic, palmitic, and stearic acids, glycerol, and a phytosterol in the pulp and locular tissues of California Valencias, have been reported (41). The off-flavors in canned orange juice might be related to changes in fatty acid constituents. The changes in lipid composition of orange juice due to pasteurization are very slight and are not related to changes in flavor. The unsaturated fatty acids occupy a large percentage of the total fatty acids of the citrus seed oils. This fact makes citrus oil a desirable dietetic substitute for other unsaturated fats in food. C. Sugars.

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The sweetness of citrus fruits is due to the presence of glucose, fructose, and sucrose. The sugars may vary from 1% in certain lemons to nearly 9% in some oranges (Table 3). The most important factor governing sugar content is maturity, especially with the sweeter kinds of citrus. In these, the acid content slightly decreases during maturity. In oranges, tangerines, and grapefruits, the soluble solids consist mainly of sugars, but in lemon and lime juice the soluble solids are mainly citric acid. In oranges, at maturity, the reducing and nonreducing sugars are present in about equal amounts, but in less sweet fruits (lime), the reducing sugars predominate. When orange and other juices are pasteurized and canned, inversion of sucrose occurs in storage. Sugars also occur in albedo and flavedo. D. Acids

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Citrus fruits are classed as acid fruits, as their soluble solids are composed chiefly of organic acids and sugars. The acidity of citrus juices is due primarily to citric and malic acid (Table 4). Traces of

Table 3 Total Sugars, Acidity, and Pectin Contents of Citrus F Total sugars Aciditya (ml 0.1 M/100 Fruit (%) g) Grapefruit 6.74 1.30 Edible portion 4.80 0.59 Peel and pith 7.27 1.56 Juice Lemon 2.19 5.98 Edible portion 4.14 0.49 Peel and pith 1.92 7.20 Juice Orange (bitter) 5.49 3.30 Edible portion 5.86 0.46 Peel and pith 5.74 3.77 Juice Orange (sweet) 7.88 0.79 Edible portion 6.81 0.27 Peel and pith 8.47 1.17 Juice

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aAs citric acid. bAs calcium pectate.

Source: Ref. 34.

Table 4 Organic Acids of Juice and Peels of Citrus Fruits Juice (g/100 ml) Variety Malic Citric M Orange 0.06 0.56 0 Washington Navel I 0.20 0.93 0 Washington Navel II 0.16 0.98 0 Valencia Tangerine 0.18 1.22 0 Dancy I 0.21 0.86 0 Dancy II Grapefruit 0.06 1.79 0 Marsh (Calif.) 0.04 2.10 0 Arizona 0.06 1.19 0 Texas (pink) Lemon 0.17 4.0 0 Eureka I 0.26 4.38 0 Eureka II Lime 0.20 0.08 0 Palestine sweeta aThe pH of this variety was 5.7, considerably higher than othe

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Source: Ref. 35.

Page 49

tartaric, benzoic, oxalic, and succinic acids have also been reported (43). The titratable acidity of oranges and grapefruits plays an important part in determining the maturity of these fruits. E. Pectic Substances

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In addition to the soluble carbohydrates, citrus fruits contain insoluble carbohydrates that provide the structural materials and consist of roughly equal proportions of cellulose and pectin. Starch and lignin are absent. The peel is particularly rich in pectin, which may make up 2040% of dry matter. In the fruit tissues, pectin is present in a water-insoluble form known as protopectin. Citrus pectins are partially esterified polygalacturonides. The pectic substances in citrus juice are important to the processing industry because of their function as cloud stabilizers in the juice. The tissues of citrus fruits have high contents of pectic substances, and they are used as a source of commercial pectin. F. Enzymes

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Pectinesterase of citrus fruits occurs in great concentration in juice sacs and rag, with decreasing amounts in flavedo and albedo. Pectinesterase activity is believed to be one of the principal causes of cloud instability, known as cloud loss and gelation in unpasteurized citrus juices and frozen concentrates. Phosphatase occurs in the peel and also in solution in orange, grapefruit, and lemon juices. It is inactivated by heating. Peroxidase is found in all citrus varieties and in all parts of the fruits, but it is especially active in the seed coats of lemons. G. Flavonoids

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Citrus fruits contain complex mixture of flavonoid compounds which include flavanone and flavone glycosides and also some highly methoxylated flavanones and flavones. The principal flavonoid in sweet oranges, mandarins, and lemons is hesperidin, while in grapefruit, naringin predominates. The cloudiness of marmalade made from sweet orange is due to precipitation of hespiridin, which is less soluble than naringin (44). H. Bitter Principles

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Some citrus juices have a tendency to develop bitterness. The bitterness is due to limonin and isolimonin. The bitter principles are present mainly in albedo, to a small extent in seeds, and slightly in the outer membranes of juice sacks. The limonin is water insoluble and is present in albedo in nonbitter form, probably as glycoside at pH 4.5 or greater. During the process of extraction of juice, the limonin may also be extracted and come in contact with the juice, the pH (3.53.6) of which is very suitable to convert glycoside of limonin to dilactone form, which is very bitter. Therefore, the juice extractor should not crush the albedo. Limonexic acid has been observed in the Navel orange of Australia. Limolin is present in seeds of oranges and lemons. It is generally known in the processing industry that the juice of some varieties of oranges, such as Washington Navel, sometimes becomes unpalatably bitter a few hours after extraction. This bitterness is most intense with

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early fruit, and becomes less marked in more mature fruit. The bitter taste also develops much faster when the temperature of the product is increased. The postulation is that limonin exists as a water-soluble, nonbitter precursor in the pulp and that this precursor is converted into limonin (45). This phenomenon of delayed bitterness is due to the physical process of diffusion of limonin from the suspended solids into the juice. Because of the low solubility of limonin, heating or prolonged standing increases its concentration. A concentration of 2 ppm imparts a definite bitterness to the juice.

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The pronounced bitterness of some citrus flavonoids is due to naringin, the chief flavonoid constituent of the grapefruit and which also occurs in several types of oranges. It is exceedingly bitter and is easily detectable in 10-510-4 M solutions. It is composed of the aglycone naringenin and the disaccharide neohesperidose (2-O-a, L-rhamnopyranosyl-D-glycopyranose). Another flavonone glycoside with about onetenth the bitterness of naringin is neohesperidin. It also contains neohesperiodose. The aglycones are not bitter, nor is neohesperidose in the free form. The type of sugar in the 7 position is crucial, since neohesperiodose imparts strong bitterness, glucose gives much less, while refinose imparts no bitterness at all. I. Peel Oil

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In the extraction of the juice, different proportions of oil may be extracted from peel. The main constituent of oil is d-limonene. A small amount of peel oil in fresh orange juice gives it a pleasant aroma and adds to the flavor. Under certain conditions, even the small amounts of oil in canned juice may give rise to objectionable flavors upon storage. Efforts to increase the yield of the juice may result in the possible contamination of the juice with peel juice constituent, which may contribute bitterness or other off-flavors. J. Volatile Constituents

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The most important volatile materials of citrus fruit are those associated with flavor and aroma. The volatile constituents of citrus juice (Table 5), which can be removed from the juice by distillation, consist of water-insoluble and -soluble fractions. The predominant off-flavor in stored canned orange juice appears to come from nonvolatile precursors. K. Pigments. The color of orange and tangerine juices is chiefly due to carotenes and xanthophylls. As chlorophyll in citrus peel decreases, carotenoids increase. In mature green fruit, xanthophylls predominate. L. Vitamins

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The principal vitamin in citrus fruit is ascorbic acid or vitamin C. The amount varies with variety, maturity, and other factors. As the fruit matures, the vitamin C content gradually decreases. During the harvesting season, the vitamin C content ranges from 0.3 to 0.6 mg/ml (46). Ascorbic acid is relatively stable in citrus product during processing and storage. As the storage temperature increases, ascorbic acid losses increase. In addition to ascorbic acid, citrus juices contain vitamin B complex and provitamin A (carotenoids). Other vitamins which have been reported are biotin, folic acids, pyridoxine, inositol, riboflavin, thiamine, and niacin. M. Mineral Constituents

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In common with other fruits, citrus fruits have a high content of potassium (100350 mg/100 g edible portion) and a low content of sodium (110 mg/100 g). Potassium accounts for 6070% of the total ash content of the juice. The major portion of the calcium and mangnesium is in a water-insoluble form combined with pectin. The juice of citrus fruit contains about 0.4% ash. The ash content of orange juice was generally the highest in immature fruit and gradually decreased as fruit maturity progressed (46).

Table 5 Composition of Volatile Fraction of Orange Juice Types of Approximate number of identified concompound stituents of the type Alcohols 54 Lina a-T 4-V Citr Ner Oct Ger Met Etha Aldehydes 41 Ace Hex Citr Ger Ner Ketones 16 Car Noo Ace Esters 39 Ethy Met Ethy Lina

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Hydrocarbons

51

Acids Others Source: Ref. 5.

10 12

a-Pi Terp Val Myr Lim Ace But Ethy er Lina

VI. Storage

A. Changes in Chemical Constituents During Stora

Unlike deciduous fruits, citrus fruits do not undergo chemical or physical changes after the fruit is detac the tree. The fruit can as well be stored on the plant tending the picking period of late-season fruit into s Under water stress conditions, however, early picki lowed by artificial storage is beneficial.

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Grapefruits have a much higher sugar content than Sweet oranges are sweeter than bitter oranges (47). ganic acids of the juice and peel of some citrus frui that the juice predominates in citric acid, and peel o fruit has a higher content of oxalic acid than citric a malonic acids (48). Ethylene hastens loss of chlorop from the peel during storage

(49). Fruit harvested near horticultural maturity sho gradual decline in rate of respiration and produces n ene. When ethylene is applied to oranges at various development and fruits are stored at 20C, the youn respond with a climacteric rise in respiration (49).

Pectic enzymes of citrus fruits affect their juice qua Citrus juice is an opaque liquid with various insolub particles suspended by the pectic substances in the Upon standing, freshly extracted juices become cle the solid particles settle to the bottom. This clarifica citrus juice can be readily inhibited by heat treatme ating that it is an action of enzymes. The polypheno and peroxidase activities of mandarins increased wi age duration and were highest in fruit packed in gun sacks, followed by those stored in bamboo baskets wooden boxes (50).

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It is generally assumed that the rate of respiration o a measure of its metabolic activity. After the fruit is tached from the tree, the rate of respiration become dication of its rate of loss of stored, respirable subst ferent tissues of citrus fruits have different rates of tion, the rate being highest in the flavedo, lower in bedo and juice sacs, with the segment membrane ha lowest rate of all, and it was concluded that the cyto oxidase system was responsible for the major part o take of the tissues of the fruit (51). B. Low-Temperature Storage

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Citrus fruits, like other fruits, are seasonal, with the that they are available in plenty during certain mon year and cannot be had at all or can be had only in v ited quantities in other months. Therefore, the cold of citrus fruits assumes great significance. The opti cold storage conditions and approximate storage lif tain citrus fruits are presented in Table 6. This is th fective and useful method for delaying the developm decay, particularly when the infections are deep-sea cannot be eradicated by postharvest treatment (52). icillium decay of lemons cannot be significantly co by storing fruit at 14C, the lowest temperature tole lemons for several months. C. Controlled-Atmosphere Storage

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Grapefruits retained good flavor after 8 weeks of st 15% O2 and 0% CO2, or 2.5% O2 and 5% CO2, at 10 8892% relative humidity. Controlled-atmosphere (C ies with California lemons picked at a dark green st stored at 13.3C showed that CO2 concentrations of above delayed degreening, and lowered citric acid c trations of 10% CO2 or above impaired fruit flavor; was probably suitable for lemon storage (53).

Table 6 Low-Temperature Storage of Citrus Fruits Storage temperature (C at Approximate s Fruit 8595% RH) (month Nagpur 4.4 3 Santra Coorg. 5.67.2 2.53 Orange Sathgudi 5.67.2 45 Limes 8.310.0 68 Pomelo 5.67.2 45

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D. Physiological Disorders

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Nonpathogenic disorders of citrus fruit in storage cause fruit to lose their economic value due to loss of appearance and eating quality. The most commonly occurring physiological breakdown in oranges and grapefruits is pitting (54). Another postharvest disorder of citrus fruit is oleocellosis, which occurs in all citrus fruit and is especially severe in lemons and limes. Oranges may also suffer from brown stains or scald. This disorder usually develops if fruit is stored at 0C (55). Aging is a storage disorder where the ring around the stem becomes wilted and shriveled, giving an unsightly appearance to the fruit. It is caused by loss of water from the fruit, collapse of the oil glands, and subsequent death of the cells. Lemons and limes are especially susceptible to cold-storage breakdown. Some of the lemon disorders are membrane stain, albedo browning, red blotch, and peteca. Surface pitting was found to be associated with long storage periods at low temperatures. Fruit

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usually developed pitting when removed to room temperature. Fruits stored at 10C showed no surface pitting after removal from storage to room temperature, but they began to turn yellow during storage. Oranges and tangerines can tolerate lower temperatures than limes, lemons, and grapefruit. The suggested temperatures for oranges are 13.5C (54), and for grapefruit are 713C. Lemons should be stored at 1013C and limes, although more susceptible to low-temperature injury, at 79C. High temperatures hasten color changes in limes and are undesirable in this fruit. Cold injury may be avoided by holding the fruit at a higher temperature for a period before placing it in low-temperature storage.

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Although some workers have reported a reduction of rind breakdown by pretreating the fruit with high concentrations of CO2, most attempts to store citrus fruit in controlled atmosphere have given no special benefits and usually lead to rind injury. The increasing amounts of alcohol and acetaldehyde in citrus fruit in prolonged storage has been reported (54). E. Postharvest Diseases and Their Control.

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Matured and harvested citrus fruits are highly susceptible to invasion by specific pathogenic microorganisms due to their high moisture and nutrient content. Two forms of fruit decay are important, stem-end rot and mold. Both occur in two forms. The fungi causing stem-end rot start to grow inside from just below the calyx. Diplodia natalensis is recognized by a brown discoloration of the fruit axis, the skin then becoming slippery, while the fruit smells unpleasantly acid. Good control is achieved by debuttoning (removing of the calyx).

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Three fungus diseases cause serious blemishes on citrus fruits: melanose, greasy spot, and scab (4). Temperature is a major factor in determining the severity of the injury. Melanose, which gives a sandpapery feel to leaves and fruits, is a serious problem in Florida and Trinidad. Scab attacks sour oranges everywhere and also grapefruits in Trinidad. Greasy spot causes leaf fall and lowers fruit quality. Spores of species of the fungus Colletotrichum germinate on the surface of developing citrus fruits, causing latent infection. Spores of Alternaria are airborne, and the stem-end rot incited by this fungus is a serious problem of all lemons, produced in both humid and arid climates during storage (24).

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Storage of citrus fruits in an atmosphere of greater than 90% relative humidity favors the development of postharvest diseases by maintaining injuries in a moist condition, which favors the development of pathogenic fungi and bacteria (52). Brown rot of citrus that develops in storage after harvest arises from incipient infections initiated by zoospores of Phytophthora sp., which splash into low-hanging fruit several days before harvest. Fruit infected by this fungus earlier in the season usually falls from the tree or shows obvious symptoms which lead to

Page 54

rejection at the time of harvest. It has been recognized for several years that degreening citrus fruits with low concentrations (about 50 ppm) of ethylene gas produces a substantial increase in stem-end rot during storage (56).

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Immersion of citrus fruits in 48C water for 24 min is a frequent recommendation for eradicating incipient infection of Phytophthora sp. from fruits harvested within several days of rainfall. Hot water treatments have also been reported to control Penicillium and Diplodia on oranges. Most lemons grown in California are treated with 2,4-D before storage to delay senescence of the button (calyx plus disk), which is the usual point of attack by Alternaria (57). Citrus fruits destined for distant markets frequently are treated with biphenyl to control decay during the transit and storage periods. This fungistat is impregnated into fruit wraps or onto the paper sheets placed at the bottom and top of the fruit container. Biphenyl sublimes into the atmosphere surrounding the fruit and inhibits the development of decay caused by Penicillium and Diplodia. The control of Penicillium on citrus fruits by dipping or spraying oranges with a suspension containing 1000 ppm or less of

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thiabendazole produces a great reduction in Penicillium decay as well as Diplodia and Phomopsis stem-end rot (24). Application of a suspension of 5000 ppm of thiabendazole in a wax emulsion to citrus fruits results in a surface deposit of this fungicide, which inhibits sporulation of Penicillium on the surface of decayed fruits. VII. Transportation and Marketing

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In developing countries, citrus fruits are still transported by rail or by road, which often leads to heavy loss due to decay and fungal infections. Refrigerated vans or continuous air flow arrangements should be used for distant transportation of citrus fruits. Like many other fruits, marketing of citrus is also not properly organized in these countries. Small growers usually sell the fruits in the local market or to a local agent, and the price is not remunerative. Fruits of many orchards are sold through auction after flowering or fruiting. The agents may again sell the fruits on the tree to another agent at a profit. Although some standards have been worked out for mandarins and sweet oranges on the basis of size, stage of ripeness, and external appearance, in general, no uniform marketing standard is followed in most parts of these countries. In Japan, almost all the citrus growers are members of cooperative associations, and they bring their fruits

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to the grading and packing houses managed by the associations (58). VIII. Processing Citrus fruit is processed mainly into juice, frozen concentrates, pectin, peel and seed oil, and squash (59). Single-strength juice has to be sterilized, which may cause a cooked taste. The same is true of hot concentrates. A far superior product is made under the name frozen concentrate, which is prepared by concentrating nine parts of juice under vacuum at room temperature to a Brix of 56 (the starting point is around 12); the tenth part is added fresh, and the mixture is quickly frozen at -20C. The product remains in good condition at this temperature without spoiling. This way a concentrate of 44 Brix is manufactured that retains much of the taste and aroma of fresh juice when diluted with three parts of water (4).

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A. Juices Juice is the most important product obtained from citrus fruit and may be canned, frozen, or chemically preserved either as natural-strength juice or after concentration. There is considerable production of canned natural-strength juices, but in addition, large quantities of citrus juices are extracted and, after pasteurization, are packed in barrels and chemically preserved, usually with

Page 55

sulfur dioxide. The barreled juices are used in the manufacture of squashes and various carbonated beverages. The pure fruit juices should contain 100% fruit juices, or dilution should be of very minor order when necessitated by the processing or preservation of the juice. Orange juice must have a deep orange colormore so when used for concentration and bases. 1. Extraction Extraction involves the following steps. Washing. Washing of fruits is done in specially designed citrus washing machines. The water in the washer must be changed continuously, fresh water coming in while dirty water is carried away by the overflow. To minimize microflora, washing is best done by adding to the water some germicidal and detergent preparation.

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A process for washing has been patented by which citrus fruit is subjected to a 12.518.5% aqueous borax solution at 150170C for a short time. The heat is claimed not to penetrate to the interior of the fruit. The fruit is then rinsed with cold water and the peel surface dried prior to juice extraction. Dipping of the fruit in hot water baths has been found to prevent the decay caused by microorganisms (60). Inspection and Grading of Fruit. The fruits are inspected again after washing to reject fruits with ruptured peel and evidence of mold or rot. If automatic juice extractors are used, the fruit should be sorted according to size. At least three sizes are usually required; small, medium, and large.

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Extraction of Juice. In the early days of citrus juice canning, juice was extracted by hand reaming. The automatic juice extractor has been a major factor in the development of the industry. Halving the fruit is necessary if the juice is to be extracted by this method, whether by hand or by machine. High-grade juice for drinking purposes is obtained by reaming the halves on a suitable rosette. The rosette is usually conical in shape and has ribbed or grooved sides. This method of juice extraction is best, as it does not break the oil cells of the peel nor crush the seeds. It is, however, very expensive, requiring individual handling. The juice is also extracted by using different types of machine, including rotary juice extractors, Brown models 400, 700, and 1000, Taglith, and citromat juice extractors. With all these the oranges are cut into halves.

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Screening and Blending of Juices. The presence of fruit cells in the juice imparts eye appeal and has a marked effect on the flavor of the juice, although the effect on chemical constitution is relatively limited. The best method of screening consists of letting the juice run through a screen made of steel in the form of a drum. The finished juice flows into blending tanks, where it is tested for soluble solids and acid. The juice may be packed unsweetened, or sugar may be added at this point to make sweetened orange juice for canning.

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Deoiling. Excessive amounts of peel oil in the juice may be objectionable. However, some peel oil (0.010.02%) is considered necessary for maximum flavor (61). Deoilers are essentially small vacuum evaporators in which the juice is heated to about 52C and from 3 to 6% of the juice is evaporated (62). The vapors are condensed, the oil is separated by centrifugation or by decantation, and the water layer is returned to the juice. This treatment is sufficient to restore three-fourths of the volatile peel oil present. Deaeration. As deoilers simultaneously dearate the juice, deaerators are seldom seen in juice canneries. Air is incorporated into the juice during extraction. Oxidation is considered a mechanism of flavor deterioration in the citrus juices.

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Pasteurization. The deaerated or deoiled juice is next pasteurized. Heating at a temperature as low as 65C is sufficient to destroy most of the spoilage organisms. Orange juice which is preserved by heating at 65C, however, separates into a clear liquid with a sediment at the bottom,

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which is due to the activity of pectin-degrading enzymes. Therefore, heating to a higher temperature (up to 90C) is required to confer additional stability (63). Filling. Juice is maintained hot (about 8085C) in the filler bowl and filled directly into cans. Cans are closed in automatic machines, inverted for 20 s, and cooled rapidly by spraying with cold water. 2. Orange Juice

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Sound and mature oranges of highest possible juice quality are desired for production of orange juice. The color, flavor, yield of juice, and soluble solid content of the juice increase with maturity of the orange. The best-quality orange juice is produced when the Brix-to-acid ratio is between 13 and 19, preferably around 15, in the oranges (63). Mid-season and late-season oranges are evaporated to give a higher yield of juice and better quality than the early-season fruits (64).

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The juice is extracted, screened, deaerated, deoiled, and pasteurized, as mentioned earlier. The pH of orange juice varies form 3.3 to 3.8. In the rainy season, the color is light yellow and the flavor is mild, especially in the case of Sathgudi oranges. Coorg and Nagpur orange juice is orange-yellow in color with good flavor, but it has a tendency to develop bitterness. Special precautions have to be taken in the extraction of juice to avoid bitterness. The use of a Taglith machine is suggested. Since the rate of deterioration in flavor increased with rise in temperature, orange juice should always be stored as cool as possible.

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Chilled Orange Juice. Chilled orange juice is prepared from freshly extracted juice, frozen single-strength juice, or frozen concentrate. A blend of these may be used for making chilled orange juice (65). The freshly extracted and screened juice, chilled without any further treatment, has a short storage life of a few days because of loss of cloud and rapid microbial spoilage. In chilled juice, the enzyme pectin esterase rapidly degrades pectin, which destabilizes the cloud (66). A more practical way to inactivate pectinesterase enzymes and reduce microbial load is to subject the juice to the same process as that of canned single-strength juice, up to the point of pasteurization, after which it should be chilled immediately and packed under aseptic conditions. The shelf life of chilled orange juice depends on the storage temperature. Aseptically packed products have a much longer shelf life (67).

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Pasteurized and Canned Orange Juice. Screened juice is blended with other fruit juices. To make sweetened juice, sugar is added to the blended juice. A small amount of peel oil (0.010.02%) in the screened juice is necessary for maximum flavor. Excessive oil in the screened and blended juice is removed by a deoiling process. After deoiling, the juice is deaerated. The deaerated and deoiled juice is next pasteurized. Heating the juice to about 71C prevents microbial fermentation but not cloud loss, which is caused by the action of pectinesterase, which is heat resistant (68). Generally, the juice is rapidly heated to about 92C.

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In commercial operations, the juice from the pasteurizer is pumped hot directly to the filling machines, where it is maintained at about 85C. In most cases, plain cans are preferred for canning of orange juice, as they retain the color better. Cans are sealed by automatic machines, inverted for about 20 s, and cooled rapidly by a spray of cold water. Canned juice undergoes little deterioration in flavor over a storage period of 1 year, and it retains 8595% of ascorbic acid when stored at 21.1C (32,69).

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Canned or Bottled Orange Juice for Infants. Orange juice prepared specially for infant feeding should contain high ascorbic acid content and be relatively low in pulp. The peel oil content of the juice should be low (0.001% or less), so as not to cause minor digestive disturbances (69). The juice is prepared in the usual manner as for regular canned orange juice, except that the pulp content is reduced by adjustments in the finisher. It is then homogenized for uniform

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consistency. The prepared juice is heated to 115C for a few seconds in a pasteurizer, cooled to about 4.5C, and filled in pasteurized bottles. 3. Mandarin Juice

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Mandarins (tangerines) are canned to a limited extent in the form of segments in Japan and India and also are made into single-strength juice, frozen juice, or hot-pack concentrate (69). Since the fruit is fragile, it is usually delivered to the plant in boxes rather than in bulk. The fruit is conveyed directly into the wash tank, bypassing the storage bins. Extractors must be specially adjusted to handle the smaller fruit. An important factor in preparation appears to be avoiding excessive extractives from the peel and pulp. Tangerine juice should contain not more than 0.02% of recoverable oil and over 7% of free and suspended pulp. An excessive amount of peel oil in the juice causes the taste to be too aggressive, but removal of an optimum level (0.0075 ml/100 ml juice) by a deoiling process gives a carrotlike aftertaste (70). 4. Grapefruit Juice

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Chilled grapefruit juice is prepared in the same way as chilled orange juice except that the extractors are adjusted to handle the large fruits (69). Grapefruit contains a bitter glycoside, naringin, which can cause a bitter flavor in the juice. Efforts are made during processing to minimize the amount extracted from the fruit. Since immature grapefruit contains high naringin content, juice processed early in the season sometimes has a very bitter taste. The color of the juice is increased by incorporating more pulp; however, this also masks any off-color that may develop during storage. In addition, increasing the pulp content in the juice increases bitterness. Thus, the pulp content in the juice should be adjusted, depending on the season, so that the result is a juice of acceptable color and allowable bitterness (65,69).

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Chilled grapefruit juice has a better flavor than single-strength canned juice because of its short storage period at relatively low temperature. Blending of grapefruit juice with pineapple juice is common (71). However, after debittering with naringinase, grapefruit juice is acceptable for use in other blends. 5. Lemon Juice.

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The initial operations of handling, inspection, and washing of the fruit and extraction of juice are similar for lemons as those outlined for other citrus juices. In the preparation of canned pasteurized juice, the juice is generally centrifuged to remove a particular solid suspended material and then pumped through deoilers, where a large portion of the volatile oil is flashed off by heating the juice to 80C for a short time. The presence of oil would create off-flavor in the canned product. This treatment also stabilizes the cloud and pasteurizes the juice. The hot juice (8082C) is filled directly into cans, sealed, and cooled as rapidly as possible with cold water.

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At least six lemon juice products are now being manufactured, including pasteurized or frozen single-strength juice, concentrate, and lemonade concentrate. Lemon and lime juices are slightly different from orange juice and grapefruit juice, and because of their high acidity, they are used mainly in the manufacture of products or in the case of lemon juice for flavoring in cooking. 6. Lime Juice

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There are two types of acid limes, Mexican or West Indian lime and the Persian lime. These fruits are very acidic, containing 58% citric acid. After extraction, the lime juice is handled in the same way as lemon juice. The peel oil content of the lime juice is reduced by a deoiling process. After deoiling, the lime juice is clarified by using a filter aid. Fermentation does not occur in lime juice because of its low sugar content and high acidity. During storage, much of the pulp settles to the bottom as a sludge, and the oil, along with the fine pulp, floats to the top, leaving an

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intermediate clear layer. The clear juice is drawn off and preserved for subsequent use (50). This does not inhibit pectic enzyme activity, which causes clarification of the juice (72). In lime juice, the peel oil in contact with the high acidity of the juice produces undesirable changes which cause off-flavor (69). Commercially, lime juice is pasteurized at a temperature of 90C for a few seconds. The hot pasteurized juice is filled into cans, sealed, and cooled. Storage of cans at 1.7C greatly extends shelf life without any changes in flavor for 15 months. Storage life is limited to 4.5 months when the cans are stored at a temperature of 26.6C. (69). B. Concentrates

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Concentration of liquid foods permits economics in packaging, storage, and transportation. It also enables economic utilization of perishable crops during peak harvest periods, thus contributing to the stabilization of prices for fresh fruits. Citrus juices contain 8690% water, and during concentration their bulk is reduced considerably by the removal of water. 1. Orange Juice Concentrate

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Orange juice concentrate can be prepared from either freshly extracted and pasteurized singlestrength juice or from a stored and pasteurized single-strength juice. In many cases, concentrates are prepared by evaporation and distillation processes (69). However, evaporation causes heat damage to the flavor of the concentrate. Citrus juice processors use two modern citrus juice evaporation techniques to minimize heat damage and retain quality. They are lowtemperature evaporation and high-temperature, short-time evaporation. In low-temperature, high-vacuum evaporators, residence time for the juice ranges from 30 to 60 min by the time the juice attains 4050 Brix. However, low-temperature evaporation results in no appreciable advantage from the volatile-retention viewpoint (69). The high-temperature, short-time evaporation of juices may not significantly affect the flavor of the juice. A thermally accelerated short-time evaporator was developed in Florida

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(73). The evaporator combines pasteurization, concentration, and cooling and operates on the principle of high-temperature short time, followed by a separation of liquid and vapor (74).

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During evaporation, the volatile components are recovered for reincorporation into the concentrate so that the reconstituted juice has the characteristic aroma and flavor of the original juice. Commercially, the Florida citrus commission process is used, where a low-temperature evaporator is employed for concentration of the juice (75). This process is based on some degree of reflux and separation of essence from condensed vapor by a series of condensers at different temperatures. Refrigerated low-temperature condensers are used to prevent any significant loss of volatiles from the system into the vacuum pump. The aroma-stripped juice is concentrated. The aroma volatile concentrate is added back to the stripped juice concentrate to yield a flavorful product. The final concentrate is maintained at 45 Brix in Florida. Further improvements in the concentrate are made possible by admixture with peel oil within the limits of specifications. Sometimes, tangerine concentrate is blended

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with orange juice concentrate to improve the color and impart sweetness. The frozen cans are stored at 18C or below and are called frozen orange juice concentrate. Unlike the frozen concentrate, concentrated juice intended for hot pack is not cut back with fresh juice. The concentrate, sweetened or unsweetened, is blended with essential oil and/or essence. The blended and finished product is pumped through a plate pasteurizer, where it is rapidly heated to 7678C, filled hot into cans, and cooled immediately by spin cooling. The canned product, called pasteurized concentrate, should be stored at 1.674.44C. Concentrates meant for subsequent preparation of beverages may be preserved by using chemical preservatives. They are called chemically preserved concentrates. Sulfur dioxide is the

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preferred preservative, which is required in concentrations of 1500 and 2500 ppm. To retain color, free sulfur dioxide content should be maintained at 500 ppm. 2. Grapefruit Juice Concentrate

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Grapefruit juice prepared in the same way as it is for canning is pasteurized, concentrated fivefold using evaporators designed for concentration of orange juice, and cut back with juice having higher pulp and oil content (68). If sweetened concentrate is being prepared, sugar is added to the cut-back juice. The finished product is filled into lacquered containers and frozen in much the same way as orange juice concentrate. However, in recent years, grapefruit juice concentrated to 65 Brix at 3841C has been pasteurized, cooled, and filled into cans (76). Concentrated grapefruit juice is blended with concentrated orange juice and frozen for marketing. 3. Mandarin Juice Concentrate

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Extraction, screening, and pasteurization procedures for mandarin juice concentrate are similar to those described for canned concentrated orange juice. Concentrated mandarin juice may be used for blending with other citrus concentrates because of its deep orange color. The concentrated juice has a typical mandarin flavor when it is mixed with cut-back juice. Mandarin concentrates are relatively low in pectinesterase activity and show less tendency to gel and clarify at high concentration (77). 4. Lemon Juice Concentrate

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Screened lemon juice is pasteurized to completely inactivate pectinesterases and concentrated in a thermally accelerated short-time evaporator. The concentrated juice is pasteurized similar to the procedure used in orange juice concentrate preparation (69). The concentrated product should be stored at 18C or lower, as at higher temperatures it darkens readily and loses ascorbic acid, especially, if exposed to light or air (65). 5. Lime Juice Concentrates Lime juice is concentrated and stored frozen mainly for use as the base in the preparation of limeadea carbonated beverage. A limeade containing 11 Brix, sugar:acid ratio in the range of 14:1 to 16:1, and peel oil content of 0.0030.004% is preferred (78).

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The screened juice is pasteurized at a temperature of 77C to inactivate pectinesterase and then concentrated. Lime juice concentrated by repeated freezing at -12C has been reported to have better aroma as compared to concentrate produced by vacuum concentration (80). Concentrate stored at -12C remained good after 8 months of storage and was similar to that stored at 5C for 4 months (81). C. Beverages. 1. Squashes Squashes are prepared mostly from concentrated or single-strength fresh or preserved juices. Citrus squashes are generally made from orange, lemon, grapefruit, and lime juices. According to FPO specifications, squashes should contain at least 40% of total soluble solids and 25% fruit juice (82).

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The juices are first checked for freedom from fermentation and off-flavors. They are prepared by the addition of sugar syrup, citric acid, emulsions of essential oils, antioxidants as required, and edible colors, and then preserved using chemical preservatives. Squashes may be prepared by the cold or hot method. Squashes are bottled in cold after adding chemical preservatives such as sulfur dioxide or sodium benzoate.

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2. Cordials The beverages that are made from clear sparking fruit juices are known as cordials. After filtration, the juice is mixed with sugar syrup and acid. Color is added, if necessary. D. Lime and Green Chili Pickle

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To make lime and green chili pickles, fully matured, juicy limes and good-sized green chilies are selected and washed with water. The limes are cut into halves and the stalks of the chilies are removed. The juice is extracted from the limes, and to this salt is added (250 g salt for 1 kg lime and chilies). A longitudinal incision is made in the chilies and the salt-lime mixture is added to this. The mixture is mixed thoroughly. To this mixture, 45% citric acid solution is added to cover the limes and chilies. The mixture is then kept in the sun for about a week so that the limes and chilies become soft. During this period the yellow-green color changes to brown. The final product is then filled into sterilized bottles and stored in a dry place. E. Jam, Jelly, and Marmalade

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Jam, jelly, and marmalade are commonly prepared from citrus fruits. In the preparation of marmalades, all the conditions necessary for jelly making are applicable. The pectin and acid contents of the marmalades are kept slightly higher than what has been recommended for jellies. Citrus marmalades are generally of two kinds, namely sweet marmalades and bitter marmalades (83). These marmalades are classified into jelly marmalades and jam marmalades depending on their physical appearance. 1. Jelly Marmalade

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Sweet orange and/or bitter orange can be used for preparation of jelly marmalade. The yellow portion of the peel is peeled off thinly from the fruit with an ordinary table knife on a small scale and with a special peeling and shredding machine on a large scale. The thin yellow peel is cut into fine shreds with a knife or on a shredding machine, and the shreds are boiled and drained to remove as much of the bitterness as possible before adding them to the marmalade.

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The peeled fruits are cut with a knife into slices 0.30.45 cm thick or crushed into a rough pulp in an apple grater to facilitate extraction of pectin. The sliced or crushed fruits are boiled gently by simmering with two to three times their weight of water to extract the pectin. Boiling is discontinued when sufficient pectin has been extracted. The process usually takes 4560 min. The aqueous pectin extract is separated by pressing the boiled fruit in a rack and cloth press. On a small scale, the pectin extract is placed in an aluminum or stainless steel vessel and allowed to stand overnight; the sediment settles down, leaving a clear supernatant juice. The clear juice is decanted carefully without disturbing the sediment. For large scale production, the extract is mixed with filter aids and passed through jelly bags, or pumped through a plate- and-frame filter press to get a clear liquid. The extract is brought to boiling in a steam-jacketed pan and the requisite quantity of sugar is added to it.

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Boiling is continued until the boiling mixture reaches 103C, then the prepared shreds are added to it at the rate of about 62 g to every kilogram of the original extract. Boiling is continued until the jellying point is reached. The boiling process should not take more than 20 min. When the marmalade is ready, it is cooled in a shallow pan or in a water-cooled pan, in which it is stirred slowly all the while. This operation is essential to keep the shreds uniformly distributed in the marmalade. A small quantity of flavor is added to the product, because most of the natural flavor volatilizes during the boiling and cooking processes. Generally a small quantity of orange oil may be added to the marmalade at the time of filling into

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jars or cans. After cooling the marmalade is filled into jelly glasses or jars, which can be closed airtight, or it is packed in cans which can be hermetically sealed. 2. Jam Marmalade The method of preparation of the jam-type marmalade is practically the same as that for making jelly marmalade. No special attempt, however, is made to clarify the pectin extract of the fruit. The whole of the pulp mass is used (83). The fruits are taken in the same proportion as recommended for jelly marmalade. The orange peel is removed along with the inner white albedo portion, and the peeled fruit is sliced into pieces 0.30.45 cm thick. The peel is shredded and treated as in the case of jelly marmalade.

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The sliced fruit (orange, lemon) mixture is boiled with a little added water, until the slices become soft and sufficient pectin has been extracted. The boiled fruit mixture is passed through a coarse sieve or through a pulper to remove the seeds and coarse material. The prepared shreds are added to the sieved pulp, and the mixture containing the requisite amount of added sugar is boiled to produce a jam marmalade. In jam marmalade, sugar is added on the basis of the weight of the fruit taken, generally in the proportion of 1:1. The pulp sugar mixture is cooked until the marmalade contains 65% sugar. After cooking, a small quantity of orange oil is added to enhance the flavor of the marmalade. It is filled into cans and the cans are sealed hermetically and inverted for 5 to 10 min to sterilize the lids. IX. Waste Utilization

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Citrus processing produces a large amount of waste materials, which can be broadly divided into three categories: animal feed, raw material used for further extraction of marketable components, and food products. Dried citrus meal that is used for animal feed is probably the main waste-recovery product (80). The meal is produced by liming the slurry followed by pressing to remove moisture. The moisture is further reduced to about 8% using rotating dryers. This material is similar in feed value to beet pulp. Molasses is also a good material that can be used as a feed supplement. Some work has been done on mixing sodium carbonate with waste peel and pulp materials from some citrus fruit processing operations (81). This treatment raises the product pH and results in the deesterification of pectic, forming a gel. Citrus seeds can be used for oil extraction and also the production of a citrus seed meal for feed rations. Waste production has been decreased in some products

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where a fraction of the pulp is comminuted and becomes part of a fruit-drink base. The raw material that is further extracted produces peel oils, flavonoids, and seed oils. Food items produced are brined and candied peels, marmalades, syrups, and peel products used in food seasoning. The peel juice, or press liquor, can also be utilized as a fermentable carbohydrate source for the production of feed yeast, industrial alcohol, vinegar, butylene, and lactic acid. The practicality of these products depends on the economics of the process. Waste coming from the processing of such other fruits, such as apples and pears, can also be used in the manufacture of pectin, but not as economically as from citrus. A. Citric Acid.

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In making citric acid, the juice is first fermented naturally to remove gums, pectins, and sugars (82), which hinder its filtration. The fermented juice is then treated with a filter aid such as Kieselguhr at 6066C and then filtered. Hydrated lime and calcium carbonate are added to precipitate the calcium citrate. The precipitate is separated and dried quickly to avoid discoloration. For conversion of the citrate into citric acid, the wet precipitate itself is used in the form of a

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thin paste. It is treated with a calculated amount of concentrated sulfuric acid, which decomposes the citrate into citric acid. The calcium sulfate precipitated is removed and the liquor is concentrated to crystallize the citric acid. The manufacture of citric acid on a large scale is not profitable on account of the high cost of the fruits. Further, citric acid is produced cheaply from sugars by the fermentation process. B. Pectin

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Citrus peels and residues contain 2.55.5% pectin. After the extraction of essential oil from the peel and juice from the fruit, the residue is dried. The peel is sliced and ground. The residue is washed with cold water on a sieve, and the washed material is boiled with 0.0150.20 N hydrochloric or sulfuric acid, or with 0.025 M citric acid for 4045 min. The liquid is pressed and filtered to obtain the pectin solution. This solution is then centrifuged to remove the sediment. The pectin solution is then treated with enzymes and with decolorizing carbon to obtain the pure product. The pectin solution is then concentrated, and finally pectin powder is prepared. C. Oils Fresh orange peel yields about 0.54% oil by the cold-press methods (69). Citrus peel oil, extracted by the cold process, fetches a better price than distilled oil, which is of inferior quality.

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References 1. Ryall, A. L., and W. T. Pentzer, Handling, Transportation and Storage of Fruits and Vegetables, AVI, Westport, CT, 1974, p. 242. 2. FAO, Production Yearbook, Vol. 34, Food and Agriculture Organization, Rome, 1980. 3. FAO, Production Yearbook, Vol. 44, Food and Agriculture Organization, Rome, 1990. 4. Cope, 4. Citrus fruits, Encyclopaedia of Food Science, Food Technology and Nutrition (R. MaCrae, R. K. Robinson, and M. J. Sadler, eds.), Academic Press, London, 1993, p. 994. 5. Izquierdo, L., and J. M. Sendra, Citrus: Composition and characterization, Encyclopaedia of Food Science, Food Technology and Nutrition (R. MaCrae, R. K. Robinson, and M. J. Sadler, eds.), Academic Press, London, 1993, p. 999.

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6. Hendrickson, R., and J. W. Keterson, Hesperidin in Florida oranges, Fla. Agr. Exp. Sta. Tech. Bull. 614:3 (1964). 7. Scott, W. C., Limonin in Florida citrus fruits, Proc. Fla. St. Hort. Soc. 83:270 (1970). 8. Salunkhe, D. K., and B. B. Desai, Citrus, Postharvest Biotechnology of Fruits, Vol. I, CRC Press, Boca Raton, FL, 1984, p. 59. 9. Ting, S. V., and J. A. Attaway, Citrus, The Biochemistry of Fruits and Their Products, Vol. 2 (A. C. Hulme, ed.), Academic Press, London and New York, 1971, p. 107. 10. Reuther, W., and W. W. Jones, Leaf analysis a new guide to orange nutrition, World Farming 7(11):26 (1965).

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11. Desai, U. T., Y. S. Patil, S. D. Rane, and K. G. Choudhari, Natl. Symp. on Tropical and Subtropical Fruit Crops, Bangalore, India, 1981, p. 50. 12. Annual Report. All India Coordinated Fruit Improvement Project on Citrus, Shrirampur, Ahmednagar, Maharashtra, India, 1981. 13. Moss, G.I., Influence of temperature and photoperiod on flower induction in sweet orange, J. Hort. Sci. 44:311 (1969). 14. Choudhari, K. G., Lime and Allied Fruits, Continental Press, Pune, India, 1984, p. 84. 15. Goren, R., and Monselise, S. P., Some physiological effects of triazine on citrus tree, Weeds 14(2):141 (1969).

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16. Moss, G. I., Chemical control of flower development in sweet orange, Austral. J. Agr. Res. 21:233 (1970). 17. Moss, G. I., Regrowth and flowering of sweet orange, Austral. J. Agr. Res. 24:101 (1975). 18. Uppal, B. N., and M. N. Kamat, Gummosis of citrus in Bombay State, Indian J. Agr. Sci. 6:72 (1936). 19. Capoor, S. P., Decline of citrus trees in India, Bull. Natl. Inst. Sci. 24:48 (1983). 20. Roychaudhary, S. P., T. K. Nariyani, S. R. Singh, J. J. Capoor, and S. M. Viswanath, Epiphytology of the greening disease of citrus in India, Final Tech. Rep. PL 480 Project, ICAR, New Delhi, 1972.

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21. Aiyappa, K. M., and K. C. Srivastava, Oranges, lemons and Limes, Farm. Inf. Bull., Govt. of India, New Delhi, 1965. 22. Naik, K. C., South Indian Fruits and Their Culture, P. Varadachary and Co., Madras, India, 1949. 23. Grierson, W., Consumer packaging of citrus fruits, Proc. 1st Int. Citrus Symp., University of California, Riverside, 1969, Vol. 3, p. 1339. 24. Eckert, J. W., Postharvest diseases of fresh fruits and vegetables: Etiology and control, Postharvest Biology and Handling of Fruits and Vegetables (N. F. Haard, and D. K. Salunkhe, eds.), AVI, Westport, CT, 1975, p. 81.

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25. Ben-Yehoshua, S., I. Kobiler, and B. Shapiro, Effects of individual seal-packaging of fruit in film of high density polyethylene (HDPE) on various postharvest blemishes of citrus and tomatoes (abstr)., HortScience 15(3):1 (1980). 26. Ben-Yehoshua, S., I. Kobiler, and B. Shapiro, Effects of cooling versus seal packaging with high density polyethylene on keeping qualities of various citrus cultivars, J. Am. Soc. Hort. Sci. 106(5):536 (1981). 27. Kumar, J., R. K. Sharma, R. Singh, and R. K. Godara, Increased shelf life of kinnow mandarin (citrus reticulata) by different storage conditions and chemicals, Indian J. Agr. Sci. 60(2):151 (1990).

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28. Dashora, L. K., and S. Mohammed, Effect of 2,4-D, wax emulsion and their combination on shelf-life of sweet orange, South Indian Hort. 36(4):172 (1988). 29. Schewfelt, R. L., and M. S. Chinnan, Trade offs between quality and shelf-life in marketing of individual sealed fruit, Sixth Int. Citrus Congress Middle East, Tel Aviv, Israel, March 611, 1988, Balaban Publishers, Rehovat, Israel, p. 1637. 30. Ben-Yehoshua, S., E. Barak, and B. Shapiro, Postharvest curing at high temperature reduces decay of individually sealed lemons pomelos and other citrus fruits, J. Am. Soc. Hort. Sci. 112(4):658 (1979).

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31. Adsule, P. G., M. A. Ismail, and P. J. Fellers, Quality of citrus fruit following cold treatment as a method of disinfestation against the carribean fruit fly, J. Am. Soc. Hort. Sci. 109(6):851 (1984). 32. Ben Yehoshua, S., I. Kobiler, and B. Shapiro, Effects of cooling versus seal packaging with high density polyethylene on keeping qualities of various citrus cultivars, J. Am. Soc. Hort. Sci. 106(5):536 (1981). 33. Ben Yehoshua, S., E. Barak, and B. Shapiro, Postharvest curing at high temperatures reduces decay of individually sealed lemons, pomelos and other citrus fruits, J. Am. Soc. Hort. Sci. 112(4):658 (1987).

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34. Curtis, G. J., Some experiments with edible coatings on long-term storage of citrus fruits, Sixth Int. Citrus Congress Middle East, Tel Aviv, Israel, March 611, 1988, Balaban Publishers, Rehovat, Israel, p. 1515. 35. Gorini, F., and A. Testoni, Trial of individual packaging of citrus in Italy, Sixth Int. Citrus Congress Middle East, Tel Aviv, Israel, March 611, 1988, Balaban Publishers, Rehovat, Israel, p. 1545. 36. Ben Yehoshua, S., I. Kobiler, and B. Shapiro, Some physiological effects of delaying deterioration of citrus fruits by individual seal packaging in high density polyethylene film, J. Am. Soc. Hort. Sci. 104(6):868 (1979). 37. Ben Yehoshua, S., Individual seal packaging of fruit and vegetables in plastic filmA new postharvest technique, HortScience 20(1):32 (1985).

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38. Parvis, A. C., Moisture loss and juice quality from waxed and individually seal-packaged citrus fruits, Proc. Fla. St. Hort. Soc. 96:327 (1983). 39. Albrigo, L. G., and M. A. Ismail, Potential and problems of film wrapping citrus in Florida, Proc. Fla. St. Hort. Soc. 96:329 (1983).

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40. Mathur, M. M., and P. S. Godara, Physicochemical studies of some citrus species grown in arid and irrigated regions of Rajasthan, Hary. J. Hort. Sci. 34:251 (1990). 41. Cameroon, J. W., and H. B. Frost, The Citrus Industry (W. Reuther, L. D. Batchlor, and H. J. Webber, eds.), University of California, Berkeley, 1968, Vol. II, p. 325. 42. Rockland, L. B., J. C. Underwood, and E. A. Beavens, Calif. Citrograph. 35:490 (1950). 43. Sinclair, W. B., E. T. Bartholomew, and R. D. Ramsey, Analysis of the organic acids orange juice, Plant Physiol. 20:3 (1945). 44. Smith, P. R., and B. F. Mira, Citrus News. Tech. Circ. No. 44 (1953).

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45. Kefford, J. F., Citrus fruits and processed citrus products in human nutrition, World Rev. Nutr. Diet. 13:60 (1973). 46. Harding, P. L., J. R. Winston, and D. F. Fisher, Seasonal changes in Florida oranges, U.S. Dept. Agr. Tech. Bull. 753:89 (1940). 47. Money, R. W., and W. A. Christian, Analytical data of some common fruits, J. Sci. Food Agr. 1:8 (1950). 48. Clements, R. L., Organic acids in citrus fruits. I. Varietal differences, J. Food Sci. 29(3):276 (1964). 49. Aharoni, Y., F. S. Lattar, and S. P. Monselise, Postharvest response of orange to ethylene, Plant Physiol. 44:1473 (1969).

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50. Chauhan, K. S., R. L. Kainsa, and O. P. Gupta, Enzymatic activity of citrus fruits as affected by various packages and length of storage, Haryana J. Hort. Sci. 9:34 (1980). 51. Hussein, A. A., Respiration in the oranges: A study of systems responsible for oxygen uptake, J. Biol. Chem. 155:201 (1944). 52. Eckert, J. W., and N. F. Sommer, Control of diseases of fruits and vegetables by postharvest treatment, Annu. Rev. Phytopathol. 5:391 (1967). 53. Rygg, G. L., and A. W. Wells, Experimental storage of California Lemons, Controlled Atmosphere, U.S. Department of Agriculture, AMS, 1962, p. 475. 54. Miller, E. V., Physiology of citrus fruits in storage, Bot. Rev. 12:393 (1946).

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55. Harvey, E. M., and G. L. Ryagg, Physiological changes in the rind of California orange during growth and storage, J. Agr. Res. 52:723 (1936). 56. Mc Cornack, A. A., G. E. Brown, and J. J. Smoot, An experimental postharvest citrus fungicide treatment against benzimidazole resistant Penicillium, Plant Dis. Rep. 61:788 (1977). 57. De Wolfe, T. A., L. C. Erickson, and B. L. Brannaman, Retardation of Alternaria rot in stored lemons with 2,4-D, Proc. Am. Soc. Hort. Sci. 74:367 (1959). 58. Singh, K., Modern trends in citrus growing in Japan, Punjab Hort. J. 6:117 (1966). 59. Central Food Technological Research Institute, Some Recent Developments, Mysore, India, 1982, p. 1.

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60. Ducker, L. F., and Little, G. A., U.S. Patent 2,328,265 (1944). 61. Ruster, D. W., O. G. Draun, and W. E. Pearce, Citrus fruits, Food Ind. 17:742 (1945). 62. Veldhuis, M. K., Orange and tangerine juices, Fruits and Vegetable Juice Processing Technology, 2nd ed. (D. K. Tressler and M. A. Joslyn, eds.), AVI, Westport, CT, 1971, p. 31. 63. Ting, S. V., and R. L. Rouseff, Citrus Fruits and Their Products: Analysis and Technology, Marcel Dekker, New York, 1986, p. 1. 64. Govindarajan, V. S., S. Ranganna, and K. V. Ramana, Citrus Fruits. III. Chemistry, technology and quality evaluation. C. Quality evaluation, CRC Crit. Rev. Food Sci. Nutr. 20:73 (1984).

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65. Ranganna, S., V. S. Govindarajan, and K. V. Ramana, Citrus fruits, I. Chemistry, technology and quality evaluation. A. Chemistry, CRC Crit. Rev. Food Sci. Nutr. 18:313 (1983). 66. Citrus industry, a golden harvest, Span 20(1):16 (1979). 67. Kier, H. C., L. S. Turnbow, R. S. Turnbow, and K. Robe, Cold pack citrus has improved quality and shelf life, Food Process. 35(7):78 (1974). 68. Berry, R. E., and M. K. Veldhuis, Processing of oranges, grape fruit and lungerines. III. Citrus Science and Technology, Vol. 2, AVI, Westport, CT, 1977, chap. 4. 69. Ranganna, S., V. S. Govindarajan, and K. V. Ramanna, Citrus fruits. II. Chemistry, technology and quality evaluation. B. Technology, CRC Crit. Rev. Food Sci. Nutr. 19:1 (1983).

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70. Nath, N., and S. Ranganna, Time/temperature relationship for thermal inactivation of pectinesterase in Mandarin orange (Citrus reticulata Blanco) juice, J. Food Technol. 12:411 (1977). 71. Lime, B. J., Grape fruit products, Proc. Int. Soc. Citriculture 3:781 (1977). 72. Padival, R. A., S. Ranganna, and S. P. Manjrekar, Cloud stabilization in citrus beverages by low methyl pectin, J. Food Technol. 15:25 (1980). 73. Cook, R. W., High temperature short time evaporator, Proc. Citrus Eng. Conf. Fla. Sec. Am. Soc. Mech. Eng. 9:1 (1963). 74. Sutherland, C. R., Orange juice processing, storage and packaging in Florida, Proc. Int. Soc. Citriculture 3:748 (1977).

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75. Mannheim, C. H., and N. Passey, Recovery and concentration of citrus aroma, Proc. Int. Soc. Citriculture 3:756 (1977). 76. Berry, R. E., Citrus juice products, Tropical Foods: Chemistry and Nutrition (G. F. Inglett and G. Charambous, eds.), Academic Press, New York, 1979, p. 125. 77. Wagner, C. J., and P. E. Shaw, Sensory evaluation on tangerine grape fruit juice blends, J. Food Sci. 43:267 (1978). 78. Bissett, O. W., M. K. Veldhuis, and W. C. Scott, Lime juice super concentrates, Food Eng. 26(6):56 (1954). 79. Abd-El-Baki, M. M., S. K. El-Samati, and A. Askar, Concentration of fruit juices. I. Concentration of lime juice, Elussiges obst. 47(6):234 (1980).

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80. Wan, D. P., B. H. Chiang, and P. C. Chians, Desalination of the spent brine from pickled prunes processing by electro-dialysis, J. Food Sci. 53(1):134 (1988). 81. King, K., G. Norton, J. R. Mitchell, and J. Caygill, In situ pectin de-esterification of alkalitreated fruit waste materials, J. Sci. Food Agr. 49:75 (1989). 82. Lal, G., G. S. Siddappa, and G. L. Tandon, By-products, Preservation of Fruits and Vegetables, ICAR, New Delhi, 1986, p. 315. 83. Lal, G., G. S. Siddappa, and G. L. Tandon, Preservation of Fruits and Vegetables, Indian Council of Agricultural Research, New Delhi, 1986, p. 196.

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4 Banana
P. M. Kotecha and Babasaheb B. Desai Mahatma Phule Agricultural University, Rahuri, Maharashtra, India I. Introduction

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Banana is one of the important fruit crops grown, with a global annual production of about 45 million metric tonnes (1). Asia produces about 40% of the banana produced in the world (Table 1). India, Brazil, the Philippines, Ecuador, Indonesia, China, and Thailand are the major banana-producing countries (Table 2). The countries importing bananas include the United Kingdom, Western European countries, the United States, and Canada. About 50% of the bananas produced are eaten in cooked form. Bananas eaten in cooked form are often termed plantains. Cooked bananas are important locally in Africa as a staple foodstuff. Most of these bananas are consumed locally, only about 20% being transported to more or less distant marketplaces. About half of the bananas produced are eaten in cooked form, and the remaining half are consumed as a raw or fresh fruit. The average consumption of fresh bananas in most countries is about one or two bananas per person per

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week. Bananas for export are produced mainly in Central and South America as well as the Philippines (Table 3). Most exported fruit goes to North America, Europe, and Japan, and in 1989 was valued at $3.685 109 (Table 4) (2). II. Botany The banana belongs to the genus Musa of the family Musaceae. The genus Musa contains four sections, Eumusa, Rhodochlamys, Australimusa, and Callimusa. Rhodochlamys and Callimusa are of ornamental interest only. Australimusa species are utilized across a large area of the Pacific as a cooked vegetable. However, Eumusa is the largest and most widespread geographically and contains all the major edible species of banana. Most edible bananas are delivered from two members of the section Eumusa: Musa acuminata and Musa balbisiana (3).

Page Table 1 Production of Banana in Different Continents of the World Production (1000 MT) Continent 19791981 1990 World 36,849 45,845 Africa 4,731 6,210 Northern Central America 7,037 7,018 South America 9,033 11,933 Asia 14,480 18,803 Europe 490 422 Oceania 1,078 1,459 Developed, all 798 888 Developing, all 36,051 44,957 Source: Ref. 1.

A. Cultivars

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From a genetic makeup that seems to be almost wholly derived from M. acuminata come the desser bananas of world trade designated Musa (AAA) group indicate their triploid character and acuminat (AA) origin. The cooking bananas or plantains of commerce designated Musa (AAB) group) have about one-third of their genetic makeup from balbis ana. Simmonds (4) and Samson (5) have described major banana cultivars grown all over the world. These are Gros Michel, Lacaton, Robusta, Giant Cavendish and Dwarf Cavendish. Gros Michel, pro ducing bananas of uniform size, has been the leadin banana cultivar in world trade for a long time. It ha an attractive color and appearance, and the fruit is long and slender. Due to its large plant size and low planting density, it is a poorer yielder than the cultivars of the Cavendish group. It is also susceptible to Panama disease and is therefore increasingly bei replaced by the members of the Cavendish group.

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All cultivars of the Cavendish group are resistant to Panama disease and have fruits with blunt tips, in contrast to Gros Michel, which has a bottle-necked fruit tip. Brazil covers large areas with

Table 2 Major Producers of Banana Production (1000 Production (1000 Country MT) Country MT) India 6,200 Costa 1,530 Rica Brazil 5,488 Tanzania 1,380 Philippines 3,803 Colombia 1,340 Ecuador 2,817 Panama 1,250 Indonesia 2,360 Vietnam 1,200 China 1,900 Mexico 1,065 Thailand 1,613 Europe 422 Burundi 1,608 Source: Ref. 1.

Page 69 Table 3 World Exports of Bananas Percentage of total world exports Region Country (8 106 tonnes) Asia Philippines 10.4 Others 1.7 South Ecuador 20.0 America Colombia 12.0 Others 1.9 Central Costa Rica 15.6 America Honduras 10.5 Panama 8.3 Guatemala 4.7 Others 9.5 Africa 2.7 Others 2.7 Source: Ref. 2.

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Dwarf Cavendish. In India, it is called Basrai and forms the major commercial variety of banana. Giant Cavendish or Harichal (India) is giant only when compared to Dwarf; it is slightly taller. Robusta is grown extensively in the West Indies, Central and South America and Africa. Other Cavendish cultivars are Valery and American. In India, Pooran, Kanchkela, Dwarf Cavendish, Harichal, Martanan, Hill Banana Nendran, Safed Velchi, Lalkela, Kunnan, Amritsagar, Chakkrakel, Gros Michel, and Giant Governor varieties were commonly grown. B. Fruit Development. Banana varieties which produce fruit of commercial use are parthenocarpic. They are propagated by rhizome. The leaves originate from a meristematic region located at the apex of the rhizome at
Table 4 World Imports of Bananas

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Region Asia North America Europe

Country Japan Others United States Canada West Germany France United Kingdom Italy Others

Percentage of total world imports (8 106 tonnes) 9.4 4.2 37.3 3.9 10.6 5.5 5.3 5.2 13.8 4.8

Others Source: Ref. 2.

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about the level of the surface. The leaves are built by cell division of marginal meristems and emerge in sequence. After the first leaf expands, subsequent leaves emerge through the center of the previous leaf sheath. The overlapping and tightly packed leaf sheaths form the pseudostem of the banana plant (6). After about 9 months of growth, there is a switchover from vegetative to reproductive phase. The central zone of the apical stem springs into activity and rapidly produces a succession of bracts and flower primordia. Then, as the true stem elongates, the floral apex is forced up the inside of the pseudostem and eventually emerges from the top of the pseudostem. The inflorescene consists of many groups of flowers, each subtended and covered by a bract. About 615 floral bracts, each containing 1520 female flowers, are produced. The bracts drop off in a few days, leaving the female flowers to develop into horticulturally mature fruit in the next 90150 days. The fruit consists

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of outer cuticle and epidermis, several layers of hypodermal parenchyma, and a broad region of parenchyma cells interspersed with latex vessels, vascular bundles, and air spaces. The hypodermal cells and innermost initiating cells tend to be smaller and more tightly packed than the rest of the cells. The banana fruit has a relatively large proportion of peel tissue, which makes up about 80, 40, and 33% of the fresh weight of juvenile, mature, and fully ripe fruits, respectively. III. Production A. Soil and Climate

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Banana can be grown in almost all types of soils provided adequate soil moisture is available. Deep, well-drained, loamy soil with adequate organic matter is ideal for its cultivation. Depth and drainage are the two most important considerations in selecting soil for banana. It can be grown well in slightly alkaline soils, but saline soils with salinity exceeding 0.05% are unsuitable. Loam soils of good texture are preferred, and maintenance of good drainage is of prime importance. For these reasons, the major banana plantings for export are concentrated on recent alluvial or volcanic deposits close to the equator.

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The banana is basically a plant of the humid tropics, but it is adapted to a wide range of climatic conditions ranging from wet tropical to dry subtropical. All the significant bananagrowing areas lie within the North and South 30 lines of latitude. It grows very well in a temperature range between 25 and 35C. The fruit of the Cavendish group of varieties is subjected to chilling injury and will not ripen if temperature drops below 13C for more than few hours (6). Frost is a limiting factor for successful cultivation of banana. On average, 100 mm of rainfall per month appears to be satisfactory for growth of banana. Stagnation of water is injurious and may cause diseases such as Panama wilt. B. Propagation

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The material commonly used for planting is sucker. Sword suckers having a well-developed base with narrow, sword-shaped leaf blades at the early stages are good for planting. C. Cultural Practices 1. Planting Planting time depends mainly on the climate and partly on economic factors. Banana can be planted throughout the year, except in severe winter and during heavy rains, when the soil is very wet. Spring planting is the rule in the subtropics. Chattopadhyay et al. (7) recommended planting of banana between February and August in the Gangetic plains of West Bengal. The land should

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be deeply plowed, harrowed, and leveled properly. Pits of 0.6 m 0.6 m 0.6 m are dug sufficiently ahead at points fixed for planting. A spacing of 2.7 m 3.0 m for tall varieties and 1.8 m 1.8 m for dwarf varieties were found to be most suitable (8). Patil et al. (9) obtained 100% increase in yield in Basrai banana when planted at a distance of 1.2 m 1.2 m over a spacing of 2.0 m 2.0 m. 2. Irrigation Water requirement of bananas varies according to topography, soil, climate, variety, and type of culture. Banana requires ample water (50 mm/ week), which must be applied by irrigation if rainfall is insufficient or not well distributed. In most land areas, banana requires 4050 irrigations from time of planting to harvest. 3. Manuring and Fertilization

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Manuring should be done before planting in the pit for initiation of growth. Recommended applications are 20 kg of FYM, 0.5 kg of dolomite, and 225 g of single super phosphate per plant before planting (10). However, in general, about 225 kg N, 90 kg P2O5 and 135 kg K2O per hectare should be given as a fertilizer dose to banana crop. 4. Special Operations. Deflowering consists of the removal of withered style and perianth. Propping serves to protect bearing plants from falling over and from wind damage. Earthing up protects the plants against wind damage.

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Bagging of bunches protects the fruit against cold, sunburn, dust, spray residue, insects and birds. Removal of male buds promotes fruit development. Dehandling refers to removal of the false hand of a bunch. Desuckering is the removal of unwanted suckers. D. Diseases and Pests In general, insects and pests have not been troublesome to banana growers as diseases. Four major diseases are reported to cause heavy damage to banana crop.

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1. Panama disease is also called banana wilt. It is caused by a soil-borne fungus and normally results in the death of the entire plant. Cavendish varieties are resistant to this disease. 2. Sigatoka disease (leaf spot) is caused by an air-borne fungus which attacks the leaves and thus reduces the area available for photosynthesis. This disease can be controlled by repeated spraying of copper or zinc fungicide. 3. Bunchy top is a viral disease which results in vegetative stunting and abnormal fruit bunch development, often splitting the pseudostem before they emerge. The fruits are small and generally unsalable. This can be controlled by phytosanitory methods.

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4. In bacterial wilt (Moko disease), the external systems are similar to Panama disease. Infected plants generally die. If they survive, the bunches show premature ripening and rotting of the isolated fingers scattered randomly among green fruits. The disease has been brought under partial control by phytosanitary methods. E. Harvesting and Postharvest Handling The fruit is harvested when the ridges on the surface of the skin change from angular to round, i.e., after the attainment of three-fourths full stage. Dwarf bananas are ready for harvest in 1114

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months after planting, while tall varieties take about 1416 months to harvest. The stems are usually harvested by cutting the banana plant while taking precautions to prevent damage to the fruits. The predominant practice is to cut the individual hands of fruit from the stalk, wash them briefly to prevent staining by the extruded latex, treat the cut surfaces with fungicide, and pack the hands in cartons. The cartons often contain polyethylene film to protect the bananas from abrasion during transport.

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The yield of banana depends on a number of factors, such as variety, plant density, and management practices. Tall varieties usually yield 1520 tonnes/ha. Eighteen tonnes of fruit per hectare per annum for Gros Michel in Central America and West Africa was probably the average; anything above 3040 tonnes was exceptionally good. A yield of 47.54 tonnes/ha was obtained with Robusta banana (11). A yield of about 54.0 tonnes/ha was recorded (7) from a plant population of 2500/ha of the variety Giant Governor.

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The banana is a climacteric fruit and exhibits a respiratory peak during ripening, after harvest at 20C. Within a couple of days, a respiration rate of about 20 mg CO2/kg/h in the hard green banana fruit may rise to about 125 at the climacteric peak and then fall to about 100 as the ripening advances (6). There is considerable water loss through transpiration after the initiation of ripening. The breakdown of starch into sugars is the most significant chemical change taking place during banana ripening (12).

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Banana ripening is accomplished at temperatures ranging from 14 to 20C pulp temperature with high relative humidity of 9095%. Ripening temperatures between 14 and 18C are usually best when ethylene is used. The period required for ripening green fruit can be extended or shortened to meet trade requirements by adjusting the temperature. Under average conditions the ripening period may be as short as 4 days with higher temperature, or it may be extended to 810 days with lower temperature. Ripening characteristics of bananas vary with country of origin, days in transit, season of the year, maturity when harvested, and other factors. The high humidity required for proper ripening is attained when bananas are held in boxes with polyethylene liners. After coloring is well under way, relative humidity should be about 85%. Air circulation is necessary when ripening is done in boxes.

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Application of ethylene concentration of 0.1 ppm or higher to green bananas accelerates the onset of the climacteric. The concentration of about 1 ppm or higher generally induces the climacteric within 12 hours; lower concentrations are applied for longer period. Initiation of ripening can be delayed for weeks or months by holding green fruits in an atmosphere of 110% oxygen, 510% CO2, or a combination of low O2 and high CO2. Irradiation with doses of 2535 krad is also reported to delay initiation of natural ripening without interfering with ethylene-induced ripening or affecting the quality of fruit (13). A postharvest dip of banana (Musa paradisiaca L.) fruits into aqueous solutions of abscisic acid and indoleacetic acid significantly hastened the banana ripening, judging from increases in total sugars, acidity, ascorbic acid, and units of von Losecke's color chart during storage at 20C. The treatment of bananas with gibberellic acid and kinetin, on the contrary, retarded banana

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ripening, as indicated by higher values for firmness, starch, cellulose, and hemicellulose (14). The results obtained suggest that ripening of banana can be controlled chemically (Fig. 1, Fig. 2). Unripe bananas subjected to ripening in polyethylene bags of 150 gauge thickness with 54 holes per bag at ambient temperature had significantly lower values of pulp:peel ratio, moisture, total soluble solids (TSS), total sugars, titratable acidity, ascorbic acid, and total yellow pigments and higher values of alcohol-insoluble substances, starch, and total chlorophyll, indicating that the ripening in these fruits was retarded to the extent of about 67 days, followed by those fruits stored in polyethylene bags of 200 gauge with 15 holes per bag. The polyethylene bags of 250 gauge thickness with 6 holes per bag were comparatively less effective than those of 150 gauge thickness with 54 holes per bag in

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Fig.1 Influence of growth regulators on color, total sugars, acidity, and ascorbic acid of bananas during ripening at 20C; (*) control, ( ) IAA, ( ) ABA, ( ) GA, ( ) kinetin. (From Ref. 14.)

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this respect (15). Topsin-plus-wax emulsiontreated fruits had significantly lower values of pulp/peel ratio, TSS, total sugars, titratable acidity, and total yellow pigments and significantly higher values of starch, ascorbic acid, and total chlorophyll, indicating that the ripening process in these banana was retarded, followed by those fruits treated with Tal-Prolong and wax emulsion. Purafil and Topsin were the next most effective treatments in retarding the ripening process. Ascorbic acid was comparatively less effective than the other treatments (16). TalProlong-treated banana fruits had significantly lower values of pulp/peel ratio, TSS, total sugars, titratable acidity, and total yellow pigments and higher values of starch, total chlorophyll, and vitamin C, indicating that the ripening process in these fruit was retarded (by about 6 to 7 days), followed by those bananas treated with Bavistin plus wax emulsion and wax emulsion alone. CaCl2 and Na-silicate were the next most

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effective treatments in retarding the ripening rate. Kaolin and vitamin C were comparatively less effective treatments than the coating chemicals, viz., wax emulsion and Tal-Prolong (17). Green unripe Robusta bananas at two stages of maturity could be held at 20C for 14

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Fig.2 Influence of growth regulators on firmness, starch, cellulose, and hemicellulose of bananas during ripening at 20C: (*) control, ( ) IAA, ( ) ABA, ( ) GA, ( ) kinetin. (From Ref. 14.)

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weeks, followed by proper ripening at ambient conditions. Fruits remained green, firm, and unripe for 23 weeks at this temperature. The delay in ripening was correlated with reduced rates of softening, peel color development, increased pulp:peel ratio, tannins, total sugars, and alcohol-insoluble residue in the pulp of the fruit (18). Weight loss was less in fruits held at 20C. Quality of the fruit after 14 weeks of holding at 20C was the best. By harvesting the fruits early at stage II of maturity, shelf life could be extended from 16 to 21 days with ambient storage (Table 5). IV. Chemical Composition

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Banana is the cheapest, most plentiful, and most nourishing of all fruits. It contains nearly all the essential nutrients, including minerals and vitamins, and has several medicinal properties. Banana is a rich source of energy. About 24 bananas, each weighing around 100 g, would provide the energy requirement (2400 cal/day) of a man. The composition of the fruit is given in Table 6.

Table 5 Physicochemical Changes in Robusta Banana at Stag ity and Stored at 20Ca 20C storage Pulp:peel Tannins Total reducing ratio (mg) sugars (%) Storage period (wk) I II I II I II 0 1.5 1.3 21 36 0.6 0.5 1 1.6 1.5 49 58 1.1 0.9 1b 2.7 2.5 149 157 19.1 19.4 2 1.9 1.5 66 79 1.21 1.14 2b 2.7 2.5 141 146 19.4 19.3 3 2.2 1.9 141 98 18.6 11.6 3b 2.5 2.3 141 144 18.7 19.5 4 2.6 2.2 129 149 18.2 18.2 4b aData are the average of triplicate analysis and on fresh-weigh bFollowed by ripening. Source: Ref. 18.

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Bananas fit well with the recommendations of the s of the U.S. Senate on nutrition and human needs (1 consumption of foods low in fats, cholesterol, and s lipid and high energy contents make them very usef ets. They also have a special place in the feeding of (20). They are usually the only raw fruit permitted t ing from peptic ulcers (21). Bananas are also recom ment of infantile diarrhea (22).
Table 6 Chemical Composition of Ripe Banana Fruit Constituent Content Moisture (%) 70 Carbohydrates (%) 27 Crude fiber (%) 0.5 Proteins (%) 1.2 Lipids (%) 0.3 Minerals (%) 0.9 Phosphorus (mg/100 g) 29 Calcium (mg/100 g) 8 Iron (mg/100 g) 0.6 0.05 b-Carotene (mg/100 g) Riboflavin (mg/100 g) 0.05 Niacin (mg/100 g) 0.7

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Ascorbic acid (mg/100 g) Energy, Cal/100 g Source: Ref. 19.

12 104

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A. Carbohydrates Starch is a major carbohydrate in matured unripe banana. During ripening, the starch is hydrolyzed, only 12% remaining in the fully ripe fruit. Sugar, normally 12% in the pulp of green fruits, increases to 1520% in the ripe pulp. Total carbohydrate decreases 25% during ripening due to respiration. Sucrose, glucose, and fructose are the major sugars in banana pulp. These sugars increase during ripening, maintaining a constant proportion of 66% sucrose, 14% fructose, and 20% glucose (3). Insoluble protopectin decreases from 0.5 to 0.3%, and soluble pectin shows a corresponding increase during ripening. Cellulose decreases slightly during ripening. The hemicelluloses make up 810% of the fresh banana pulp in green fruit, decreasing to about 1% in the ripe fruit (3). B. Pigments

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The change in color of the fruit from green to yellow is the most obvious change during ripening. Yellowing begins at or shortly after the climacteric peak, and fruit becomes fully yellow within 37 days at normal ripening temperature. The green banana peel contains about 50100 mg/g fresh weight of chlorophyll, 57 mg/g fresh weight of xanthophyll, and 1.53.5 mg/g fresh weight of carotene (4). During ripening, chlorophyll is lost, and total yellow pigment remains approximately constant. Chlorophyllase activity in banana peels increases sharply at the onset of the climacteric, rises to a peak which coincides with the climacteric peak, and then falls to near zero in the postclimacteric period. C. Flavor Constituents

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Several volatile compounds have been isolated and identified in banana. McCarthy et al. (23) classified the various components of banana aroma. A bananalike flavor was assigned to the amyl and isoamyl esters of acetic, propionic, and butyric acids, whereas the alcohols and carbonyls gave odors described as green, woody, or musty. Palmer (24) concluded that ripe banana aroma was due to a mixture of some 20 saturated acetates, propionates, and butyrates, together with n-hexanal. D. Organic Acids

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Malic acid has been identified as the main acid in banana, with substantial quantities of oxalic and citric acid in the pulp. The malic acid increases substantially upon ripening, whereas the oxalic acid is metabolized and decreased (25). The enzymatic decarboxylation of oxalate may account for the disappearance of astringent taste during ripening (25), although this is generally thought to be due to polymerization of the tannins. E. Phenolic Compounds.

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Dopamine was reported to occur in high concentration (700 mg/g fresh weight) in banana peel and to be present in pulp (8 mg/g fresh weight) (26). It is the primary substrate in enzymatic browning. It is further confirmed that dopamine is the only major phenolic constituent in banana peel. Goldstein and Swain (27) have presented preliminary evidence that loss of astringency during ripening of banana results from increased polymerization of the tannins. F. Enzymes Banana fruits contain several hydrolytic and oxidative enzymes. The relative activities of alphaamylase, starch phosphorylase, acid phosphatase, peroxidase, and catalase increased consider-

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ably in three cultivars of banana fruits stored for 5 weeks at 20C (28). An upsurge in the activities of all the enzymes, having a maximum about 1.219.1 times their initial level, was observed during ripening at 20C. The banana cultivars differed significantly in the activities of all five enzymes studied (Figs. 35).

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The stage of maturity of banana fruit at harvest significantly influenced most of the physical and biochemical constituents and the activities of some enzymes. Banana fruits harvested at mature (105 days) or early mature (90 days) stage had a longer storage period and better quality (29). The potential storage life of banana fruits decreased with an advance in stage of maturity. The firmness, total chlorophyll, and the ratio of sugar to acidity appeared to be most promising indices of maturity in banana. Influence of stage of maturity on various constituents and enzyme activities is given in Table 7.

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Fig.3 Relative activity of amylase and starch phosphorylase of three cultivars of banana fruits during ripening at 20C. (From Ref. 28.)

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Fig. 4 Relative activity of acid phosphatase of three cultivars of banana fruits during ripening at 20C. (From Ref. 28.)

V. Storage

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The best holding temperature for ripe bananas is 13C for Gros Michel and 14C for Valery. Even at these temperatures, ripe fruit cannot be held for more than 24 days. Ripening should be timed so that holding ripe fruit is kept to a minimum. Exposing ripe bananas to temperatures higher than those in the ripening range hastens softening and decay, weakens the neck and peel, and may cause poor color. A. Causes of Losses During Storage 1. Mechanical Injury Bananas are much more susceptible to mechanical injury than other fruits because of their soft texture and high moisture content, requiring careful handling during packing, transport, storage, and marketing. 2. Chilling Injury

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Chilling injury is caused by exposure of green bananas to temperatures between 1 and 7C for a few hours; after 12 h or more, the fruit will probably be unsalable. At 1011C, the response is less predictable: Some bananas tolerate these temperatures for up to 2 weeks, whereas others show significant injury in a few hours. Hence, bananas are normally transported overseas at temperatures between 11 and 13C, which reduces chilling injury to a minimum. The extent of injury, and the time required for it to appear at a particular temperature, varies considerably from clone to clone and even from banana to banana. Full fruits tend to be more susceptible than thinner grades, and in Australia, fruits maturing at higher temperature appear to be more susceptible than fruits maturing at lower temperatures.

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In severe chilling, the green peel develops extensive subepidermal browning or blackening

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Fig. 5 Relative activity of peroxidase and catalase of three cultivars of banana fruits during ripening at 20C. (From Ref. 28.)

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and the peel may become entirely black during ripening. When chilling is less severe, green fruits usually show no visible effect, but upon ripening, the color of the peel commonly varies from a dull yellow to a grayish yellow or gray. These symptoms arise from accumulation of oxidized phenolic substances in epidermal or subepidermal areas, accompanied by some retention of chlorophyll.

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The effects of chilling on the ripening behavior of bananas are variable. Typically, the pulp softens unevenly, tends to be acid and astringent, and lacks flavor and sweetness. The symptoms of severe chilling suggest a breakdown in the coordination of the various ripening processes, as if certain cells did not receive the signals which initiate ripening. Alternatively, chilling may cause inhibition of certain key respiratory enzymes, resulting in the accumulation of ethanol and acetaldehyde, which further interfere with the normal metabolic pathway.

Table 7 Influence of Stage of Maturity on Various Constituen endish) Variety of Bananaa

Early matu Constituent or activity days) Total sugarsb 5.93 Alcohol insoluble substancesb 15.71 Starchb 8.97 Celluloseb 2.83 Pectinb 0.28 Hemicelluloseb 3.66 3.77 Titratable acidity (mg/100 g fresh weight of pulp) 1.53 Ascorbic acid (mg/100 g fresh weight of pulp) 3.32 Standard index numbers of Von Loesecke's color chart 37.16 Total chlorophyll (a + b) pigments (mg/kg fresh weight of skin) 13.99 Total yellow pigments (mg/kg fresh weight of skin) Pulp:skin ratio 1.64 Firmness (kg/cm2 2.38 aValues for constituents and enzyme activities are averages of bPercent on fresh weight of pulp.

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cSignificant at 1%. dN.S. = Nonsignificant

Source: Ref. 29.

3. Diseases and Pests

Stalk rot is encountered but is neither serious nor ca follows mechanical damage and spotting rather than (31) found that spotting was specific to Brazilian ba ripes were commonly encountered.

Meredith (32) described major forms of storage rot lating to their control by chemical means. Squirter a once affected the Australian banana trade, have bee ments. Black end and finger-stalk end originate thro and Fusarium sp. and other fungi of wounded finge produces a black ring at the distal end only.

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Several diseases cause postharvest losses of banana viopsis, Batryodiplodia, Gleosporium, and Nigrosp pathogens such as Fusarium and Verticillia species in banana-growing areas, and they enter the unripe wounds. Once the organisms have entered the tissu fruit is ripened. As soon as ripening is initiated, the ing a progressive softening and blackening of peel o unsalable.

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B. Low-Temperature Storage Bananas can be held at 13C for a period of 12 weeks. Below 11C, chilling injury occurs in all cultivars, so this is regarded as the minimum temperature. Intermediate temperatures of about 1820C, high humidity, and ethylene treatment are required to ripen bananas removed from low-temperature storage. The exact conditions depend on the cultivar, picking stage, outside temperature, and marketing requirements (5,33). Delayed ripening of fruit by removal of endogenously produced ethylene has been used to enable bananas and plantains to be transported at ambient temperatures instead of under refrigeration. The fruit is sealed in polyethylene bags containing a potassium permagnate-impregnated absorbent, which eliminates ethylene as it is produced.

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C. Subatmospheric-Pressure Storage. Subatmospheric pressure slows down the rate of ripening process in many fruits (34). The shelf life of bananas can be extended considerably by this technique. Apelbaum et al. (35) found that the slowing of banana ripening is inversely related to the pressure. Fruits stored at 760 mm Hg ripened after 30 days, while at 150 and 180 mm Hg they remained unripe for 120 days. No injuries that could be attributed to subatmospheric pressure were observed. The ripe fruits exhibited good texture, aroma, and taste. A combination of 150 mm Hg and one air exchange every 2 h created a beneficial condition for high-quality bananas up to 120 days.

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Ripening of green mature bananas was delayed at 100 mm Hg and 20C. Fruits stored for 30 days ripened normally under normal pressure and 20C, although stems developed some black rot. At 300 mm Hg and 20C, bananas could be held for over 10 days longer than under normal pressure. Yellowing of fruit pretreated with ethylene for 24 h was delayed at 100 mm Hg and 20C, but increases in sugar content and softening were not inhibited. The carbon dioxide produced by green mature bananas at 100 mm Hg and 20C was one-third of that in air, and ethylene production was too low to be measured (36).

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According to Burg and Burg (37), banana ripening is completely inhibited if fruit is stored at one-fifth atmospheric pressure in pure oxygen so that atmospheric tension of the oxygen is maintained. The inclusion of small amounts of ethylene in the atmosphere overcomes the inhibitory effect of the reduction in pressure. Burg (38) showed that reduction in pressure leads to an increase in diffusivity of the gas and reduced internal concentrations. The fact that added ethylene reverses the inhibition shows that the removal of ethylene is the factor responsible for the delay in banana ripening. This system forms the basis of hypobaric storage designed earlier by Burg (39). The hypobaric storage thus utilizes the delaying effects of a low oxygen atmosphere as well as the beneficial effects of lowering internal ethylene content. Salunkhe and Wu (34) reviewed the developments of use of subatmospheric pressure to preserve the shelf life of several fruit and vegetables. A useful extension

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in the storage life of bananas can be achieved without refrigeration by storing the fruit in a modified atmosphere together with an ethylene absorbent (40). D. Controlled-Atmosphere Storage Equal amounts of O2 and CO2 (5%) at 11.7C can extend the marketable life of Gros Michel bananas up to 20 days (40). Smock (41) reported that Lacatan and dwarf Cavendish bananas could be effectively stored for 3 weeks at controlled-atmosphere (CA) conditions of 68% CO2 and 2% O2 at 515.6C. The CA conditions possibly inhibit ethylene production and thus retard the rate of banana ripening (42); however, a 1% level of O2 resulted in poor quality and more stalk

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rot. Person et al. (43) also suggested that 1% O2 may be the lower limit of safety at 15.6C. Similarly, Gane (44) indicated that 10% CO2 may be the upper limit for Gros Michel bananas. E. Chemical Control of Postharvest Losses Various types of chemicals have been used to extend the shelf life of bananas. Ethylene in the storage atmosphere can be destroyed by potassium permanganate. The storage atmosphere of bananas can be exposed to a large surface area of nonvolatile KMnO4 by coating on an inert inorganic porous support, such as a mixture of cement and expanded mica. A saturated solution of KMnO4 applied in this manner can retard ripening of bananas, especially if used in conjunction with modified-atmosphere storage in polyethylene bags (40).

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A beneficial modified atmosphere may develop in film-wrapped packages which retards ripening and extends the storage life of bananas. Liu (45) reported that use of ethylene absorbent in bananas enclosed with polyethylene bags was essential to prevent injury from high levels of CO2 or depletion of O2.

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A delay in the ripening of mature green Nigerian bananas was observed when they were dipped in fungicidal suspensions for 2 min and held at room temperatures in white polyethylene bags with or without ethylene absorbents (Purafil) or vermiculite impregnated with antiripening chemicals in open cartons (46). Fruits held in bags with Purafil alone remained green and hard for 34 weeks before ripening started; they were fully ripe after about 5 weeks. Thiabendazole (TBZ)-impregnated Purafil extended the ripening time up to 6 weeks. With vermiculite alone, fruits ripened after 23 weeks, and this was extended to 5 weeks by KMnO4 treatment. Banana fruits held in open cartons ripened after 1 week, but those dipped in thiabendazole before holding remained virtually free from fungal attack even after they had ripened. Esguerra et al. (47) used perlite cement blocks impregnated with saturated KMnO4 solution and wrapped with polyethylene film perforated on top to allow

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ethylene absorption. Firmer and greener bananas were obtained at the end of 12 days of storage. Under Sudanese conditions, field handling of bananas combined with placing hands in polyethylene film bags for transport is found to be the most suitable technique to reduce wastage of bananas after the harvest (48). These workers suggested that wrapping of bananas in polyethylene bags helps to reduce system of bruising due to a lubricant effect of the film and due to the high humidity around the fingers, preventing damaged areas from drying out and becoming severely necrotic. High-quality fruits with total losses of less than 5% were obtained when the bags were removed after transport and the atmosphere was enriched with 1% ethylene at 18C and 85% RH. The increased cost of handling bananas would be at least partly offset by the much lower postharvest losses of fruits.

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Saltveit et al. (49) found that silver ion applied in aqueous solution as AgNO3 inhibited ethylene synthesis and ripening of mature banana slices. The effect of the chemical was studied on several parameters of banana ripening, such as color index, firmness, soluble solids, and evolution of ethylene and CO2 gases. The inhibition of ripening and ethylene synthesis by the silver ion was evident in tissue treated with sufficient exogenous ethylene to elicit both responses in control tissue. However, several parameters of banana ripening were not inhibited at silver ion concentrations which severely inhibited others. The inability of applied ethylene to overcome the inhibitory effect of the silver ion suggested that the silver ion may interfere with primary action of ethylene in the tissue.

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Thomas et al. (50) irradiated the fruits of four varieties of banana and one variety of plantain at specific preclimacteric maturities judged by the pulp-to-skin ratio and angularities of fullness with doses from 0.05 to 2.0 KGy gamma rays within 24 h of harvest. Results showed that the

Table 8 Optimum Dose, Maximum Tolerance Dose, and Exte Bananas Irradiated at the Preclimacteric Stage Optimum Maximum tolerance Shelf-life Variety dose (KGy) dose (KGy) after Dwarf Cav0.30 0.40 endish (Basrai) Giant Cavendish 0.35 0.40 (Harichal) Fill basket 0.25 0.35 (Mysore) Red (Lal Kel) 0.40 0.50 French plantain 0.20 0.30 (Rajeli) Source: Ref. 50.

optimum does for achieving maximum shelf life va and 0.4 KGy depending on the variety (Table 8).

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A large proportion of world production of bananas metric tonnes) is ripened under controlled condition picked over a wide range of physiological maturitie to fully grown, and can be ripened to excellent qual ethylene-producing chemicals. Restricted ventilatio generated by adding water to CaCl2 have traditiona to ripen bananas. The commercial practice of banan however, has been reduced to a routine operation. T centration of ethylene for ripening of bananas held m/liter when treated for 24 h. The loss of water dur can be minimized by maintaining a high level of re (8595% RH). VI. Transport

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Bananas must be green when shipped to market so soften or sustain much serious injury and bruising d Most bananas are now removed from the stem in th are shipped in corrugated boxes. This eliminates ma ling damage previously encountered in shipping. R ripe or turning fruit may cause darkening of the bru ence of damage may not be apparent externally.

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Green bananas are shipped at a temperature range o perature and a relative humidity of 9095%. Gros M exception and is often transported at a lower tempe perature may cause rapid and improper ripening. Pr is required to maintain uniform temperature through fluctuating temperatures are detrimental to bananas should be provided to prevent ethylene gas buildup which will cause premature ripening. Bananas shou mixed loads of other produce that are not temperatu with products that produce high amounts of ethylen poses, bananas are transported in heavy-duty, filmboxes with a gross weight of 40 lb at country of ori transported by ship and unloaded and transferred to gerated trailers for inland transport. Boxes should n dropped during handling. Boxes should be placed o not inverted or stacked on their sides.

There are several advantages of boxing over naked Transport of hands in boxes has compelled growers ular size of bunch. This has also avoided more hand waste material; mechanized bulk handling of banan

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Page 84

labor requirement. The box transport of bananas, however, has increased the cost of packing material. The need to wash and disinfect the hands has added to the labor cost.

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The separated hands are washed to remove latex and then dipped into a fungicide (Moveb) and packed in cardboard boxes after drying. A box holds about 18 kg of fruit. The precooled fruit is transported to the harbor to be loaded into specially built ships, which can make a fast trip to carry a large quantity of fruit in a refrigerated condition. Short-distance trips may be made without cooling. The holds are precooled before loading starts, bringing down the temperature as soon as possible to 13C or lower if the cultivar can stand it. At destination stations, bananas are ripened at proper temperature (20C) and humidity depending on the cultivar, outside climate, and marketing requirements. The international import trade of banana in 1986 was nearly 7.3 million tonnes valued at $2838 million. Canada imported about 0.3 million tonnes valued at $109.7 million, the United States about 3 million tonnes valued at $732.6 million, and European countries about 2.6 million tonnes

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valued at $1461 million (51). The countries of northern Central America accounted for the export of 3.6 million tonnes. About 2.6 million tonnes were exported from South America. VII. Processing Ripe or unripe banana can be successfully processed into several products, such as pulp, juice, canned slices, deep-fat-fried chips, toffee, figs, fruit bars, and brandy (52,53). A. Pulp, Juice, and Concentrate

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Fully ripe fruits are washed, peeled, and forced through a screw-type pulper. The pulp is then homogenized, deaerated using a centrifugal deaerator, and held under a vacuum. This method eliminates the need for steam blanching, which may be responsible for oxidative color and flavor changes. The pulp contains leukoanthocyanins, which in the conventional method of canning such a low-acid food cause pink discoloration. The homogenized deaerated pulp is heated, cooled, and filled aseptically into containers. For preparation of clarified juice, the banana pulp is mixed with an appropriate level of SO2 and treated with pectic enzyme at 40C until the clear juice is separated from the pomace. The mass is pressed through cheesecloth and filtered using a filter aid. The filtered juice is blended with sugar and acid, if needed, pasteurized, filled hot into pasteurized bottles, sealed, and cooled. Banana juice clarified by pectolytic enzyme treatment can be made into concentrate

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using vacuum evaporators. Aroma recovery, concentration, and addition to the concentrated juice are essential to obtain full-flavored concentrate. B. Toffee In the production of toffee, banana pulp is concentrated in a steam-jacketed kettle to about one-third of its original volume. Other ingredients, namely, sugar, glucose, skim milk powder, and vanaspati (hydrogenated fat), are added, mixed, and the cooking continued to a final weight equal to about 20% of the fruit pulp taken. The cooked mass is transferred to a smooth, level surface and smeared to a thin sheet. It is allowed to cool and set for 2 h. The solid sheet is cut into pieces the size of toffees, and dried at 5055C to a final moisture content of 56%, after which the pieces are wrapped and stored.

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C. Dried Slices Dried slices are prepared from ripe fruits. Drying is done either in the sun or in a dehydrator at controlled temperature and humidity. The peeled fruits are cut into halves lengthwise, spread on

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wooden trays made of slats, and sulfured for an hour by exposure to burning sulfur. The slices are then dried at 5560C in a cabinet drier until the product is pliable, soft, and nonsticky. Dried product is packed in cardboard cartons lined with polythene film. The major problem with this product is browning during storage. Banana figs can be stored for 12 months. Freeze-dried banana slices with better organoleptic properties than air-dried products can be prepared from ripe fruits (54,55). Freeze-dried slices give more acceptable banana powder than air-dried slices (52,56). D. Chips.

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In the production of banana chips, thin banana slices (about 2 mm thick) are soaked in a solution containing NaCl, citric acid, and potassium metabisulfite for 30 min. They are removed, wiped, and fried in hydrogenated fat or edible oil. The excess oil is removed by wiping. Antioxidants are added to keep the product from becoming rancid (57). The chips are stored in high-density polyethylene bags, which in turn are kept in sealed tins. They remain good for several months. E. Powder

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Banana powder is prepared by spray drying of fully ripe banana pulp after adding milk solids at a 10% level. Spray drying of foods rich in invert sugar is difficult because of their thermoplastic nature, which results in the adherence of the dried matter to the sides of the sprayer and necessitates scrubbing. However, when milk solids are added, spraying becomes easy and the material does not stick to the walls of the sprayer. The processing should be carried out under good sanitary conditions to prevent bacterial contamination of the product at the time of drying and packing. The product is highly hygroscopic and picks up microbial contamination in the absence of proper handling and care (52). Banana flour is the product of drying and grinding the green fruit (58). The flour is essentially starchy. The use of the flour as a diluent of bread flour and of malt in brewing has been suggested (52). The composition of banana powder is given in Table 9.

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F. Wine

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Banana fruits can be utilized for preparation of wine. Bananas are peeled and homogenized in a blender for about 23 min to obtain pulp. Potassium metabisulfite (100 ppm) is added to prevent browning and to check the growth of the undesirable microorganisms. Preliminary studies were carried out to optimize the conditions for maximum extraction of juice using different levels of pectinase enzyme and different incubation periods at 28 2C (Table 10). Based on these studies, 0.2% pectinase and 4 h of incubation time were selected for obtaining the juice from the pulp. The juice was separated by centrifugation and the clear juice was used for the preparation of wine by slight modification of the method described by Kundu et al. (59). The juice recovery from overripe fruits was higher (67.6%) than from normal ripe fruits (60.2%) (Table 11) (60). Good-quality wine was obtained from ripe and overripe fruit.

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G. Brandy Pulp from fully ripe bananas is treated with pectin enzymes to obtain clarified juice, which is then fermented by inoculating a suitable yeast in a fermenter. After fermentation is complete, which takes 45 days, the fermented liquor is distilled to obtain brandy having an ethanol content of 3540%. Fruits which are neither overripe nor unripe yield good brandy. Overripe fruits yield strongly flavored brandy, while underripe fruits yield astringent brandy.

Pag

Table 9 Proximate Composition of Drum-Dried Banana Powd Components Pure powder Protein-enriched pow Moisture (%) 3.50 3.50 Total ash (%) 2.56 3.74 Acidity (%) 2.26 1.22 Reducing sugars (%) 29.18 15.75 Total sugars (%) 61.30 48.27 Starch (%) 10.16 17.20 Protein (N 6.25) (%) 4.69 17.50 Ether extract (%) 0.16 0.92 Crude fibre (%) 1.52 1.30 Calcium (mg %) 2.53 2.23 Iron (mg %) 0.80 2.00 Phosphorus (mg %) 9.20 2.19 True ascorbic acid (mg %) 6.40 2.58 b-Carotene ( u%) Source: Ref. 52. Table 10 Effects of Pectinase Levels and Incubation Time on Juice Recovery of Banana Incubation condition Juice recovery (%) Pectinase level (%)a

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Control 0.1 0.2 0.5 1.0 S.E. C.D. at 5% Incubation time (h)b 0 1 2 4 8 S.E. C.D. at 5% aIncubation time 4 h. bPectinase level 0.2%. Source: Ref. 60.

36 58 62 62 67 1.84 5.82 45 51 59 63 67 68 1.51 4.65

Table 11 Chemical Composition of Banana Juice and Wine Juice Normal ripe Overrip Characteristic fruits fruits Juice recovery (%) 60.2 4.6 67.6 2 TSS (Brix) 20.33 0.87 21.0 0 Acidity (%) 0.47 0.01 0.33 0 Reducing sugars (%) 10.52 0.05 11.90 Tannin (%) 0.061 0.004 0.050 Total SO2 (mg/liter) Alcohol (v/v, %) Overall organoleptic score out of 20 Source: Ref. 60.

H. Flour

The unripe starchy fruit is cut into slices, dried eith flow air dryer, powdered, and packed for use as foo coast (61). I. Fruit Bar

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Fruit bar has been prepared from the pulp of Pachab ar and preservative and dried to below 20% moistur a cross-flow air dryer at 70C (62). The dried produ packed in cellophane paper, had a shelf life of 7 mo J. Jam

Banana is an important component of mixed-fruit ja cessing industry. Panchamrutham, a well-known an Indian temples, made from Virupakshi banana, is si K. Canned banana

Pachabale and Chandrabale varieties are considered The fruits are peeled, cut into slices of in. thick covered with hot syrup of 2530 Brix containing 0. exhausted, sealed, and processed at 100C for 15 m syrup, although cloudy, is not likely to affect the ac L. Banana Puree.

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Banana puree is by far the most important processe pulp of ripe fruit. The puree is canned and used as a desserts, bakery items, drinks, processed foods and cial diets in hospitals and nursing homes. Ripe bana canned in an acidified syrup and are used in dessert drinks, and bakery items.

Table 12 Composition of Different Fruit Wastes (per 100 g) Waste product Moisture (g) Protein (g) Fat ( Banana peel 79.2 0.83 0.7 Banana stem 95.1 0.30 0.0 Central core 91.9 0.12 0.0 Outer hard fibrous sheath 98.6 0.05 Pressed juice from stem Source: Ref. 66.

VIII. Utilization of Wastes

About 1000 banana plants are estimated to yield 20 contain about 5% edible starch, useful for sizing in the manufacture of starch from banana pseudostem chemical properties studied (64). Singh and Johar ( stem waste for growing food yeast. The residual fib extraction of starch can be used for the preparation of different fruit waste is given in Table 12.

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The central core of banana pseudostem constitutes or crystallized into a highly acceptable product whi candy. The fresh material, commonly used as a veg potato and tomato as a curried product. After blanc solution containing a small amount of potassium m hydrated into a fairly acceptable product.

Green banana fruit, pseudostems, and foliage are su provide a source of energy and require supplementa are economical as a source of animal feed only whe of the high cost of transport. Corns, shoots, and ma imal food in Asia and Africa. References

1. FAO, Production Year Book, Food and Agricultu

2. FAO, Trade Year Book, Vol. 43. Food and Agric

3. Palmer, J. K., Banana, Biochemistry of Fruits an me, ed.), Academic Press, London, 1971, p. 65.

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4. Simmonds, N. W., Bananas, Longman, London,

5. Samson, J. A., Tropical Fruits, Tropical Agricult

6. Forsyth, W. G. C., Banana and plantain, Tropica Nagy and P. E. Shaw, eds.), AVI, Westport, CT, 19

7. Chattopadhyaya, P. K., S. C. Maiti, S. K. Sen, an Production Technology, Tamil Nadu Agricultural U pp. 7984. 8. Bhan, K. C., and P. K. Majumder, Spacing trials Agr. Sci. 31:149 (1961).

9. Patil, S. K., D. R. Patil, and H. W. Amin, Resear banana, pineapple and papaya, New Delhi, India, 1

10. Abdul Khader, K., O. Chellappan, A. Pillai, and K. Bose, ed.), Fruits of India Tropical and Subtrop p. 123.

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11. Randhawa, G. S., E. K. Chacko, R. R. Kohli, and C. B. Sharma, Proc. 3rd Int. Symp. Tropical and Subtropical Horticulture, Bangalore, India, 1972, p. 133. 12. Garcia, E., and F. M. Lajolo, Starch transformation during banana ripening; The amylase and glucosidase behaviour, J. Food Sci. 53:1181 (1988). 13. Salunkhe, D. K., and B. B. Desai, Banana and plantain, Postharvest Biotechnology of Fruits, Vol. I CRC Press, Boca Raton, FL, 1984, p. 43. 14. Desai, B. B., and P. B. Deshpande, Chemical control of ripening in banana, Physiol. Plant 44:238 (1978).

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15. Lande, S. B., Development of packaging technique to reduce postharvest losses of bananas, M.Sc. (Agr.) thesis, Mahatma Phule Krishi Vidyapeeth, Rahuri, India, 1987. 16. Bhavsar, P. V., Effects of some physical and chemical treatments on the shelf life of bananas, M.Sc. (Agr.) thesis, Mahatma Phule Krishi Vidyapeeth, Rahuri, India, 1989. 17. Bendgude, S. P., Effects of some chemicals and stage of maturity on ripening of bananas, M.Sc.(Agr.) thesis, Mahatma Phule Krishi Vidyapeeth, Rahuri, India, 1987. 18. Krishnamurthy, S., Storage life and quality of Robusta banana in relation to their stage of maturity and storage temperature, J. Food Sci. Technol. 26(3):87 (1989).

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19. Select Committee on Nutrition and Human Needs, U. S. Senate, Dietary Goals for the United States, 2nd ed., U.S. Government Printing Office, Washington, DC, 1977. 20. Gasster, M., The banana in geriatric and low-calorie diets, Geriatrics 18:782 (1963). 21. Mitchell, H. S., H. J. Rynbergen, and M. S. Dibble, Copper, Nutrition, Health and Diseases, J.B. Lippincott, Philadelphia, 1968. 22. Koszler, V., Bananas for infantile diarrhea, Neue Oesterr. Z. Kinderheilkd. 4:212 (1959). 23. McCarthy, A. I., J. K. Palmer, C. P. Shaw, and E. E. Anderson, Correlation of gas chromatographic data with flavor profiles of fresh banana fruit, J. Food Sci. 28:378 (1963).

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24. Palmer, J. K., Separation of components of aroma concentrates on the basis of functional group and aroma quality, J. Agr. Food Chem. 21:923 (1973). 25. Shimokawa, K., M. Ebihava, S. Kinoshita, and H., Murakami, Changes of acid content in Musa sapientum (banana) fruit during ripening, Bull Fac. Agr. Miyazaki Univ. 19:329 (1972). 26. Wacker, W. E. C., M. Margoshes, S. D. Bartholoma, and B. L. Vallee, Bananas as a low sodium dietary staple, N. Engl. J. Med. 259:901 (1958). 27. Goldstein, J. L., and T. Swain, Changes in tannin in ripening fruit, Phytochemistry 2:371 (1963). 28. Desai, B. B., and P. B. Deshpande, Hydrolytic and oxidative enzymes during banana ripening, Sci. Hort. 9:147 (1978).

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29. Desai, B. B., and P. B. Deshpande, Effects of stage of maturity on some physical and biochemical constituents and enzyme activities of banana (Musa Paradisiaca Linn) fruits, Mysore J. Agr. Sci. 12:193 (1978). 30. Nagy, S., and P. E. Shaw, Banana, Tropical and Sub-Tropical Fruits, Composition, Properties and Uses, AVI, Westport, CT, 1980, p. 258. 31. Tomkins, R. G., Wastage in banana transport, Trop. Agr. (Trinidad) 8:225 (1931). 32. Meredith, D. S., Chemical control of transport and storage diseases of bananas, Trop. Agr. (London) 38:205 (1961). 33. Krishnamurthy, S., Storage life and quality of Robusta banana in relation to their stage of maturity and storage temperature, J. Food Sci. Technol. 26:87 (1989).

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34. Salunkhe, D. K., and M. T. Wu, Sub-atmospheric storage of fruits and vegetables, Postharvest Biology and Handling of Fruits and Vegetables (N. F. Haard and D. K. Salunkhe, eds.), AVI, Westport, CT, 1975, p. 153. 35. Apelbaum, A., Y. Ahazoni, and N. TemkinGorodeiski, Effects of subatmospheric pressure on the ripening processes of banana fruit, Trop. Agr. (Trinidad) 54:39 (1977). 36. Ueda, Y., M. Nakamoto, and K. Ogata, Keeping quality and control of ripening in various fruits and vegetables in low pressure storage, J. Soc. Food Sci. Technol. 27:149 (1980). 37. Burg, S. P., and S. A. Burg, Fruit storage at subatmospheric pressures, Science 153:314 (1966).

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38. Burg, S. P., Hypobaric storage and transportation of fresh fruits and vegetables, Postharvest Biology

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and Handling of Fruits and Vegetables (N. F. Haard and D. K. Salunkhe, eds.), AVI, Westport, CT, 1975, p. 175. 39. Burg, S. P., Method of storing fruits, U.S. Patent 3:333 (1967). 40. Scott, K. J., and S. Gandanegara, Effect of temperature on the storage life of bananas held in polyethylene bags with ethylene absorbent, Trop. Agr. (Trinidad) 51:23 (1974). 41. Smock, R. M., Methods of storing banana, Phillipp. Agr. 51: 501 (1967). 42. Mapson, L. W., and J. E. Robinson, Relation between O2 tension, biosynthesis of ethylene, respiration and ripening changes in banana fruit, Food Technol. 1:215 (1966).

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43. Person, C. S., V. E. Gates, and D. H. Spalding, Quality of some fruits and vegetables after holding in N2 atmospheres, Proc. Am. Soc. Hort. Sci. 84:549 (1964). 44. Gane, R., A study of the respiration of bananas, New Phytol. 35:383 (1936). 45. Liu, F., Storage of bananas in polyethylene bags with an ethylene absorbent, Hort. Sci. 5(1):25 (1970). 46. Ndubizu, T. O. C., Delaying ripening in harvested Nigerian bananas, J. Agr. Sci. 87:573 (1976). 47. Esguerra, E. B., D. B. Mendoza, Jr., and E. B. Pantastico, Regulation of fruit ripening II. Use of perlite KMnO4 insert as an ethylene absorbent, Phillipp. J. Sci. 107:23 (1978).

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48. Silvis, H., A. K. Tompson, S. K. Musa, O. M. Salih, and Y. M. Abdulla, Reduction of wastage during postharvest handling of bananas in Sudan, Trop. Agr. (Trinidad) 53:89 (1976). 49. Saltveit, M. E., Jr., K. J. Bradford, and D. R. Dilley, Silver ion inhibits ethylene synthesis and action in ripening fruits, J. Am. Soc. Hort. Sci. 103:472 (1978). 50. Thomas, P., S. D. Dharkar, and A. Sreenivasan, Effect of gamma irradiation on the post-harvest physiology of five banana varieties grown in India, J. Food Sci. 36:243 (1971). 51. FAO, Trade Year Book, Vol., 40, 1986, p. 156. 52. Central Food Technological Research Institute, CFTRI, Banana in India: Production, Preservation and Processing, Industrial Monograph Series, Mysore, 1989, p. 1.

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53. FAO, Food Loss Prevention in Perishable Crops, FAO Agricultural Services Bulletin, No. 43, Food and Agriculture Organization, Rome, 1981. 54. Cano, P., M. A. Marim, and C. Fuster, Freezing of banana slices: Influence of maturity level and thermal treatment prior to freezing, J. Food Sci. 55:1070 (1990). 55. Lal, B. B., A. M. Genzalez, M. Alwesale, and Y. S. Parmer, Some aspects of storage behaviour of freeze dried banana powder, Indian J. Food Packer 43:38 (1989). 56. El Hashimy, F. S., M. K. S. Marsi, F. A. El. Ashwah, S. S. Rizk, and E. M. Madbouly, Drying of banana, Egypt, J. Food Sci. 13:101 (1985).

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57. Noor, N., and M. A. Augustin, Effectiveness of antioxidants on stability of banana chips, J. Sci. Food Agr. 35:805 (1984). 58. Quaglia, G. B., and F. Paoletti, The use of green banana in the formulation of composite flours, Proc. 6th Int. Congress of Food Sci. Technol., 1983, p. 89. 59. Kundu, B. S., M. C. Burdiya, and P. Tauro, Studies on fruit wines: Banana wine, Hary J. Hort. Sci. 5(34):160 (1976). 60. Kotecha, P. M., R. N. Adsule, and S. S. Kadam, Preparation of wine from over ripe banana fruits, Beverage and Food World 21(5):28 (1994). 61. Siddappa, G. S., and A. M. Nanjundaswamy, Utilization of banana fruit, Indian Hort. 1:7 (1969).

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62. Central Food Technology Research Institute, Banana, Industrial Monograph Series, CFTRI, Mysore, 1989. 63. Das, D. P., N. L. Jain, and G. Lal, Investigation on canning banana, Trop. Agr. 1111:37 (1955). 64. Shantha, H. S., and G. S. Siddappa, Physicochemical nature of banana pseudostem starch, J. Food Sci. 35:72 (1970). 65. Singh, B. L., and D. S. Johar, Note on the utilization of banana stem waste for growing food yeast, Bull. Central Food Technol. Res. Inst. (Mysore) 1(11):346 (1952). 66. Subrahmanyam, V., G. S. Siddappa, V. Govindarajan, and N. V. R. Iyengar, Utilization of cellulose agricultural wastes for paper pulp, Indian Pulp Paper 17(1):533 (1963).

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5 Apple
B. B. Lal Kaushal and P. C. Sharma Dr. Y. S. Parmar University of Horticulture and Forestry, Nauni, Solan, Himachal Pradesh, India I. Introduction

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Apple (Malus domestica Borkh) is a highly remunerative deciduous fruit, grown in temperate regions. It can also be grown in tropical areas, but never sets fruits owing to its chilling requirements. It is believed to have originated from the hybridization between Malus sylvestris and other Malus species, with its original home said to be a region south of the Caucasus (1). However, it is now grown in almost all continents of the world. World apple production was 41.24 million tonnes in 1991 (2). The major apple-producing countries in order of production are the former USSR, China, the United States, Germany, France, Italy, Turkey, Iran, Argentina, Japan, India, Hungary, Poland, the Korean Republic, Chile, Brazil, Spain, and Yugoslavia (Table 1). II. Botany

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Apple is a mature or ripened ovary/ovaries fused together with many closely associated parts. In apple, five ovaries of the flower are imbedded in tissue which, along with thalamus or carpel tissue, becomes fleshy and edible (1). The genus Malus belongs to the family Rosaceae and to the subfamily Pomoideae, with 17 as its basic chromosome number. The genus Malus is classified into 25 species, most of which are diploid (2n = 34), although triploid (2n = 51) and tetraploid (2n = 68) have also been observed (3). Malus pumila (formerly M. communis or Pyrus malus) is considered to be the parent of most of our cultivated apples (4). Some of the principal Malus species include M. domestica (cultivated apple), M. sylvestris (wild crab apple), M. floribunda (flowering crab apple), M. baccata (Siberian crab apple), and M. coronasea (American crab apple). M. sylvestris and M. pumila are considered as the major ancestral species of modern apples, but M. spectabilis, M. pratti, M.

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prunifolia, and M. astracanica act as significant additional contributors (4).

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Table 1 Major Countries Producing Apples Country Production (1000 MT CIS (USSR) 5800 China 4712 United States 4302 Germany (united) 2658 France 2400 Italy 1970 Turkey 1800 Iran 1250 Japan 1069 Argentina 980 India 978 Hungary 950 Poland 740 Democratic Republic of Korea 645 Spain 642 Source: Ref. 2.

A. Cultivars

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There are about 5000 cultivars of apple grown all over the world, of which only a few could reach the status of commercial cultivars. The new cultivars ar generally more resistant to diseases and more productive than established cultivars (5). In the United Kingdom some of the important dessert cultivars in clude Worcester, Merton Khave, Micurts seedlings James Grieve, Fortune, Lord Lamborne, King of Pi pins, Sunset, Cox's Orange Pippin, Kiddis Orange Red, Malling Kent, Spartan, Golden Delicious, Crispin, and Late Orange, while among the culinary apples, varieties such as early Victoria, Golden Noble, Newton Wonder, Bramely's, Edward VII, Grenadier, etc., are important. Alekseeva (6) has re commended Antel, Azau, Koster, Khasan, and Bagryanol cultivars of apple for areas with high sca and powdery mildew pathogenicity in the former USSR. The cultivars Orlik (Early Winter), Lobo (Winter), and Spartan (Late Winter) were recomme ded for cultivation in Kharkov province (7).

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Yellow transparent, red Astrachan, Gravenstein, an American summer Pearmain are the old early cultivars of China (8). The technical commission for th evaluation of fruit cultivars has recommended 22 dessert apple cultivars for Switzerland, comprising Gravenstein, July red, discovery, James Grieve, Primer Ough, Vista Bella, Jerseymac, Klarap Fel, Stark, and Earliest (9). Chadha (10) recommended the following cultivars for different apple-growing states of India: Starking Delicious, Granny Smith, Yellow Newton, Rich-a-Red, Red Gold, McIntosh, Red June, King of Pippins, Golden Delicious, Tydeman's Early for Himachal Pradesh, Ambri, Lal Ambri, Maharaji, Red Delicious, Sunehari, Golden Delicious, Benonic, Irish Peach, Cox's Orange Pippin, Kerry Pippin, Lal Cider, Apirough for Jammu and Kashmir, and Rymer, McIntosh, Red Delicious Buckingham, Fanny, Cortland, Golden Delicious, and Early Shanberry for Uttar Pradesh.

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Of late, Delicious varieties have gradually replaced other varieties of apple and contribute an increasing proportion of world production. However, a gradua shift from delicious to spur

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types and nonspur color mutants has been witnessed during recent years (11). Some of these varieties recommended for cultivation in Himachal Pradesh are Red Spur, Starkrimson, and Golden Spur. Other varieties such as Red Chief, Oregon Spur, Hardispur, Miller's Sturdy Spur, and Wellspur are under evaluation. For low elevations, color mutants of Delicious such as Top Red, Vance, and Hardeman have been found suitable (12). In mid hills, Mollies Delicious and Tydeman's Early Worcester, besides low-chilling varieties such as Schlomit and Michael, have shown promise. Varieties such as Lord Lambourne, Granny Smith, and Allington Pippin have been found suitable for juice-making purposes. Among scab-resistant varieties such as Prima, Priscilla, Sir Prize, Jona Free, Florina, Red Free, Mac Free, Nova Easy Grow, Co-op-12, Co-op-13, Novamac, Liberty, and Freedom grown in the United States, Canada,

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and Europe, Co-op-12 and Florina have shown better performance in India. B. Fruit Development

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Fruit development in apple is characterized by continued enlargement of the receptacle. The link between the receptacle and carpel tissues becomes so close that the receptacle itself makes up the greater portion of the flesh of the apple. A rapid phase of cell division occurs in the first few weeks after pollination, which ceases abruptly within 3040 days after full bloom in Cox's Orange Pippin (13) and after 4 weeks in Granny Smith (14). The subsequent fruit growth occurs mainly due to cell expansion. The fruit growth pattern follows a smooth sigmoidal curve. Goffinet (15) studied the fruit growth pattern of Delicious apples from bloom to October harvest. Fruit length was found to increase at the rate of 82% of fruit expansion, and after 2 months, diameter surpassed length. The rate of fruit volume increase was 110% of the rate of fruit weight over the season as carpellary space increased and cell packing loosened. Intercellular space increased at the rate of 18% of cell

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enlargement in pith and cortex, but at 14% in the two lobe regions. In the developed fruit, 25% of apple is air space. The white refractive quality of apple flesh is related to the resulting cell-air interfaces. The water content in apple fruits varies from 75 to 90%, depending on the cultivar, stage of development, maturity, and several climatic factors. However, cumulative sunshine hours and number of days between full bloom and harvest did not show any significant correlation with fruit size (15).

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Fructose, glucose, and sucrose are the three principal sugars found in apple flesh and vary with stage of fruit development, cultivar, climate, and cultural practices. The type and amount of nutrients, chemicals, herbicides, and pesticides also have a direct influence on the sugar content of the fruit. In apple, starch accumulates at a very early stage of its development and is hydrolyzed into sugars with the advancement of maturity. The starch disappearance is higher at the later stages of fruit development (16). The hemicellulose and dextrin contents are higher at the early stages of development and decline gradually with the advancement of maturity. The titratable acidity of fruit steadily decreases as the fruit matures, but the absolute amount of acid present in the fruit increases until just before harvest, when it decreases slightly. The levels of free polyamines are high only during the first few weeks after full bloom and then decrease gradually. The development of apple

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can be modified with desirable properties by using certain growth regulators such as NAA, 2,4-D, Alar, and Cycocel. The duration of growth period in apple (from petal fall to commercial harvest) varies considerably with different varieties. For major English varieties (Cox's Orange Pippin, Worcester Pearmain, Bramley's seedlings), the growth period is between 105 and 140 days, while Australian varieties take much longer to reach commercial maturity (Granny Smith, 170190 days; Sturmer Pippin, 180 days; and Democrate, 200 days).

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C. Ripening. Fruit ripening is a complex process which involves changes in texture, firmness, skin color, volatiles, and chemical composition. The changes are usually preceded or accompanied by a surge of CO2 evolution and ethylene production, indicating that respiration is not the cause of ripening but a by-product of these changes. For a climacteric fruit such as apple, the respiration rate is minimum at maturity, and it remains constant prior to onset of fruit ripening. However, once ripening is initiated, the rate of respiration rises up to a climacteric maximum, followed by a gradual decline in rate once again. The climacteric maximum of respiration rate of mature fruit is only one-fourth of that of an actively growing fruit (17).

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Apples attached to the tree often contain high levels of ethylene in the preclimacteric phase (18), and the rise in concentration is more gradual than for detached fruit (19). This leads to inaccuracy in estimating the date when a particular concentration is reached. The sensitivity of apples to ethylene (C2H4) increases during development. The amount of C2H4 produced by fruits is small in comparison with the amount of CO2. In apple, the ratio of carbon dioxide production to ethylene production at room temperature is around 300:1. The effect of ethylene as a ripening stimulant can be inhibited by increasing carbon dioxide concentration and reducing oxygen in the fruit. Carbon dioxide may compete with ethylene for attachment to a receptor at the site of a reaction, thus preventing biological response to ethylene. Hulme et al. (20) reported that ethylene synthesis triggers many enzymes which influence ripening. Ethylene production in fruit is regulated naturally in at least

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three ways: (a) 1-amino cyclopropane-1-carboxylic acid (ACC) synthesis; (b) conversion of ACC to ethylene; and (c) configuration of ACC to form the malonyl derivative. It is suggested that abscisic acid may be involved in the regulation of ethylene production in ripening apples (21).

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The general changes associated with ripening, including softening of fruit flesh, hydrolytic conversions of storage materials in the fruit, and changes in pigments and flavors, can be attributed to the energy provided by respiratory activity. Chlorophyll content of peel and pulp break down with the advancement of ripening. Workman (22) observed that 75% of total chlorophyll content degraded during ripening of Golden Delicious apple, with fivefold increase in xanthophyll contents. Ripening also results in an increase in aroma released by the fruit. Drawert et al. (23) detected as many as 120 compounds in different apple cultivars which are involved in developing aroma at different stages of fruit maturity. The main components responsible for apple flavor are 2-frexanol and frexanol of aldehyde and ethyl-2-methyl butyrate; however, an important compound in apple aroma is the ester with acetate as the acyl portion. Major organic acids in apple fruit are malate and citrate. Flood

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et al. (24) observed a marked increase in malic acid utilization in peel as well as pulp during the climacteric period. The process of ripening in apples can be regulated by the use of growth hormones (25). Basak et al. (26) observed accelerated ripening in early apple cultivars by use of a mixture of ethephon and NAA applied 14 days prior to harvest. III. Production A. Soil and Climate Apples are generally grown on a wide variety of soils. However, well-drained, slightly acidic (pH 6.56.7), loamy soils with good depth and ample quantity of organic matter are considered ideal for apple cultivation. In shallow soils, the trees are short-lived and produce poor yields. Soils with heavy clay or compact subsoil should be avoided, since these adversely affect the growth of the

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Page 95

tree. Apples can also be grown on hilly slopes or on boundaries of fields with gentle slopes. Sites at the middle of the slope are more desirable than the top and bottom of the ridge. The soil should be free from hard substrata and water logging. Orchards located on slopes in gulleys, however, need proper surface drainage to prevent soil erosion. A pit of 1 1 1 m3 is generally considered ideal for planting apple. Apple is a typical temperate fruit crop and can normally be grown in areas experiencing 8001600 chilling hours (the number of hours during which temperature remains 7C during the winter season). Extremely cold temperature, on the other hand, may cause freezing injury. Abundant sunshine is important in growing apples, since it is largely responsible for proper fruit color development.

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For optimum growth and fruitfulness, apple trees need 100125 cm of rainfall, distributed equally over the growing season. Further, areas exposed to high winds are not suitable for cultivation. Dry winds during bloom desiccate flowers and hamper bee activity, resulting in poor fruit set. The areas should also be practically free from occurrence of hail storms and spring frosts. Inclement weather, particularly temperatures below 10C at bloom, inhibits bee activity and thus prevents pollen germination. The optimum conditions for pollen germination and fruit setting are between 21.1 and 26.7C. B. Propagation 1. Rootstocks

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Temperate fruit plants are propagated on seedling stocks. The recent trend in apple research is to breed rootstocks having more desirable qualities such as dwarfing effect, disease and pest resistance, and adaptation to varied soil and agroclimatic conditions. Two types of rootstocks, seedling and clonal rootstocks, are most commonly used. Seedling Rootstock. Plants are usually raised on seedling rootstocks. Seeds of crab apple or commercial cultivars are stratified by keeping them in moist sand either in the open or in a refrigerator during December for 23 months at 25C. At higher elevations, the commercial method of direct sowing of seeds in the field is practiced. Stratified seeds are sown at a distance of 710 cm in rows 30 cm apart. The seed beds are covered with mulch to promote germination. After 1 year, suitable seedlings are used for grafting/ budding.

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Clonal Rootstock. The commercial method of propagation is by mound or stool layering. The clones are planted at 3 cm distance in rows 60 cm apart. The mother plant is allowed to grow for one season to get established. The plants are headed back to 30 cm above ground level just before growth begins, and when new growth is about 10 cm the shoots are covered with soil, leaving the growing parts exposed. Soil is then mounded at regular intervals until it is 3045 cm high. At the end of the season, roots are formed at the base of the covered shoots. Rooted layers are cut off to ground level and then used for planting. In India, clonal rootstocks have been extensively tested and M 9, M 26, M 4, MM 106, and MM 111 have been identified as promising (12). Among the promising rootstocks, M 9 and M 27 have been identified as dwarfing; M 7, M 4, and MM 106 as semi-dwarfing; and MM 111 has been graded as semivigorous. Mac 2, Mac 9, Mac 24, and Mac 39 are some of the

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new clonal rootstocks which are under evaluation in the country. 2. Propagation Techniques Tongue or cleft grafting in FebruaryMarch and T-budding in MayJune have been shown to be very successful in apples, whereas chip budding was found suitable when performed in either mid-June or in mid-September.

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C. Cultural Practices 1. Planting

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The spacing or plant density in apple depends largely on the variety, rootstock and scion vigor, training and pruning method, soil, and climatic conditions (27). However, in planting trees in the orchard, prime consideration is planting of sufficient pollinizers to ensure effective pollination. Usually one pollinizer tree is required for every two or three large trees planted at 10 m distance or one row of pollinizer for every two rows of main cultivar. In general, a spacing, of 68 m is most common in many parts of the world. However, in intensive and semiintensive planting systems, the trees are planted at a closer spacing (4 m 2.5 m or less, 4.5 m 3 m, or 5 m 3.5 m). In hilly slopes or steep areas, it is advisable to plant on the contour, whereas square or hexagonal systems can be adopted in valley areas. High-density planting is a relatively new concept, and in most countries there is increasing interest in this system of planting. The high productivity potential of high-density

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plantings on dwarfing rootstocks has been demonstrated by many workers. The dwarfing rootstocks M 9, M 4, M 7, MM 106, and M 26 showed the best promise for high density in former Czechoslovakia (28). High-density plantation can be taken up in the areas where the soils are fertile, flat, free from high-velocity winds and provided with good irrigation facilities. As for other temperate crops, apple is planted in winter when the plants are dormant. At this stage the plants are easy to handle, without much fear of damage to the root system or young buds, and are protected from the major shock of transplantation. The trees are planted in pits of 1 1 1 m size, filled with a mixture of soil and well-rotten farmyard manure or compost and 0.5 kg of superphosphate along with 50 g of Aldrin dust. The plants are not planted deeper than their natural position in the nursery, keeping the graft union about 25 cm above the ground level to avoid collar rot.

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2. Irrigation. Irrigation of newly planted trees is necessary to achieve a high survival rate. The first irrigation should be light and given after planting. Subsequent irrigations are given according to requirements. In general, supplementary irrigation is required during summer, particularly when the plants are young. Irrigation to maintain adequate soil moisture usually results in increased yield and decreased incidence of russeting and skin cracking. The modern irrigation systems for apple orchards are mainly sprinkler, drip, or trickle irrigation. These systems are economical because these can be used for uniform application of chemicals, especially fertilizers, besides water application (29). With overhead sprinklers, the temperature of the orchards can be modified to avoid heat stress (30) and also to prevent freezing and delay bloom (31).

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3. Manuring and Fertilization

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Like other fruit trees, apple trees require all the mineral elements for proper growth and bearing (32). The commercial standards are determined mainly by color, size and appearance, yield potential, and sensory properties of the apple fruit, which are greatly influenced by mineral nutrition. There is a need for careful and frequent assessment of growth and fruiting characteristics along with leaf and soil analysis for formulation of an economic fertilization program for the apple orchard. Various combinations of N, P, and K for better growth, yield, and quality of fruit have been recommended by several workers, but no combination was found to be best suited for all conditions. Singh et al. (33) obtained best results in terms of yield and fruit quality in royal delicious apple with N, P2O5, and K2O at 500, 250, and 750 g/tree/year, respectively. Several commercial formulations of both macro-and micronutrients can also be made use of on the basis of leaf/soil analysis. NPK

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fertilizers are generally broadcast on the soil surface under the spread of trees, and slightly mixed with soil. FYM along with phosphorus and potash is applied during

December and January, whereas nitrogen is applied first half-dose 23 weeks before flowering and the se month after the first application.

Studies on mineral nutrient removal have shown th of nutrients were removed by the harvested fruits, f wood, whereas abscissed flowers, fruitless and sene tributed little to the amount of nutrients removed (1 year, trees with 16.9 tonnes/ha yield removed 75.3 139.2 kg K, 23.2 kg Ca, and 8.7 kg Mg, whereas tre ha yield removed 15.4 kg N, 4.4 kg P, 34.7 kg K, 1 kg Mg, which shows that crop load is largely respo removal of the trees and can be used as an index to application. Based on nutrient response, the correct in Table 2 have been recommended for quick respo 4. Training and Pruning

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Pruning is one of the most important practices affec ductivity, and fruit quality, and also susceptibility t pests, whereas training is done to provide a desired ing the early years of tree growth. Even after prope yearly pruning of bearing trees is important to enab full crop load during subsequent bearing periods (3 done to remove those weak growing shoots from th never produce fruits of satisfactory size and quality

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In the past, the most common forms of training app ral leader, open center, or modified leader systems. seedling rootstock are still trained according to a m er system. With the introduction of spur strains and stocks, several new systems of training trees, such a don, dwarf pyramid, pillar, espailer, palmette, and s been standardized (35). For high-density planting a trees on dwarf rootstocks, the most popular and effi training is the spindle bush system. This is basically system, except that the branches are trained horizon tem, tying of scaffold branches during the first two back of the central leader are the most important op branches are tied in August when extension growth restrict the growth and to increase the fruiting spurs winter pruning, two to three well-spaced laterals are leader is also headed back to a weak lateral. The hig usually kept shorter to allow penetration of light to The main branches are trained regularly for develop laterals. In subsequent years, branches are allowed central leader at regular intervals.

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In apples, the fruits are predominantly borne on the branches, known as spurs, which are produced main pruning. The severity of pruning depends on the va stock, crop load, etc. In general, the lead branches a third to

Table 2 Corrective Measures for Nutrient Deficiencies Element Product Concentration (%) Tim N Urea 0.5 After petal fall Ca CaCl2 5.0 Postharvest 0.5 30 and 45 days b Zn ZnSO4 0.5 After petal fall Mn MnSO4 0.5 After petal fall B H3BO3 0.1 Before bloom or Source: Ref. 12.

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one-half of their length, while others are given mild treatment. This encourages the formation of spurs by buds near the base of the shoot, whereas those near the tip grow to form vegetative shoots. A regulated system of pruning has been practiced successfully on a wide range of apple cultivars on semidwarfing and vigorous rootstocks such as MM 106, MM 111, and M 26, whereas in vigorous cultivars the renewal system of pruning is usually followed. In this system, the pruning is practiced in such a way so as to maintain a continuous supply of new healthy shoots, spurs, and branches every year, rather than to develop permanent spurs. A portion of the tree is pruned every year, which produces localized shoot growth and may produce fruit in the following years, while the unpruned parts will produce fruit buds to replace laterals.

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The time and method of pruning greatly influence tree growth and fruiting in apples. Dormant pruning causes a delay in fruiting of young trees and reduces the yield of trees grafted on vigorous rootstock. The response to summer pruning is also dependent on cultivar, tree vigor, tree age, and rootstock. To protect plants from winter injury, late winter or early spring pruning has been found to be beneficial. In dwarf plantations, fruits are usually removed during the first 2 years in order to develop a good framework of the tree. 5. Orchard Floor Management

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Mulching, followed by herbicide application, has been found to be most effective for floor vegetation management in apple orchards. Mulching with straw, hay, sawdust, plastic or polythene, or other organic materials improves the fertility, moisture-holding capacity, porosity, and aeration of soil, besides decreasing runoff. However, different cultivars behave differently with mulching materials. The use of white plastic in Mac spur cultivar and grass mulch in regular-bearing summer land cultivar was found to be effective in increasing fruit weight (36). Black alkathene has also been found to be useful for controlling weeds in higher hills. Green manuring crops such as sunflower also help in improving the texture and nutritional status of soil. The use of herbicides to eliminate weeds and grasses results in increased tree vigor and higher crop yields. Herbicide management also helps in savings of fertilizers, irrigation, and time spent on soil management (37). Among the

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herbicides, atrazine, simazine, oxygluorfen, and glyphosate have been proved effective for weed control. Application of 10-cm-thick grass mulch plus glyphosate at 800 ml/ha provides an acceptable level of weed control in apple orchards. 6. Pollination Most of the commercial apple cultivars are selfincompatible (38), although there are a few cultivars which are partially self-fertile. Cultivars such as Jonathan, Golden Delicious, Rome, and Grimes are considered as partially self-fruitful and can be used as pollinizers. The pollen germination in triploid cultivars is usually poorer than in most diploids, so it is advisable to use diploid pollinizers in triploid orchards. Defective pollens, incompatibility, irregular chromosome behavior, climatic conditions, and growth of plant are some of the factors which effect fruitfulness in apple.

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In areas where unfavorable climatic conditions coincide with the time of bloom, at least 33% pollinizers like Tydeman's Early Worcester, Red Gold, and Golden Delicious are most desirable to provide adequate pollination. Top working of a branch of commercial cultivar with pollinizer, providing two beehives per acre of orchard, and placing of flower bouquets of the pollinizer of delicious cultivar trees also helps in better pollination. 7. Crop Regulation Significant achievements have been made in crop regulation through flower and fruit thinning, prevention of preharvest fruit drop, improvement of photosynthetic efficiency, breaking of dormancy,

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growth retardation, and color development of fruits by using different chemicals

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Fruit Thinning. In apple, Delicious varieties besides Tydeman's Early Worcester, Red Gold, and Golden Delicious produce heavy crops of small-sized fruits. The quality of these fruits can be improved significantly by chemical thinning. The commonly used thinning agents such as NAA and Carbaryl reduce fruit set in many apple cultivars. Carbaryl at 1500 ppm applied 3 weeks after petal fall induced 61.5% fruit thinning in Red Delicious apples, whereas 2,4,5-T induced 37.6% thinning. In Golden Delicious, application of NAA (10 ppm) and Carbaryl (750 ppm) at petal fall were effective for optimal fruit thinning. Ethrel (2-chloroethyl phosphonic acid) and Fruit Fix (NAA) were found effective in Golden Delicious (39) and also helped in increasing the fruit size.

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Preharvest Fruit Drop. The problem of preharvest fruit drop has been reported to be severe in early-ripening cultivars and ranges from 40 to 60% of the crop load. In mid-season cultivars such as Delicious and Golden Delicious, the range of preharvest drop varied from 15 to 20%. The preharvest drop can be checked with the application of 10 ppm NAA before the expected fruit drop or 2025 days before harvest. Bangerth (40) recommended foliar spray of aminoethoxyvinylglycine (AVG) to delay the preharvest drop of apples. D. Diseases and Pests 1. Diseases

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Apple Scab (Venturia inequalis). Apple scab is considered the most dreaded disease of apples and is reported from almost all the apple-growing regions of the world. The symptoms of apple scab appear on the foliage and on fruits as light brown or olive green spots. These spots soon turn musty black and appear on either or both sides of young leaves in spring. Severe spotting leads to premature leaf drop. Severe early infection results in the formation of knotty fruits. Fissures or cracks often develop in scabbed areas which allow the entry of other organisms that cause rot of the fruit. Apparently healthy fruits which are infected in late summer develop small, rough, black circular lesions on their skin during storage (41). In India, the first severe epidemic of scab occurred in 1973 in the Kashmir Valley (41). In Israel, scab caused heavy losses in Starking and Red Delicious apple cultivars grown in the Golan Heights region. Among different cultivars, Jonathan was found most

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susceptible to scab, although Golden Delicious and Granny Smith were also affected (42). In India, following spray schedule for control of apple scab at different stages of fruit development has been recommended (Table 3).

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Powdery Mildew (Podosphaera leucotricha). Powdery mildew appears both in apple nurseries and orchards and attacks twigs, foliage, blossoms, and fruits. Cultivars such as Golden Delicious, Jonathan, Granny Smith, Cox's Orange Pippin, Jonagold, and Crispin are more susceptible to powdery mildew. The disease appears as a whitish powdery growth on both sides of leaves and twigs. The affected leaves are distorted in shape and smaller in size, becoming hard and brittle; young fruit shows signs of russeting. Severe infection causes leaf fall and premature fruit drop. Integrated protection against mildew includes introduction of resistant cultivars, destruction of overwintering fungal structures, early spring spraying, and reduction of inoculum by pruning shoots and spraying (44).

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Spraying with wettable sulfur (200300 g/100 liters water) or carbendazim/thiophanate methyl (50 g/100 liters) or Karathane (50 ml/100 liters water) along with suitable sticker (a) during late dormancy, (b) at bud swell, (c) at petal fall, and (d) 2 weeks after petal fall was also found effective in controlling powdery mildew in apple orchards (45). Crown Gall (Agrobacterium tumefaciens). In crown gall, globular, elongated, or irregular tumors are formed at or near the graft union, mainly in nursery plants (41). Injury to the roots or the collar needs to be avoided to protect plants from crown gall. Planting of rootstocks (M 9) after

Table 3 Spray Schedule for the Control of Apple Scab Spray no. Stage 1 Silver tip to green tip Chlorothalonil (400 g) on (75 g) 2 Pink bud stage Mancozeb (300 g)/Dit 3 Petal fall stage Carbendazim (50 g)/T 4 Fruit set (pea size) Dodine (75 g)/Fenarim tanol (75 g) 5 Fruit development stage (wal- Carbendazim (50 g)/T nut size) Captan (300 g)/Dithia 6 Repeat fungicides of 5th spray after 14 days 7 Preharvest (2025 days before Mancozeb (300 g)/Ca harvest) 8 Pre-leaf-fall stage Urea (5 kg) Source: Ref. 43.

dipping in Copac E (ammonical cupric sulfate) or w mixed with glue has shown good control of crown g

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Fire Blight (Erwinia amlylovora). The symptoms o and spread later to shoots. Golden droplets of bacte The leaves and shoots gradually turn brown. In frui oozing lesions on the fruit surface. The spread of di import of host plants such as quince, loquat, firetho fected trees and host plants should be grubbed and of streptomycin brought about reasonable control o

White Root Rot (Dematophera necatrix). In white ro liage, slow growth, and bronzing and yellowing of covered with a white cottony mycelial mat of the fu die. To check the spread of disease, the drainage of fected roots are removed and chaubatia paste (red le 1:1:1.25) is applied on the cut ends and healthy por diseased trees, 15- to 25-cm-deep drenching of carb fungin 200 g) + copper sulfate (20 g/100 liters wate the drip area of the tree is recommended.

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Canker and Die-Back Diseases. Canker and die-bac (Botryobasidium salmonicolor), European canker ( (Botryosphaeria quercum), nail head (Nummularia purpureum), and stem bark canker (Botryosphaeria ent types of symptoms on trunk and branches. They duce either deep, sunken brown lesions or erupted b bark. The bark turns papery, and the portions above

To protect orchards from canker, it is essential to cu tree. The cankered portions are cut up to the healthy with chaubatia paste or copper oxychloride paint or paste (one part fresh cow dung + one part clay soil provides good

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healing to wounds. Spraying with copper oxychloride (300 g/100 liters water) or carbendazim (50 g/100 liters water) or captan 75 wp (200 g/100 liters water) after harvest and at bud swell stage is recommended for chemical control of canker. Leaf Spots. Leaf spots of different types of color, size, and shape caused by Mycosphaerella spp., Alternaria mali, Alternaria alternata, Coniothyrium pyrinum, Phyllosticta spp., and Botryosphaeria quercum are of common occurrence during late summer and the rainy season. In this, heavily spotted leaves turn yellow and fall prematurely. Regular spraying of a mixture of carbendazim (2530 g) plus mancozeb (250 g/100 liters water) at 15-day intervals during the rainy season provides good control of leaf spots.

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Seedling Blight (Sclerotium rolfsi). In seedling blight, infected seedlings are killed outright and small, mustard-colored sclerotia appear at the collar region during the monsoon season. To protect the nursery from seedling blight, irrigation of nursery soil with thiram (300 g/100 liters water) or aureofungin (40 g/100 liters water) is recommended.

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Collar Rot (Phytophthora cactorum). The symptoms of collar rot appear on the collar region near the ground, which turns brown, soft, and spongy. Subsequently the trunk is completely engirdled and ultimately dies. The spread of this disease is maximum in poorly drained soil. Control lies in removing the affected bark in the collar region, exposing the affected portion to sun, and applying chaubatia paint or copper oxychloride. Irrigation with mancozeb (300400 g/100 liters water) or copper oxychloride (5001000 g/100 liters water) or ridomil MZ (300 g/100 liters water) also helps in checking the spread of disease. Clonal rootstocks such as M2, M4, M9, and MM113 are resistant to collar rot.

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Viral Diseases. Viral diseases in apple include apple mosaic, little leaf, chlorotic spots, star crack, etc. Virus produces mosaic symptoms on leaves, curling, puckering, reduction in leaf size, reduction in tree vigor, and excessive proliferation of buds, resulting in lower fruit production. The use of graft wood or bud wood from infected trees should be avoided. 2. Pests.

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San Jose Scale (Quadraspidiotus perniciosus). San Jose scale is one of the most troublesome pests in all the warmer regions of the world. In India, it is found in Himachal Pradesh, Kashmir, and other apple-growing areas. The scale insects live on the bark of trunks and branches and feed by sucking sap from the tree, forming grayish specks on the bark surface. Scale also affects fruits, causing reddish spots similar to pear scale. In India, biological control of this pest with the parasite Prospaltella perniciosi has been tried. Two summer sprays of a contact insecticide such as phosalone or fenitrothion, or a systemic insecticide such as phosphamidon or oxydemetons-methyl, gave satisfactory control of this pest (46). Spraying fenitrothion to runoff at a concentration of 0.05% when the fruits were 34 cm in diameter gave good protection against San Jose scale of red delicious apple cultivar (47). Dormant spray of miscible tree spray oil between late dormancy and green tip stage

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followed by summer spray with chlorpyriphos (0.02%) or phosphamidon (0.03%) has been recommended for the control of this pest (47) along with white scale. If required, postharvest spray with chlorpyriphos (0.02%) or fenitrothion (0.05%) can also be repeated during SeptemberOctober. Woolly Apple Aphid (Eriosoma lanigerum). The woolly apple aphid lives in colonies on both the root and aerial parts of the plants. Damage is caused by sucking of sap from stems, twigs, and roots, resulting in gall formation. Affected plants remain stunted, with greatly reduced fruit bearing capacity. Its main natural enemy, the parasitoid Aphelinus mali, is an important control agent. In nonbearing trees, granules of phorate (1030 g) or carbofuran (3050 g) placed 5 cm deep in the

Page 102

root zone of infested trees provide good control of this pest, whereas for bearing trees, summer spray of chlorpyriphos (0.02%) or fenitrothion (0.05%) during MayJune and October is recommended. Apple Aphids. Besides wooly apple aphid, other aphids such as green apple aphid (Aphis pomi), apple grass aphid (Rhopalosiphum insertum), rosy leaf curling aphid (Dysaphis devecta), and rosy apple aphid (D. plantaginea) also cause serious damage, resulting in curling and distortion of leaves and reduced extension growth. To control these aphids, destruction of eggs before hatching by thoroughly wetting the tree bark by spraying tar oil, DNOC, or DNOC-petroleum oil is recommended. Spraying of organophosphorus insecticides such as malathion, phosphamidon, dimethoate, or vamidothion at the green cluster stage was also found effective.

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Tortrix Moth (Archips podana). Tortrix moth attacks the fruit at the later stages of fruit development and is very common. The caterpillars usually spin webs around several leaves or between two fruits. They feed on areas of the fruit skin and sometimes in the calyx cavity. Spraying with organophosphorus insecticides (fenitrothion, chlorpyrifos, phosalone, or endosulfan) controls this pest. Apple Fruit Moth. In apple-growing regions experiencing dry temperature weather conditions, apple fruit moths lay eggs at dusk in late June. Upon hatching, the caterpillars enter into the fruit, feeding on developing seeds up to midAugust. Full-grown larvae come out of the fruit after tunneling through the fruit pulp and pupate in crevices in retaining walls in the fields. Spraying with 0.05% fenitrothion in the middle of June followed by a second spray in the first week of July provides good control of the pest.

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Borers. Borers cause damage to roots, stems, and shoots, with the result that the plants become weak and may even die. Treating the basin around the trunk with 0.15% Aldrin during November and March provides good control of root borers; for stem borers, the holes are cleared with flexible wire and then 0.5 g of paradichlorobenzene (PDCB) is inserted and the hole is plugged with mud or cotton wick soaked in petrol or methyl parathion (0.2%), or dichlorvos (0.15%) is inserted in the hole. In the case of localized infestation with shot hole borer, the infested part is swabbed with 0.2% methyl parathion or sprayed with 0.05% fenitrothion.

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Blossom Thrips. Various species of thrips affecting apple blossom include Taeniothrips spp., Thrips flavus, Thrips carthami, and Haplothrips ceylonicus. The attacked flowers show withering symptoms, and as a result either the fruits do not set or they fall off in the early stage of development. Heavily infested bloom produces distorted flowers that open on one side. Excreta are often deposited near the feeding site, which provides a suitable site for fungal infestation (48). Biological control with predators such as Chrysopa sp. and lady bird beetle (Coccinella septumpunctata) provide good control of thrips. Prebloom spraying at the green tip stage with 0.05% fenitrothion followed by 0.1% isofenphos, 0.05% methamidophos, or 0.01% fenvalerate was also found to be effective against the thrips without having any long-lasting effect on pollen viability (49). The use of 0.05% fenitrothion substantially reduced the thrips population (Thrips flavus and Haplothrips

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ceylonicus) in comparison to 0.025% methyl demeton, 0.02% quinalphos, 0.035% phosalone, 0.03% dimethoate, or 0.035% endosulfan (50). Defoliating and Fruit-Eating Beetles. Many phytophagous species of beetles attack practically all temperate fruit plants, including apple. Beetles appear in MayJune and feed on foliage and developing fruits at dusk. In the case of severe damage, the plant is completely defoliated. The immature stages of these pests (white grubs) feed on roots of many crops, vegetables, fruit trees, and grasses. Shaking of nonbearing trees over a cloth sheet at dusk and destroying the beetles in kerosenized water provides effective control against this pest. Spraying with 0.05% methyl parathion or 0.1% carbaryl in MayJune during the attack is also recommended.

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Red Spider Mite (Panonychus ulmi). Adult red spider mites lay red-colored eggs underneath the leaves and on the spurs. The mites suck sap from the leaves, which may turn bronze. The growth of the plant is markedly reduced under severe infestation. Regulation of predator populations such as Typhlodromus pyri and Amblyseius andersoni offer good management of red spider mites (51). The fungicide Thiozol (wettable sulfur) was also found to be effective in reducing the population of P. ulmi.

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Leaf Miners. The leaf miners Stigmella malella, Lithocolletis blancardella, and Leucoptera scitella are reported in the apple orchards of Yugoslavia, while Lithocolletis blancardella is found in Switzerland (51). The caterpillars usually feed on young leaves and cause rolling of leaves, which may fall prematurely. Leucoptera scitella and Phyllonorcycter blancardella can be controlled by treatment with diflubenzuron followed by an application of deltamethrin, except the spring generation of P. blancardella. Spraying with 0.05% carbaryl or 0.05% malathion about 2 weeks before harvest can also effectively control the leaf miners.

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Apple Sawfly (Hoplocampa testudinea). Sawfly grubs damage apples by tunneling in the fruit. The larvae produce ribbonlike scars on both young and mature apples. Infested fruits usually drop from the tree, resulting in severe losses. Spraying of organophosphorus insecticide (dimethoate, vamidothion, deltamethrin) at petal fall stage was found effective to control sawfly. The apple cultivars susceptible to sawfly include James Grive, Charles Ross, Ellison's orange, and Worcester pearmain.

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Codling Moth (Cydia pomonella). Adult codling moths lay eggs on developing fruitlets and on leaves. The invading larvae start feeding from the fruit skin and burrow down to the core. After feeding, the larvae escape and leave a small redringed entry hole, causing premature drop of damaged fruits. The parasites Trichogramma embryophagum and T. cacoeciae-pallidum have shown good parasitism (52). The pest-control strategy includes two to three sprays of chemicals such as carbaryl, chlorpyrifos, deltamethrin, malation, phosalone, etc. The growth regulator Alsystin (triflumuron) has an ovicidal, larvicidal, and sterilant effect on this pest. The best time to apply the compound is about 34 days after the capture of males in pheromone traps, i.e., against day-old females and newly laid eggs. E. Harvesting 1. Maturity Indices

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Indices of harvest maturity of apples are based largely on color (external and internal), flesh firmness, composition (starch, sugar, and acid), mechanical properties (rupture force, modules of elasticity), ease of separation from spurs, and days from full bloom to harvest (53). The days from full bloom to harvest is considered a fairly good index of maturity, but climatic factors immediately after petal fall also play an important role (35). The current methods for monitoring changes in fruit maturity include measurement of fruit firmness, respiration rate, ethylene production, starch hydrolysis, soluble solids, titratable acidity, and also the color of the skin and cortical tissue (17). However, the most reliable index of harvest maturity for several cultivars is a standard calendar date, i.e., the number of days from full bloom (DAFB) to harvest (53). Late picking of apples can lead to storage disorders such as breakdown and browning of flesh and increased softening and yellowing. Various

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maturity indices have been used to predict the last safe harvest date for long-term storage. Ingle and D'Souza (54) correlated internal ethylene concentration with DAFB in 90% of the comparisons. Firmness and soluble solid concentration was significantly correlated with DAFB, although there were increases and decreases between 130 or 144 DAFB. The first acceptable picking date for British Columbiagrown Jonagold cultivar

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was the time when fruits have internal ethylene concentration of 0.31.5 ml/liter, soluble solids of 13.514.5 Brix, starch index 6.57.0 on a 9.0-point scale, and acids 661782 mg malate/100 ml of juice (55). Andrich et al. (56) reported that apple skin permeability to oxygen can also be used as an harvesting index, as the skin permeability is maximum at harvest. Storage experiments with golden delicious apples showed that the formation of aromatic compounds in apples could also be used for prediction of the optimum picking date (57). The stage of fruit maturity influenced the scald incidence in Fuji apples in Brazil. The greatest incidence was in early-harvested fruits and doubled storage to the commercial period (58). 2. Harvesting Methods

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The ultimate use of the apple fruits decides the method to be used in harvesting. The most commonly used harvest method for fresh-market and processing apples is by hand. However, mechanical harvesting of fruit, particularly of relatively low-quality fruit for immediate processing, has now begun to make inroads (59). Hand Harvest. The correct way to pick fruits is by lifting up with a slight twisting motion rather than pulling down straight away from the spur. Pulling down results in many fruits being removed without stems, and it is more difficult to pick the fruit. Proper picking generally require careful handling at every step to prevent bruising (60).

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Proper picking and handling will prevent stem pulls, skin punctures, and bruising. Soft fruits require more careful handling than firm ones to avoid bruising, but firm fruit tend to get skin punctures more readily than soft types. In the United States, 76100% of apples are harvested manually (61). Mechanical Harvest. There are two major mechanisms for mechanical harvesting, i.e., shake and catch, and shake and orchard floor sweep. These methods are not recommended commercially, as considerably physical damage occurs to fruits. However, for immediate consumption and processing, these quick methods may be applied.

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A rod-press harvester has also been developed for the Lincoln Canopy T-trellis in West Virginia (62). The harvesting mechanism uses direct contact to push the fruit from the canopy. In this method, about 96% of the apples are harvested with low bruise percentage and minimum mechanical damage. Robotic harvesting of apples has also been tried in France. The robot consists of a telescopic arm, a line-scan camera, and a microcomputer. A pneumatic picker, located at the end of the hydrostatic manipulator arm, detaches the fruit and transfers it to a bin. In suitable light conditions, more than 50% of the apples can be picked by the robot with relatively little damage at a rate of one fruit every 4 s (63). IV. Grading, Packaging, and Transport A. Grading

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Apples are graded for size and quality under groups A, B and C, depending on their color, regular shape, freedom from injuries, blemishes, diseased spots, etc. (64). A and B grades are sent to market; C-grade fruits are not generally marketed through the fresh fruit trade. Grades A and B are further subdivided by size, the grades depending on the equatorial diameter of the fruit. Fruits meant for export are further designated as extra fancy, fancy class I, and fancy class II. Mechanical graders are also used to provide uniform standards of size grades. However, mechanical grading needs to be supplemented with visual screening for color, disease, and uniform shape.

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B. Packaging The primary role of packaging lies in the safe delivery of the produce from the production center to the ultimate consumer in prime form and fresh condition. Packaging is one of the major factors which influences the quality of fruit when it reaches the consumer. 1. Wooden Boxes

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Like other temperate fruits, apples are generally packed in wooden boxes for marketing. The box is lined inside with old newspaper sheets, keeping the margins for overhanging the flaps. The fruits are initially padded with wood wool pine needles at the bottom and later between intervening layers. Paper-wrapped fruits are arranged in each layer; the top layer is covered with paper by bringing together the overhanging flaps. The top is then nailed on. The box is further reinforced externally by clamping with a tight 1416 gauge steel wire for distant markets. Apple packing in wooden boxes results in high bruising losses and shows maximum loss in weight, which may be due to water absorption by the timber from the fruit and the subsequent loss of moisture to the atmosphere over and above the inherent drying of the timber during transportation (65,66). 2. Trays.

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Apples are also packed in paper pulp trays, with fruit in the trays often individually wrapped or unwrapped. These trays are then placed in boxes/cartons. 3. Corrugated Fiber Board Cartons

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Corrugated fiber board (CFB) cartons have already replaced wooden boxes for packaging of most fruits and vegetables in the horticulturally advanced countries. They were introduced into the apple trade in India in the 1980s. CFB cartons are capable of withstanding various transportation hazards both on muleback and by trucks (66). They cause minimum bruise damage (3.23.4%) in comparison to wooden boxes (25.229.7%), besides reducing loss in fruit weight (65,66). Further, CFB cartons are attractive, light in weight, and offer better printability, which helps in efficient marketing. They also reduce pressure on our already denuded forests. Plastic crates have also recently been recommended and introduced in the apple trade in Himachal Pradesh, India, to a limited extent, for field boxes for collection of fruit from orchards, stacking in cold storage, carriage to nearby markets, and to supply fruit to processing plants.

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C. Transportation Full telescopic corrugated containers are used as shipping containers for apples. Maini et al. (67) reported considerable reduction in bruising damage in tray-packed apples during transportation as compared to traditional packs. Kaushal and Anand (64) reported that about 2035% of fruit is bruised in conventional wooden boxes during transportation. Safe transportation of applepacked wooden boxes along with CFB cartons during transportation has been reported (121). Adoption of modified-atmosphere packaging (with retailer) for marketing and distribution of apples provides benefits in flexibility, stock control, quality maintenance, and reduced wastage. V. Chemical Composition A. Carbohydrates

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Fresh apples are considered a food of moderate energy value, whereas processed apple products are either comparable to fresh apples in energy value or higher because of concentration, dehydration, or the addition of sugars during processing. Chemical composition of apple is affected by

many factors, including cultivar, growing region, cl cessing. The approximate composition of apples an cessing methods is summarized in Table 4. Carbohy apple, with starch and sugars the available carbohyd lose the unavailable fractions. Total carbohydrates i prising 0.895.58% each of fructose and glucose; an content is presented in Table 5.

Pectin is a mixture of water-soluble pectinic acid of neutralization that is capable of forming gels under and acid content. Low-methoxyl pectin, with a low important because of its ability to form gels withou valent metallic ions (Ca2+). The pectin content of so The variation in pectin content is attributed to the m B. Organic Acids

Organic acids are among the most important consti fruit is malic, although others such as citric, lactic, acids found in apple peel and pulp, though in small

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The acidity in the fruit is of interest because it affec acidity in apple juice in different varieties ranges fr 0.42% as malic acid. Similarly, the pH variation am (72). C. Proteins

Fresh apples with skin contain about 0.19% protein of this important nutrient. The proportion of differe and glucamic acid are the predominant amino acids

Table 4 Approximate Composition of Apples and Apple Prod Water Ener Product (%) 1 Fresh apple with skin 83.9 85.5 Apple without skin, cooked (69) Canned apples, sweetened 82.4 3.0 Dehydrated apples (low moisture) Dehydrated apples 31.8 Dehydrated apples sulfured and cooked without 84.1 added sugar (69) Frozen apples 86.9 Canned apple juice 87.9 Apple juice, frozen concentrate, undiluted (69) 57.0

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Applesauce, unsweetened Applesauce, sweetened

88.4 79.6

Table 5 Dietary Fibers Content of Apple Fruit (g/100 g Dried Constituent Golden Delici Moisture 85.0 Insoluble noncellulosic polysaccharides 1.11 Hexoses 1.32 Pentoses 0.28 Uronic acids 2.71 Total Total noncellulosic polysaccharides 1.58 Hexoses 2.04 Pentoses 3.27 Uronic acids 6.89 Total Cellulose 2.68 Lignin 0.53 Dietary Fiber excluding resistant starch 10.1 Source: Ref. 136.

D. Minerals

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Fresh apples contain 0.26% ash contents, while in d it is 45 times higher, owing mainly to the effect of c Mattick and Moyer (72) reported some variations in among apples from different geographic regions. T assumed to be due to the availability of different m of different regions. Data on the concentrations of s found in apples are presented in Table 9. Potassium main portion of the total mineral contents of apples for more than 40% of the total ash. Phosphorus and next most prevalent minerals in the apple fruit.

Table 6 Sugar and Pectin Content (%) of Some Apple Cultiva Cultivar Total sugars Reducing sugars Delicious 11.79 8.81 Golden Delicious 12.39 7.89 Jonathan 11.45 8.29 Jubilee 12.60 8.02 McIntosh 10.89 8.30 Newton 11.67 7.50 Spartan 11.32 9.00 Stayman 11.69 7.05 Winesap 12.82 10.67 Northern Spy 12.05 9.15

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Stirling Rome Beauty York Imperial Lowry aAs calcium pectate. Source: Ref. 68.

11.98 10.65 12.38 13.23

7.94 7.16 8.07 8.64

Page 108 Table 7 Organic Acids Found in Apple Fruit Whole fruit or juice Peel Pulp Malic Glyoxylic Pyruvic Isocitric Quinic Malic Malic Glycolic Citric Citric Succinic Quinic Quinic Lactic Shikimic Shikimic Galacturonic Glyceric Citramalic Citramalic Glyceric a-Oxoglutaric Mucic Pyruvic a-Oxoglutaric Source: Ref. 73.

According to Upshaw et al. (74), processing causes essentially no change in the content of chromium, molybdenum, or selenium but an increase in chlorine and sodium. The average sodium content in fresh apples was about 9 ppm, whereas iodine and chromium levels were quite low. E. Vitamins.

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The vitamin contents of fresh apple are presented in Table 10. The average ascorbic acid content is about 5 mg/100 g of apple. In comparison with the recommended daily intake of vitamins, the proportion of all other vitamins except vitamin C in apple was found to be insignificant (75). F. Phenolic Compounds

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Apple contains several classes of phenolic compounds, including hydroxycinnamic derivatives, flavonols, anthocyanins, dihydrochalcones, monomeric flavan-3-ols, and tannins (76). There is wide variability in the total phenolic contents of fruits (77). Nicholas et al. (76) compiled data on total phenolic content of ripe apple fruit and reported phenolic content ranging from 0.15 to 2.5%. The variation in the values reported in the literature is due mainly to the method used for estimation of tannins, variety, stage of maturity, and environmental factor (7883). The major phenolics identified in apple fruits are quinic acid, epicatechin, quercetin-3-O-b-D-galactopyranoside, phloretin-2-O-glucoside, and cyanidin-3-galactopyranoside (76). The phenolics are
Table 8 Amino Acid Content of Fresh Apple Amino acid (%) Amino acid Alanine 0.007 Lysine Arginine 0.006 Methionine Aspartic acid 0.034 Phenylalanine (%) 0.012 0.002 0.005

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Cystine Glutamic acid Glycine Histidine Isoleucine Leucine Source: Ref. 68.

0.003 0.020 0.008 0.003 0.008 0.012

Proline Serine Threonine Tryptophan Tyrosine Valine

0.002 0.006 0.007 0.002 0.004 0.009

Page 109 Table 9 Mineral Elements in Fresh Apples Mineral (ppm) Mineral Calcium 7.0Chloride Iron 1.8Chromium Magnesium 50.0Cobalt Phosphorus 70.0Copper Potassium 1150.0Iodine Zinc 0.4Molybdenum Copper 0.4Selenium Manganese 0.4Sodium Sources: Refs. 69 and 74. (ppm) 4.26.2 0.03 0.10 0.45 0.02 0.30 0.91.6 8.99.2

located mainly in the vacuoles. The epidermal and subepidermal layers have higher contents of phenolics than the internal tissue. The concentrations of phenolic compounds are very high in young fruits and then rapidly decrease during fruit development (83). These phenolic compounds are involved in enzymatic browning of apple products (76).

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VI. Storage The storage life of apples depends on cultivar, production area, cultural practices, climatic conditions, maturity, handling, and transportation. For maximum storage, apples must be harvested when matured but not fully ripe. Immature apples have poor eating quality and are likely to shrivel in storage. Apples picked too mature will develop breakdown prematurely and have short storage life. A. Low-Temperature Storage

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The recommended storage temperature for each cultivar is the temperature which is most effective in retarding ripening and growth of decayproducing organisms without causing freezing injury. For most apple cultivars, the optimum storage temperature is -1 to 0C with 9095% relative humidity. For a cultivar such as delicious, storage at -1C will give approximately 25% longer storage life than at 0C. Somewhat higher storage temperatures than -1 to 0C are
Table 10 Vitamin Content of Fresh Apples per 100 g of Tissue Vitamin Concentration Ascorbic acid (mg) 5.7 Thiamin (mg) 0.017 Riboflavin (mg) 0.014 Niacin (mg) 0.077 Pantothenic acid (mg) 0.061 Vitamin B6 (mg) 0.048 Folacin (mcg) 2.8 Vitamin A (retinol equivalent) 5.3 Source: Ref. 68.

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recommended for some cultivars because of their susceptibility to disorder induced by low temperature. Jonathan apples in some areas often develop soft scald in regular cold storage at 0C, so they should be stored at 2C. McIntosh apples often develop brown core during extended storage at 0C, so they should be stored at 23C. Yellow Newton apples grown in California often develop internal browning when stored at 0C; their optimum storage temperature is 34C. Fruit ripening is much faster at warmer temperatures, and storage life is reduced. Decay and other disorders such as Jonathan spot and bitter pit may be worse at storage temperatures higher than -1 to 0C. Storage of Jonathan apples in controlled-atmosphere storage at 0C provides good control of soft scald and Jonathan spot. B. Controlled-Atmosphere Storage

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Some cultivars of apples, viz., McIntosh, Cortland, and Yellow Newton, do not tolerate temperatures of -1.1 to 0C for long periods and develop brown core, hence they must be stored at higher temperatures (3.34.4C). Controlled-atmosphere (CA) storage at 3.3C in 25% CO2 and 3% O2 solves the problem for apples, and they can be stored until AprilMay under these conditions. By storing the apples in an atmosphere of 78% CO2 and 23% O2, a storage life of 8 months can be obtained (84). CA storage gives the most striking results with apples such as McIntosh, Newtown, and Cortland, which do not keep well at -1.1 to 0C. However, it is also used for other apples that do keep well at -1.1C, such as delicious, Golden Delicious, Rome Beauty, and Stayman, to extend the storage life (85). Ethylene plays an important role in fruit ripening, and CO2 some times acts as a deterrent in ethylene action. Low O2 also prevents ethylene from stimulating ripening. CA thus

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delays the onset of endogenous ethylene production by apples. Although there is no evidence to conclude that CA storage lengthens storage life by retarding ethylene production, CA storage slows down the metabolic activity of the fruit. The effects of O2 and CO2 are basic factors in which a lower concentration of O2 limits the oxidation process of respiration and CO2 plays a role in carboxylation and decarboxylation activities. With reduced respiration rates, the energy available for the ripening process is limited (84).

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In a 6-year storage trial with apples, Heide (86) obtained best results at 4C with 01% CO2, 34% O2, and 96% RH. Lidster et al. (87) reported response of McIntosh apples to low-oxygen storage. Apples stored in low-O2 atmosphere (1.5% CO2 and 1.0% O2) were found to be significantly firmer than similar fruit stored in conventional CA storage (5% CO2 and 2.8% O2). Low-O2 storage also resulted in fruits having high titratable acids and that were significantly crisper, more acidic, and juicier. The degree of fruit maturity at harvest was a significant factor in determining the losses of firmness and titratable acids in low-O2 storage. C. Subatmospheric Storage

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A number of reports are available showing that reduced-pressure storage improves the keeping quality of apples. Kim et al. (88) found that the optimum pressure for summer pear was 200 mm Hg or 0.26 atm, and that storage life was better than in CA. Jonathan apples store best at 0.13 atm. Hypobaric storage can be applied successfully for other fruits such as pears, apricots, peaches, sweet cherries, and tomatoes (89). Longest storage life is obtained at 102 mm Hg pressure (0.16 atm). D. Removal of Ethylene During Storage Potassium permanganate delays ethylene accumulation in the storage atmosphere for 40 days with Golden Delicious and 200 days with Bramley's seedling apples stored at 4C in 5% CO2

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and 3% O2. Knee and Hatfield (90) found that removal of ethylene retards softening. Scald affected only 033% of the Bramley's seedling apples, compared with 85100% in controls without KMnO4. However, external and internal injury symptoms increase with ethylene removal in 5% CO2 and 3% O2 from 2.3 to 7.0 and from 9.4 to 41.8%, respectively in golden delicious and Bramley's seedling apples. Bramlage et al. (90a) observed that preharvest spray of aminoethyoxyvinylglycine (AVG) at 500 ppm delays ripening and ethylene production in McIntosh apples (after 30 days, ethylene was 10% of that in untreated controls) and inhibits ripening. E. Postharvest Disorders, Diseases, and Their Control

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The wastage of apple during storage is often very serious. It may be brought about by various disease-causing pathogens such as blue mold (Penicillium expansum) and gray mold (Botrytis comerea), causing spoilage during storage and marketing (91). Blue mold is reported to be the most prevalent pathogen in apple (91a). Some of the other diseases of apples are bitter rot (Glomerella cingulata), pink mold (Trichothecium roseum), apple black (Monilinia laxa), whiskers rot (Rhizopus stolonifer), and core rot (Fusarium sp.). Fortes (92) has also reported various diseases caused by these pathogens during the storage of apples in Brazil. Kaul and Munjal (93) found that blue mold rot is the most destructive of 21 postharvest rots reported by them.

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Bitter pit and scald are the most serious disorders of apple. Apples affected with bitter pit have small brown spots in the flesh, usually near the surface and around the calyx end. This disorder is favored by warm weather and periods of water stress during fruit maturity. Other causes include too early harvesting, large size, light crop, heavy pruning, excess nitrogen fertilizer, and low calcium levels in the fruit. Hall and Scott (94) reported that delay before cooling, slow cooling, and too high storage temperatures also favor the disease. The calcium moves out of the fruit when the weather is dry; cells already at a critically low level of calcium may be damaged, leading to development of bitter pit (95). Baldwin, Northern Spy, Rhode Island Greening, Grimes, Newton, Stayman, Arkansas, Delicious, Gravenstein, and Rambo are most commonly affected by bitter pit, but others such as Golden Delicious, thought to be resistant, also develop the disease in some seasons (84).

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Chemical control of blue mold and bitter rot usually involves postharvest application of fungicides such as benomyl, thiobendazole, or SOPP, in addition to prompt cooling and lowtemperature storage. Incidence of gray mold rot (Botrytis spp.) and alternaria rot (Alternaria tenius) can be controlled by careful fruit handling, prompt storage, and maintenance of recommended low temperatures. Prusky and Ben-Arie (96) reported that imazalil at 500 ppm controlled Alternaria alternata in 90% of apples dipped in the fungicide. Blue mold rot has been reported to be effectively controlled by dipping apple fruits in bavistin (97,98). Use of bavistin has also been found to completely check the Rhizopus rot and black rot of apple as well as blue mold rot (99).

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Bitter pit of apples can be controlled by use of calcium nitrate sprays in the orchard. It is now known that apples have a critically low level of calcium and that other functional disorders are linked to calcium deficiency (95). Perring (100) found that apples having more than 5 mg Ca/ 100 g are likely to be free from bitter pit. A balanced fertilizer program and the application of three or four calcium sprays at 1- to 2-week intervals before harvest are recommended practices for the control of bitter pit (84). Hall and Scott (94) reported that, in Australia, dipping the fruit in calcium chloride after harvest is sometimes effective, and that the addition of the scald inhibitor dipheneylamine to the calcium chloride solution improved effectiveness. CA storage and waxing of apples also reduces the extent of bitter pit. Fidler and Mann (101) stated that bitter pit is

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caused by an imbalance of Ca, Mg, and K ratios. When the disease is not too severe, foliar sprays of calcium are beneficial. Bitter pit in stored apples increases with the K + Mg/Ca ratio in leaf and fruit and decreases with a higher fruit/ leaf ratio (102). Johnson and Marks (103) found calcium injury in apples treated with flaked grade CaCl2 to control bitter pit. A new product, Top-cal (a form of CaCl2 chelated with polyphenolic acids extracted from plant tissue), applied as a spray, was effective as 9 kg/ha of flaked CaCl2 (19 liters/ha) in reducing bitter pit. This formulation did not cause leaf or fruit injury as the flaked lime did. Similarly, Top-cal applied as a fruit dip at a rate equivalent to 1% CaCl2 injured 12% of the fruits. Diphenylamine applied postharvest with Top-cal caused extensive injury because of incompatibility, but ethoxyquin reduced lenticel injury due to higher concentration (2% CaCl2) of Top-cal dips. In a 10-year trial with apple (Cox's Orange Pippin

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and James Grieve), Boon (104) found that calcium nitrate sprays increases and gypsum slightly reduces bitter pit and flesh breakdown; best results were obtained with both treatments applied together.

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Several treatments retard development of apple scald in storage; these include coating the fruit with paraffin, vaseline, or olive oil. These are not used as commercial treatments, however. Smock (106) screened a number of chemicals with antioxidant properties and found that diphenylamine (DPA) and 1,2-dihydro-6-ethoxy-2,2,4-trimethyl-quinoline (ethoxyquin) inhibits scald development. Ethoxyquin with a tolerance of 3 ppm and DPA with a tolerance of 10 ppm are being used in the United States. For best results, the scald inhibitor should be applied within a week after harvest. Wills et al. (107) used fatty acid methyl esters and edible fats and oils to reduce soft scald of apples. A postharvest dip of apples in solutions of a wide range of fatty acid methyl esters and glyceride-type fats and oils reduced the incidence of soft scald in Jonathan apples. The compounds which reduced the disorder were methyl

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laurate, palm oil, sunflower oil, safflower oil, coconut oil, lard, and lecithin. VII. Processing. Apples are processed into various products such as juice, concentrate, vinegar, sauce, butter, preserve, candy, jam, jellies, and canned products. Apples are also dried as rings, chops, or cubes. They are also used for making fermented beverages such as cider and wine. The waste from the apple processing industry, such as peel, core, or pomace, can be utilized for production of pectin and various edible products. A. Juice

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Apple juice is a popular drink and one of the important breakfast items in Europe and North America. In earlier times, apple juice in the form of cider was a seasonal treat, but now it ranks a distant second to orange juice in fruit juice consumption in the United States (108). Apple juice contains a considerable proportion of the soluble components of the original apples, such as sugars, acids, and various other carbohydrates. Malic acid is the predominant acid in apple juice. Several distinct forms of apple juice available in the market include clarified apple juice, natural apple juice, pulpy apple juice, and apple juice blends with other juices/extracts. 1. Clarified Apple Juice

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Preparation of clarified apple juice involves grating and pressing the apples, clarification with pectinol enzymes, filtration, and packaging. Traditional packaging involves pasteurization at 8088C, then filling and hermetically sealing the juice in glass containers or metal cans. Recently, laminated flexible packages have also been introduced with this process. Use of hydrogen peroxide as a sterilant for food packaging material was approved by the Food Drug Administra-

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tion (FDA) in 1981 in the United States for the aseptic processing of fruit juices and fruit drinks. This aseptic process, with the product packed in laminated flexible containers, has been successfully introduced in many countries of the world. 2. Natural Apple Juice

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The characteristics of a natural apple juice are considered to be very close to the juice which comes directly from the press. Commercially, this is accomplished through the addition of ascorbic acid or through heating the pressed juice to flocculate unstable compounds. Pederson (109) prepared natural apple juice by adding the ascorbic acid solution to the apples at the mill while pressing; however, in a later development, ascorbic acid was added to the freshly pressed apple juice (110). Ascorbic acid helps in preserving the very light color of the juice by reversing the oxidation of juice constituents. The juice is then immediately pasteurized to inactivate the oxidizing enzymes occurring naturally in apple juice.

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Another process for making natural apple juice utilizes heat to flocculate the unstable compounds in the juice. In this process, the juice from the press is heated to 9597C to induce flocculation, followed by cooling to 1820C until bottling. Plate or tubular heat exchangers are used. The juice is centrifuged to remove the flocculant and nonsoluble solids and heated to 88C, a lower temperature than the initial heating, and bottled.

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This juice from both the processes is higher in viscosity than clarified apple juice. The product from the ascorbic acid process is bright cream to bright yellow in color, with a stable suspension of small solid particles, and it may have a light sediment. The heat-treated product is light in color and may have a slight haze. For best utilization of apple hybrids, viz., Ambrich, Ambred, and Red Delicious Ambri-51, Azad et al. (111) have recommended blending of hybrids with commercial cultivars in suitable proportions to obtain higher yields of apple juice with acceptable organoleptic qualities. 3. Pulpy Apple Juice

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Pulpy (crushed) apple juice has a light color and a high pulp content of fine cells. In its production, washed apples are coarsely ground and passed through a pulper with a fine screen. The pulped juice is then deaerated by passing it through a vacuum chamber, which helps in minimizing oxidation, and then homogenized, pasteurized at 88C, and filled into containers. It is a continuous processing with very little time elapsing between the grinding of the apples and final sealing of the containers. 4. Apple Juice Blends

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Apple juice and apple juice concentrates are used as the base for blended fruit juices and fruit juice drinks. Apple-cranberry and apple-pear are favorite blends. Combinations of apple and tropical fruits are available, as are blends with citrus juices. Several of these blends are sold as frozen concentrate as well as in single-strength forms. Apple juice blends with citrus juice and ginger extract has been developed as an apple appetizer (112). Efforts to improve the nutritional qualities of apple juice by blending with either egg yolk or soya bean proteins have also been successfully made (113,114). B. Concentrate

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Apple juice and other fluid foods are concentrated in order to reduce their volume and weight, which results in lower costs of packaging, storage, and transportation. The principal methods applicable to apple juice concentration include evaporation, reverse osmosis, and freezing. In preparation of apple juice concentrate, the clarified juice is concentrated to sixfold and the

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concentrate is cut back to fourfold (42 Brix) with fresh juice. However, concentrate prepared by stripping of the juice of volatile flavor constituents prior to concentration and then adding back the volatile flavor constituents to the concentrated juice was reported to be superior in flavor and aroma (115,116). Prepared concentrates are frozen and stored at -18C. Further, the apple juice concentrate prepared with adding back of volatile flavor constituents was found to be stable without any loss in sensory qualities for approximately 2 years, 1 year, and 24 months at -18C, -12C, and -6.6C, respectively (132). The clear juice is passed through a filter press using diatomaceous earth as a filter aid to ensure complete removal of small particles. The filtered juice is pasteurized at 8087C for 30 s in flash pasteurizers. The hot juice is filled into sterile bottles and sealed. The juice is also canned in lacquered enamel cans,

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and sometimes it is also fortified with vitamin C. C. Canned Apples Canning of apple rings is not practiced commercially due to some inherited problems such as the presence of high volume of gases (29.5%) in the fruit tissues, difficulty of their removal during exhausting, less drained weight, mashy texture, etc. There are a few reports pertaining to canning of apple slices in which firming agents such as calcium chloride for the improvement of texture have been tried on a laboratory scale (117).

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Canned apples, which are usually available in larger-size cans, are generally used in pies. The varieties commonly employed for canning are Yellow Newton, Pippin, Spitzenberg, Winesap, Baldwin, Russet, Jonathan, Delicious, and Rome Beauty. The fruits are first washed in warm dilute hydrochloric acid to remove any lead or arsenic spray residue and then rinsed in cold water. They are then peeled by hand or by machine and cut into slices, 0.310.63 cm thick. The slices are placed in 23% common salt solution to prevent their darkening due to enzyme action. They are then blanched at 7180C for 34 min in plain boiling water or in 3% boiling brine. Blanching is essential to remove oxygen from the tissues and thus prevent pinholing in the cans during storage. The blanched slices are filled into cans, covered with either hot water or dilute sugar syrup, exhausted, and processed. Pinholing of cans during prolonged storage, especially in warmer climates, is a serious problem in the

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case of canned apples (133). In an effort to develop a relatively new technique of osmocanning of apple rings with the application of osmosis, Sharma et al. (119) reported that pretreatment of apple rings in 70% sugar solution at 50C for half an hour prior to canning improved the physicochemical and sensory characteristics of the canned product. The application of osmotic technique resulted in products of desired drained weight, color, appearance, texture, and sugar/acid blend in comparison to those canned by using conventional canning technology. D. Frozen Products.

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For freezing, apple slices, after treating with 3% brine solution, are subjected to vacuum to remove air, which is responsible for enzymatic browning. They are reimmersed in salt solution, washed, and filled with sugar in a proportion of 4:1. Alternatively, apple slices are frozen by subjecting them to a high vacuum, treating with salt solution, blanching the brined slices in freeflowing steam, cooling in water, and packing in slipover cans. Slices can also be prepared for freezing by immersing them in 0.2% SO2 solution or in bisulfite solution containing citric acid for 1 min. The slices are kept under refrigeration for several hours to allow proper penetration of SO2 into the slices, which are then filled into slipover cans with sugar (5:1) and frozen at 6.0C or below.

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E. Dried Products

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Apples can be preserved by drying. The peeled and cored apples are prepared as rings, segments, chops, or cubes (120122) and treated with a weak solution of citric acid and a bisulfite dip. The latter provides SO2, which inhibits enzymatic browning. The sulfured slices are dried at 6070C for 68 h. Bhardwaj and Lal (120) tried different apple varieties for drying as rings and found Golden Delicious to be best with respect to yield, appearance, and taste. Among different treatments, a 2500-ppm SO2, 1-h dip of apple rings resulted in best dried product on sun drying and dehydration as well as after 180 days' storage. The dried products are packed in moisture-proof containers. A freeze-dried product based on apple and milk can be prepared by using 50% apple, 3.5% each of sugar and lemon juice, and milk in various proportions (043%). Quaglia et al. (123) reported that porosity and rehydration capacity of product decreased markedly with increasing proportion of

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milk. The product can be used as a snack after partial dehydration. F. Cider

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Alcoholic beverage from apples is generally called cider or wine, depending on the alcohol content in the final product. There are two types of apple ciders, dry and sweet ciders. The fruits are crushed or grated and juice is obtained by hydraulic press, then sugar is added to the juice to raise the brix to 22. In addition, 100 ppm of SO2 and a pure culture of wine yeast, Saccharomyces cerevisae strain ellipsoideus, are added (124). After fermentation, at 2025C, the cider is racked and filtered. Before bottling, the cider is made sparkling clear. During the aging process, most of the suspended material settles down, leaving a major portion of the liquid clear. The fermented liquid is further clarified by using bentonite, casein, gelatin, or filtering through pulp filters. After aging and clarification, the cider is pasteurized to prevent spoilage. A process for making cider from apple juice concentrate (72 Brix) has also been standardized. Must prepared by direct dilution of

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concentrate to 20 Brix gave cider of better chemical and sensory quality (125). The addition of pectinolytic enzyme to the must improved the fermentability and made available the minerals and increased the color appeal of the product (125). G. Vinegar

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Vinegar made from fermented apple juice by acetic acid fermentation is called apple cider vinegar or cider vinegar. Apples are grated and pressed to get juice. Even after this, the pomace contains a large percentage of juice, which is rather difficult to extract. To extract this residual juice, the pomace is ground finely, and actively fermenting cider is added in order to promote yeast fermentation. The pomace is allowed to ferment for 23 days and then pressed. By this method, a larger yield of juice is obtained than by simple grinding and pressing. The juice extracted by this method is of inferior quality and is used for production of cider vinegar. Apple juice is fermented with wine yeast. When fermentation is complete, the yeast and fruit pulp settle to form a compact mass at the bottom of the tank, from which fermented liquid is separated. The clear liquid is stored in vessels. The acetic acid fermentation is brought about by acetic acid bacteria (Acetobacter sp.) For acetic

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acid fermentation, the fermented liquid is adjusted to 78% alcohol content. Mother vinegar containing acetic acid bacteria is then added to hasten the process and inhibit the growth of undesirable microorganisms. The vinegar is prepared by the Orleans slow process or the German quick process. Once the process is complete, the fermented liquid is allowed to age to improve the flavor. Acetic acid may also react with alcohol.

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H. Other Products 1. Apple Butter Apple butter is similar to apple jam except that it is made from finely sieved apple pulp to which small quantities of spices consisting of nutmeg, cinnamon, clove, etc., are added. The pulp:sugar ratio is generally 1:3/4. On account of its mild, spicy taste and flavor, apple butter is popular among a large number of consumers. Kozlov and Dersi (126) prepared butter with apple of excellent organoleptic qualities with 30.2% moisture, 13.6% sugar by mixing unsalted cream butter with apple puree (25%), skim milk (10%), and granulated sugar (8%). 2. Chutney

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To make chutney, apple slices are cooked along with other ingredients (sugar, salt, and spices) until they become thick. The product is bottled hot. 3. Applesauce Applesauce is made from peeled, cored, and sliced apples which are cooked in steam and passed through a pulper. The pulp is mixed with sugar, spices, and salt and heated under steam at about 85C. Acetic acid is added to adjust the acidity in the product. The hot mixture is filled into glass bottles and then heat processed and cooled prior to storage. 4. Pickles.

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Pickles are made by adding apple slices to a boiling mixture of vinegar, sugar, and spices and continuing boiling for 5 min. The mass is then simmered until the pieces become soft. The product is then packed into jars. The vinegar and sugar mixture is reboiled to a syrupy consistency and poured on the slices and filled in the jar. If desired, spices are also added to the jars. 5. Jam and Jelly

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In the production of apple jam, good-quality fruits are selected and washed in cold water. The fruits are peeled and the skin and seeds are removed. The peeled fruits are cut into small pieces. The fruit pieces are cooled and crushed with a paddle and made into a fine pulp by sieving. To 1 kg of pulp, an equal quantity of sugar and 2.5 g of citric acid are added and the mixture is mixed thoroughly. The mixture is cooked slowly with occasional stirring until it passes a sheeting or drop test. The final weight of jam is in the range of 1.5 times the sugar added. The hot jam is filled into clean glass jars. Similarly, apple jelly can be prepared from apple using apple juice or apple pectin extract obtained by boiling unpeeled apple pieces in water for 2530 min and filtering through muslin cloth. 6. Preserves

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Apples for preserves are peeled without removing the stem, pricked with a fork, and kept in 23% sodium chloride solution to prevent browning. This is transferred to 2% lime water and kept there for some time. Alum solution and a pinch of sodium bisulfite are added to bleach the color. Fruits are blanched for 23 min. An equal quantity of sugar is required for good-quality apple preserves. Apples are placed in layers of sugar (half quantity only) in a vessel and left undisturbed for 24 h. During this period, sugar absorbs the water and syrup may be formed. The mass is heated to boiling for a few minutes and sugar is added to raise the total soluble solids to 5960 Brix. A small quantity of citric acid is added and the mass is boiled for about 58 min and then kept undisturbed for another 24 h. On the third day, the strength of the sugar syrup is raised to 70 Brix and the product is allowed to stand for a week.

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7. Baked Apple Product Symmetrical-shaped firm apples of Rhode Island, Northwest, Gravenstein and Stayman, Winesap varieties are used for making baked apple products. Apples are washed and cored. Cans are filled with two or three apples, and then spiced and acidified hot syrup (4050 Brix) is poured into the can at about 71C. Baking of apples occurs in the cans during processing, which takes about 30 min in boiling water. I. Waste Utilization 1. Flavor Compounds

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Peels and cores from apple canneries and apple driers can be utilized to produce vinegar and for jelly juice stock. Apple pomace obtained after extraction of juice can be used to produce natural flavoring compounds. These compounds can be obtained by extracting with liquid CO2, which is fractionated at two different temperatures to obtain a flavorless fraction and an intensely flavored fraction. This procedure gave a broader flavor spectrum than did those prepared by distillation. Apple processing waste can also be used as fuel source or animal feed. 2. Pectin

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Pectin can be obtained from apple processing waste. To obtain pectin, the dried apple pomace is boiled in water for half an hour. Protopectin is hydrolyzed to pectin by heating and acid hydrolysis and extracted by the alcohol extraction method. The extract obtained is filtered, bottled, and may be pasteurized as such or may be spray dried to 5% moisture and used after dispersion with water as an additive. Low-methoxyl pectin is produced by treating a solution of pectin with pectin methyl esterase, which removes a methyl group from the ester unit of galacturonic acid. Low-methoxyl pectin forms gels in the presence of a comparatively low concentration of soluble solids and high pH (6.5) if a calcium source is present. Extraction and evaluation of different apple cultivars for pectin has also been reported (127). It was found that, of four different apple varieties tried, Golden Delicious pomace was promising with respect to pectin yield, jelly grade, and other qualities. The harvesting period

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of cultivars did not have noticeable influence on the jelly grade. 3. Animal Feed Apple pomace can be used as animal feed by feeding either as fresh or as dried pomace (128). However, pregnant cows fed with apple pomace supplemented with nonprotein nitrogen have been found to give birth to dead or weak calves (129). 4. Citric Acid. Citric acid can be produced from apple pomace by growing Aspergillus niger under controlled conditions. More than 250 g of citric acid per kilogram of pomace solids can be produced. 5. Charcoal

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Charcoal briquets can be prepared from pomace by heating the dried apple pomace at 160200C followed by grinding the pyrolyzate to pass a 40-mesh sieve and molding the particles (130). Apple pomace charcoal can also be used for water purification in place of commercial charcoal. 6. Microbial Biomass Production Hours (131) obtained a protein-enriched product by using batch and fed-batch processes utilizing Saccharomycopsis lipolytica and Trichoderma reesei. The product can be used for cattle feeding. Dried apple pomace can also be used for the preparation of some bakery products.

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References 1. Hulme, A. C., and M. J. C. Rhodes, Pome Fruits, The Biochemistry of Fruits and Their Products, Vol. 2 (A. C. Hulme, ed.), Academic Press, New York, 1971, pp. 333373. 2. FAO, Food and Agriculture Production Year Book, FAO, Rome, 1991. 3. Rehder, A., Description of trees and shrubs: Malus, Manual of Cultivated Trees and Shrubs, (A. Rehder, ed.) Dioscorides Press, Portland, Oregon 1990, pp. 389399. 4. Simmonds, N. W., Evolution of Crop Plants. Longman, London, p. 97 (1983). 5. Alston, F. H., and R. Watkins, Rep. Roy. Hort. Soc. Hort. Soc. Conn. London, p. 97 (1983).

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6. Alekseeva, S. A., Zashchita plodevo-yagod. Kul tur i vinograda ot Vreditelei i bileznei v Zone Sev. Kavkaza, 1983, p. 42. 7. Pavlenko, L. V. Sbornik Nauchnykh Trudov. Vsesovuznyi Nauhno-Issledovatel Skii. Inst. Sadovodstva imeni, I. V. Michurina No. 44, 1986, p. 44. 8. Zhaonian Guo. Abst. 22nd Int. Hort. Congress, California, 1986, Abstr. 609. 9. Schweiz. Z. fur obst - und Weinbau 120:121 (27:2) 77076/3844 (19841985). 10. Chadha, K. L., Three decades of research in fruitsIII. Temperate fruits. Indian Hort. 23(2):13 (1978). 11. Singh, H., Apple Cultivation in Himachal Pradesh, Directorate of Horticulture, Himachal Pradesh, India, 1973.

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12. Awasthi, R. P., Advances in research in temperate fruits, Specialized Course on Production, Protection and Postharvest Management of Horticultural Crops, National Agriculture Research Project Lucknow, India, 1991, p. 1. 13. Denne, M. P., The growth of apple fruit and the effects of early thinning on fruit development, Ann. Bot. 24(93):397 (1960). 14. Bain, J. M., and R. N. Robertson, The physiology of growth of apple fruits. I: Cell size, cell number and fruit development, Austral. J. Sci. Res. 4(3):75 (1951). 15. Goffinet, M., Abst. 22nd Int. Hort. Congress, California, 1986, abstr. 420. 16. Joshi, S. M., and B. L. Divakar, Biochemical changes during fruit development and maturity in apple cv. Esopus-Spitzenbuse, Prog. Hort. 17(4):304 (1985).

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17. Fidler, J. C., Conditions of storage, The Biology of Apple and Pear Storage (J. C. Fidler, B. G. Wilkinson and R. O. Sharples, eds.), CAB Farnham Royal Wk., 1973, p. 1. 18. Reid, M. S., M. J. C. Rhodes, and A. C. Hulme, Changes in ethylene and CO2 during ripening of apples, J. Food Sci. Agr. 24(8):971 (1973). 19. Knee, M., Polysaccharide changes in cell wall of ripening apples, Phytochemistry 12:1543 (1973). 20. Hulme, A. C., M. J. C. Rhodes, T. Galliard, and L. S. C. Wooltorton, Metabolic changes in excised fruit tissue. IV. Changes occurring in discs of apple peel during the development of the respiration climacteric fruits, Plant Physiol 43:1154 (1968).

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21. Plich, H., and J. Nowacki, Regulatory factors of ethylene production and ripening in apple fruits. I. The effect of abscisic acid, Fruit Sci. Rep. 14(1):9 (1987). 22. Workman, M., Controlled atmosphere studies on Turkey apples, Proc. Am. Soc. Hort Sci. 83:135 (1963). 23. Drawert, F., W. Heimann, R. Emberger, and R. Tressl, Uber die Biogenese von Aromastoffen bei Pflanzen and FruchtenIII. Gaschaomatographische Bestandsufnahne von appel-Aromastoffen, Phytochemistry 7:881 (1983). 24. Flood, A. E., A. C. Hulme, and L. S. C. Wooltorton, Pome fruits, The Biochemistry of Fruits and Their Products, Vol. 2 (A. C. Hulme, ed.), Academic Press, New York, 1970, p. 331.

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25. Hegazi, E. S., and H. Plich, Hormonal control of fruit maturation and ripening II. Changes in abscisic acid content in apple fruits treated with growth substances, Acta Hort. 80:419 (1978). 26. Basak, A., Z. Soczek, Z. Golik, and B. Niezborala, The acceleration of ripening of apples by the use of ethephon, SADH and NAA, Acta Hort. 80:373 (1978). 27. Sansavini, S., Recent developments in apple production, Proc. 21st Int. Hort. Congress, Hamburg, Vol. 1, 1982, p. 182.

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28. Bartos, V., Proc. Symp. 60 Years of Hort. Res. in Czechoslovakia, 1987, p. 124. 29. Proebsting, E. L., J. E. Middleton, and S. Roberts, Altered fruiting and growth characteristics of Delicious apple associated with irrigation method, Hort. Sci. 12(4):349 (1977). 30. Unrath, C. R., The commercial implications of Gibberellin A4A7 plus benyladenine for improving shape and yield of Delicious apples, J. Am. Soc. Hort Sci. 99(4):381 (1972). 31. Anderson, J. L., G. L. Ashcroft, E. A. Richardson, J. E. Alfaro, R. E. Griffin, G. R. Hanson, and J. Keller, Effects of evaporatives cooling on temperature and development of apple, J. Am. Soc. Hort Sci. 100(3):229 (1975).

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32. Shoemaker, J. S., and B. J. B. Teskey, Tree Fruit Production, John Wiley, London, 1959, p. 1. 33. Singh, R., P. C. Pant, M. V. Singh, and K. S. Adhikari, Responses of apple var. Royal Delicious to different ratios of NPK, Prog. Hort. 10(2):29 (1978). 34. Srivastava, R. P., and R. Kumar, Pruning young apple trees, Indian Hort. 25(1):7 (1980). 35. Mitra, S. K., Apples, Temperate Fruits (S. K. Mitra, T. K. Bose, and D. S. Rathor, eds.), Horticulture and Allied Publishers, Calcutta, 1991, p. 122. 36. Proctor, J. T., and A. Crowe, Response of apple growth and flowering to shade and ground covers, HortScience 18(5):470 (1983).

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37. Robinson, D. W., Herbicide management in apple orchards, Sci Hort. 34:12 (1983). 38. Brown, A. G., Apples, Advances in Fruit Breeding (J. Janick and J. N. Moore, eds.), Purdue University Press, West Lafayette, IN, 1975, p. 3. 39. Pfammatter, W., Chemical thinning of the Golden Delicious cultivars, Acta. Hort., no. 80:279 (1978). 40. Bangerth, F., The effect of substituted amino acid on ethylene biosynthesis, respiration, ripening and preharvest drop of apple fruits, J. Am. Soc. Hort. Sci. 103(3):401 (1978). 41. Kaul, J. L., and V. K. Gupta, Diseases of temperate horticultural crops, Indian Hort. 32(1):43 (1987).

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42. Gupta, G. K., Apple scab and its management, Indian Hort. 32(1):48 (1987). 43. Gupta, G. K., Behaviour of fungicides and various spray schedules in the control of apple scab, Int. J. Trop. Plant Diseases 1(2):181 (1983). 44. Cimanowski, J., H. Nowacka, and W. Goszcynski, Materialy XXV Sesji Naukowez Instytutu ochrony Roslin (W. Wegorek, ed.), Ponznan, Poland, 1986, p. 85. 45. Verma, K. D., and G. K. Gupta, Field evaluation of fungicides for the control of powdery mildew (Pedesphaera leucetricha (Ell and Eu) Salm) of apple, Advances in Research on Temperate Fruits (T. R. Chadha, V. P. Bhutani, and J. L. Kaul, eds.), YSP University of Horticulture & Forestry, Solan, 1986, p. 407.

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46. Sud, V. K., S. F. Hameed, and L. D. Sharma, The insecticidal control of San Jose Scale on apple, J. Hort. Sci. 50:165 (1975). 47. Thakur, A. K., and N. P. Kashyap, Biological performance of certain organophosphatic compounds on temperate fruits, Advances in Research on Temperate Fruits (T. R. Chadha, V. P. Bhutani, and J. L. Kaul, eds.), YSP University of Horticulture & Forestry, Solan, 1986, p. 381. 48. Bhardwaj, S. P., and S. Bhardwaj, Thrips as pests of temperate fruits, Indian Hort. 30(2):25 (1985). 49. Mishra, R. C., A. K. Verma, and R. R. Gupta, Insecticides for the control of apple blossom thrips, Indian J. Hort. 44(1 & 2):115 (1987).

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50. Singh, M., Field evaluation of selected insecticides against apple blossom thrips, Advances in Research on Temperate Fruits (T. R. Chadha, V. P. Bhutani, and J. L. Kaul, eds.), YSP University of Horticulture & Forestry, Solan, 1986, p. 363. 51. Bower, C. C., and W. S. Thwaite, Apple, Bull. Dept. Agr. NSW, 2nd ed., p. 4 (1986). 52. Pawar, A. D., N. C. Tuhan, and M. Parry, Management of codling moth Cydia pomonelia (L) (Lepidoptora clethruntide) at Khalsi (Ladakh) Jammu and Kashmir (India), Pesticides 18(10):39 (1984). 53. Salunkhe, D. K., and B. B. Desai, Postharvest Biotechnology of Fruits, Vol. I, CRC Press, Boca Raton, FL, 1984, p. 1.

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54. Ingale, M., and M. C. D'Souza, Fruit characteristics of Red Delicious apple strains during maturation and storage, J. Am. Soc. Hort Sci. 114(5):776 (1989). 55. Lau, O. L., Harvest indices, dessert quality and storability of fona gold apples, in air and controlled atmosphere storage, J. Am. Soc. Hort Sci. 113(4):564 (1988).

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56. Andrich, G., R. Florentini, A. Iuci, and C. Galoppini, Skin permeability to oxygen in apple stored in controlled atmosphere, J. Am. Soc. Hort. Sci. 114(5):770 (1989). 57. Dirinck, P., and N. Schamp, Instrumental aroma analysis for objective evaluation of the parameters influencing aroma formation in apples and for prediction of the optimum picking date, Acta Hort. 258:421 (1989). 58. Cantillano, R. F. F., Acta Horticulturae 232:245249 (1988). 59. Massey, L M., Harvesting, storing and handling apples, Processed Apple Products (D. L. Downing, ed.), AVI, Van Nostrand Reinhold, New York, 1989, p. 31.

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60. Westwood, M. N., in Temperate Zone Pomology, W.H. Freeman, San Francisco, 1978, p. 242. 61. Thompson, J. P., Harvesting systems, Postharvest Technology of Horticultural Crops (A. A. Kader, N. E. Sommer, J. F. Thompson, F. G. Mitchell, and M. S. Reid, eds.), Division of Agriculture and Natural Resources, University of California, Berkeley, 1985. 62. Peterson, D. L., and T. S. Kornecki, Mechanical apple harvester for T-trellis canopies, Am. Soc. Agr. Eng. 30(3):597 (1987). 63. Grand, D'Esnon, A., G. Rabater, R. Pellenc, A. Journean, and M. J. Aldon, MagaliA self propelled robot to pick apples, Am. Soc. Agr. Eng. Paper 871037, 1987, p. 12.

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64. Kaushal, B. B., and J. C. Anand, Recent trials on grading and packaging of apples, Indian Food Packer 40(2):29 (1986). 65. Sharma, P. C., Studies on packaging systems and their effect on shelf-life and quality of apples, M.Sc. thesis, Himachal Pradesh Krishi Vishvavidalaya, Palampur, India, 1982. 66. Lal, B. B., R. S. Rana, H. L. Kochhar, T. R. Chandha, and S. B. Maini, Packaging and transportation of appleA study on commercial aspects, Production and Conservation of Forestry (P. K. Khosla, D. K. Khurana, and Atal, eds.), Indian Society of Tree Scientists, Solan, India, 1988, p. 226. 67. Maini, S. B., B. Diwan, B. B. Lal, and J. C. Anand, Packaging transport and storage of apples in wooden containers, Indian Food Packer 36(3):34 (1982).

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68. Gebhardt, S. E., R. Cutrufelli, and R. H. Matthews, Composition of foods. Fruits and fruit juices, U.S. Dept. Agr. Bull. 8 (1982). 69. Young, C. T., and J. S. L. How, Composition and nutritive value of raw and processed fruits, Commercial Fruit Processing, AVI, New York, 1986. 70. Billing, E., Fireblight, The Garden 108:206 (1983). 71. Chang, Y. L., and L. R. Mattick, Composition and Nutritive value of apple products, Processed Apple Products (D. L. Downing, ed.), AVI, Van Nostrand Reinhold, New York, 1989, p. 303. 72. Mattick, K. R., and J. C. Moyer, Composition of apple juice, J. Assoc. Off. Anal. Chem. 66:1251 (1983).

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73. Hulme, A. C., The biochemistry of pome fruits, The Biochemistry of Fruits and Their Products Vol. 2 (A. C. Hulme, ed.), Academic Press, New York, 1958, pp. 336357. 74. Upshaw, S. C., A. Lopez, and H. L. Williams, Essential elements in apples and canned apple sauce, J. Food Sci. 43(2):449 (1978). 75. Downing, D. L., Apple cider, Processed Apple Products, AVI, New York, 1989, p. 169. 76. Nicholas, J. J., F. C. Richard-Forget, P. M. Goupy, M. J. Amiot, and S. Y. Aubert, Enzymatic browning reactions in apple and apple products, Crit. Rev. Food Sci. Nutr. 34:109 (1994).

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77. Amiot, M., S. Aubert, J. Nicholas, P. Goupy, and P. Aparicio, Phenolic composition and susceptibility of various apple and pear cultivars at maturity, Bull. Liaison Groupe Polyphenols 16:48 (1992). 78. Burda, S., W. Oleszek, and C. Y. Lee, Phenolic compounds and their changes in apples during maturation and cold storage, J. Agr. Food Chem. 38:945 (1980). 79. Cilliers, J. J. L., V. L. Singleton, and R. M. Lamuela-Raventos, Total polyphenols in apples and ciders: Correlation with chlorogenic acid, J. Food Sci. 55:1458 (1990). 80. McRae, K. B., P. D. Lidster, A. C. DeMarco, and A. C. Dick, Comparison of polyphenols profiles of apple fruit cultivars by chromatographic analysis, J. Sci. Food Agr. 50:329 (1990).

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81. Walker, I. R. L., A note on the polyphenol content of ripening apples, N.Z. J. Sci. 5:316 (1963). 82. Zooca, A., and K. Ryugo, Changes in polyphenols oxidase activity and substrate levels in maturing Golden Delicious apple and other cultivars, HortScience 10:586 (1975).

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83. Yamaki, S., Isolation of vacuoles from immature apple fruit flesh and compartmentation of sugars, organic acids, phenolic compounds and amino-acids, Plant Cell Physiol. 25:151 (1984). 84. Ryall, A. L., and W. T. Pentzer, Handling, Transportation, and Storage of Fruits and Vegetables, AVI, Westport, CT, 1974, p. 1. 85. Lutz, J. M., and R. E. Hardenberg, U.S. Dept. Agr. Handbook 66, 1968. 86. Heide, R. V. D., Six year storage trial with apples, Fruit-teelt. 70:1070 (1980). 87. Lidster, P. D., K. B. McRae and K. A. Sanford, Responses of McIntosh apples to low oxygen storage, J. Am. Soc. Hort. Sci. 106 (2):159 (1981).

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88. Kim, K. S., K. L. Lee, S. Y. Hong, and T. H. Sohn, Studies on the reduced pressure storage of fruit. II. Preservation of Jonathan under various storage chamber pressures, J. Korean Agr. Chem. Soc. 11:77 (1969). 89. Salunkhe, D. K., and M. T. Wu, Effects of sub atmospheric pressure storage on ripening and associated chemical changes of certain delicious fruits, J. Am. Soc. Hort. Sci. 98(1):113 (1973). 90. Knee, M., and A. Hatfield, Benefits of ethylene removal during apple storage, Ann. Biol. 98:157 (1981). 90a. Bramlage, W. J., D. W. Greene, W. R. Antio, and J. M. McLaughlin, J. Amer. Soc. Hort. Sci. 105:847851 (1980).

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91. Hardenburg, R. E., and D. H. Spalding, Postharvest benamyl and thiabendazole treatments along and with scald inhibitors, to control blue and gray mold in wounded apples, J. Am. Soc. Hort. Sci. 97(2):154 (1972). 91a. Koffmann, W., L. J. Pensose, A. R. Menzies, K. C. Davis, and J. Kaldor, Control of Benzimidazoletolerant Penicillium expansum in pome fruit, Sci. Hort. 9:31 (1978). 92. Fortes, J. F., Postharvest diseases on apples in the state of Rio Grande Do Sul, Brazil, Acta Hort. 232 (1988). 93. Kaul, J. L., and R. L. Munjal, Apple losses in Himachal Pradesh due to postharvest fungal pathogens, Indian J. Myco. Plant Pathol. 12(2):209 (1982).

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94. Hall, E. G., and K. J. Scott, Storage and Market Diseases of Fruit. IV. Suppl. to CSIRO Food Preservation Quarterly 30, No. I (1970). 95. Wikinson, B. G., Physiological disorders of fruit after harvesting, The Biochemistry of Fruits and Their Products, Vol. 1 (A. C. Hulme, ed.), Academic Press, London, 1970. 96. Prusky, D., and R. Ben-Arie, Control of imazalil of fruit storage rots caused by Alternaria alternata, Ann. Appl. Biol. 98:87 (1981). 97. Vyas, S. C., and D. Singh, Control of storage diseases in apple (Malus sylvetris Mill) fruit with fungicides, Pesticides 11:44 (1977). 98. Kaul, J. L., Comparative effectiveness of systemic fungicides for control of postharvest fungal rot of apple, Indian Phytopathol. 35:315 (1982).

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99. Chib, H. S., B. R. Gupta, P. S. Andotra, and C. N. Dar, Evaluation of some fungicides for the control of postharvest rots of apple through fungicidal dip in Kashmir, Indian J. Myco. Plant Pathol. 13(3):353 (1983). 100. Perring, M. A., Mineral composition of apples. VII. The relationship between fruit composition and some storage disorders, J. Sci. Food Agr. 19(3):186 (1968). 101. Fidler, J. C., and G. Mann, Refrigerated storage of apples and pearsA practical guide, Horticultural Review No. 2, Commonwealth Bureau of Horticulture and Plantation Crops, East Malling, Kent, England, 1972. 102. Boon, J. V., Prediction and control of bitter pit in apples. I. Prediction based on mineral leaf composition, cropping levels and summer temperatures, J. Hort. Sci. 55:307 (1980).

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103. Johnson, D. S., and M. J. Marks, Search for safer calcium sprays, Fruit Grower 95:28 (1981). 104. Boon, J. V., Spraying and/or manuring with calcium against bitter pit and flesh breakdown in apples, Fruit-teelt 71:450 (1981). 105. Smock, R. M., A new method of scald control, Am. Fruit Grower 75(11):20 (1955). 106. Smock, R. M., A comparison on treatments for control of the apple scald disease, Proc. Am. Soc. Hort. Sci. 69:91 (1957).

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107. Wills, R. B. H., G. Hopkirk, and K. J. Scott, Use of fatty acid methyl esters and edible fats and oils to reduce soft scald of apples, J. Sci. Food Agr. 31(7):663 (1980). 108. Bump, V. L., Apple pressing and juice extraction, Processed Apple Products (D. L. Downing, ed.), AVI, Van Nostrand Reinhold, New York, 1981, p. 53. 109. Pederson, C. S., Grape juice, Fruit and Vegetable Juice Processing Technology, 3rd ed. (D. E. Nelson and D. K. Tressler, eds.), AVI, Westport, CT, 1980, p. 289. 110. Walrod, R. P., Process for production of fruit juice in the natural state, U.S. Patent 2,817,589 (1957).

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111. Azad, K. C., M. P. Shrivastawa, R. C. Singh, P. C. Sharma, S. P. S. Guleria, and R. P. Awasthi, Evaluation of hybrids and cultivars of apple for juice processing suitability. Perspectives in the food industry in the nineties, ICFOST 86, Bombay, 1986, p. 50. 112. Lal, B. B., V. K. Joshi, P. C. Sharma, and R. Sharma, Development of apples based appetizers. Golden Jubilee National Seminar on Emerging Trends in Temperate Fruit Production in India, held at Y. S. Parmar, UHF, Nauni, Solan, 1992, abstr. 127. 113. Vyas, K. K., and V. K. Joshi, ApplegtoneA new fortified beverage from apple, Indian Food Packer 36(3):66 (1982). 114. Chauhan, S. K., B. B. Lal, and V. K. Joshi, Development of protein rich apple beverage, Res. & Ind. 38:227 (1993).

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115. Walker, L. H., C. C. Nimme, and D. C. Patterson, Preparation of a frozen apple juice concentrate, Food Technol. 5(4):148 (1951). 116. Walker, L. H., D. C. Patterson, and V. S. Seamans, Food Technol. 8:108 (1954). 117. Dang, R. L., R. P. Singh, A. K. Bhatia, and D. K. Verma, Studies on Kashmir applesCanning as rings, Indian Food Packer 30:9 (1976). 118. Lal, B. B., Substitute packaging as affecting quality of Himachal Delicious apples during transportation and storage, Ph.D. thesis, Indian Agriculture Research Institute, New Delhi, 1983. 119. Sharma, R. C., V. K. Joshi, S. K. Chauhan, S. K. Chopra, and B. B. Lal, Application of osmosis, osmocanning of apple rings, J. Food Sci. Technol. 28(2):86 (1991).

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120. Bhardwaj, J. C., and B. B. Lal, A study on drying behaviour of rings from different apple cvs. of Himachal Pradesh, J. Food Sci. Technol. 27(3):144 (1990). 121. Joshi, V. K., B. B. Lal, and R. Sharma, A study of preparation of apple cubes, IFCON, Central Food Technological Research Institute, Mysore, India, 1988, abstr. FRD 32. 122. Joshi, V. K., B. B. Lal, and K. L. Kakkar, Updating the technique of apple chops making and its utilization, Beverage and Food World 16:21 (1990). 123. Quaglia, G. B., Evaluation of some physico-chemical characteristics of new freeze dried products based on apple and milk, Industrie Alimentary 27(266):1093 (1980).

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124. Joshi, V. K., D. K. Sandhu, B. L. Attri, and R. K. Walia, Cider preparation from apple juice concentrate and its consumer acceptability, Indian J. Hort. 48(4):321 (1991). 125. Joshi, V. K., and V. P. Bhutani, The influence of enzymatic clarification on fermentation behaviour composition and sensory qualities of apple wine, Sci. Des. Aliment. 11(3):491 (1991). 126. Kozlov, V. N., and A. S. Detsik, Butter with apple and other fruit filters, Tovarovendenie 18:29 (1985). 127. Sharma, T. R., B. B. Lal, S. Kumar, and A. K. Goswami, Pectin from different varieties of Himachal Pradesh apples, Indian Food Packer 39(4):53 (1985). 128. Smock, R. M., and A. M.Neubert, Apple and Apple Products, Interscience, New York, 1950.

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129. Frotenot, J. P., K. P. Bovard, R. R. Oltjen, T. S. Rumsey, and B. M. Driode, Supplementation of apple pomace with non-protein nitrogen for gestating cows, J. Animal Sci. 46:513 (1977). 130. Walter, R. H., and R. M. Sherman, Fuel value of grape and apple processing wastes, J. Agr. Food Chem. 24:1244 (1976). 131. Hours, R. A., A. E. Massucco, and R. G. Ertola, Microbial biomass product from apple pomace in batch and fed batch cultivars, Appl. Microbiol. Biotechnol. 23(1):33 (1985). 132. Guadagni, D. G., and J. Harris, Food Technol. 21(3):454456 (1967). 133. Lal, G., G. S. Siddappa, and G. L. Tondon, Preservation of Fruits and Vegetables, Indian Council for Agricultural Research, New Delhi, 1986.

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Page 123

6 Mango
S. K. Kalra, D. K. Tandon, and B. P. Singh Central Institute of Horticulture for Northern Plains, Rehmankhera, Lucknow, Uttar Pradesh, India I. Introduction

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Mango crop is grown commercially in 87 countries. Several hundred varieties exist in India, but only a few specific cultivars are commercialized according to preferences of different regions of the country. India contributes about 64% of the worlds production (1). Other prominent mango-producing countries are Mexico, Pakistan, Brazil, the Philippines, and Thailand (Table 1). Several mango products are routinely produced, including canned mango slices, jams, juices, squashes, nectars, beverages, pulp, chutney, pickle, raw mango slices, raw mango powder, and mango leather. A few years ago, the Philippines with over 10,000 tonnes of fresh fruit export, was the front runner, while India's position was fourth in export of mango and its products to North American and European countries. The total amount of mango trade is insignificant considering the total world production of 15.7 million metric tonnes (1).

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II. Botany

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Mango belongs to the family Anacardiaceae, genus Mangifera, and is known to have originated in Southeast Asia. The natural spread of the genus is limited to the Indo-Malaysian region (2). The genus is reported to contain 41 species, but only Mangifera indica has been cultivated and includes almost all the edible cultivars (3). A list of all the species is given in Table 2, along with their locations (4). Besides the Indian subcontinent, mango is grown in several other countries. Presently, mango orchards are an important commercial proposition in India, Pakistan, Myanmar, Sri Lanka, Thailand, Vietnam, Malayasia, the Philippines, Indonesia, the Fiji Islands, tropical Australia, Egypt, Israel, Sudan, Somalia, Kenya, Uganda, Tanzania, South Africa, Nigeria, Niger, Zaire, Madagascar, Mauritius, the United States (Florida, Hawaii), Venezuela, Mexico, Brazil, and West Indies islands.

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Page 124 Table 1 Major Countries Producing Mangos Country Production (1000 MT) World 15,700 India 9,500 Mexico 800 Pakistan 760 Thailand 572 Madagascar 196 Sudan 127 Tanzania 186 Zaire 208 Dominican Republic 150 Haiti 300 Brazil 415 Venezuela 127 Bangladesh 160 China 485 Indonesia 441 Philippines 348 Source: Ref. 1.

A. Cultivars

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The Indian subcontinent is very rich in mango flora. All the mango cultivars originated as superior chance seedlings arising from natural crossing or gene mutation. Some of these selections were later maintained true to type through sexual propagation. Almost all these cultivars are monoembryonic types. However, Pandey (5) compiled a list of 793 mango cultivars from all over the world. Over a dozen polyembryonic cultivars of mango exist in India, but their fruit quality is inferior and size is also small. These include Bappakai, Chandrakaran, Goa, Kurukkan, Olour, Bellary, Kasargod, Mazagaon, Nileswar Dwarf, and Salem and are mostly confined to the southern states of India, especially on the west coast. In addition, polyembryonic cultivars reported from other countries of the world are Cambodiana, Carabao, Cecil, Higgins, Paho, Peach/Apricot, Pico, Sabre, Saigon, Simmonds, Samini, and Strawberry (6). Of the huge germplasm only a few cultivars, which are

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location specific, are grown commercially. In the Philippines, Carabao and Pico (of 53 cultivars in their collection) are cultivated (7). In Hawaii, Pierie and Haden are the most widely grown cultivars, while in Florida it is Tommy Atkins, although several mango cultivars exist in their collection (8). In South Africa, Zill, Kent, and Haden are the most commercially grown cultivars (9). The Common and Kensington are planted in Queensland, Australia (10). The Fijian commercial mango cultivars include Fiji, Peach, Jarra, Parrot, and Kerosene (11). In India, of the arboreta of approximately a thousand cultivars, only 2540 mango varieties are grown commercially. These are Alphonso, Totapuri, Baneshan, Bombai, Bombay Green, Dashehari, Fajri/Fazli, Fernandin, Himsagar, Kesar, Kishan Bhog, Langra, Mankurad, Mulgoa, Neelum, Samarbahisht Chausa, Suvarnarekha, Vanraj, Zardalu, and Gulab Khas. Furthermore, two mango hybrids, Mallika (Neelum

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Dashehari) and Amrapali (Dashehari Neelum) were released from the Indian Agricultural Research Institute (IARI), New Delhi for their commercial potential.

Table 2 Species of Mango and Their Geographic Distribution Name Location Mangifera duperreana Cochinchina, Thailand M. pentandra Myanmar, Malaya, Indochina M. cochinchinensis Cochinchina M. lanceolata Malaya M. indica Tropics of old world M. longipes Myanmar, Malaya, Sunda Archipela M. caloneura Myanmar, Thailand M. siamensis Thailand M. sylvatica India, Myanmar, Indochina M. oblongifolia Malacca, Thailand, Indochina M. minor New Guinea, Celebes, Solomon Isla M. zeylanica Sri Lanka M. khasiana Assam (India) M. gracilipes Malacca M. camptosperma Myanmar, Thailand, Cochinchina, S M. gedebe Java M. microphylla Malaya M. griffithii Malaya M. sclerophylla Malaya M. merrillii Philippines M. beccarii Sarawak M. similis Sumatra, Java

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M. altissima M. rumphii M. philippinensis M. havilandi M. rigida M. maingayi M. longipetiolata M. quadrifida M. spathulaefolia M. timorensis M. monandra M. andamanica M. lagenifera M. macrocarpa M. foetida M. odorata M. kemanga M. caesia M. superba Source: Ref. 4.

Philippines Banda Island Philippines Sarawak Sumatra Malaya Malaya Malaya, Sumatra, Borneo Borneo Timor, Banda, Sumatra Philippines Andaman Island Thailand, Malaya, Sumatra Malaya, Sunda Archipelago, Andam Malaya Malaya, Philippines Malaya Malaya, Sunda Archipelago, Philipp Malaya

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B. Flowering.

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Mango flowering is affected by many internal and external factors. A proportion of perfect flowers below 1% could seriously hinder fertilization and subsequent fruit set, but the proportion can be improved by exogenous application of naphthalene acetic acid (NAA) (200 ppm) at flower bud differentiation (12). The nature of flower production in mango is a complex phenomenon, and has been investigated on the basis of two physiological theories. The plant nutrition theory was considered inadequate to explain fruit bud differentiation in mango (13). Secondly, a lot of speculative studies were conducted in mango on the release of specific flowering hormone by leaves, without any specific success. However, it was observed that excessive fruiting in the previous year, and unsuitable pruning and fertilization practices may delay the emergence of flushes and may be detrimental to the number of panicles and the bearing capacity of the flushes the following year (14).

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Singh (15) demonstrated that flower-inducing stimulus can be transmitted from a mature tree to juvenile mango seedlings through grafting, but later, Singh et al. (16) showed that newly emerged leaves in the shoots of regular bearing varieties such as Neelum were capable of synthesizing the flower-inducing hormone. Chacko and Randhawa (17) observed that 3-month-old plants of Bangalora, raised by stone grafting, initiated floral buds, while for similar grafts of Langra, a biennial bearer, only vegetative growth was produced. Of several growth regulators, cycocel and B-995 have shown some promise for increasing flowering in mango (1821). Maiti et al. (20) also noted promotion of flowering with L-methionine and ascorbic acid, which are involved in the endogenous production of ethylene. Chacko (22) observed indoleacetic acid (IAA)-like substance in shoots of mango during on year and greater activity of gibberellinlike substances during off year. Sen

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and Choudhary (23), however, did not find any difference in the active inhibitory principles in Langra (a biennial-bearing variety) and Baramasi (a regular bearer). Exogenous growth regulator application of mainly GA3 was found to be inhibitory to flower bud differentiation.

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It seems that photoperiodism and thermoperiodism play an important role in controlling flowering in mango. Although flower bud differentiation in mango takes place during the short days in the fall, off-season flowering during June was also observed near the Equator (17). Hence, mango cannot be characterized as a short- or long-day plant unless a critical day length is found. It is well known that the Neelum variety of mango produces two crops a year in Kanyakumari in South India but flowers only once in North Indian conditions. Majumdar and Mukherjee (24) found a lower percentage of hermaphrodite flowers on the eastern side of the tree, which gets more sunlight, and the highest on the north side. Shade tends to prevent and delay the formation of fruit buds (25).

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Climatic conditions have significant influence on the time of flowering in mango. In India, flowering starts from December in the South, January in Bihar and Bengal, and February in eastern Uttar Pradesh, and in FebruaryMarch in northern India (16). The duration of flowering is 2025 days in Dashehari (26), while panicle emergence occurs in early December and flower opening is completed by February. Late flower opening and subsequent fruit setting may lead to exposure to excessive heat, resulting in premature death of the ovary. Most of the varieties in northern India suffer from biennial/alternate bearing. The fruiting in on and off years could vary according to variety, but in Dashehari the ratio could well be 60:40. C. Fruit Set

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Mango is a cross-pollinated crop, and during the late flush when the temperature is suitable for pollinizers, the fruit set is generally much better (27). The fruit set in mango occurs toward the

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end of the winter season, when the conditions for cross pollination are favorable. After the initial enlargement of the ovary, the endosperm in the mango seed is in a free nucellar condition and the embryo sac appears to be made up entirely of endosperm (28). The endosperm engulfs the nucleus during development, which itself later is consumed by the embryo. According to one view, the failure of fruit set due to adverse climatic conditions might lead to an increase of hermaphrodite flowers (29), from which fruits grow parthenocarpically up to marble size. It was shown that 92% of such fruits originated from the aborted embryo (30). Those panicles which showed clustering did not carry any fruit on the side rachis, and those panicles which set fruits in the side rachis generally did not show the symptoms of clustering. However, fruit retention is very intriguing, as it may be affected by the nutrient status of the plant and weather conditions.

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D. Fruit Growth and Development After setting, mango fruit takes approximately 3 months to reach maturity with marginal varietal variations. There is much diversification in size, shape and appearance, and other physiological characteristics of the fruit. The average weight of mature mango fruit may range between 80 and 800 g.

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The developmental physiology of mango fruit entails changes in size, weight, and several major enzymes. The growth pattern in the drupacious mango fruit after fertilization constituted rapid cellular growth for 3 weeks followed by cell enlargement for the subsequent 4 weeks (31). Then it was maturation stage for 4 weeks. The growth of mango fruit follows a pattern of a single sigmoid curve (Fig. 1) (32). Saini et al. (33,34) delineated morphological and anatomical characteristics of Dashehari fruits and showed that the growth in length and breadth was identical from fruit set up to 14 days, but thereafter length increased much more than width. The pericarp

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Fig. 1 Growth pattern of Dashehari mangos. Fruit weight ( ), Length ( ), Breadth ( ). (From Ref. 32.)

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was distinguished into exocarp, mesocarp, and endocarp. Initially, the growth of the fruit was due primarily to cell division followed by cell enlargement. The case hardening of the endocarp was initiated after about 63 days of fruit set and was completed by 82 days (33,35). III. Production A. Soil and Climate

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Mango plant grows well in any type of soil, which may be 22.5 m deep and well drained. Slightly acidic soils are better, but mango does well up to pH 7.5 (6). Saline and alkaline soils are less suitable, but soft rocky areas of the west coast of India have grown mango orchards successfully. Mango flourishes up to an altitude of about 1400 m, 2427C temperature, and less humid conditions during flowering. However, in the northern part of India, the temperature reaches 4548C during the later part of fruit development. Here some of the choicest varieties such as Dashehari are grown, but biennial bearing is a serious problem in this part of the country. Rainfall is not a rigid requirement if irrigation is available. Mango is cross-pollinated through various types of insects, such as bees. B. Propagation

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Grafted mango plants are now universally preferred for raising mango orchards. The botanical advantages of grafts are well known; besides, improved grafting methods have given greater success with better fruits in terms of size and quality (36). Seedling plants have a long juvenile period and a vigorous growth habit, which may prove disadvantageous during harvesting operations. Vegetative propagation in mango can broadly be classified into three categories.

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Grafting. Grafting includes inarching, veneer grafting, and side grafting, epicotyl or stone or embryo grafting, and budding. Veneer grafting and side grafting are successful methods for mango propagation (3739) and even rejuvenation of old or inferior seedling trees (40,41). Epicotyl or stone grafting has given varying success under different climatic conditions (42), but treating the scion with 750 ppm of IAA increases the percentage success in mango (43). However, budding is more suited to areas with high humidity (26).

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Layering. Layering includes air layering, pot layering, and stooling. Air layering became important with the application of growth regulators. Treatment with 0.735 M indole butyric acid (IBA) increased rooting in Langra mango grafts. Synergistic effects were noticed when IBA was applied with NAA, chlorogenic acid, pyrogallol, or 6-benzylamino purine (44). Pot layering and stooling have some advantages over air layering in being more economical (45,46). Cutting. This method of propagation showed up to 80% success with IBA treatment (47), and similar results were obtained with other growth promoters. Rooting was boosted to 97% with basal heating and IBA application (48).

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Propagation by sexual means has been carried out in monoembryonic mango cultivars. Polyembryonic types are, by and large, suited only for developing genetically uniform clonal root stocks, which are presently lacking in mango. For root-stock seedlings for subsequent grafts, mainly monoembryonic cultivars are used. Mango seeds usually lose their viability within 45 weeks under ambient conditions of high temperature and low humidity (26) and hence should be planted immediately. The seedlings also need extensive care during the period of growth and can be grafted in the next season, i.e., after one year. Majumdar et al. (45) found good correlation between dwarfness and high bark

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percentage, relatively small area of xylem vessels, and lower stomatal density. Totapuri and Olour cultivars appeared to be promising for developing dwarfing clonal root stock in mango. Olour proved to be a dwarfing and productive root stock for Himsagar, Langra (49), and Alphonso (50). The root stock used in South Africa and Israel is Sabre, while Manzo de lea is used in Peru and Kaew in Thailand. Mango grafts are transplanted in orchards which may be square, rectangular, hexagonal, or contour (26). The planting is recommended to be 10 m 10 m, although a newly evolved variety, Amrapali, has been planted at 2.5 2.5 m (51). However, controversy about the distance of planting of mango sapling continues, particularly in view of the long noncommercial fruiting period of over 10 years, when the tree canopy is still restricted to only 56 m in diameter.

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C. Cultural Practices Some recommendations have been made for the preparation of pits, planting, fertilization, and protection of mango transplants (51), but no significant commercial profitability has been worked out. Some amount of protection to young saplings is necessary, since they are sensitive to excessive heat and cold. Mango does not have a very efficient photosynthetic system and hence growth is slackened. 1. Manuring and Fertilization

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In young plants, N and K fertilization increased dry matter and uptake of N and K (52,53). Fertilization of bearing trees was worked out on the basis of pot culture experiments as 726 g N, 182 g P2O5, and 671 g K2O per tree; during a heavy fruiting year, it was recommended that these amounts be doubled. Application of 1 kg P2O5, 1 kg K2O, and 3% urea as foliar spray after pruning resulted in marked improvement in fruit yield in 60-year-old declined Fazli trees (52). In cv. Dashehari, application of 100 g N, 200 g P2O5, and 200 g K2O per tree per year was found to be adequate for optimum yield, while a similar dose except only 100 g P2O5 was suggested for cv. Chausa. Multiple regression studies indicated that mango fruit yield can be raised by proper N and P fertilization (54).

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Chadha et al. (55) observed maximum fruit production when leaf N level was in the range of 1.41.54%. The nutrient supply to the tree may be adjusted for availability to the tree at the appropriate time for optimum performance. Singh (6) stated that the time of fertilizer application may be considered during the production of vegetative flush and fruit bud differentiation.

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The fertilizer application may be kept close to the site of uptake of the tree. The tap root system of mango can extend up to 5.5 m (56), but later studies showed the roots of a 30-year-old seedling tree at a depth of 7.5 m (26). Labeled phosphorus application located the feeding roots of full-grown mango trees between 1.2 and 1.4 m from the trunk (16), but most of the feeding roots were observed at 30, 60, and 90 cm. Highyielding plants had significantly greater feeding root densities than low-yielding plants at all depths in the drip line (54). Very meager information is available on the micronutrients of mango plants. Deficiency symptoms of Fe, Mn, Zn, and Cu were observed in two Florida mango varieties (57,58). It was suggested that Zn deficiency could be corrected by spraying zinc sulfate solution. 2. Intercropping and Cover Cropping.

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The vegetable crops such as onion, tomato, radish, carrot, beans, cauliflower, cabbage, and spinach can be grown profitably. Tomato followed by cluster beans were reported to be more economical (59). Phalsa, papaya, guava, lowchilling peaches, strawberries, and pineapples have produced positive response. With the increasing age of the mango orchard, the area under intercropping may be reduced to avoid competition with the main crop. Besides intercropping, some green manuring crop can be raised to enrich the soil fertility. Leguminous crops can be grown as cash crops, and this would also make the soil more fertile.

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3. Pruning and Training Mango is an evergreen plant and normally requires periodic removal of diseased and dead branches. If there is overlap of branches, it may be worthwhile to separate the branches by pruning. Many old trees of cvs. Himayuddin, Rumani, Kalepad, and Potalima having crossed branches, and when pruned to open the center and thinned, responded with greater yield than the previous year. Training may be advisable to provide a good framework for future growth if the branches are spaced properly so that they do not break due to crop load at the bearing stage. The practice should be initiated from 23 years, and the branches may be allowed neither too low nor too high for convenient harvests. D. Physiological Disorders

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Mango crop is affected by weather, a variety of pests, and nutritional deficiency syndromes. A few common physiological disorders which devastate mango crops are described here. 1. Mango Malformation

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Mango malformation is widespread in subtropical regions of northern India. The malformed panicles remain unproductive and are characterized by a compact mass of male flowers, greenish in color and stunted in growth. The main and secondary rachis are thick and short, and bear flowers with relatively larger bracts, sepals, and petals are compared to normal flowers. The malformed panicles remain intact on the trees for a considerable period, which sometime extends even to the next flowering season. Though research efforts made hitherto have not been able to ascertain its etiology, the complexity of the disorder is attributed largely to cultural variation, nutritional, pathogenic, viral, and hormonal imbalances. While comparing the morphactin-induced malformation with healthy and naturally malformed panicles (Table 3), it was observed that IAA-oxidase activity was higher in malformed panicles and much more in morphactin-induced malformation (60).

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Catalase activity was also low in malformed panicles. However, it may be pointed out that in morphactin-induced malformation, the bunch was much smaller than the naturally malformed panicle. Some remedial measures include application of (a) planofix (NAA) at the rate of 200 ppm spray followed by deblossoming of early emerged panicles in the heavily infested orchards; (b) deblossoming of early emerged panicles in the months of December and January in orchards where incidence is low; and (c) avoiding taking an excessive number of scion sticks from the same tree. Singh and Dhillon (61) claimed to reduce floral malformation by 810% with 400 ppm ethephon spray at bud inception stage. Chadha et al. (62) have also recommended 500 ppm each of cycloheximide and ethephon treatment. 2. Clustering

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Clustering of fruits after fruit set at the tip is not conducive for the development of fruits. This is characterized by a cluster of fruitlets at the tip of the panicle, giving a bunchy appearance. These fruitlets are dark green, with a deeper curve in the sinus beak region than in normal developing fruits. After attaining pea or marble size, further growth of fruits is retarded and they remain on the panicle for some time. This disorder in mango has not been well documented. Preliminary observations (63) suggested that it may be physiological in nature, as no pest or disease was found to be associated. The failure of fruit set due to adverse climatic conditions might have led to the increase of hermaphrodite flowers (29). These fruits grow parthenocarpically up to marble size. It was shown that 92% of such fruits originated from aborted embryos (30). Those panicles which showed clustering did not carry any fruit on the side rachis, and those panicles which carried fruits on the side

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rachis generally did not show the symptoms of clustering

Page 131 Table 3 Enzyme Activity in the Malformed Panicles of four Mango Cultivars Cultivar Type of paniclea Dashehari Mallika Benazir Taimuria IAA oxidase (mmol IAA/g tissue/h) H 35.8 32.4 39.4 6.5 N 49.6 51.0 41.6 25.5 M 89.6 86.8 93.4 94.1 Amylase (mmol maltose/g tissue/min) H 35.9 43.1 41.9 43.7 N 31.3 42.7 44.4 39.8 M 43.3 49.5 47.6 48.7 Catalase (mmol perborate used/g tissue) H 2.2 2.4 1.4 1.8 N 2.3 2.0 0.8 1.0 M 1.5 1.1 0.2 0.0 aH = healthy; N = naturally malformed; M = morphactin-induced malformation. Source: Ref. 60.

3. Fruit Drop

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In mango, there is a heavy drop of hermaphrodite flowers and young fruits. In general, it may be stated that 0.1% or less of hermaphrodite flowers develop fruits to maturity. The maximum drop of fruits in Dashehari takes place in the first 3 weeks of April and differs significantly from the drops in the following weeks (29). Among the external factors, pests and diseases are predominant during the early stages. Degeneration of the embryo in the initial stages of its development may be another cause of drop. Another factor affecting drop at later stages is hail storms. 4. Internal Breakdown

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Generally, the symptoms of internal breakdown are characterized by breakdown of the flesh on the ventral side and toward the apex in the fruit. In Haden mangos, there is a yellowing of the green skin at the apex, which becomes soft. At the advanced stage of the disorder, the tissue becomes spongy and grayish black. The causes of this malady are mostly unknown, but exposure of fruits to infrared rays at 40C produced 100% occurrence with 20% intensity of damage (64). Similarly, a slightly different physiological disorder has been noticed in Alphonso (65). The symptoms of this disorder are revealed only when the fruits are cut open. The internal breakdown tissue is soft or spongy, with or without off-flavor. The disorder commences from the stone and spreads toward the periphery. In severe cases, the whole fleshy tissue becomes too soft, resembling bacterial rot. A survey report suggested that 2530% of the Alphonso crop could be affected by this disorder (65).

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5. Black Tip

Black tip is a serious disorder that is capable of causing considerable setback to the grower. Among the commercial cultivars, Dashehari is most prone to the disorder, while Lucknow Safeda is least (66). The infection of fruits is initiated right at marble stage, with a characteristic yellowing of tissues at the distal end. Gradually, the color intensifies into brown and finally black

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(67). At this stage, further growth and development of the fruit is retarded, and the black ring at the tip extends toward the upper part of the fruit. Black tip disorder has generally been detected in orchards located in the vicinity of brick kilns (68). A spray of 1% borax at the time of fruit set (pea size), followed by two more sprays at 10-day intervals, might be useful in controlling the disorder (69). Sprays of washing soda (0.5%) and caustic soda (0.8%) were found to be equally good in minimizing the disorder (70). Irrigation in the orchards after fruit set should be maintained at regular intervals to reduce the severity of black tip; this will also increase the fruit size. 6. Biennial Bearing.

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In some mango cultivars there is a good crop only once in two years, a situation called alternate bearing. It has been observed that the incidence of biennial bearing is much less in southern India, where humidity is relatively high with lower temperature. Most of the commercial varieties of northern India are characterized by biennial bearing. The malady has been attributed to genetic, physiological, environmental, and nutritional factors, but so far no definite remedy has been demonstrated. A report on off-season induction of flowering in Carabao mango was published in the Philippines, but it could not be confirmed in Indian mango varieties. Efforts have been made to breed regular bearing varieties, and accordingly, two such varieties, Mallika and Amrapali, have been released for field testing, although the results so far are not encouraging. E. Pests

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Mango crops are seriously damaged by insects and pests. Though 500 species of insects, 17 species of mites, and 26 species of nematodes have been known to affect the tree, only a few cause severe losses. 1. Hoppers

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Idioscopus clypealis Lethierry and Amritodus atkinsoni Lethierry are the most common and destructive species of hoppers, which heavily damage mango crops. The nymphs and adult insects puncture and suck the sap of tender parts and reduce the vigor of the plants. Heavy puncturing and continuous draining of the sap causes curling and drying up of infested tissues. A sweet, sticky substance is secreted by hoppers which encourages the development of the fungus Meliola mangiferae, known as sooty mold. Low populations of hoppers have been recorded in mango orchards throughout the year, with populations shooting up during flowering and fruiting of the crop. Shade and high humidity conditions are favorable for their multiplication. Three sprays of carbaryl (0.15%), monocrotophos (0.04%), phosphamidon (0.05%), or methylparathion (0.05%) have been found to be very useful in controlling the pest population (71). Chandrasekaran et al. (72) evaluated 12

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insecticides and concluded that the best control was obtained with dimethoate (0.06%), demetonmethyl fention (0.05%), or monocrotophos (0.05%), in that order. 2. Mealy Bugs Drosicha mangiferae Green is another major pest of mango. The eggs remain in a dormant state in the soil under cool conditions. After hatching, pink to brown-colored nymphs crawl up the tree and start sucking the sap of tender parts. They infest the crop during inflorescence and may destroy the crop completely. Control measures include treatment of the soil with methylparathion dust (2%) around the tree trunk and fastening polythene bands (400 gauge) of 25-cm width around the tree trunk. Spraying of monocrotophos (0.05%), carbaryl (0.2%), or methylparathion (0.05%) has been found to be useful in controlling early-instar nymphs of mealy bugs.

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3. Inflorescence Midges The mango inflorescence midge, Erosomyia indica Grover (Diptera:Cecidomyiidae), is another serious pest of mango. The adult midge is harmless. The female lays eggs singly on floral parts, and the eggs hatch within 23 days. Upon hatching, the maggots penetrate the tender parts and feed on them. The floral parts finally dry up and are shed. The mature larvae slip down into the soil for pupation or undergo diapause.

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The midge damages the crop at three different stages. The first attack occurs at the floral bud burst stage, when the inflorescence may be destroyed completely. The second attack takes place at fruit set. The eggs are laid on the newly set fruits, and the young maggots bore into these tender fruits, which slowly turn yellow and finally drop. The third attack is on tender new leaves encircling the inflorescence. The midge can be controlled by dusting of aldrin, heptachlor, or methylparathion on the pupating as well as diapausing larvae in the soil. Spraying of fenetrothion (0.05%), pimethoate (0.045%), or diazinon (0.04%) at the bud burst stage of the inflorescence has also been found useful in restricting the midge population. In addition to the inflorescence midge, two other gall midges, Dasineura amarananjarae Grover and Procystiphora mangiferae Felt, have been found to be associated with the damage of mango inflorescence.

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4. Fruit Flies Dacus dorsalis, Dacus zonatus, and Dacus correctus are common fruit flies which cause serious damage to mature mango fruits. The adult flies are dark brown in color. The female has a tapering abdomen which ends in an oviposterior. The female punctures the outer wall of mature fruit with the help of its pointed oviposterior and inserts eggs in small clusters inside the mesocarp of the fruit. After hatching, the larvae feed on the pulp of the fruit while the fruit appears normal from outside. The maggots fall down onto the soil for pupation.

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The adult fruitflies can be controlled by bait sprays of carbaryl (0.2%) + protein hydrolysate (0.1%) or molasses starting at preoviposition stage (2 weeks after fruit set), repeated after 21 days. Another method to control these flies is to hang traps containing a 100-ml emulsion of methyl-euginol (0.1%) and malathion (0.1%) during fruiting. About 10 traps are sufficient for 1 ha of orchard. 5. Scale Insects

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Pulvinaria polygonata, Asipidiatus destructor, Ceroplastis sp., and Rastoccus sp. are some of the most common scale insects that infest mango crops. The nymphs and adult scales suck the sap of the leaves and other tender parts, thereby reducing the vigor of the plants. They also secrete honeydew, which encourages the development of the fungus, sooty mold. Pruning of heavily infested plant parts and their immediate destruction followed by application of two sprays of monocrotophos (0.04%), diazinon (0.04%), or dimethoate (0.06%) at an interval of 20 days have been found very effective in controlling populations. 6. Shoot Borers

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Larvae of shoot borers (Chlumetia transversa) bore into the young shoot, resulting in dropping of leaves and wilting of shoots. Larvae also bore into the inflorescence stalk. The adult moths are shiny gray in color. Female moths lay eggs on tender leaves. After hatching, young larvae enter the midribs of leaves and then enter the young shoots through the growing points by tunneling downward. The attacked shoots may be clipped off and destroyed. Spraying of carbaryl (0.2%), quinalphos (0.05%), or monocrotophos (0.04%) at 2-week intervals from commencement of new flush effectively controls the pest.

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7. Bark-Eating Caterpillers. Larvae of bark-eating caterpillers (Inderbella quadrinotata) feed on the bark, thus interrupting translocation of sap and rendering the tree weak. The moth is light gray in color with dark brown dots. A single female lays about 300400 eggs in batches on the bark. The caterpiller spins a brown silken web on the tree which consists of excreta and wood particles. Larvae also make shelter tunnels inside the stem, in which they rest. Larvae actually feed from April to December. There is only one generation in a year. The infestation may be controlled by removal of webs from tree trunks and putting one tablet of phostoxin or monocrotophos (0.05%) in each hole and plugging the hole with mud. 8. Stem Borers

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Stem borer damage is caused by the grub (Batocera rufomaculata) of this beetle as it feeds inside the stem, boring upward and resulting in drying of branches. Eggs are laid either in the slits of tree trunks or in cavities in main branches. Pupation takes place within the stem. There is only one generation in a year. The control measures are same as for bark-eating caterpillers. 9. Shoot Gall Psylla

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Shoot gall psylla (Apsylla cistellata) causes green conical galls in the leaf axis. The galls dry out after the emergence of psyllid adults. The females lay eggs in the midribs as well as in the lateral axis of new leaves. Nymphs emerge from the egg during AugustSeptember and crawl to adjacent buds to suck cell sap. As a result of nymph feeding, the buds develop into hard, conical green galls. The galls are usually seen during SeptemberOctober. As a result of gall formation there is no fruit setting. For control, the galls with the nymph inside may be collected and destroyed to prevent carryover of the pest. Spraying of monocrotophos (0.05%), or dimethoate (0.06%), quinalphos (0.05%) at 3-week intervals starting from the middle of August is recommended. 10. Mango Leaf Webber

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Mango leaf webber (Orthaga euadrusalis) infestation starts around the time of fruit set. Eggs are laid singly or in clusters within silken webbing on leaves. Upon hatching, the caterpillers feed on the leaf surface by scrapping. Later they web tender shoots and leaves and feed within. Generally, one to nine larvae are found in a single webbed-up leaf. Pupation takes place inside the webs in a silken cocoon, except the last generation which pupates in the soil. Three sprayings, starting after harvesting, at 15-day intervals, with Carbaryl (0.2%), monocrotophos (0.05%), or quinalphos (0.05%) have been effective in controlling the pest. 11. Mango Stone Weevil

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The mango stone weevil (Sternochetus mangiferae) lays eggs on the epicarp of partially developed fruits or under the rind of ripening fruits. Newly emerged grubs bore through the pulp, feed on seed coat, and later cause damage to cotyledons. Pupation takes place inside the seed. Discoloration of the pulp adjacent to the affected portion has been observed. The life cycle is completed in 4050 days during fruit growth. Adults hibernate until the next fruiting season. There is only one generation in a year. The weevil is controlled by spraying with fenthion (0.01%) or dipping the hard fruits in ethylene dibromide emulsion at 50C for 2 h. F. Diseases

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Mango suffers from several diseases at all stages of its life. All the parts of mango plant are attacked by a number of pathogens, including fungi, bacteria, and algae. They cause several kinds of rots, die-back, anthracnose, scab, necrosis, blotch, spots, mildew, etc.

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1. Powdery Mildew Powdery mildew, caused by Oidium mangiferae Berthet, is one of the commonly occurring diseases of mango, affecting almost all varieties. The characteristic symptom is a white superficial powdery fungal growth on the leaves, panicles, and young fruits. Affected flowers and fruits drop prematurely, reducing the crop considerably or preventing fruit set. Rains and mists accompanied by cool nights during flowering favor the disease. Three consecutive sprays of wettable sulfur (0.2%), carbendazim/tridemorph (0.1%), and dinocap (0.1%) are recommended at 15-day intervals (71). Datar (73) reported that the best control of disease was given by top-sin M-70. 2. Anthracnose

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Anthracnose (Colletotrichum sp. or Glomerella cingulata, Ston, Spaull and Schrenk) disease causes serious losses under favorable climatic conditions of high humidity, frequent rains, and a temperature of 2432C when the young shoots flowers or fruits are produced. Black spots develop on panicles as well as on fruits, which shrivel and drop off. The spraying of copper fungicides, dithiocarbamate (0.2%), or bavistin (0.1%) is quite effective in controlling the disease. Hot benomyl followed by prochloraz controlled anthracnose as well as stem-end rot (74). 3. Die-Back Disease.

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Die-back disease of mango is caused by a fungus, Botryodiplodia theobromae Pat. The disease is characterized by drying of twigs and branches followed by complete defoliation, which gives the tree the appearance of scorching by fire. The onset of die-back becomes evident by discoloration and darkening of the bark. The areas of cambium and phloem show brown discoloration, and a yellow gumlike substance is found in some of the cells. Pruning of diseased twigs followed by spraying or pasting of bordeaux mixture (5:5:50) on infected tree branches are effective measures for controlling it. 4. Phoma Blight

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Phoma blight is caused by Phoma glomerata cord, Wall, Hochqpf. The symptoms of the disease are noticeable only on old leaves. Initially the lesions are minute, irregular, yellow to light brown, and scattered over leaf lamina. As the lesions enlarge, their color changes from brown to cinnamon. Fully developed spots are characterized by dark margins and dull gray necrotic centers. In serious infections these spots coalesce, forming patches that result in complete withering and defoliation of infected leaves. The disease can be kept under control by spraying of copper oxychloride (0.3%) just after appearance of the disease and subsequent sprays at 20-day intervals. 5. Red Rust

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Red rust is caused by an alga (Cephaleuros virescens Kunze) and may lower the efficiency of the host plant through reduction in photosynthetic activity and finally defoliation. The disease can easily be recognized by the rusty red spots mainly on leaves and sometimes on peptioles and bark of young twigs. It is epiphytic in nature. The spots are greenish gray in color and velvety in texture. Later, they turn reddish brown. Somewhat circular and slightly elevated spots sometimes coalesce to form larger irregular spots. The disease is more common in closely planted orchards. To control the disease, spraying of bordeaux mixture (5:5:50) or copper oxychloride (0.3%) is recommended (71).

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6. Bacterial Canker Canker disease of mango is caused by a bacterium (Xanthomonas campestris strain Mangiferae indica). It is a very serious disease in India. Besides being pathogenic on several varieties of mango, the organism is capable of infecting wild mango and cashew nut as well. The disease is found on leaves, leaf stalks, twigs, branches, and fruits, initially producing water-soaked lesions and later turning into typical cankers. The lesions are light yellowish in color, but enlarge and turn dark brown with age. Several lesions coalesce to form irregular necrotic cankerous patches. They often burst open, releasing a gummy ooze containing bacterial cells. Monthly spraying of bavistin (1000 ppm) followed by agrimycin and bavistin (100 and 1000 ppm) are suggested to control the disease. 7. Sooty Mold

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Sooty mold is easily recognizable by the presence of a black velvety covering on the leaf surface, caused by Meliola mangiferae. In severe cases, the entire leaf surface is covered with sooty (black) mold, and even the entire tree may appear black. Honey dew secretion of insects sticks to the leaf surface and provides the necessary medium for fungal growth. Although no direct damage is caused by the fungus, the photosynthetic activity of the leaf may be adversely affected. Pruning of affected branches and their prompt destruction prevents the spread of the disease. Other control measures include spraying of wettable sulfur (0.2%) along with insecticides and diazinon (0.04%), monocrotophos (0.05%), and methyldemeton (0.05%). G. Maturity 1. Standards

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The maturity of fruit has been correlated with various physical characteristics such as surface color, shape, size, shoulder growth and specific gravity, and chemical parameters such as soluble solids, titratable acidity, starch, phenolic compounds, and carotenoids. Cheema and Dani (75), on the basis of external color and growth, defined four maturity stages during fruit development: (a) shoulders in line with the stem end and green-olive color; (b) shoulders outgrowing the stem end and olivegreen color; (c) shoulders outgrowing the stem end and the color lightening; and (d) flesh becoming soft and blush developing. The stages (b) and (c) were denoted to be the best for harvesting, as the fruits of these stages developed good taste and flavor upon ripening.

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In general, harvest maturity in mango is reached in 1216 weeks after fruit set, depending on the variety (7679). Mukherjee (80) observed that mango fruits attained physiological maturity in about 90 days and the increase in size and weight almost stopped 45 weeks before harvest maturity in Dashehari, Langra, Fazli, Zafrani, Alphonso, and Kishanbhog varieties. Rolz et al. (81) also indicated 90 days for complete development and maturation for Mamey mangoes. Similar observations were made by Kennard (82) on Paheri and by Kennard and Winters (83) on Amini varieties. Chattopadhyaya et al. (84) reported that Bombai and Himsagar varieties attained harvest maturity after 80 and 86 days, respectively. The harvesting of Dashehari and Langra could be done around 8487 days, and Mallika around 103105 days after fruit set (78,79). Alcantara and Mendoza (85) recommended the harvesting of Pico mangos at 120 days from flower induction or 81 days after fruit

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set. Anantanarayanan and Pillai (86) screened 16 mango varieties and observed maturity after 83121 days in the MarchAugust crop and after 107137 days in the off-season, SeptemberFebruary crop. In Dashehari mangos, Kalra and Tandon (87) reported that the fruits harvested at 85 days' maturity resulted in optimum ripening with higher storage life, whereas those harvested after 95 days were liable to fungal attack and showed shorter shelf life

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and early senescence. Similar observations were reported in Tommy Atkins fruits (88). Even ethylene or acetylene treatment could not induce complete ripening with proper aroma, flavor, and taste in immature fruits, although they developed yellow color (89,90). However, Rao et al. (91) were able to improve the quality of offseason fruits by ethrel treatment.

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It has been suggested that specific gravity is a good criterion on which to judge maturity in mango. The pattern of specific gravity in mango fruit can vary from year to year. Harding et al. (92), Rao et al. (93), and Tandon and Kalra (78,79) observed too much inconsistency in specific gravity in mango varieties and concluded that it could not be used as a criterion to predict maturity. An age-old practice in the Indian subcontinent is to initiate harvest when a few mango fruits on the tree begin to ripen and fall, commonly known as tapka stage. At that time, the whole crop is considered to be ready for harvest. In Dashehari, 53% of the fruits harvested at tapka stage (approximately 100 days after fruit set) had specific gravity less than 1.0, and these fruits ripened under ambient conditions and had better shelf life than those having specific gravity of more than 1.0 (94).

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Attempts have been made to fix a maturity standard for mango based on specific gravity along with total soluble solids (TSS) and firmness (95,96), but other reports concentrated on the number of days of growth, TSS, starch, acid, etc., in different varieties. It may be stated that a peak in starch content, TSS above 8%, acidity around 1.0%, and TSS:acid ratio above 7 were indices for assessing maturity in Dashehari mango which were attained 86 days after fruit set (78). Hulme (97), while attempting an anology for Indian and Florida-grown mangos, suggested that Florida-grown mangos contain more sugar at the unripe stage than Indian mango at a comparable stage of maturity, hence this chemical index alone may not be useful for assessing the maturity for mangos, in general. For pickle making, harvesting from May 15 to May 29 was better than on June 12 in Dashehari mangos (98). Singh et al. (99) recommended harvesting of Taimuria and Sukul in the second week of

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July and the second week of August, respectively. Harvesting even in the first week of September was suggested for Neelum (96). Maturity in mango is best determined through a combination of the above-discussed parameters. At times, the harvesting of a mango crop may be influenced more by commercial prospects than by harvest maturity. 2. Compositional Changes

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At initial stages of fruit development no systematic trend was observed in the sugar content, but toward the end of maturity, both reducing and nonreducing sugars were found to be increasing (100). Tandon and Kalra (101) observed a slight decrease in reducing sugars in Dashehari fruit up to 44 days and then an increase until maturity. When the fruits started to ripen on the tree, i.e., after about 96 days from fruit set, a decrease in reducing sugars was noted. A similar trend in fructose content was noticed up to 91 days of fruit growth (Fig. 2). The soluble sugars of the fruit pulp consisted mainly of glucose, fructose, and sucrose (101,102). The rate of starch accumulation was rapid at the beginning of fruit growth and slowed down later, but it continued to increase up to maturity (80,100). Leley et al. (103) observed an increase from 1 to 13% in starch content in Alphonso mango during development. In developing mango fruits, acidity increased at early growth phase and reached a

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peak and then declined gradually until harvest. Similar changes in acid pattern were reported in many mango varieties grown throughout the world (104). Mann et al. (100) recorded a gradual decrease in acidity until harvest in Dashehari mangos, while Tandon and Kalra (78) observed a peak after 54 days of fruit growth and then reduction until harvest (Fig. 2). In Alphonso and Pico mangos, the acidity reached a maximum (4.24.4%) in about 7 weeks and declined slowly to around 2.72.8% at the time of harvest (76,85). In sweet mango varieties the acidity may be around 3% at early stages of fruit growth and then may deviate and decline until harvest (80). In unripe pickling mangos, oxalic, citric, malic, malonic, succinic, pyruvic,

Page 138

Fig. 2 Compositional changes in developing Dashehari mangos. (From Ref. 78.)

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adipic, galacturonic, glucuronic, and mucic acids were present (105). Fang (106) reported the dominance of citric acid in Kent and Hasaing-Ien cultivars of mango, while tartaric, malic, oxalic, and glycolic acids were present in small amounts. Tandon and Kalra (107) studied the changes in different pectin fractions in developing Dashehari mango pulp. Water-soluble pectins showed a steep rise after 70 days, reaching a maximum at 101 days of fruit growth. The ammonium oxalate-soluble fractions also showed a similar increase during fruit growth. The alkali-soluble fraction (protopectin) increased up to 70 days after fruit set but decreased thereafter until harvest.

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Mango fruit contains 0.51% protein on a freshweight basis (108). Tandon and Kalra (101) reported a decrease in the soluble protein content up to 44 days after fruit set, which increased again until 96 days (Fig. 2). Pandey et al. (102) detected 12 amino acids during fruit growth. At peak stage, only alanine, arginine, glycine-serine, and leucine-isoleucine were detected, while others were present in traces. At the mature stage, however, the levels of alanine, arginine,

Page

aspartic acid, glutamic acid, glycine-serine, and leucine-isoleucine were predominant and decreased during ripening of fruit, with the exception of alani Krishnamurthy and Subramanyam (109) compared amino acids present in unripe and edible ripe fruit w wide variations (Table 4).

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Pathak and Sarada (110) reported that lipid content peel and pulp of five mango varieties ranged from 0 to 1.70% and 0.80 to 1.36%, respectively. Selvaraj al. (111) reported that total lipid in seven commerci cultivars ranged between 0.263 and 0.671% at harv Siddappa and Bhatia (112) reported that vitamin C content was maximum (300 mg/100 g) in Pairi vari in the early stages of growth. Spencer et al. (113) re ported a downward trend from 88 to 22 mg% withi 510 weeks after fruit set in Mulgoa, Pico, Amini, an Turpentine varieties of mango during growth. Ghos (114) reported 36 mg of folic acid in 100 g of green fruit, and Gopalan et al. (115) found .08 mg of thiam and riboflavin and .09 mg of niacin per 100 g of rip mangos.

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At the initial stages, there was a steep fall in peel chlorophyll, which slowed down at later stages of d velopment and the pulp chlorophyll became negligi as the fruit approached maturity (78). Total caroten and b-carotene remained very low initially and increased gradually as the fruits approached maturity ripening. Some of the phenolic compounds identifie in mango are gallic acid, indigallic acid, gallotannin quercetin, isoquercetin, mangiferin, and ellagic acid (116,117). H. Harvesting and Handling.

Postharvest losses in mango are estimated in the ran of 2540%. Bruises and injured fruits develop brown black spots during storage, making the fruits unattra ive. Moreover, injuries to the peel or to the stalk en serve as avenues for invasion of microorganisms an lead to rotting of the fruit. Generally, fruits are hand picked or plucked with a harvester, or branches are
Table 4 Free Amino Acids of Mango Fruit

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a-Amino acids Aspartic Threonine Serine Glutamic Proline Glycine Alanine Valine Methionine Isoleucine Leucine Tyrosine Phenylalanine Lysine Histidine Arginine g-Amino-n-butyric acid Source: Ref. 109.

mmol/100 g of pulp Unripe (at harvest) Edible 132.42 3.52 11.20 7.53 23.21 14.7 68.04 39.9 9.69 12.4 2.74 27.0 51.10 126.0 12.1 Trac 2.74 5.86 2.30 8.74 2.81 17.15 6.25 5.45 Trac Trac 63.75 Trac 79.61 139.5

Page 140

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vigorously shaken to drop them. Fruits not reached by hand are most often retrieved with poles adapted with a severing blade and a bag. Recently, somewhat modified mango harvesters have been developed, and the one at the Central Institute of Horticulture for Northern Plains (CIHNP), Lucknow, India, has 600 fruits/h harvesting efficiency. Hydraulic driven lifts are used in the United States for picking mango fruits. During harvesting, the latex trickles down the fruit surface from the point of detachment, imparting a shabby appearance to it upon storage (118). Similarly, Pathak and Srivastava (119) have reported that mango fruits harvested without pedicel exhibited more decay, due mainly to the spilling over of the latex on the fruit surface at the time of harvesting. Fruits harvested with 810 mm stalk produced least latex, and the abscission of stalks occurred during storage (120). It was further observed that decay loss, particularly due to stemend rot, and the

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rates of respiration were minimum in fruits harvested with stalk. In addition, harvesting is suggested for the early hours of the morning to reduce latex. After harvesting, fruits should be heaped under shade to avoid direct sunlight. Injured, diseased, immature, and ripe fruits are sorted out, and fruits of similar maturity are packaged together. Dropped fruits should be packed separately. Grading in mango has been proposed on the basis of specific gravity, fruit weight, or size (121123), but so far no systematic effort has been made to put it into practice. A prototype mango weight-grading machine was developed in Perth, Australia, and was commissioned by the Association of South East Asian Nations (ASEAN) Food Handling Bureau. The machine grades mangos according to their weights. It has a capacity of grading 100 fruits/minute into five sizes ranging from 40 g to 1000 g (124).

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Proper packaging is an essential prerequisite. In India, baskets of bamboo, pigeonpea (cajanus) or mulberry with paddy straw as cushioning material have been used because of their easy availability and low cost (125). Basket-type packaging was found to be unsatisfactory because of uneven ripening of fruits, more shrinkage, bruising, etc. Moreover, stacking was also a problem in baskets (126). Conventional cylindrical or conical baskets were modified into a rectangular shape with or without a middle tray for maximum stackability (127). Such baskets could be reused, as they allow nesting of empty baskets to reduce return freight cost (128). However, more uniform ripening and betterquality mangos were observed when fruits were packed in ventilated wooden boxes (129). Joshi and Roy (130) packed Alphonso mangos in corrugated fiber board (CFB) boxes with partitions and noted less bruising, slow ripening, reduced

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shriveling, and less spoilage as compared to fruits packed in wooden boxes.

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Various cushioning materials, such as newspaper, paddy straw, dry and soft grasses, Azadirachta indica, neem leaves, or wood wool have been tried for packing of mangos (128,131). Kalra et al. (132) observed that tissue paper, brown paper, and newspapers were superior to wheat straw for packaging of Dashehari mangos. Wrapping of individual fruit (unipack system) in tissue or newspaper was also found to be suitable for uniform ripening during storage of Dashehari and Langra (89,133). Further, they reported that fruits of Langra, treated with hot water + 500 ppm maleic hydrazide + 0.1% bavistin and then wrapped, exhibited minimum decay loss during storage. Impregnation of wrapping paper with diphenyl is useful in reducing decay loss. Miller et al. (118) used plastic film to wrap mangos, but they developed serious decay caused mainly by Glomerella cingulata. Narayana et al. (134) packed individual fruits of Baneshan mango in high-molecular-weight high-

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density polyethylene film pouches during transportation over 1700 km; the fruits unwrapped after reaching the destination. This procedure delayed ripening by 34 days under ambient conditions. Polyethylene sheets (200 gauge) with 0.250.5% ventilation were better for lining wooden boxes for packing Dashehari mangos as compared to newspaper or tissue paper. The edible quality of the fruits were comparable to that after newspaper or tissue paper lining without any loss in flavor or quality.

Page 141

Mango fruits are transported in various packings or loose in carts, trucks, and by rail. Losses were assessed through different transportation means at 2530% (135). Lakshminarayana et al. (126) studied transport of Dashehari and Banganpalli mangos in ventilated wooden cars for a distance of 15002000 km by rail in summer. The cars prevented excessive buildup of temperature during transit, and humidity increased very little. Fruits packaged with paper shaving cushioning, treated with wax emulsion, irradiation (25 krad), and in CFB boxes performed better in rail transportation (130,136). IV. Postharvest Physiology A. Ripening Process

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Mangos are generally harvested at physiological mature stage and ripened for optimum fruit quality. The fruit displays erratic ripening behavior, either on the tree or after harvest; mangos take 614 days to ripen under ambient conditions, depending on the variety and environmental conditions.

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Mango is a climacteric fruit, and its period of ontogeny is characterized by a series of biochemical changes initiated by the autocatalytic production of ethylene and increase in respiration (117). Apart from a respiratory peak observed during development of fruit, another climacteric peak has been recorded during ripening. The pattern of respiration in Pairi mango was classified by Krishnamurthy and Subramanyam (137) as (a) a preclimacteric phase lasting for 3 days with slow release of CO2, (b) a climacteric rise extending up to 6 days with a sudden spurt in CO2 production, (c) a climacteric peak occurring between 6 and 10 days with softening of the fruit, and (d) a postclimacteric phase lasting from 10 to 14 days with a decrease in CO2 production resulting in edible ripeness of fruit followed by senescence.

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Burg and Burg (138) reported that respiratory peak in Kent and Haden mangos during ripening coincided with ethylene evolution (Fig. 3). They later estimated that 0.08 ppm of ethylene was present at the onset of the respiratory rise, and at the time of preclimacteric respiratory minimum it was sufficient to influence the metabolic activity in mango fruit cv. Kent (139). Alphonso mangos generated ethylene in the range of 0.020.18 ppm during ripening (140), and a threefold increase in ethylene production was observed in ripening fruit slices with added methionine (141).

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The principal change that occurred during ripening was the breakdown of starch into sugars (87). There is a continuous decrease in acidity of fruits during ripening. Pyruvic and L-keto glutaric acids increased during the first 9 days and then declined during ripening of Pairi mangos (142). Shashirekha and Patwardhan (143) reported a decrease in citric and succinic acids and an increase in malic and uronic acids, while Selvaraj et al. (111) observed marginal changes in malic acid with a 26 times decrease in citric acid content during ripening.

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The ripening phenomenon is associated with loss of firmness. Dashehari mango pulp pressure was found to decrease from 4.4 to 0.3 kPa (Table 5). It appears that pectin polymers became less tightly bound in the cell wall during ripening, and the cell wall loosening involved hydrolysis of galactose-containing polysaccharides (144). Brinson et al. (145) reported net loss of arabinose, galactose, and glacturonic acid during cell wall degradation. They further observed a threefold increase in bound uronic acid in the increased amount of cold water-soluble cytoplasmic polysac-charides during ripening.

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An increase in soluble and a decrease in insoluble proteins was reported during ripening of mango fruits (146). No appreciable changes were observed in the concentration of total soluble amino acids, though the content of individual amino acids changed markedly from harvest to edible ripe stage (Table 4) (109,111). With the advance of ripening the carotenoid content increased (147). b-Carotene may be about three-fifths of the total carotenoids in ripe mango fruits.

Relationship among ethylene production rate ( respiration (

Fig. 3 ), interna of ) during ripening of (a) Kent and (b) Had

Table 5 Postharvest Changes in Dashehari Mango Fruit Durin Date of picking (day/ Days after Pulp pressure Acidity month/year) harvest (kPa) (%) 5/6/81 0 >4.4 1.18 (85 days) 3 3.2 1.26 6 1.8 0.95 9 <0.1 0.28

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10/6/81 (90 days)

15/6/81 (95 days) Source: Ref. 87.

12 0 3 6 9 12 0 3 6 8

<0.1 >4.4 2.8 0.8 <0.1 <0.1 >4.4 1.4 0.2 <0.1

0.17 0.72 1.10 0.52 0.20 0.14 0.69 0.64 0.32 0.17

Page 143

Fig. 4 Effects of ethylene on disappearance of catalase inhibitor from Alphonso mango slices incubated at 25C for 70 h. Control ( ), 10 ppm ethylene ( ), 50 ppm ethylene ( ). (From Ref. 148).

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Ethylene synthesized in the fruit before the onset of climacteric activates the enzymes and inactivates the inhibitors present in unripe fruits (Fig. 4, 148). It was observed that phosphatase, catalase, and peroxidase increased severalfold in ripening mangos (149). Similarly, pectin esterase, polygalacturonase, and cellulase, which had negligible activities in unripe fruits, increased markedly during ripening (54,149). Amylase activity also reached a peak in fully ripe fruits and declined thereafter (87). The increase in the activities of glucose-6-phosphate dehydrogenase, 6-phosphogluconic dehydrogenase, and NADP-dependent malic enzyme has been observed by Modi and Reddy (150) during ripening of mango fruits. The activity of fructose-1,6-diphosphatase in unripe mango fruit was reported by Rao and Modi (151), and it was maximum at eating-ripe stage. Lipase activity was found to be maximum at harvest, whereas lipoxygenase and alcohol dehydrogenase

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activities increased from harvest until half-ripe or three-quarter-ripe stage and then declined (152). The aldehyde-forming activity was high at harvest maturity, decreased a little at half-ripe stage, and declined rapidly thereafter. The high activity of aldehyde-forming enzyme indicated the presence of C6-aldehydes (hexanal and trans-2-hexanal) in high concentrations to impart fruity aroma. B. Regulation of Ripening

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The response of mango fruit to postharvest ethrel treatment is not consistent throughout its life cycle, and its age at the time of harvest has a pronounced effect on ripening (153). Lakshminarayana (108) observed that fruits of south Indian cultivars treated with 10,000 ppm ethrel ripened within 4860 h as compared to 108120 h for untreated fruits. Similarly, Bhuva et al. (154) reported that 10,000 ppm ethrel-treated fruit of early-, middle-, and late-maturing varieties ripened in 4865, 7092, and 72 h, respectively; as compared to 118 h in control. However, it may be pointed out that the control fruits of south Indian varieties generally ripened in 810 days, so it appears that in the above-mentioned cases the fruits were taken at a fairly advanced stage of maturity. The response of Ethrel (500 or 1000 ppm) increased when hot water (542C) treatment was

applied to the fruits (153,156). Treated fruits ripene velopment and reduced spoilage. Kalra and Tandon hot water was found to be effective in uniform ripe mango variety. However, mature Dashehari fruits r were reportedly superior in quality to those ripened higher palatability and better color development (15 ora fruits was observed when treated with ethrel as

Mature Florida mangos treated with a much smalle or 10 ppm for 24 or 48 h, showed accelerated ripen Medlicott et al. (159) compared the response of eth mode of ripening of Tommy Atkins and observed th acetylene at 1.0 ml/liter was optimum for initiation storage. V. Chemical Composition

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Ripe mango fruits can be separated into three parts, Of these, pulp is utilized for human consumption. T ripe mango pulp is presented in Table 6. The compo location of cultivation, variety, and stage of maturit the pulp are water, carbohydrates, organic acids, fat vitamins, and flavor compounds. The ripe fruit pulp hydrates, 4800 IU of vitamin A, and 13 mg/100 g o rich source of b-carotene. Sucrose, glucose, and fru carbohydrates and most of the soluble solids in man Cama (160) identified 16 different carotenoids, of w anthin were present in large amounts in addition to

Bandyopadhyay and Gholap (161,162) established leptically evaluated aroma and flavor characteristic of palmitic to palmitoleic acid while studying the fa varieties. A major component of the pulp was repor mono- and di-glycerides were minor components (1 palmitoleic, stearic, oleic, linoleic and linolenic acid

Table 6 Chemical Composition of Ripe Mangos Percent fresh weig

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Total soluble Acidity as mal- Alcohol- insolu Variety solids ic acid residue Alphonso 1720 0.140.64 1.02.5 Baneshan 1419 0.150.30 1.52.2 Pairi 1416 0.100.34 1.03.0 1416 0.200.45 1.02.5 Totapuri (Bangalore) Neelum 1618 0.150.30 1.02.2 Mulgoa 1420 0.100.25 2.03.5 Dashehari 1822 0.200.30 1.52.2 Fazli 1820 0.100.20 1.22.0 Langra 1822 0.200.35 1.42.2 Chausa 1824 0.200.35 1.42.4 Source: Ref. 232; the variations in data are illustrative only

Page 145

of ripe mango oil (165). The characteristic odor that appeared in the fruits during ripening is components of ester and carbonyl types (166). The characteristic odor that appeared in the fruits during ripening are varietal specific (167,168). More than a hundred volatile components have been identified, major ones being terpenes although several other hydrocarbons esters and alcohols (Table 7) were also found to be present in ripe mango fruit (169171). The major components in Bowen mangos were ethylbutanoate and terpinolene, and the flavor profile differed markedly from that of other varieties. VI. Storage

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Harvested fruit has the ability to respond metabolically to the environment in which it is stored. Many factors, such as cultivar, stage of maturity, size grading, method of harvesting, handling, packaging, and mode of transport, affect the storability of mango fruits. Various methods have been employed to extend the storability of mango and reduce losses. These can be classified as physical and chemical methods, and include storage of fruits at low temperature, subatmospheric storage, controlled-atmosphere storage, irradiation, heat treatment, and use of chemicals. A. Low-Temperature Storage

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The extension of storage life under cool temperature reduces the respiration rate and possibly lowers the production of ethylene. However, mango, being a subtropical crop, is susceptible to chilling injury at low temperatures. Wardlaw and Leonard (172) observed that Julie and Ceylon fruits could be held at 7C for 34 weeks for proper ripening. Ram-Ayyar and Joshi (173) showed that unripe (green) mangos did not ripen uniformly when stored at 10C (50F) for 3 weeks, while ripe and partially ripe fruits kept well up to 3 and 6 weeks, respectively. Chaplin et al. (174) also noted that fruits stored for 3 weeks at 5C or 1 week at 1C did not ripen well. Akamine (175) therefore suggested that ripe fruit may be stored at 7.2C while unripe should not be stored below 10C. Valmayor (176) reported storage periods of 1821 and 2326 days, respectively, for ripe and mature green Carabao and Pico mangos at 10C. Seymour et al. (177), while studying the effect of

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physiological maturity on various mango cultivars, stored the fruits at 12C and ripened them subsequently. The ripening was retarded more effectively in immature than in mature Amelie and Kent fruits, whereas Sensation mangoes ripened rapidly during storage, regardless of fruit maturity at harvest. Medlicott (178) showed that immature fruit had superior storage capacity at 12C to fruits harvested at advanced stages of maturity. However, during ripening at 25C, immature fruits failed to develop full ripeness characteristics while mature and half-mature fruits ripened well (Table 8). Notwithstanding, impairment of the fruit quality, the growth of anthracnose was completely inhibited when fruits were stored at 10C (179). Menchu et al. (180) stored Tommy Atkins, Zill, Haden, and Mamey fruits at 12C for 33, 28, 21, and 15 days, respectively. Vazquez-Salinas and Lakshminarayana (181) observed slower development of b-carotenes at 1620C than at 2028C, in

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many Florida mango varieties and suggested a temperature of 2022C and 8590% RH for storage and proper ripening of mangos to obtain acceptable quality. Thomas and Joshi (182) reported on temperature conditioning or cold adaptation of mango fruits for prolonged storage at low temperature. Preclimacteric fruits adapted to 10C (by exposure to 20C and 15C for 1 and 2 days, respectively), withstood storage at 10C for longer, and developed better flesh color and organoleptic quality upon ripening. Fruits ripened at 2734C and then stored at 5, 10, or 15C developed chilling injury. However, fruits ripened at 20 1C showed little evidence of chilling injury when these were subsequently stored at 5 or 10C for up to 14 days.

Table 7 Flavor Compounds Identified in Alphonso Mango Ex Compound Basi f Hydrocarbons M Cyclopentane M Myrcene M Limonene M cis-Ocimene M trans-Ocimene M cis-Alloocimene M trans-Alloocimene M b-Caryophyllene M Humulene Esters M Ethyl acetate M Methyl pyruvate M n-Butyl butyrate M Isobutyl butyrate M Isoamyl butyrate M Ethyl decanoate M Ethyl laurate Alcohols

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n-Butanol Isoamyl alcohol Linalool a-Terpineol Terpinen-4-ol 2-Phenyl ethanol Lactones Butyrolactone a-Methylbutyrolactone g-Hexalactone g-Heptalactone g-Octalactone d-Octalactone g-Nonalactone g-Decalactone Others Acetoin Acetic acid Furfural 2-Acetylfuran 2,5-Dimethyl-2-H-furan-3-one 5-Methylfurfural 2,5-Dimethyl-4-methoxy-2-H-furan-3-one

M M M M M M

M M M M M M M M

M M M M

M M

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b-Ionone cis-Linalool oxide (5-membered) trans-Linalool oxide (5-membered)

aMS

M M M

= mass spectra; GC = gas chromatography; IR = infrared.

Source: Ref. 169.

Table 8 Ripening Changes During Storage for Varying Period Three Stages of Maturity Initial fruit Storage period Pulp rupture force Solub maturity (days) (kgf) con Mature 0 3.70 7 3.51 14 1.72 21 0.25 1 Half-mature 0 4.42 7 4.09 14 2.86 21 0.25 1 Immature 0 6.67 7 5.62 14 3.99 21 2.63 a1 = green, 5 = yellow. b1 = green, 5 = orange. Source: Ref. 178.

B. Chilling Injury

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Prolonged storage of fruits below a temperature of injury manifests itself as definite pitting on the surf the tissues (97). Wills et al. (183) have suggested th age of metabolites such as amino acids, sugars, and ture. Krishnamurthy and Joshi (184) reported disrup tion in carotene development after 4 weeks in fruits even after 5 weeks of storage at room temperature. soluble sugars and reduced starch breakdown in chi al. (185) observed increased invertase and decrease fruits. Kane and Marcellin (186) reported that fruits after 10 days storage at 4 and 8C, and succinate ox decrease, the molar ratio of palmitoleic acid/palmiti in mitochondrial lipids, was observed to be accomp crease and the induction of chilling injury. They fur fication could check the accelerated softening of fru storage at 4C. Mann and Singh (187) reported that fruits could be stored successfully at 7 and 9C and days, respectively. These fruits, after removal from palatability without affecting the sugars, though car (188). Surface waxing coupled with low-temperatu respiration, prolonged shelf life, and also lessened s

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formulation, Prolong, a mixture of sucrose esters of CMC (0.75%) applied as postharvest dip treatment, life and retarded ripening in Julie mangos (190).

Page 148

C. Controlled-Atmosphere Storage.

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Controlled-atmosphere (CA) or modified-atmosphere (MA) storage, either alone or coupled with refrigerated storage, has been recommended for various fruits and vegetables. Singh et al. (191) investigated the response of alterations in the concentration of oxygen and nitrogen on the respiratory system of mango. The shelf life of mango increased from 610 weeks to 1016 weeks when they were gas stored at 7.28.3C (192). Alphonso could be stored for 35 days at 8.310C and Raspuri mango for 49 days at 5.57.2C with 10% spoilage (193). Hatton and Reeder (194) stored Keitt mangos for 20 days at 13C in an atmosphere of 5% CO2 and 5% O2; under similar conditions, Noomhorm and Taisuwan (195) found that ripening in Rod mangos could be delayed for 2 weeks. Lakshminarayana and Subramanyam (196) used 5, 10, and 15% CO2 for storage of Alphonso mangos and observed accumulation of toxic products (aldehyde and alcohols) at the higher CO2

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concentrations; this decarboxylation of fruits under CO2 atmosphere was independent of O2 uptake, as evidenced by a very low O2 content in the storage chambers. D. Subatmospheric-Pressure Storage

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Subatmospheric-pressure storage at a given temperature extended the storage life of horticultural produce. Burg and Burg (197) prolonged the storability of mangos by ventilating the store at less than normal atmospheric pressure, which accelerated the escape of ethylene from the fruit tissue. It also lowered the sensitivity of the fruits to ethylene. Apelbaum et al. (198) observed that fruits stored at 100 and 75 mm Hg started to ripen after 25 and 35 days, as against controls after 16 days. Below 50 mm Hg, fruits were dessicated. All treated fruits ripened within 34 days at 25C. On the other hand, Spalding and Reeder (199) studied response at 76, 152, 228, and normal 760 mm Hg pressure on storage of four cultivars of mango and found 152 mm Hg optimum for storage of cultivars Irwin, Tommy Atkins, and Kent for 3 weeks at 13C, 90100% RH, but such fruits were soft ripened after 35 days. Among the various low-pressure (LP) storage regimes, 76 mm Hg treatment produced

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fruits that were most green, least red, and least yellow. Low-pressure-stored fruits showed less decay loss during ripening at 20C. Thus, LP storage system might economically hold fruits for shippers and packers at the point of origin for 35 days and would be helpful especially during periods of excessive supply. E. Ionizing Radiation

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Irradiation is one of the potentially important techniques to reduce postharvest spoilage. Mathur and Lewis (200) applied g rays (12 103 rad) to Alphonso mango at the rate of 120 rad/ min and stored the fruits for 24 days at 2339C as against controls of 16 days. Hatton et al. (201) and Ahmad et al. (202) also reported delayed ripening in irradiated mango fruits. Boag et al. (203) studied responses of Kensington Pride mango to g irradiation which caused delay in ripening of less mature fruits, characterized by inhibition of skin, degreening, and slow reduction of titrable acidity, while the fruits at the climacteric stage were unaffected. Further, they found that exposure of irradiated fruits to 100 ml/l-1 of ethylene for 24 h at 20C failed to overcome the inhibitory effect of irradiation on skin degreening even after 3 days. Better response was obtained by using lower doses of irradiation (25 krad) in combination with other treatments such as antitranspirant vaporgard (204) and use

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of maleic hydrazide (205), but refrigeration did not have any added benefit in extending the shelf life of mango fruits (202). Dubery et al. (206) stated that activity of NADP malic enzyme, which usually increases during ripening, was significantly diminished but not delayed by g irradiation with 0.75 kGY (Fig. 5). Brodrick and Thord-Gray (207) found hot water (55C for 5 min) and irradiation dose of +0.75

Page 149

Fig. 5 Changes in malic enzyme activity during ripening in g-irradiated ( ) and control ( ) Haden mangos at 25C. (From Ref. 206.)

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kGY to be excellent for control of anthracnose (Colletotrichum gloeosporoides) and soft brown rot during storage and transport. Upadhyay and Brawbacker (208) claimed to destroy the seed weevil in Haden and Pairi mangos through irradiation treatment. Thomas and Desai (209) recommended lower dose levels of irradiation in combination with other treatments to induce delayed ripening and reduce postharvest spoilage. According to Maxie et al. (210), irradiation holds little promise for perishable commodities with high moisture content. This is based not only on economics but also on health reasons and acceptability by the consumer. F. Heat Treatment

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Postharvest heat treatment has been used to regulate the ripening of fruits and control decay losses during storage. Pennock and Maldonaldo (211) used hot water to check decay loss in mango. Subsequently, many reports have appeared on control of anthracnose in different cultivars of mango by hot water (5055C) treatments. Passam (212) observed that decay loss in highly susceptible cultivars such as Doodath and Rose could be controlled more effectively with hot water treatment along with a fungicide such as benomyl. The accelerated ripening caused by hot water may be counteracted by incorporating growth regulators such as maleic hydrazide (MH) (1000 or 2000 ppm) and 2,4,5-T (100 or 200 ppm). Ethrel treatment in hot water was introduced to achieve uniform ripening (213). Recently, Miller et al. (214) treated Tommy Atkins mangos with forced air at 5155C for 125 min and stored the fruits at 12C for up to 3 weeks. Upon ripening at 21C, treated fruits exhibited

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trace amounts of peel pitting and ripened a day earlier with a lower incidence of anthracnose and stem-end rot. G. Chemical Treatment Various chemicals have been used to hasten or delay ripening to reduce losses and to improve and maintain the color, quality, and marketability of the fruits for a longer period. Gomez and Pilag

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(215) have reported that fruits waxed with TOAG-33 had improved appearance, reduced weight loss, and prolonged shelf life. Kalra et al. (216) have found that vaporgard, an antitranspirant treatment, was marginally effective in enhancing the shelf life and improving the organoleptic score of mango fruits. In Alphonso, fungicidal wax emulsion treatment resulted in subdued ripening. Subramanyam et al. (136) observed that b-naphthoxy acetic acid (25 ppm), sprayed at monthly intervals from fruit set, hastened maturity of mangos by 2 weeks. Spraying of b-naphthoxyacetic acid produced fruit with attractive skin color and rich in carotene content, whereas MH produced heavier fruit with poor carotene content. Singh et al. (96) reported that a spray of 250 ppm 2,4,5-T effected early maturity (59 days) over control (68 days) and improved the quality of Gaurjeet mangos in terms of TSS and total acidity.

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Application of abscisic acid (ABA) at 10-6 M by vacuum infiltration accelerated the process of ripening (217). The climacteric peak was enhanced in treated fruits, and the activities of enzymes sucrose synthetase, sucrose phosphate synthetase, malic dehydrogenase, and malic enzymes were found to be higher in treated fruits. The decrease in firmness as indicated by pectin lyase levels was more rapid in treated fruits. Parikh et al. (218) studied structural changes in ripening fruits treated with ABA and observed that the cells in the fruit pulp were large and parenchymatous and lost their integrity due to cell wall hydrolysis at the ripe stage. Polysaccharides, mainly starch, were degraded faster in treated fruits. They further reported that chloroplasts were transformed to chromoplasts containing red or yellow carotenoid pigments. On the other hand, mitochondria retained their structural integrity throughout the ripening process in treated as well as untreated fruits.

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Postharvest dip of mangoes in N6-benzyladenine (BA) at 2 104 M for 6 h delayed ripening by 2 days and enhanced sucrose and citric, malic, and succinic acid contents and changed the levels of free amino acids, especially alanine (219). Subramanyam et al. (220) studied the effects of various fumigants on ripening and spoilage. Ethylene oxide prolonged storage life and delayed fungal spoilage. Methyl formate and methyl bromide were effective only under ambient storage conditions. Chloropicrin caused severe injury to fruits. Ethylene absorbant, potassium permanganate, and silica gel were also found effective in delaying ripening of mangos (221).

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Besides growth regulators, calcium has been used to delay ripening and senescence. Two consecutive preharvest sprays of calcium nitrate (1 or 2% Ca2+) or calcium chloride (0.6 or 1.2% Ca2+), 20 and 10 days before harvest, on Dashehari mango trees, showed that 0.6% Ca2+ as CaCl2 treatment was effective in reducing the cumulative loss in weight, maintaining glossy appearance, flesh texture, decreased the rate of respiration, and increasing the shelf life by 23 days (222). The Ca2+ content in mango flesh was elevated from 46 to 73 mg%, and surface degreening was slower in the calcium-treated fruits (Table 9). Preharvest and postharvest application of calcium (0.52%) had similar effect on Amrapali mangos, while Tirmazi and Wills (223) were able to delay ripening in Kensington Pride mangos by a week, through vacuum infiltration of 4% CaCl2. They further observed a delay in ripening by 23 days at 23C in Indonesian mangos. The hypobaric or hyperbaric

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infiltration of calcium chloride (dihydrated) on the storage behavior of Dashehari mangos under ambient conditions indicated that 4% CaCl2 at 0.25% subatmospheric conditions increased storage life for 910 days, while control fruits remained in good condition for only 7 days (224). These treatments reduced the percent loss in weight, controlled the disintegration of green color, and arrested carotenoid development. The calcium infiltration through the hypobaric route was found to be superior to hyperbaric treatment for increasing the shelf life of mangos. The mango fruit is susceptible to many diseases caused by fungi and bacteria during ripening and storage under ambient conditions or even at low temperature. Some of the major postharvest

Table 9 Effects of Preharvest Spraying of Calcium Salts on D at Harvest Calcium (mg% dry wt) value Treatment Peel Flesh L Controlwater 457 46 28.1 (24.6) 1% Ca2+Ca(NO3)2 625 73 24.9 (26.9) 2% Ca2+Ca(NO3)2 608 85 20.2 (25.1) 0.6% Ca2+CaCl2 664 87 20.3 (27.6) 1.2% Ca2+CaCl2 753 67 21.4 (26.1) aValues in parentheses are for the ripe fruit, 6 days after harve Source: Ref. 222.

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diseases are anthracnose, stem-end rot (Diplodia na lus rot (Aspergillus niger), and bacterial rot. Severa tibiotics have been tried to control these diseases. T monly employed to check the decay loss are bavisti (benomyl), captan, imazalil, rovral, thiobendazole ( zineb. Srivastava (225) reported that postharvest di mango in 0.1% bavistin or 0.2% captan considerabl loss. Anthracnose could be controlled by dipping th cold water (226) or benomyl in hot water at 53 to 5 1000 ppm solutions of methyl thiophenate (227). Sa reported that fruits dipped in hot water at 5055C fo ing benomyl (0.1%), TBZ (0.08%), or captan (0.13 control the anthracnose but not the stemend rot dise ing storage. Hot water with fungicide was also foun anthracnose disease (229). CGA 6425 (etaconazole most effective for control of postharvest decay in T Keitt mangos (230). Spores of Penicillium cyclopiu spoiled ripe Alphonso mangos were found to be res krad of g-radiation treatment while bavistin comple germination (231).

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VII. Processing

Mango fruit is processed and used at almost every s The range of products includes raw mango powder chutney, mango leather, canned mango puree, conc flakes, fruit bars, and mango powder. A. Raw Mango Processing

Raw mango fruits are utilized for raw mango powd etc. 1. Dehydration

The peeled or unpeeled slices of raw mangos are dr cabinet dryer and powdered to use as a souring age The basic technology of preparing the slices was de publication of the Central Food Technological Rese (CFTRI), Mysore, India (232). Dabhade and Khedk that Totapuri and Pairi fruits with 10 weeks' maturi starch and low sugar and phenolics. That stage was

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found suitable for preparing raw mango powder (Amchur). They observed that cabinet drying was quicker than solar drying and the latter gave better retention of ascorbic acid and flavor. The cabinet-dried and sulfited powder had better organoleptic scores. Best relative humidity for storage of raw mango powder was found to be 4043%. The SO2 absorption and retention into the dried product was studied by Wagner et al. (234), and it was shown that SO2-preserved solar-dried fruits tended to have better flavor than hot-air-dried products. Moreover, raw mango powder sulfited and cabinet-dried retained more ascorbic acid and had better organoleptic scores. 2. Preservation of Raw Mango Slices.

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Raw mango slices constitute a basic material to the pickling and chutney manufacturer. Unpeeled raw mango slices are generally preserved in about 20% powdered salt. In a laboratory experiment, the slices, after dip treatment in 1.5% KMS solution, were mixed with common salt and were preserved for over 2 months in polyethylene pouches (235), while Revis et al. (236) preserved slices for over 6 months in 12.5% brine solution with 200 ppm SO2. Since raw mango slices comprise a major export component of mango products, these have to be transported in bulk, for which an additional brine load is to be avoided. Slices are preserved in powdered salt for only 2 months or so, and there is a need to increase the shelf life of slices without increase in unnecessary bulk while maintaining hygiene and firm texture. 3. Pickling

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There are numerous recipe combinations of pickle preparation because of regional variations in taste (232). Peeled or unpeeled raw mango slices are mixed with 1020% salt to extract some moisture from the slices. To the drained slices, a partially ground mixture of spices including garlics and onions is added. The spices are coriander, fenugreek seeds, nigella, fennel, cumin seeds, powdered turmeric, and red chilies. The whole admixture is filled into a clean jar and covered with mustard oil. Addition of a small amount of sugar along with spices produces a good taste blend. If the mango variety is not sour enough, a small amount of acetic acid may be added. It is suggested that the spices, oil, and mango slices can be heated slowly for 1015 min without softening the texture of the slices. Pickles prepared with heat treatment store longer. The literature on advances in technology of mango pickles was

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reviewed, giving information on methodology and characteristics of the final product (237). 4. Mango Sauce or Chutney Mango sauce or chutney is a kind of spicy jam which can be prepared from peeled mango slices obtained from unripe, semiripe, or fully ripened fruits. The fibrous mango varieties are not suitable for preparation of mango sauce. Like pickles, there is little agreement on addition of spices in chutney, and it usually contains 5560 Brix TSS and 1.01.5% acidity. Then there are a sweet and a hot chutney, the latter having more spices and less sugar. Some recipes have been described in the literature (232) for preparation of chutney with grated mango slices, sugar, salt, cardamom, cinnamon, red chilies, ginger, onions, garlic, and vinegar. The extract of spices is added to the boiling mixture of chutney. The hot chutney is filled into clear jars and is sealed for longer storage.

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5. Green Mango Beverage or Panna Green mango beverage is very popular in northern India, as it gives a soothing effect during hot weather. For preparation of panna, the prescribed recipe is mango slices (1 kg), sugar (1.6 kg), water (1.6 liter), salt (80 g), cumin seed (10 g), black pepper (4 g), and citric acid (20 g). The slices are boiled in water for 2030 min and filtered. Powdered spices are extracted along with the fruit.

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The extracts are mixed with sugar and boiled and filled hot into bottles (238). Panna is served after 1:4 dilution with chilled water. B. Ripe Mango Processing A large number of products is prepared from ripe mango fruit, the methodology for which has been variously described for frozen and canned slices, pulp, jam, squash, juice, nectar, ready-toserve (RTS) beverages, mango cereal flakes, mango leather, mango powder, mango toffee, and mango fruit bars (232,239). 1. Puree

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Mango pulp or mango puree is prepared by homogenizing peeled ripe mango slices. Kalra and Tandon (240) studied the effectiveness of three sterilization temperatures, 75, 85, and 95C, and stored the pulp at -5 2C in wax-sealed glass containers for a year. Analysis of the pulp indicated that the reducing sugars increased three times at 95C sterilization temperature and over 60% at 85C, but only 16% at 75C. There were no significant changes in the quality parameters except that vitamin C was reduced to less than 50% during 1 year of storage.

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Mango puree is canned for long-term storage and marketing. For Totapuri mango pulp (pH 4.0), filled into cans having 139.7 mm diameter and 181 mm height, the process time was reduced from 63 to 10 min when the filling temperature was increased from 73.9 to 87.8C (241). Mahadevaiah (242) reported variable tinning quality of mango pulp coupled with a high rate of spoilage. Alternatively, wooden barrels (243), high-density polyethylene containers (244), and flexible pouches (245,246) have been recommended for mango pulp storage. Kalra (247) stored mango pulp in glass and in flexible polyethylene containers (58 kg capacity) with 1000 ppm SO2 under cold (04C) and room-temperature conditions (3035C) for 6 months. The pulp preserved much better under cold conditions, with least changes in reducing sugars, titratable acidity, and vitamin C. The glass containers were found to be superior for storage of mango pulp. The mango pulp stored with 1000

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ppm SO2 in bulk glass containers with glass lids and wax sealed under ambient conditions showed a sharp increase in reducing sugar, mainly fructose, while pentoses rose 1.6 times (248). There was no significant detection of microorganisms during 12 months of storage. Approximately 30% of the SO2 was retained after 1 year of storage. This means that the pulp, after dilution 56 times, would retain 5060 ppm SO2, which is within permissible limits for beverages. It has been observed that mango beverage containing 64 ppm SO2 (6 times dilution of pulp) were acceptable, which is in line with the Food Product Order (FPO) specifications of India.

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Mango pulp was stored with and without 350 or 700 ppm SO2 in 300-gauge polypropylene pouches at 5, 2228, and 37C for up to 5 months except at 37C, while without preservative the pulp could be stored for up to 3 months (245). Further, pulp from Lucknow Safeda mangos stored well for 4 months at 46C in sealed 200-gauge polypropylene pouches with 350 ppm SO2 sterilized at 100C for 20 min (249). However, there are some reservations to sulfited foods, such as objectionable odor and toxicity (250). Shrikhande et al. (251) stored mango pulp without preservative in HDPE containers (6 kg capacity) after sterilization (95C) and acidification. The storage was done at -18C for 6 months, and it was claimed that there was no appreciable drop in vitamin C or carotenoids. The processing and storage of mango pulp (pH 4.0) in 1- to 5-gal pouches of polyester/polyethylene/ aluminum foil/EVA (ethylene vinyl acetate) laminated film were able to withstand

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temperatures up to 125, but a maximum of 80C in nylon/EVA (252). Mango pulp pasteurized for 1 min at 8892C by a scraped-surface heat exchanger, filled into

sterilized pouches at 8892C, evacuated, heat-seale chilled to 4C, when stored at 1820C for 4 months no sensory or microbial spoilage. However, later m was stored for a year at -12C in flexible pouches w tion of 5095% carotenoids, 1188% ascorbic acid, an change in total sugars and acid. 2. Concentrate

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Mango pulp was concentrated by four methods: (a) concentration, (b) evaporation under vacuum; and c gal separation of the juice into pulp and serum, the ing concentrated alone using (c) freeze concentratio evaporation, with subsequent recombining with the produce the concentrate. The loss of aroma compou ters, oxygenated terpenes, and carbonyl compounds ported to be the least in the serum-pulp method of j centration, and the product could be stored in alumi pouches at 10C for 11 months (253). The optimum tration of mango pulp was 4548 Brix, and the qual ready-to-serve beverages prepared from the concen comparable to that from fresh pulp. However, mang extraction through enzyme liquefaction was necess to concentration. The enzymes widely used for the were cellulase and pectinase (254). 3. Beverages

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Mango fruit beverages are very nutritive and popul drinks. The general constitution of some mango dri follows:
Beverage Ready-to-serve (RTS) beverage Nectar Juice Squash Puree (%) 10 20 45 25 TSS (Brix) 15 15 20 45

Acidity (a ac 0

0 0 1

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For adjustment of composition of a specific beverag sucrose and citric acid are added. Since there are la ations in the viscosity and other characteristics of m puree from different varieties, dilution factor may v example, Dashehari juice with 45% pulp could be v cous, and it is suggested that it be kept around 30% arly, 20Brix for mango beverages may make a ver drink, so most market drinks are adjusted to only 15 (255). However, less than 15% puree in the beverag affect the preservability of color and flavor in the m beverage during storage. 4. Mango Blends.

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Mango can be blended with a number of other fruit product preparation (256). Papaya was blended wit at 2533% for beverage preparation (257). Mango bu prepared by mixing puree with 2030% nut paste, by the mixture with one-third water and heating at 90 12 h. It was then passed through a stainless steel pr a uniform texture (258). Similarly, mango puree wa ice cream with 20% mango, 2535% whole milk, 13 sucrose, 910% high-fructose corn syrup (HFCS), an thickener/stabilizer (259). Commercial flavored mil prepared by mixing whole or partially skimmed mi comminuted mango fruit flesh at 315% by volume, the ratio of the two components at 1:5 (260). Strain foods and mango custard powder were prepared by with apple,

pear, peach, papaya, or apricot and powdered milk; bars were also prepared (232). 5. Mango Slices

Peeled slices/cubes obtained from ripe or semiripe syrup. Mango varieties with fine texture and strong Padri, and Mulgoa). Other varieties, such as Dasheh duced canned slices with mild flavor and pale color mango cultivar, had a TSS of about 30Brix, bright It not only produces an excellent beverage, it also y ing storage. 6. Dehydration

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Mango leather or am papad is another popular prod pulp to around 15% moisture. Satyaprakash Rao an and proclaimed the ideal ratio of TSS:acid to be 25 0.50.75% was stated to improve the texture of the d not be dried in the open sun, as they may attract dus Several attempts were made to utilize solar energy rators (263265). Mango slices, cv. Tommy Atkins, frame dryer, while on simple solar dryers it took 78 time in solar dehydrators may not be significantly l but the final product is definitely more hygienic and foam mat dryers and spray dryers were prepared fo tions, and the quality of dried material in the latter d product obtained by cross-flow drying technique (a and had good mango flavor. It could be stored for a published guidelines for quality control for canning ing, crystallizing, and chemical preservation metho (267). Gecan et al. (268) reviewed the procedures a tion or glass fragments in food products. Very critic to
Table 10 Solar Dehydration of Mango Products

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Model Sample Model I (263) Mango slices (raw) (chimney type) Mango slices (ripe) Mango leather Model II (263) Mango slices (raw) Mango slices (ripe) (direct solar Mango leather dehydrator) Open air (263) Mango slices (raw) Mango slices (ripe) Mango leather Model III (264) Mango slices (Cv. Tommy (strip-frame Atkins) type)

Maximum tempera (C) 52 55 55 70 70 70 41 42 43 59

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detect specific organisms or their products through DNA probes (269). These DNA probes might find utility for improving processing steps by minimizing contamination during processing of fruits and vegetables. VIII. Waste Utilization Processing waste is generally grouped into solid and liquid wastes. Solid waste comprises peel, stone, stalk trimmings, and fibrous material, while liquid waste includes the packaging material, blanching, cooling, and plant and machinery cleanup. Maurya and Choudhury (270) and Tandon and Kalra (271) have reviewed the work done on waste utilization. Mango processing factories produce 4060% of total fruit intake as waste constituting 1215% peel, 510% pulper waste, and 1520% kernel (272). A. Peel

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The peel is a very good source of some nutrients such as sugars, pectin, protein, and fiber (Table 9). The extraction of pectin from mango peel and evaluation of its quality has been done by Beerh (273), Srirangarajan and Shrikhande (274), Yu and delValle (275), and Tandon et al. (276). The quantity was reported to be about 13% on a dry-weight basis. The quality of such pectin on a jelly-grade basis was comparable with that of pectin obtained from citrus waste. Good-quality pectin could be used in the manufacture of jam, jellies, marmalades, and various pharmaceutical products. The Chausa mango peel had 5.4% fiber on a fresh-weight basis (224), while Neelum peel had 3% wax having 62C melting point (277).

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Recently, Cojocaru et al. (278) have isolated a mixture of 5-(12-cis-hepta decenyl) and 5-pentadecyl resorcinol from mango peel and reported that it could act as an agent against Alternaria alternata, a fungus responsible for black spot disease in mango fruit. There is a tremendous scope for utilization of mango peel as a carbon source for fermentation. Sethi et al. (279) used mango peel for the production of fungal protein, carboxymethylcellulase, and polygalacturonase by fungi. The peel and pulp portion left over after juice extraction was utilized to manufacture juice, nectar, etc., by pectic enzyme treatment (280). Good-quality wine and vinegar were prepared from the juice extract of fresh waste and syrups from dried waste after partial precipitation of tannins to reduce astringency. B. Kernel

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The kernel is obtained by breaking the hard seed coat of mango stone. Mittal and Singh (281) have developed a mango stone decorticator to facilitate decortication of kernels. Hemavathy et al. (282) reported 45.772.8% kernel in the stones of different cultivars of mango. Kernel is a good source of nutrients such as starch, fat, and protein (Table 11).

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A lot of emphasis has been given to the evaluation of kernel fat, estimated at around 16% depending on the variety (283). Parmar and Sharma (284) reviewed the chemical composition and edible uses of mango seed kernel. The total lipid content of kernel was 11.6%, of which neutral lipids constituted 96%. The polar lipids, which were around 3.9%, mostly contained glycolipids (2.9%) and phospholipids (1.0%). Hemavathy et al. (285) identified the components of polar lipids. The major glycolipids were acyl-monogalactosyl diacylglycerol, monogalactosyldiacyl glycerol, and digalactosyl monoacylglycerol, while acylated steryl glucoside, monogalactosyl glycerol, and digalactosyl diacylglycerol were present in small quantities. The phospholipids consisted of phosphatidic acid, phosphatidyl choline, and phosphatidyl inositol as

Page 157 Table 11 Proximate Composition (% dry wt) of Mango Waste Particulars Peel Kernel Total sugars 48.1a 8.0b Reducing sugars 40.8a 2.9b Starch 2.9a 57.8b Pectin 12.9a 0.8b Protein 3.9a 7.1c Crude fiber 8.4a 3.0c Tannins 2.3a 10.6b Ash 2.9a 1.8c Fat 13.7c aRef. 273. bRef. 291. cRef. 289.

major components and minor amounts of phosphatidyl glycerol, phosphatidyl ethanolamine, and lycophosphatidyl ethanolamine.

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Stearic and oleic acids constituted about 8283% of the total fatty acids, while palmitic, linoleic, and archidic acids (Table 12) were also present in small amounts (286,287). Studies on the rate of intestinal absorption of mango kernel lipids claimed that its properties were similar to those of other edible oils from sunflower, sesame, and groundnut. Kernel oil could be a substitute or a partial replacement for tallow and cocoa butter in the preparation of quality soups and confectionary products (288,289). Parmar and Sharma (290) reported that kernel fat added at the rate of 1% in ghee prepared from buffalo milk acted as an antioxidant. Wilkins (283) reported the carbohydrate value of kernel to be 69.22%. Pruthi and Susheela (291) estimated it to be 57%. It was reported that kernel flour could be supplemented with the wheat flour to the extent of 10% (284,292).

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Cake made out of kernel could substitute for wheat and maize flour in animal feed. The protein content of kernel varies from 5.56 to 9.55% (283,289,293). Recently, Lasztity et al. (294)
Table 12 Fatty Acid Composition of Mango Seed Kernel Lipids Fatty acids Percent Myristic (14:0) 0.20 Palmitic (16:0) 7.20 Stearic (18:0) 38.60 Oleic (18:1) 43.40 Linoleic (18:2) 6.00 Lenolenic (18:3) 1.40 Arachidic (20:0) 3.20 Source: Ref. 287.

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reported that total amino acid content was 8897% in proteins, of which 3135% were essential amino acids. The amino acids present in higher amounts were glutamic, aspartic, and leucine, while sulfur-containing amino acids were present in small amounts. It has been observed that the essential amino acids except methionine and isoleucine were higher in mango kernel than in FAO reference proteins. The kernel proteins could be used to produce food mixtures of high nutritional value because of their rich content of other essential amino acids.

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The tannin content in kernel varies from 10.6 to 18% (291,295). Polyphenols such as ethyl gallate, catechins, and leucocyanidins were isolated from the hard seed coat of kernel. Some of these gallotannins were found to be toxic. Mango peel was used as a supplement in fish feed (296). Mango wastes could be fermented to produce single cell proteins and other metabolites (297). Biogas was successfully produced from mango processing waste (297,298), and this process has a potential for using a portion of liquid waste also. Not much effort has been made toward effective disposal of industrial liquid waste, which is a major contributor of environmental pollution. References 1. FAO, Food and Agriculture Production Year Book, FAO, Rome, 1990.

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2. Mukherjee, S. K., The origin of mango, Indian J. Hort. 15:129 (1958). 3. Mukherjee, S. K., A monograph on the genus Mangifera L. Lloydia, 12:73 (1949). 4. Mukherjee, S. K., Comparative morphology of the species of Mangifera Linn., Bull. Bot. Soc. Bengal 2:15 (1948). 5. Pandey, S. N., Nomenclature and registration of mango cultivars, 2nd Int. Symp. on Mango, Bangalore, India, 1985. 6. Majumdar, P. K., and D. K. Sharma, Mango, Fruits: Tropical and Subtropical (T. K. Bose and S. K. Mitra, eds.). Naya Prokash, Calcutta, India, 1990, p. 1. 7. Lazo, F. D., The mango industry in Philippines, Philippines J. Plant Ind. 35:41 (1971).

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8. Malo, S. E., The mango in Florida, Hort. Sci. 12:286, 367 (1977). 9. Hobson, L., Mango growing, S. Afr. Citrus J. 42:15 (1969). 10. Queensland Department of Agriculture, Research Report, 1977, pp. 12, 127. 11. Iqbal, M., Review of mango and its production in Fiji, Fiji Agr. J. 44:21 (1982). 12. Singh, R. N., P. K. Majumdar, and D. K. Sharma, Studies on the bearing behaviour of some South Indian varieties of mango (Mangifera indica L.) under North Indian conditions, Trop. Agr. 42:171 (1965). 13. Baxter, P., The flowering processA new theory, Plant Growth Substances (D. J. Carr, ed.), Academic Press, New York, 1970.

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14. Chang, C. C., C. S. Cheng, and. M. Y. Lu, Comparison of the bearing abilities among spring, summer and autumn shoots of Irwin Mango, Mangifera indica L., Sci. Agr. 30:241 (1982). 15. Singh, R. N., Studies in the differentiation and development of fruit buds in mango (M. indica L.) varieties III. Shoots and fruit bud differentiation, Hort. Adv. 3:28 (1959). 16. Singh, R. N., Marketing and storage in mango, Mango, Indian Council of Agricultural Research (ICAR), New Delhi, 1978, p. 72. 17. Chacko, E. K., and G. S. Randhawa, Towards understanding of the factors affecting flowering in mango (Mangifera indica L.), Andhra Agr. J. 18:226 (1971).

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18. Maiti, S. C., A. K. Mukhopadhyay, and P. K. Sen, Effect of growth retardants on flowering and fruiting of Langra mango, Curr. Sci. 37:566 (1968). 19. Maiti, S. C., A. K. Mukhopadhyay, and P. K. Sen, Effect of growth retardants on mango (M. indica L.), Curr. Sci. 40(14):388 (1971). 20. Maiti, S. C., R. N. Basu, and P. K. Sen, Chemical control of growth and flowering in Mangifera indica L., Acta Hort. 24:192 (1972).

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21. Suryanarayana, V., and V. N., Madhava Rao, Ascorbic acid changes in shoots of mango Cv. Mulgoa, Indian J. Plant Physiol. 20:88 (1977). 22. Chacko, E. K., Studies on the physiology of flowering and fruit growth in mango (M. indica L.), Ph.D. thesis, Indian Agricultural Research Institute (IARI), New Delhi, 1968. 23. Sen, P. K., and J. M. Chaudhury, Studies on growth substances in the shoots of two varieties of mango Langra (biennial) and Baramasi (perpetual) in relation to the growth and fruit bud formation, Paper presented at Indian Sci. Cong. held at Calcutta, India, 1969. 24. Majumdar, P. K., and S. K. Mukherjee, Studies on variability of sex-expression in mango (M. indica L.), Indian J. Hort. 18:12 (1961).

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174. Chaplin, G. R., R. L. McBridge, A. Abdullah, and P. A. Nuevo, Sensory and physicochemical quality of Kensington mangoes after storage at low temperature, ASEAN Food J. 6(3):109 (1991). 175. Akamine, E. K., Haden mango storage, Hawaii Farm Sci. 12(4):6 (1963). 176. Valmayor, R. V., The Philippine mango industry, Acta Hort. 24:19 (1972).

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177. Seymour, G. B., M. N. Diaye, H. Wainwright, and G. A. Tucker, Effects of cultivar and harvest maturity on ripening of mangoes during storage, J. Hort. Sci. 65(4):479 (1990). 178. Medlicott, A. P., Ripening of mangoes following low temperature storage, J. Am. Soc. Hort. Sci. 115(3):430 (1990). 179. Kapse, B.M., D. A. Rane, D. C. Warke, and V. R. Chakrawar, Storage behaviour of some mango varieties at ambient and low temperatures, Indian Food Packer 33(5):20 (1979). 180. Menchu, J. F., M. C. De Arrial, and C. Rolz, Cold storage of some mango cultivars, Proc. Trop. Reg. No. 19, American Society for Horticultural Science, 1975, p. 127.

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181. Vazquez-Salinas, C., and S. Lakshminarayana, Compositional changes in the mango fruit during ripening at different storage temperatures, J. Food Sci. 50(6):1646 (1985). 182. Thomas, P., and M. K. Joshi, Reduction of chilling injury in ripe Alphonso mango fruit in cold storage by temperature conditioning, J. Food Sci. Technol. 23(5):447 (1988). 183. Wills, R. B. H., T. H. Lee, D. Graham, W. B. McGlosson, and E. G. Hall, Post HarvestAn Introduction to the Physiology and Handling of Fruits and Vegetables, AVI, Westport, CT, 1981. 184. Krishnamurthy, S., and S. S. Joshi, Studies on low temperature storage of Alphonso mango, J. Food Sci. Technol. 26(4):177 (1989).

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185. Chhatpar, H. S., A. K. Mattoo, and V. V. Modi, Biochemical studies on chilling injury in mangoes, Phytochemistry 10:1007 (1971). 186. Kane, O., and P. Marcellin, Incidence of ripening and chilling injury on the oxidative activities and fatty acid composition of the mitochondria from mango fruits, Plant Physiol. 61(4):634 (1978). 187. Mann, S. S., and R. N. Singh, Studies on cold storage of mango fruits (Mangifera indica L. cv. Langra), Indian J. Hort. 32:7 (1975). 188. Farooqi, W. A., A. Sattar, Jr., K. Daud, and M. Hussain, Studies on the postharvest chilling sensitivity of mango fruit, Proc. Fla. State Hort. Soc. 98:220 (1985).

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189. Garg, R. C., R. K. Srivastava, H. B. Ram, and R. A. Verma, Role of pre-packaging and skin-coating on the storage behavior of mangoes variety Dashehari, Prog. Hort. 3(2):49 (1971). 190. Dhalla, R., and S. W. Hanson, Effect of permeable coating on the storage life of fruits. II. Prolong treatments of mangoes (Mangifera indica L.). Int. J. Food Sci. Technol. 23(1):107 (1988). 191. Singh, B. N., P. V. V. Sheshgiri, and S. S. Gupta, Response of the respiratory system in mango and guava to alteration in the concentration of oxygen and nitrogen, Ann. Bot. (London) 1:311 (1937). 192. Date, W. B., and P. B. Mathur, Preliminary studies on the refrigerated gas storage of mangoes, Food Sci. 7:283 (1958).

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193. Kapur, N. S., K. S. Rao, and H. C. Srivastava, Refrigerated gas storage of mangos, Food Sci. 11(8):228 (1962). 194. Hatton, T. T., Jr., and W. F. Reeder, Controlled atmosphere storage of Keitt mangoes, Proc. Carrib. Reg. Am. Soc. Hort. Sci. 10:114 (1967). 195. Noomhorm, A., and N. Tiasuwan, Effect of controlled atmosphere storage of mango, Am. Soc. Agr. Eng. 88:6589 (1988). 196. Lakshminarayana, S., and H. Subramanyam, Carbon dioxide injury and fermentative decarboxylation in mango fruit at low temperature storage, J. Food Sci. Technol. 7:184 (1970). 197. Burg, S. P., and E. A. Burg, Fruit storage at subatmospheric pressures, Science 153:314 (1966).

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198. Apelbaum, A., G. Zauberman, and Y. Fuchs, Subatmospheric pressure storage of mango fruits, Sci. Hort. 7(2):153 (1977). 199. Spalding, D. N., and W. F. Reeder, Low pressure (hypobaric) storage of mangoes, J. Am. Soc. Hort. Sci. 102(3):367 (1977). 200. Mathur, P. B., and W. F. Lewis, Storage behaviour of gamma irradiated mangoes, Int. J. Appl. Radiation Isotopes 11:435 (1961). 201. Hatton, T. T., Jr., L. Beraha, and W. R. Wright, Preliminary trials of gamma radiation on mature green Irwin and Sensation mangoes, Fla. Mango Forum, 1961, p. 15. 202. Ahmad, M., M. H. Naqvi, and A. Hussain, Induction of ripening delay in mango var. Dashehari by gamma irradiation and refrigeration, Pakistan J. Sci. Ind. Res. 15(4/5):314 (1972).

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203. Boag, T. S., J. J. Thompson, M. Izard, C. Murray, and K. C. Fitzsimmons, Physiological responses of

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206. Dubery, I. A., L. J. VanRansburg, and J. C. Schabort, Malic enzyme activity and related biochemical aspects during ripening of gamma irradiated mango fruits, Phytochemistry 23(7):1383 (1984). 207. Brodrick, H. T., and R. Thord-Gray, Irradiation in perspectiveThe significance for the mango industry, Res. Rep. No. 2, South African Mango Growers Association, 1988, pp. 2336. 208. Upadhyay, M. D., and J. L. Brewbacker, Irradiation of mangoes for control of the mango seed weevil, Hawaii Farm Sci. 15:6 (1966). 209. Thomas, P., and S. R. P. Desai, Improvement of shelf life and quality of mangoes by gamma irradiation, Indian Food Packer 30(5):83 (1976).

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210. Maxie, E. C., N. F. Sommer, and F. G. Mitchell, Identifying of irradiating fresh fruits and vegetables, Hort. Sci. 6:202 (1971). 211. Pennock, W., and G. Maldonaldo, Hot water treatment of mango fruits to reduce anthracnose decay, Puerto Rico Agr. J. 46:272 (1962). 212. Passam, S., Storage of some local and introduced mango cultivars grown in Trinidad, Sci. Hort. 16:171 (1982). 213. Kalra, S. K., and D. K. Tandon, Regulation of ripening of mango cv. Mallika, Indian J. Hort. 40:155 (1983). 214. Miller, W. R., J. B. McDonald, and J. L. Sharp, Quality changes during storage and ripening of Tommy Atkins mangoes treated with heated forced air, Hort. Sci. 26(4):395 (1991).

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215. Gomez, B. L., and M. Pilag, The effect of coating with TAG on post harvest ripening of mangoes, Archivor Latinomericenos de Nutricion 24(4):513 (1974). 216. Kalra, S. K., D. K. Tandon, and H. C. Lohani, Ripening of wax coated Dashehari mango during storage, Indian Food Packer 42(4):7 (1988). 217. Parikh, H. R., V. A. Palejwala, and V. V. Modi, Effect of abscisic acid on ripening of mangoes (Mangifera indica), Indian J. Exp. Biol. 24(11):722 (1986). 218. Parikh, H. R., G. M. Nair, and V. V. Modi, Some structural changes during ripening of mangoes (Mangifera indica var. Alphonso) by abscisic acid treatment, Adv. Bot. 65(2):121 (1990).

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219. Passera, C., and P. Spetooli, Effect of BA on mango fruit ripening, Food Chem. 7(3):195 (1980). 220. Subramanyam, H., N. V. N. Moorthy, N. V. Subhadra, and M. Mathu, Control of spoilage and inhibition of ripening in Alphonso mangoes by fumigation, Trop. Sci. 13:207 (1969). 221. Jayaraman, K. S., and P. S. Raju, Development and evaluation of permanganate based ethylene scrubber for extending the shelf life of fresh fruits and vegetables, J. Food Sci. Technol. 29(2):77 (1992). 222. Singh, B. P., D. K. Tandon, and S. K. Kalra, Changes in postharvest quality of mangoes affected by preharvest application of calcium salts, Sci. Hort. 54:211 (1993).

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223. Tirmazi, S. I. H., and R. B. H. Wills, Retardation of ripening of mangoes by postharvest application of calcium, Trop. Agr. 58(2):137 (1981). 224. All India Coordinated Research Project on Post Harvest Technology of Fruits and Vegetables, Annual Report, IARI, New Delhi, 1991. 225. Srivastava, V. P., Efficacy of some fungicides and hot water treatment in control of post harvest decay of mango fruits, Pesticides 18(1):63 (1984). 226. Krishnamurthy, S., and K. P. G. Krishna Rao, Postharvest control of spoilage in mango (Mangifera indica L.) with hot water and fungicides, J. Food Sci. Technol. 20(2):74 (1983).

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227. DeCastro, J. V., J. M. M. Sigrist, E. W. Bleinroth, Y. Yokomiz, and P. R. N. Carvalho, Effect of postharvest application of fungicides on control of anthracnose in mango, Bol. Inst. Tech. Alimentos (Brazil), 22(4):447 (1985).

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228. Sampio, V. R., C. G. B. Demetrio, and D. Barbin, Control of mango rots by heat treatment and chemicals, Solo 72(2):37 (1980). 229. Chang, C. C., Hot water treatment of Irwin mango fruit to reduce anthracnose decay. Taiwan Agr. Quart. 11(2):69 (1975). 230. Spalding, D. N., Resistance of mango pathogens to fungicides used to control post harvest diseases, Plant Dis. Rep. 66(12):1185 (1982). 231. Palejwala, V. A., and V. V. Modi, Postharvest spoilage of mangoes by Penicillium cyclopium and its control by gamma radiation and a fungicide, Phytopathol. Z. 110(1):63 (1985).

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232. Central Food Technological Research Institute (CFTRI), Mango in India: Production, Preservation and Processing, CFTRI, Mysore, India, 1990, p. 20. 233. Dabhade, R. S., and D. M. Khedkar, Studies on drying and dehydration of raw mangoes for preparation of mango powder (Amchur), Indian Food Packer 34(3):18 (1980). 234. Wagner, C. J., Jr., R. L. Coleman, W. L. Bryan, and R. E. Berry, Preliminary studies on SO2 absorption in mangoes, nectarines and peaches prepared for drying, Proc. Fla. State Hort. Soc. 91:117 (1978). 235. Kalra, S. K., and D. K. Tandon, Salt treated raw mango slices in polyethylene pouches, Indian Food Packer 37(6):101 (1983).

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236. Revis, B., K.G. Shukla, and Sudha Misra, Preservation of raw mango slices of Ramkela variety, Prog. Hort. 12(2):67 (1980). 237. Sastry, M. V. and Habibunnisa, Studies on Indian pickles, Part V. Storage of raw mangoes for pickling, Indian Food Packer 33(6):10 (1979). 238. Mallik, S. C., Recipe and marketing of green mango beverage and jam including export, Paper presented at Seminar on Mango and Its Utilization, Calcutta, 1976. 239. Central Food Technological Research Institute (CFTRI), MangoAn Industrial Profile, CFTRI, Mysore, India, 1978, p. 9. 240. Kalra, S. K., and D. K. Tandon, Preservation of mango pulp by freezing, Indian Food Packer 39(5):23 (1985).

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241. Siddalingu, B., B. Srinivasan, R. A. Padival, and S. Ranganna, Determination of thermal process schedule for canned mango, papaya and guava pulps, Acta Alimentaria 14(4):331 (1985). 242. Mahadeviah, M., Factors affecting tin pickup in canned mango products, Indian Food Packer 30:92 (1976). 243. Siddappa, G. S., and G. V. Krishnamurthy, Bulk storage of mango pulp, Punjab Hort. J. 3(2/4):300 (1963). 244. Ambadan, and P. G. Adsule, Bulk preservation of mango pulp in high density polyethylene (HDPE) containers, Indian Food Packer 33(6):34 (1979).

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245. Ghosh, K. G., N. Nirmala, K. G. Krishnappa, P. M. Parameshwar, H. Borkar, and P. K. Vijayaraghavan, Preservation of fruit juices and pulp in flexible pouches, Indian Food Packer 35(2):50 (1981). 246. Krishnamurthy, S., K. P. G. Krishna Rao, and H. Onkarayya, Storage of mango pulp in bulk and consumer packs, Indian Food Packer 36(1):32 (1982). 247. Kalra, S. K., Preservation of mango (Mangifera indica L.) pulp, Prog. Hort. 14(4):205 (1982). 248. Kalra, S. K., and D. K. Tandon, Physicochemical changes in mango pulp during ambient storage in glass containers, J. Food Sci. Technol. (India) 22(5):350 (1985).

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249. Kalra, S. K., and K. L. Chadha, Studies on the suitability of polypropylene pouches for packing mango pulp, J. Food Sci. Technol. 21(5):317 (1984). 250. Indian Council of Medical Research, Food and Nutrition Research, ICMR, New Delhi, India, 1974. 251. Shrikhande, A. J., A. N. Srirangarajan, and G. B. Nadkarni, A thermal process for bulk packaging of mango pulp, Indian Food Packer 30(5):65 (1976). 252. Vargas, O. M., and R. A. Martinez, Preservation of tropical fruit pulps in sterilizable flexible packages (retort pouches), Technologia 25:37 (1984).

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253. El-Samahy, S. K., A. Askar, M. M. AbdEl-Baki, and M. G. Abd-El-Fadeel, Concentration of mango juice. II. Aroma determination during the concentration, Chem. Microbiol. Technol. Lebensmittel 7(4):102 (1982).

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254. Schreier, P., P. Kittsteener-Eberie, and H. Ickstin, Enzyme liquefaction of tropical fruit pulps, guava (Psidium guajava L.), papaya (Carica papaya L.), mango (Mangifera indica L., var. Alphonso), Fluess. Obst. 52(7):365 (1985). 255. Kalra, S. K., D. K. Tandon, and B. P. Singh, A glimpse of quality of market fruit drinks, Beverage Food World 15(4):13 (1988). 256. Brekke, J. E., G. Catherine, A. E. Stafford, and H. T. Chan, Jr., Mango: Processed Products Bulletin, ARSW 23, U.S. Department of Agriculture (Hawaii Agr. Exp. Sta.), 1975. 257. Kalra, S. K., D. K. Tandon, and R. B. Singh, Evaluation of mango-papaya blended beverage, Indian Food Packer 45(1):33 (1991).

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258. Marteau, R., and A. Danvin, Process for the extraction of mango butter and product derived from said process, French Patent Appl. 2:437 (1980). 259. Bray, F., Use of tropical fruits in ice cream production, Ind. Alimentari 20(3):171 (1981). 260. Korn, H., Flavoured milk of commercial quality made with fruit or fruit pieces, German Federal Republic Patent Application, DE 31, 40 111, A1 (1983). 261. Yadav, I. S., G. C. Sinha, S. Rajan, and S. K. Kalra, Saheb Pasand, a potential mango cultivar, Prog. Hort. 19(3/4):316 (1987). 262. Satyaprakash Rao, V., and S. K. Roy, Studies on dehydration of mango pulp, Indian Food Packer 34(3):64, 72 (1985).

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263. Kalra, S. K., and K. C. Bhardwaj, Use of simple solar dehydrator for drying fruit and vegetable products, J. Food Sci. Technol. (India), 18(1):23 (1981). 264. Wagner, C. J., Jr., R. L. Colaman, and R. E. Berry, A low cost small scale solar drier for Florida fruits and vegetables, Proc. Fla. State Hort. Sci. 92:180 (1979). 265. National Physical Laboratory, New Delhi Technical Bulletin, New Delhi, 1978. 266. Nanjundaswamy, A. M., G. R. Shetty, and S. Saroja, Studies on development of newer products from mango, Indian Food Packer 30:85 (1976). 267. Board, P. W., FAO Food and Nutrition Paper 149, 1988.

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268. Gecan, J. S., S. M. Cichowiez, and P. M. Brickey, Analytical techniques for glass contamination of food: A guide for administrators and analysts, J. Food Protection 53(10):895 (1990). 269. Leighton-Jones, J., DNA probes: Applications in the food industry, Trends Food Sci. Technol. 2(2):28 (1991). 270. Maurya, K. R., and D. N. Chaudhary, Utilization of mango waste, Indian Food Packer 31(3):83 (1977). 271. Tandon, D. K., and S. K. Kalra, Utilization of mango waste, Beverage Food World 16(1):21 (1989).

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272. Bhalerao, S. D., G. V. Mulmuley, S. M. Ananthakrishna, and V. H. Potty, Waste and waste water management in food industry. I. Fruit and vegetable processing, Indian Food Packer 43(2):5 (1989). 273. Beerh, O. P., Utilization of mango waste: Peel as a source of pectin, J. Food Sci. Technol. 13(2):96 (1976). 274. Srirangarajan, A. N., and A. J. Shrikhande, Characterization of mango peel pectin, J. Food Sci. 42(1):279 (1977). 275. Yu, A. N., and M. delValle, Preparation and characterization of mango (Mangifera indica L.) peel pectin, U.P. Home Econ. J. 7(1/ 2):17 (1979).

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276. Tandon, D. K., S. K. Kalra, B. P. Singh, and N. Garg, Characterization of pectin from mango fruit waste, Indian Food Packer 45(4):9 (1991). 277. Narsimhachar, B. L., and G. Azeamoddin, Extraction and analysis of mango peel wax, Acta Hort. 231(2):749 (1989). 278. Cojocaru, M., S. Droby, E. Glotter, A. Goldman, H. E. Gottlieb, B. Jacoby, and D. Prusky, 5-(12-Heptadecenyl)-resorcinol, the major component of the antifungal activity in the peel of mango fruit, Phytochemistry 25(5):1093 (1986). 279. Sethi, R. P., H. K. Tiwari, and S. M. Sood, Mango peel as a carbon source for fungal protein, carboxymethyl cellulase and polygalacturonase production, Indian J. Agr. Res. 11(1):46 (1977).

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280. Beerh, O. P., B. Ranghuramaiah, G. V. Krishnamurthy, and N. Giridhar, Utilization of mango waste: Recovery of juice from waste pulp and peel, J. Food Sci. Technol. 13(3):138 (1976).

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281. Mittal, J. P., and B. Singh, Mango seed decorticator, J. Agr. Eng. 9(4):52 (1972). 282. Hemavathy, J., J. V. Prabhakar, and D. P. Sen, Drying and storage behaviour of mango seed and composition of kernel fat, ASEAN Food J. 4(2):59 (1991). 283. Wilkins, E. G., Mango kernels as food, Indian Farming, 1942, p. 636. 284. Parmar, S. S., and R. S. Sharma, Mango seed kernels: A review on chemical composition and edible uses, Indian Food Packer 38(5):40 (1984). 285. Hemavathy, J., J. V. Prabhakar, and D. P. Sen, Composition of polar lipids of Alphonso mango (Mangifera indica) kernel, J. Food Sci. 52(3):833 (1987).

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286. Augustin, M. A., and E. T. Long, Composition of mango seed kernel, Partanika 10(1):53 (1987). 287. Bandyopadhyay, C., and A. S. Gholap, The chemical composition of mango kernel fat (Mangifera indica L.), Curr. Sci. 48:935 (1979). 288. Baliga, B. P., and A. D. Shitole, Cocoa butter substitute from mango fat, J. Am. Oil Chem. Soc. 58:110 (1981). 289. Moharram, Y. G., and A. M. Moustafa, Utilization of mango seed kernel (Mangifera indica) as a source of oil, Food Chem. 8(4):269 (1982). 290. Parmar, S. S., and S. Sharma, Use of mango seed kernel in enhancing the oxidative stability of ghee, Indian J. Dairy Res. 5(2):91 (1986).

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291. Pruthi, J. S., and R. Susheela, Studies on the utilization of mango waste kernels: Some chemical and technological aspects, Punjab J. Hort. 3(24):272 (1963). 292. Dhingra, S., and A. C. Kapoor, Nutritive value of mango seed kernel, J. Sci. Food Agr. 36(8):752 (1985). 293. Dhingra, S., and A. C. Kappor, Acceptability of mango seed kernel flour in conventional food items, Indian J. Agr. Sci. 55(8):550 (1985). 294. Lasztity, R., M. A. El-Shafel, M. B. AbdelSamai, F. S. Hatour, and M. Labib, Biochemical studies of some more conventional sources of protein. IV. Proteins of mango waste stone kernels, Nahrung 32(9):867 (1988). 295. Das, N. B., and R. M. Banerjee, Utilization of mango seed kernel as a source of starch, Sci. Cult. 17(8):339 (1952).

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296. Mahadevaswamy, M., and L. V. Venkataraman, Integrated utilization of fruit processing wastes for biogas and fish production, Biol. Wastes 32(4):243 (1990). 297. Rashad, M. M., S. A. Moharib, and E. W. Jwanny, Yeast conversion of mango waste or methanol to single cell protein and other metabolites, Biol. Wastes 32(4):277 (1990). 298. Raju, N. R., S. Sumithra Devi, and K. Nand, Influence of trace elements on biogas production from mango processing waste in 1.5 m3 KVIC (Khadi and Village Industries Commission) digesters, Biotechnol. Lett. 13(6):461 (1991).

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7 Pineapple
M. J. Salvi and J. C. Rajput Konkan Agricultural University, Dapoli, Maharashtra, India I. Introduction.

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The pineapple (Ananas comosus (L.) Merr. Syn. Ananas sativus (Chult.f.) is one of the most important commercial fruits of the world (1). It is widely cultivated throughout the tropics and subtropics (Table 1). It is an important economic fruit crop in Thailand, the Philippines, China, Brazil, Hawaii, India, Mexico, and South Africa (Table 2). Most commercial production is used in processing. Pineapples are used as dessert fruits or for preparation of canned pineapple in the form of slices or rings, and in the preparation of juices and jams. The fruits are commonly used in fruit salad along with banana and papaya. Alcohol, calcium citrate, citric acid, and vinegar can be prepared from pineapple. II. Botany

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Pineapple belongs to the family Bromeliaceae. There are two genera, Ananas and Pseudananas. The two genera include five species and one species, respectively. These are Ananas bracteatus, A. fritzmuelleri, A. comosus, A. eretifolius, A. ananassoides, and Pseudananas sagenarius. In Ananas comosus, the syncarp is well over 15 cm long at maturity. Floral bracts are relatively inconspicuous, soon exposing the tops of the ovaries, and the flesh is palatable (1). Pineapple is a perennial herb which grows up to a height of 90100 cm with a spread of 130150 cm. It bears a terminal inflorescence and fruit. Newly planted plants are known as main crop, and those produced later from axillary plants are called ratoon crop. In this way, the plant continues its growth and produces fruits for many years. Commercially, however, only one or two ratoon crops are taken.

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Pineapple is a shallow-rooted crop, and the maximum number of roots are found to a soil depth of 30 cm. They are mostly confined to the lower portion of the stem. Roots are also present in the axils of the basal leaves. Moist conditions are required for the best root growth, as dry periods damage the superficially placed roots. The leaves are long and tapered toward the tip, and they are

Page 172 Table 1 Production of Pineapples in Different Continents of the World Continent Production (1000 MT) World 9652 Africa 1191 North Central America 1380 South America 1213 Asia 5703 Europe 1 Oceania 163

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sessile (1). The lamina, through which the water percolates to the base of the plant, is shallow. The leaves bear a few marginal spines. However, the leaves of Queen variety are more spiny. The upper epidermal layer of leaves consists of compact interlocking cells which are thickened and coated with waxy cuticle. Stomata occur only on the lower surface within longitudinal furrows. The lower and to a lesser extent the upper surface bear mushroom-shaped hairs known as trichomes. The trichomes increase the thickness of the leaf surface and increase air resistance to the diffusion of gases and loss of water.

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In general, flowering is irregular and is marked by an increase in the diameter of the meristem about 1215 months after planting. The flowering period is observed to depend on the environmental conditions, type of planting material, and variety. Pineapple has a racemose type of inflorescence. About 100200 flowers are found per inflorescence. They are hermaphrodite in nature. Every day about 510 flowers are observed to open. The opening of the flowers continues for a period of 1020 days, starting from the base of the inflorescence toward the apex.
Table 2 Major Countries Producing Pineapples Country Production (1000 MT) Thailand 1865 Philippines 1170 China 790 Brazil 724 India 602 United States 522 Vietnam 490

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Mexico Indonesia South Africa Colombia Malaysia Kenya Costa Rica Zaire

324 283 265 240 211 202 150 143

Page 173

The fruit of pineapple develops parthenocarpically. It is a multiple type of fruit, formed by the fusion of berrylike fruitlets and subtending leafy bracts to each other and to the central fibrous axis or peduncle of inflorescence (3). Normally, the fruit is cylindrical, broad at the base and tapering slightly toward the apex. The time required from flowering to harvesting of fruit is about 4.55.5 months. A crown of small leaves develops on the fruits. This crown can be used for propagation. It is formed by the continuous growth of peduncle. The apical meristem becomes narrower, and spiral leaves are produced. The growth of crown continues during fruit development, but it ceases at fruit maturity (3). A. Cultivars

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There is no reliable botanical or horticultural classification of pineapple varieties. The important commercial varieties grown in leading pineapple-growing countries are as follows:
Country Hawaii Philippines Malaysia Australia Kenya Mexico Cuba Taiwan Brazil India Varieties Cayenne and Hilo Cayenne Singapore Spanish Cayenne and Red Spanish Cayenne Cayenne Cayenne and Red Spanish Cayenne Red Spanish and Abacaxi Giant Kew, Queen Maritius

B. Fruit Development

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Pineapple has three distinct phases of growth: (a) the vegetative phase of leaf growth, (b) the generative phase of fruit growth, and (c) another vegetative phase of shoot growth. These three phases overlap to a certain extent, since leaf growth continues even after bloom has been induced and stops only after the inflorescence has appeared. Further, shoot growth may start before the fruit is harvested (4).

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Pineapple, being native to the tropics, shows almost no photoperiodicity (5). Smooth Cayenne is a short-day plant, and a succession of long dark periods induces bloom. Other pineapple cultivars react only weakly to day length but may flower when the temperature falls (6). Being susceptible to frost, the distribution of pineapple is limited to from 25 North and South latitude to 30 North (Assam) and 33 South latitude (South Africa). Overheated pineapple fruits suffer from sun scald, and leaves and roots grow best at 32 and 29C, respectively. The growth of pineapple periodically ceases below 20C and above 36C.

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The optimal temperature for fruit ripening in Guinea and Hawaii is about 25C; at higher temperatures, the acid content of the fruit and its quality diminish. The best-quality cayenne fruits in Kenya are obtained at altitudes of 14001800 m (3). The sugar-to-acid ratio of fruits at these altitudes is about 16, while it is about 38 at 1150 m. In pineapple, approximately 110 days are required to complete maturity and attain ripeness (3). Pineapple generally needs a sunny climate, and reduction in light intensity is known to reduce

Page 174

its yield. Fruit color and malic acid content of fruit are also influenced by light. Pineapple is a true xerophytic crop and adapts to drought. Stomata are kept close during hot hours of the day.

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The natural process of flowering proceeds irregularly over an extended period, leading to peaks and valleys in production and export. It is therefore a common practice to induce bloom by the application of ethylene or other hormones. It is known that ethylene is the active principle responsible for flowering in pineapple. Acetylene, calcium, carbide (acetylene-producing chemical), ethephon (under the trade name Ethrel), and beta-hydroxyethylhydrazine have been used to initiate flowering. True auxin-type hormones such as NAA are also active and probably act by altering the hormonal balance in the pineapple stem. Gortner et al. (7) monitored a series of physicochemical changes taking place in the developing fruit, viz., respiration, chlorophyll, flesh pH, nonprotein nitrogen, sugars, acidity, Brix, volatile esters, and fruit weight. III. Production

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A. Soil and Climate Pineapple is a tropical crop, but it can also grow well in subtropical regions. A mean annual temperature of 27C with little diurnal fluctuation is good for successful pineapple cultivation. The crop grows well near sea coasts as well as in the interior so long as the temperature does not go to extremes. In frost-free areas, it can be grown up to an altitude of 1200 m. The crop grows under a wide range of rainfall, from 150 to 250 cm. Pineapple can grow in a wide range of soil types, provided good drainage and aeration are available. Heavy clay soil is unsuitable for the cultivation of this crop. It grows well in sandy loam, alluvial, and lateritic soils. Soils with pH 5.56.0 are considered ideal. B. Propagation

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Pineapple is propagated vegetatively by utilizing different types of planting materials. Suckers and slips are commonly used for planting because they commence flowering earlier than the crowns. Plants developed from suckers produce a first crop in about 1518 months after planting, whereas slips and crowns take about 20 to 24 months respectively, after planting. It has been reported that suckers weighing 450 g and slips of 350 g are the best planting material for Kew pineapple. Small-sized suckers/slips and overmatured suckers/slips are unsuitable for planting. C. Cultural Practices 1. Planting. The fields are ploughed to a depth of about 2025 cm. Compost or farmyard manure is incorporated into the soil at a rate of 1520 tonnes/ha.

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Pineapple is planted with a spacing of 75 60 22.5 cm. With further increase in plant density, no appreciable gain in yield is obtained (8,9). High-density planting gives more returns per unit area. Pineapple suckers are resistant to desiccation and can be stored under shade for several weeks. Before planting, it is necessary to strip off basal scaly leaves for better rooting, because the root primordia are present at the basal portion of the suckers. Then the suckers are treated with 0.05% malathion and 0.3% Diathane-Z-78 for protection against mealy bug and heart rot, respectively. Holes about 510 cm deep are prepared in trenches and the suckers are planted in the holes by keeping the heart above the ground.

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2. Manuring and Irrigation Manuring of pineapple is necessary to obtain maximum yield and profit. The application of 379 kg N (i.e., 12 g N/plant) was optimum (10). The application of P and K at various levels had no significant effect on yield. The nitrogenous fertilizer was applied in three equal split doses, i.e., 3, 6, and 12 months after planting. Significant correlations with yield have been reported between leaf N and leaf K at the fifth month of sampling. The critical levels of N and K are 1.4 and 3.7 g/plant, respectively. These facts can be used to increase the productivity of pineapple. If the levels of N and K are lower than the critical levels, they can be corrected at the fifth month to assure high productivity (11). 3. Intercultural Operations

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During the early stages of growth, weeding is necessary. The application of 2 kg Bromacil + 2 kg Diuron per hectare can check weed growth in pineapple fields for about 1 year (11). These weedicides were found to be effective against broad leaf and grassy weeds. Dried banana leaves or grasses are used to protect the fruits from sunburn. After harvest of the first crop, earthing up is done to avoid lodging. 4. Ratoon Crop After harvest of the main crop, desuckering is done immediately, leaving only one sucker on the mother plant. Slips are also removed. Then fertilizers are applied as per the recommended dose and earthing up is done. Irrigation, weeding, regulation of flowering, harvesting, etc., are performed as for the main crop. D. Diseases and Pests

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Pineapples are attacked by fruit flies, but the flies do not survive in the fruit. Heart rot in pineapple is caused by Phytophthora cinnamomi and P. parasitica; the latter is adapted to warmer regions. Thielaviopsis paradoxa cases rot of planting material and of fruits after harvest. Fruit gummosis occurs in Red Spanish, but Smooth Cayenne is resistant. The gummosis seems to be caused by the feeding of a caterpillar. Mealy bug wilt is the most widely distributed pineapple pest, and also one of the most damaging, particularly to Smooth Cayenne (12). Yellow spot is caused by a virus transmitted by thrips. Nematodes are extremely dangerous enemies of pineapples. Other minor pineapple pests are scales, mites, fruit flies, the moth Castnia licus (as for the banana), and the butterfly Thecla basilides (3).

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Marbled fruit, also known as black, brown, or bacterial fruit rot, causes serious losses in canning crops grown in warm areas such as Mexico and the Philippines, but occurs only sporadically in Hawaii. Affected fruit showed no external symptoms but exhibits irregular hardening and brown mottling internally (13). The disease develops rapidly at ripening, but does not occur in fruit picked green. The causative agent is presumed to be bacterial in nature but has not been definitely established (4). Multiple crown is an abnormal type of growth characterized by proliferation and multiplication of organs on an inflorescence, resulting in a bilaterally, flattened, multiple fruit. The exact cause of this abnormality is not known. However, it appears that environment plays an important role in this malady.

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Water blister has been found in all the major pineapple-production countries and can be a serious problem. It is a wet, soft rot of pineapple fruit core and pulp tissue that assumes a characteristic bright yellow color from which emanates a distinctive odor of ethyl acetate. Fruit, both green and ripe, are infected by Ceratocystia paradoxa through the butt of the core. Pink

Page 176

disease has been reported from Australia, Hawaii, and the Philippines and is characterized by pink to brown internal discoloration of ripe to overripe fruit with no external symptoms (14). The incidence of mealy bug causes wilt of pineapple. Initially, the roots cease to grow, collapse, and rot. This is followed by wilting of leaves from the tip. The wilted portion appears reddish yellow in color. The mealy bug and ant population can be controlled by spraying 0.05% malathion or by application of phorate at 1.7 kg/ ha. White grubs breed in compost pits and attack the roots and starchy stem of the plant, thereby weakening, and in severe cases, killing the plants. It can be controlled effectively with the application of chlorodane.

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E. Maturity, Harvesting, and Handling

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The point at which a fruit is considered ready for harvest depends on its ultimate destination: cannery, export, or local market. The local market is often supplied as a by-product of the export and cannery trades; fruits that are too big, too small, or otherwise unfit for the other outlets go to the local market. Fruit for the cannery is picked ripe, judged mainly by the color and sometimes also by the sound when the picker knocks on the fruit (3). Smith (15) reported that specific gravity was the best index for grading whole intact fruits for eating purposes. A high correlation was found between skin color and consumers' expectations of eating quality. It was recommended that only pineapple with total suspended solids (TSS) of 14% and above be marketed as fresh fruit. In most places, harvesting is still largely a hand operation. Harvested fruits are trimmed (crowns removed, bases cleaned) and placed in wooden boxes, loaded on flat-bed

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trucks, and sent to the cannery. The work is mechanized on large plantations. Fruit for export is picked in a half-ripe state. The maturity is judged on the basis of external color, but this depends on cultivar, fruit size, and weather. Generally, grade II (colored halfway) is exported. Internal color is also taken into account; flesh must be translucent when cut transversely at one-third of the height. A minimum of 12% TSS is required in Hawaii (6). Pineapple fruits require great care while handling, and any injury to the fruit leads to fruit rot. Hence, packing of fruits is necessary for transport to distant markets. Fruits are wrapped in paper or paddy straw and arranged in bamboo baskets. IV. Composition

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Freshly harvested pineapple fruit contains 8085% water, 1215% sugars, 0.6% acids, 0.4% proteins, 0.5% ash, 0.1% fats, some fiber, and vitamins (mainly A and C). The vitamin C content varies from 10 to 25 mg/100 g (Table 3). The range of chemical constituents of ripe pineapple depends on the stage of fruit ripeness, and on agronomic and environmental factors (7). The major carbohydrate constituents in pineapple fruit are the simple sugars sucrose, glucose, and fructose. There is no starch accumulation in pineapple fruit (7). The major acids in pineapple are citric and malic. Unlike citric acid, malic acid content changes dramatically with changes in environmental conditions. Although the fruit contains substantial ascorbic acid, this does not contribute substantially to fruit acidity. The ripened fruit contains higher levels of glycine, alanine, methionine, and leucine, whereas lysine, proline, histidine, and arginine, are present at relatively low levels (7). Chlorophyll

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and carotenoids are the major pigments in green and yellow pineapple fruits. Several volatile compounds were identified (17) in canned pineapple juice. These include acetic acid, 5-hydroxymethylfurfural, formaldehyde, acetaldehyde, and acetene (Table 4). Recently, Katsumi et al. (18) reported volatile constituents of green and ripened pineapple. Among a total of 157

Pag

Table 3 Nutritive Value of Ripe Fruit Flesh in Pineapple Constituents Percent (fresh weight Brix 10.817.5 Sucrose 5.912.0 Glucose 1.03.2 Fructose 0.62.3 Cellulose 0.430.54 Pectin 0.060.16 Titratable acid (as citric acid) 0.61.62 Citric acid 0.321.22 Malic acid 0.10.47 Oxalic acid 0.005 Ash 0.300.42 Water 81.286.2 Fiber 0.300.61 Nitrogen 0.0450.115 Ether extract 0.2 Pigments (ppm of carotene) 0.22.5 Carotene (mg) 0.130.29 Xanthophyll (mg) 0.03 Esters (ppm) 0.22.5 Vitamins (mg/100g) fresh wt 1722 Aminobenzoic acid 2.54.8 Folic acid

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Niacin Pantothenic acid Thiamine Riboflavin Vitamin B6 Vitamin A Ascorbic acid Source: Ref. 16.

200280 75163 69125 2088 10140 0.020.04 1025

constituents identified, 50 were identified for the fir time in pineapple. The esters ethyl acetate and ethy -3-(methylthio) propionate constituted over 80% of volatiles (Table 4). In ripened pineapple, ethyl aceta and butane-2-3-diol diacetate were the main constituents. V. Storage

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The problem with fresh pineapple is not how to sto the fruit so that it can be ripened for use by the consumer, but rather how best to store the fruit in order minimize loss of quality in the fruit at the time of harvest. A. Low-Temperature Storage.

As for many other fruits and vegetables, refrigeratio aids shipping and extends storage life of pineapples One half-ripe fruit (smooth cayenne) can be held fo about 2 weeks at 8.512.5C,

Table 4 Volatile Compounds of Pineapple Compound Acetoxy acetone g-Butyrolactone g-Caprolactone Chavicol 2, 5-Dimethyl-4-hydroxy-3(2H) furanone Dimethyl malonate Ethyl-3-accetoxyhexanoate Ethyl-3-hydroxyhexanoate Ethyl-3-methylthiopropionate Methyl-3-accetoxyhexanoate Methyl-3-hydroxybutyrate Methyl-3-hydroxyhexanoate Methyl-3-methylthiopropionate Methyl-cis-octenoate g-Octalactone d-Octalactone trans-Tetrahydro-3,4,5-trimethyl-5-vinylfurfuryl alcohol aWinter harvest. bSummer harvest Source: Ref. 30

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gaining an additional 1 week of shelf life (17). Mat picked with no yellow color showing on the shell) a jury when stored at temperatures less than 10C (9) ded a storage temperature of 8.5C for South Africa brown spot frequently occurs simultaneously with c ways the case, however, since storage at 8C for 1 w at 21C, frequently induces endogenous brown spo (7). About 1 week of additional storage life of pinea each 6C decrease in storage temperature for fruit s yellowing at harvest. According to Dull (17), at 7C life was about 4 weeks. A practical method to contr spot of pineapple has been discovered: dry heat is a either before or immediately after cooling (20). B. Controlled-Atmosphere Storage

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The effects of different levels of carbon dioxide and and storage behavior of pineapples have been repor were placed in atmospheres containing air with 21, Nitrogen made up the balance of the atmosphere. T creased with decrease in oxygen concentration of th stage 4 fruits were placed in an atmosphere of 21% and 10% carbon dioxide, the rate of respiration was to the increase in the concentration of carbon dioxid cluded that decreased oxygen and increased carbon had no obvious effect on fruit quality. No major adv tenance appears to be gained by manipulation of the two environmental gases.

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C. Postharvest Treatment 1. Growth Regulators

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A postharvest dip of half-ripe smooth cayenne fruit in a 100-ppm solution of 2,4,5-trichlorophen-oxyacetic acid (2,4,5-T) extended the shelf life from 6 to 14 days when the fruit was stored at ambient temperatures (6). The quality of the treated fruit at the end of the 14th day was judged to be good, while that of the control was fair to poor. Based on quality indices such as sugar, acid, pigment, and flavor, Gortner et al. (7) concluded that the hormone functioned as a senescene inhibitor. Mature green Kew pineapples treated with 500 ppm of 2,4,5-T extended the shelf life of fruit by 1230 days at 21C (21). A single application of NAA solution (50200 ppm) increased flowering percentage, fruit size, and weight and prolonged time from flower differentiation to ripening by about 15 days (21). 2. Other Chemicals

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The postharvest fruit rot of pineapple caused by Thielaviposis paradoxa can be prevented by dipping the pineapple stalk in benzoic acid or Shirlan. A fungicide more promising than Shirlan is imazalil. Infection was reduced by application of 1% sodium salicylanilide within 5 h of cutting to the cut surface of the stem piece left on the fruit. Dowicide A is used commercially in Hawaii, but benomyl (0.63 lb active ingredient/acre) gave excellent control under experimental conditions (14). The postharvest storage life of pineapples could be extended up to 2 or 3 weeks at 11.1C and 1 week at room temperature when the fruits were dipped in coating material, drained, and packed into well-ventilated plastic cartons (22). The effects of the type of surfactant, pH, and filmforming material were investigated. The treatment reduced the endogenous brown spotting of pineapples.

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D. Irradiation

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Preliminary studies on the effect of gamma radiation on the shelf life of fresh pineapple, conducted at the Hawaii Agricultural Experiment Station, University of Hawaii, indicated that irradiation with a 50-krad dose extends the shelf life of pineapple, as judged by the delay in degreening of the fruit (23), without impairing the physical and chemical or organoleptic characteristics of the fruit (26). An irradiation dose of 30500 krad was found to induce formation of cytotoxic substances in pineapples (24). These substances disappeared in fruit irradiated at 3050 krad after 8 days of storage at 17.8, but they persisted in fruit irradiated at 100 or 500 krad. Upadhya et al. (24) reported that, like untreated fruit (20), storage conditions of 7.212.8C and about 90% RH were optimum for irradiated pineapples to extend their storage life. Pablo et al. (27) concluded that low-dose irradiation may be a feasible method of extending the

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shelf life of fresh pineapples, which can tolerate a dose of about 50 krad (28). VI. Processing A. Canned Products Most of the world's pineapple production is canned. Slices are the most valuable product, followed by pineapple juice, chunks, and diced pineapple. Some other products are fruit salads, sugar syrup, alcohol, and citric acid. Canning is the most common preservation method used for pineapple. Collins (29) provided an excellent description of a typical small-scale canning operation developed in Hawaii. In general, the fruits are sorted by size, shape, and freedom from

major blemishes. The ends, i.e., the shell and core, flesh which is cut into the usual slices, chunks, and trimmed shell and ends, as well as fragments from c tion of pineapple juice. The varieties Smooth Cayen Espinola Roja were found to be suitable for canning B. Juice.

Pineapple juice contains neutral polysaccharides co nan. The degumming of juice can be achieved by u lulase preparations (32). The retention of ascorbic a squash was 8085% at room temperature (2430C) a deterioration was three times more rapid at 37C th can be stored for 1215 months without any serious C. Concentrate

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Pineapple juice concentrate can be prepared by vari neutralizing the excess acidity. It can be prepared u bic acid (36). Aroma concentrate from pineapple ju back to stripped juice concentrate (37) to obtain ful concentrate with added aroma was comparable to fr other concentrates in sensory qualities (37). Pineap satisfactorily at 1038C with the addition of SO2 wi in color or flavor (36). D. Powder

Attempts have been made to prepare powder from p Giant Kew variety of pineapple with a minimum 12 a minimum of 120 mg total carotenoids per 100 g j product of acceptable quality. E. Waste Products

Several products such as bromelain, wine, sugar sy feed can be produced from the mill juice of pineapp

Table 5 Chemical Analysis of Aroma and Stripped Pineapple

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Sample Fresh feed juice Aroma concentrate Stripped juice concentrate Stripped juice concentrate with aroma added back Source: Ref. 37.

Esters Carbonyls (mg/100 g) (mg/100 g) 15.0 2.00 11.9 1.58 1.2 0.16 12.0 1.60

Table 6 Chemical and Sensory Qualities of Fruit and Fruit Jui Va Quality Giant Kew Weight of individual fruit with crown (kg) 1.7530 Length of fruit (cm) 2025 Diameter of fruit (cm) 12.014.5 Weight of crown (g) 50100 Percent juice yield 5055 Brix 714 Acidity (%) as citric acid 0.91.1 70250 Total carotene (mg/100 g juice) Color of juice Slight yellow Source: Ref. 39.

References

1. Sen, S. K., Pineapple, Fruits of India: Tropical a ical (T. K. Bose, ed.), Naya Prokash, Calcutta, 1985 2. FAO, Production Year Book, Vol. 34, Food and Organization, Rome, 1990.

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3. Purseglove, J. W., Monocotyledens, Tropical Cr man, London and New York, 1972.

4. Samson, J. A., Tropical Fruits, Tropical Agricult Longman, London, 1980.

5. Collins, J. L., The Pineapple: Botany, Cultivation ation, Leonard Hill, London, 1960.

6. Bourke, R. M., Seasonal influences in fruiting of pineapples, Papua New Guinea Agr. J. 27:103 (197

7. Gortner, W. A., G. G. Dull, and B. H. Krauss, Fr ment, maturation, ripening and senescence: A bioch for horticultural terminology, HortSci. 2:141 (1967

8. Chadha, K. L., K. R. Melanta, and S. D. Sikhama planting density on growth, yield and fruit quality i apple, Indian J. Hort. 30:461 (1973).

9. Chadha, K. L., K. R. Melanta, and S. D. Sikhama density planting increase pineapple yield, Indian H (1974).

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10. Faculty of Agriculture, Research High Lights 1 Konkan Krishi Vidyapeeth, Dapoli, 1981, pp. 6567

11. Indian Institute of Horticultural Research, Pinea ation, Ext. Bull. 6, Bangalore, 1977, p. 1.

12. Collins, J. L., The Pineapple, Interscience, New

13. Rohrback, K. G., and W. J. Apt, Control of Cer paradoxa on pineapple asexual propagative parts, P logy 61:1323 (1971).

14. Cook, A. A., Diseases of Tropical and Subtropi and Nuts, Hafner Press (Macmillan), New York, 19

15. Smith, L. G., Indices of physiological maturity quality in Smooth Cayenne pineapple. Indices of ea Queensland J. Agr. Anim. Sci. 5(2):219 (1988).

16. Akamine, E. K., Problems in shipping fresh Ha ical and subtropical fruits, Acta Hort. 57:151 (1976

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17. Dull, G. G., The Pineapple, The Biochemistry o Their Products, Vol. 2 (A. C. Hulme, ed.), Academ London and New York, 1975, pp. 303324.

18. Katsumi, U., H. Yukio, N. Kazwaki, S. Akihiro Takayuki, Volatile constituents of green and ripene J. Agr. Food Chem. 40:599 (1992).

19. Py, C. M., A. Tisseau, B. Oury, and F. Ahmada of Pineapples in Guinea, Inst. Francais de Recherch d'Outre-Mer, Paris, 1957.

20. Akamine, E. K., Fresh pineapple storage, Hawa 12(1):1 (1963).

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21. Das, H., Studies on the action of NAA on the flowering and fruiting of pineapple, Indian J. Agr. Sci. 34:38 (1964). 22. Ewing, C. B., R. P. Muns, and H. J. Kaplan, Lengthening storage life of pineapples through the use of selected coating materials (Abstr.), HortSci. 15(3):93 (1980). 23. Upadhya, M. D., and J. L. Brewbaker, Effect of gamma irradiation on the pineapple, Hawaii Farm Sci. 15(1):8 (1966). 24. Upadhya, M. D., J. L. Brewbaker, and K. W. Ching, Biochemical changes in gamma-irradiated pineapple, U.S. Atomic Energy Commission Div. of Isotope Development, Ann. Rep. 196667, p. 3

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25. Wenkam, N. S., and A. P. Moy, Nutritional composition of irradiated fruit. II. Pineapple, U.S. Atomic Energy Commission, Div. of Isotope Development, Ann. Rep. 196768, p. 157. 26. Moy, J. H., E. Ross, S. T. Hsia, and M. Sawato, Quality evaluation of gamma irradiated papaya in shipping studies, U.S. Atomic Energy Commission, Div. of Isotope Development, Ann. Rep. 196768, p. 112. 27. Pablo, I. S., Akamine, E. K., and Chachin, K., Irradiation, Postharvest Physiology and Subtropical Fruits and Vegetables (E. B. Pantastico, ed.), AVI, Westport, CT, 1975, pp. 219235. 28. Brewbaker, J. L., M. D. Upadhya, and K. W. Ching, Preliminary studies on the effect of gamma irradiation of pineapple, U.S. Atomic Energy Commission, Div. of Isotope Development, Ann. Rep. 196465, p. 47.

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29. Collins, J. L., The pineapple, World Crops Series, Leonard Hill, London, 1968. 30. Bhat, A. V., G. Varkey, V. K. Sathyavathi, and J. S. Pruthi, Varietal trials in canning of pineapples, Indian Food Packer 31:18 (1977). 31. Bhat, A. V., V. K. Sathyavathi, V. K. George, and K. Mookerjee, Effect of hydrochloric acid treatment on the crown and canning quality of pineapple fruit, Indian Food Packer 26(6):23 (1972). 32. Chenchin, K., A. Yugawa, and H. Y. Yamamoto, Enzymic degumming of pineapple and pineapple mill juices, J. Food Sci. 49:132 (1984). 33. Pruthi, J. S., and G. Lal, Varietal trials in canning of pineapple, Bull. Central Food Technol. Res. Inst. 4:284 (1954).

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34. Nanjundaswamy, A. M., K. C. Chikkappaji, and M. V. Patwardhan, Studies on processing of pineapples, Proc. Seminar on Pineapple and Its Utilization, Associated Food Scientists and Technologists of India, Oct. 45, 1980, Jadhavpur University, Calcutta. 35. Mangaraj, B. K., Studies on utilization of pineapple juice for concentration, M.Sc. Food Tech. Investigation Rep., Central Food Technology Research Institute, Mysore, India, 1981. 36. Sandhu, K. S., B. S. Bhatia, and F. C. Shukla, Physicochemical changes during storage of kinnow mandarin orange and pineapple juice concentrates, J. Food Sci. Technol. 22(5):342 (1985). 37. Ramteke, R. S., Characterization and storage behaviour of aroma constituents recovered from tropical fruits, Ph.D. thesis, Mysore University, Mysore, India, 1987.

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38. Braddock, R. J., and J. E. Marcy, Freeze concentration of pineapple juice, J. Food Sci. 50(6):1636 (1985). 39. Phanindrakumar, H. S., K. Jayathilakan, and T. S. Vasundhara, Factors affecting the quality of freeze dried pineapple juice powder, J. Food Sci. Technol., 1991. 40. Joseph, G., and Mahadeviah, M., Utilization of waste from pineapple processing industries, Indian Food Packer 42:46 (1988).

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8 Pear
P. Y. Kadam and S. A. Dhumal College of Agriculture, Kolhapur, Maharashtra, India N. N. Shinde Fruit Research Station, Himayat Baug, Aurangabad, Maharashtra, India I. Introduction

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Pears (Pyrus communis L.) are grown in temperate areas of both hemispheres. These are deciduous, cold-requiring fruit crops which can grow in tropical lowlands but never set fruit there, since they need a certain number of hours with temperatures below 7C to replace the dormant period of the temperate climates. Hence, the production of pear is concentrated mostly in temperate regions of the world (Table 1). The greatest increase in production in recent years has been in Argentina and Chile. From 1985 to 1990 both countries doubled their pear production (1). Pears are consumed primarily as fresh fruit. However, a part of pear production is utilized in processing industries. Extracts of different parts of the plant have shown variable antibacterial action. Fresh pear juice exhibited good activity against Micrococcus pyrogenes and Escherichia coli (2). An aqueous extract of the leaves was active against some strains of Escherichia coli (2). Chlorogenic acid is present

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in the vegetative parts of the tree. The leaves contain arbutin, isoquercitin, sorbitol, astragalin, and tannin (2). II. Botany The requirement of cold climate is necessary to break down the growth inhibitors which accumulate during the season of active growth in leaves and bud scales. With sufficient chilling, development is hindered by physiological disorders known as prolonged rest and delayed foliation. Close to the equator, at altitudes where temperatures below 7C occur regularly, the day temperature is too low for normal growth and fruit ripening. Therefore, an intermediate altitude of about 1000 M and a suitable cultivar with a chilling requirement are chosen (3).

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The pear fruit is classified as a pome. The pericarp, the fleshy edible part, arises from the fusion of the receptacle stamens, ovary wall, and calyx. It has five carpels, each containing two seeds. The fruit is typically in a pyriform shape with a wide variation. Pears are often called the syropean buffer pear because of the smooth, buffery texture of their flesh. Pears are classified by maturity

Page 184 Table 1 Leading Pear-Producing Countries in the World Country Production 103 MT Italy 1033 United States 874 Spain 445 Japan 443 Turkey 413 Germany 380 France 325 Argentina 260 South Africa 199 Yugoslavia 164 Australia 157 Chile 155 Netherlands 90 Source: Ref. 1.

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date: summer, autumn, and winter. Summer types mature from July to August in the Northern hemisphere and from January to February in the Southern hemisphere; they usually have a short storage life of 13 months. Autumn types mature from September to October in the Northern hemisphere and from March to April in the Southern hemisphere; they can be stored for 24 months successfully under proper conditions. Winter types mature in OctoberNovember in the Northern hemisphere and AprilMay in the Southern hemisphere; under proper storage, some varieties can have a storage life of 67 months. Bartlett is the most widely grown cultivar of the summer and fall groups of pears. A few other varieties are Hardy, Clapp, Favorite, and winter groups including Anjou, Bosc, Comice, Winter Nelis, and Seckel, and Florida Home.

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The pear cultivars of India fall into two groups, the first having the soft-fleshed fruits with inconspicuous grit cells of the European pears (Pyrus communis) and the second having the firm, hard flesh with prominent grit cells of Oriental pears (P. pyrifolia). A few cultivars, such as Kieffer, Le Conte, and Smith, of hybrid origin with intermediate characters, also have been introduced (4). The introductions of soft pears, possibly made along with apples, constitute about 171 cultivars, of which the most popular is Bartlett. Very early-ripening cultivars, particularly China pear and red strains of Bartlett, fetch premium prices. The recently introduced Flemish Beauty, Devoe, Max Red Bartlett and Manning Elizabeth have been found promising. Junska Zlato from Yugoslavia and some redfleshed pears such as Sanquinole and varieties of Sand pears from Japan and China are being introduced. Pear cultivars in the world and their

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important characteristics are given to Table 2 (5). III. Production. A. Soil and Climate Pears are grown on a wide variety of soils. The trees thrive on practically all orchard soils, provided they have sufficient moisture and are well drained. Like other fruits, they grow best on deep, fertile loams, and it is on such soils that most of the best trees are found. A clay loam with a well-drained subsoil is generally considered best for them.

Table 2 Pear Cultivars of the World and Their Important Cha Bloom to harvest Fruit Fruit Cultivar (days) size color Giffard 100120 M-Lg Y-Bl Precoce Morettini 100125 Dr. J. Guyot 105125 L Y Clapp Favorite 105130 Lg Y-Bl Bartlett 110135 M Y-Bl Seckel 120140 S R-Bl Hardy 130150 M R Eldorado Anjou Bosc Packham's Triumph Comice Angouleme Flemish Beauty Conference Easter Winter Nelis Forelle 140160 140165 150165 150165 150170 150170 160180 160180 160185 160185 160190 M M-Lg M-Lg M-Lg Lg Lg M M-Lg M S S Gr-Y Gr-Bl R Gr Gr-Bl Y Y-Bl Gr Y-Bl Gr Gr-Bl

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Kieffer
aKey:

170190

Lg

Y-Bl

S = small, M = medium, Lg = large; Y = yellow, Gr = g blush; F = fresh, B = baking, C = canning. Storage life is exte controlled-atmosphere storage. Source: Ref. 5.

Pears grow well in an arid climate that is moderate are essential in controlling the bacterial disease, fire pear growing in North America more than any othe ally sets good seedless crops in hot interior valleys pollination for fruit set in the cooler coastal valleys Oregon. Cool (10C) nights during the month befor causes softening and premature ripening, affecting quality.

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The climatic conditions under which pears are grow ence on fruit storage and ripening. The number of h affects the time to maturity (6). The period of cell d days following full bloom, appears to be most critic (7). The number of heat units above 8C for the 9-w bloom appears to be useful for predicting proper ha perate also affects pear size. In climates with a low fruit size is reduced (6). High temperature and mois duce size. Temperatures above 27C and below 12 fruit size (9). Bartlett is subjected to a fruit disorder ripening if cool temperatures prevail during the mo (10). Fruit affected by premature ripening is suscep down and shortened storage life. The degree of inju threshold temperatures and length of exposure (11) B. Propagation

Propagation of the pear is generally by grafting. Tw stocks are used for the pear. One is French pear sto been imported from France, and the second type is

Page 186

the Chinese Sand pear, which is grown in the United States. The dessert types, such as the Bartlett and Seckel, do best when grafted on French stock. C. Cultural Practices 1. Planting Pears should never be transplanted nor have their roots disturbed while leaves are on the tree. One-year-old plants are suggested as the best ones for planting. The general procedure of spacing pear trees in the home garden is 67 m apart in the row and 78 m between rows. 2. Fertilization

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The use of fertilizer on pear trees is about onehalf of that recommended for apples. In most districts of the Pacific Coast, pears, in common with most other orchard fruits, respond best to nitrogenous fertilizers. In practically all the districts of Oregon and Washington and in some sections of California, annual applications of fertilizers that are high in nitrogen stimulate the growth of the trees and improve production. Pears should not be too heavily fertilized with nitrogenous fertilizer, because this may overstimulate growth. On an acre basis, if 10 or more tons of stable manure are used, 250350 kg of superphosphate and 100150 kg of muriate of potash should be used. Where stable manure is not used, a complete fertilizer containing all three elementsnitrogen, phosphate, and potashsuch as 4124 or 5105 can be used.

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Nitrogen level influences fruit size and quality. High leaf nitrogen in young anjou trees was observed to be associated with lower soluble solids and flavor. Fruit scald also increased in Anjou with high nitrogen levels (12). Cork spot is associated with hot dry seasons and is probably caused by moisture stress, which contributes to calcium deficiency. Foliar spray or postharvest dips show promise in reducing cork spot (5). 3. Irrigation

971/2989

With manure, for pear trees under irrigation in a clay soil, soil moisture was lowest in compacted soil, intermediate in cultivated soil, and highest under alfalfa or straw mulch. Yields are related directly to soil moisture. In another plot of Anjou pears, soil moisture and yield were highest under clean cultivation (5). Sod plots had lowest moisture. There was a clear indication that additional irrigation water should have been used with the sod in order to supply adequate moisture to both grass and trees (5). In another plot at the same site, younger Bartlett and Bosc trees given the same irrigation as the larger Anjou trees appeared not to suffer with sod culture, even though the soil contained slightly less moisture than the cultivated soil (5). 4. Pruning

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A light annual pruning of pear trees seems to be the one of the desirable procedures, and this pruning takes place during the time when the tree is dormant, that is, when the tree does not have leaves. Interfering limbs, dead or broken branches, and root sprouts are thus generally pruned. The young pear tree is trained and pruned to the modified leader system, as recommended for apple. In the West, where fireblight is not so likely to be a serious problem, three or four main scaffold limbs may be left. Light pruning is recommended, especially in the East, because blight is more difficult to control on trees making soft growth as a result of heavy pruning. It is characteristic for most pear varieties to grow strictly upright, and not to branch freely. Heading back cuts to outward-growing branches should be kept to a minimum, because they encourage a profusion of soft terminal shoots. It is best to confine most cuts to the thinning-out type.

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Page 187

5. Fruit Thinning.

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Relatively little fruit thinning is practiced with pears. In the case of such varieties as Bartlett, Hardy, and Bosc, which tend to set heavy crops of fruit in clusters of three to five fruits on a single spur, it may be necessary to reduce the number of fruits per cluster to one or two each. If the set on the entire tree is not excessive, however, fruit in these clusters may reach satisfactory size and quality without thinning. With an extremely heavy set of fruit, obviously, thinning is essential to obtain good size and quality. Under these conditions, the work is usually not done until a few weeks before harvest, and the crop is lightened mainly by removal of the very small and blemished fruit (13). The amount of fruit set may affect fruit quality. Thinning cannot be delayed long after fruit set because of deterious effects on quality (14). Ethephon (400 ppm) applied 14 days after full bloom was efficient for thinning pears. Ethephon had no effect on fruit soluble solids, firmness, or total acidity,

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but reduced fruit and terminal shoot growth (15). Pear trees were treated with ethephon (0, 50, 100, 200, or 400 mg/liter) at full bloom or 11 days after full bloom, or at both times. The full-bloom sprays removed significantly more fruits than the later sprays. The higher concentration of ethephon produced more thinning than the control (16). D. Diseases, Pests, and Physiological Disorders 1. Diseases

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Bacterial blight is by far the most destructive disease that attacks pear. The disease usually appears first as a blossom blight, later spreading to shoots. Blighted blossoms and the leaves of blighted shoots turn brown, then black, and remain attached to the tree. Scab is a fungus disease that appears as dark, moldy patches on both fruit and leaves. Black end is a term applied to fruits which become hard, rounded, or often black over the blossom end as they approach maturity.

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Leaf spot incited by Mycosphaerella chaubafiensis is confined to the foliage. The mature spots are easily recognized by their grayishwhite centers and well-defined margins. Spray of 0.1% Bavistin in the third week of June, 0.3% Dithane Z-78 20 days after, and again 0.1% Bavistin after 20 days have been successful for its control (17). Leaf blight caused by Fabraea maculata occurring on pear and quinces produces symptoms on leaves, fruits, and shoots. Infected fallen leaves act as the source of primary inoculum. Early application of Ferbam or Bordeaux mixture has been used successfully for its control (17). Rust caused by Gymnosperangium sabinae is a serious disease of pear in Europe when grown in the neighborhood of the alternate host Juniper sabianae. The disease can be controlled by removal of Juniper trees within 150 m of pear trees.

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Blue mold rot caused by Penicillium expansum is usually considered the causal organism of blue mold rot. At first, blue mold lesions are light colored and soft. As the lesion enlarges, the decayed portion can be easily separated from the surrounding sound tissue. The fungus growth on the lesion surface, at first white, becomes pale blue as sporulation occurs. Penicillium expansum appears to be a strict wound parasite, or nearly so. Blue mold readily colonizes cuts or punctures. Less frequently, the fungus colonizes the peduncles, particularly penduncles that are thick and fleshy.

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Gray mold rot caused by Botrytis cinerea is considered the causal organism of gray mold rot. Botrytis cinerea frequently rots pear in storage and may colonize stems, especially in cultivars with thick, fleshy stems such as Beyrred Anjou pear. Stem infectious may grow into the fruit and completely colonize it. Calyx-end rot is common in California-grown Bartlett pears and in Packham's Triumph and Buerre Bosc pears in South Africa. Infections occur during blossoming, and colonized pistils and stamens, particularly the former, are retained within the floral tube of the fruit. Similarly, no rot occurs in storage until the fruit starts to turn from green to yellowish green. Incidence of side rot is evidently low except in the Buerre Bosc pear, in which significant

Page 188

losses have been experienced in the Pacific Northwest. Lesions are characteristically round or nearly so. There is usually no sporulation on the lesion surface. The rare occurrence of brown rot on ripe Bartlett pears is generally attributed to Monilia laxa or M. fructicola. Cladosporium rot fungus is primarily a saprophyte, but it is a wound pathogen of mostly overripe and senescent fruit. 2. Pests

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Scale insects are found on the leaves and young twings. Pear psylla is an insect that generally eats on the underside of the leaves, causing them to have a more or less skeletonlike appearance. Pear leaf blister mite causes injury to both leaf and fruit. Codling moth damages fruit, making them unsalable. Pear thrips are very destructive, causing injuries to the opening blossom cluster and blossoms. Red spiders cause injury to pear leaves. 3. Physiological Disorders

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Water core is a commonly recognized problem in apple, but it can also occur in pears, especially in Asian pears. Water core is often associated with low calcium levels in the fruit. Fruit of advanced maturity is generally affected more severely. Fruit grown at high temperatures, especially if exposed to afternoon sun, appear to be most prone to water core (18). Core breakdown problems occur in pears and apples. This is sometimes called internal breakdown or brown core. Symptoms are browning and softening of the tissue in and around the fruit core. Late-harvested fruits are most susceptible to these disorders. In some seasons in California, this disorder is responsible for loss of as much as 10% of fruit destined for processing (18). Fast cooling and low storage temperatures (avoid freezing) are effective in minimizing the problem. E. Harvesting

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Pears are the only temperate tree fruits that cannot be left on the tree to ripen. They are climacteric fruits that require harvest before the climacteric rise in respiration occurs if storage life is to be maximized. If they are harvested too late, they develop off-flavors and core breakdown, a postharvest physiological disorder. If harvested too early, they do not develop good eating quality and are more susceptible to scald, another postharvest physiological disorder. Harvesting pears at optimum maturity is important to ensure a high-quality product. Reliable harvest indicators enable growers to determine when optimum pear maturity occurs. Flesh firmness, ground color, corking of lenticels, fruit finish, ease of separation, days from full bloom, heat units, and starchiodine test are all methods used to indicate pear optimum maturity (19).

985/2989

The percentage of soluble solids is not used as a maturity indicator, although pears must contain levels of 10% or more if they are to be harvested. Bartlett pears with 13% soluble solids do not require any indicators to determine maturity. Fruit flesh firmness is the most common method used to determine maturity in pears (Table 3) (5). Guidelines for harvesting fruit for marketing orders and agreements in the United States are based on this method. The number of days from full bloom to maturity varies with variety and growing region. Bartlett, a summer type, has a date indicator of 110135 days from full bloom to harvest, while Anjou, a winter type, requires 140165 days from full bloom to harvest date. This indicator does not take into account yearly weather differences, such as abnormally cool summers or unusually warm harvest seasons. Days from full bloom gives the grower an idea of when to start using more precise indicators, such as flesh firmness.

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Heat unit accumulation takes into account annual weather differences in a way that days from full bloom does not. This method sums or accumulates the number of degrees above a given temperature observed during all or part of the growing season. Heat units offer a more precise measure of harvest maturity than days from full bloom. Maturity standards for ground color,

Page 189 Table 3 Flesh Firmness as a Maturity Index for Pears as Measured by the U.S. Tester with 0.8-cm Head on Peeled Cheeks Firmness range Cultivar lb kg Williams (Bartlett) 2317 107.7 Howell 1713 7.76.8 Bosc 1513 6.85.9 Packham's Triumph 1513 6.85.9 Anjou 1513 6.85.9 Easter 1513 6.85.9 Eldorado 1513 6.85.9 Winter Nelis 1512 6.85.4 Conference 14.511 6.85.0 Forelle 1412 6.45.4 Clairgeau 1411 6.45.0 Glou Morceau 1411 6.45.0 Kieffer 13.512 6.15.4 Seckel 1311 5.95.0 Flemish Beauty 1310 5.94.5 Passe Crassane 1310 5.94.5 Comice 1210 5.44.5 Hardy 129 5.04.1 Angouleme 118 5.03.6

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Source: Ref. 5.

corking of lenticels, and fruit finish depend on the variety. In Bartlett, ground color is defined as a lightening of the green ground color to yellow. The starch-iodine test is similar to that used for apples (20). Ease of fruit separation is not as precise as flesh firmness and heat units, but if it is not used, the impact on tree productivity can be serious. If pears separate easily from the tree's fruiting spurs, then they have reached minimum maturity. If the fruits do not separate easily, then the spur is often removed with the fruit, greatly reducing the tree's future fruiting potential.

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All commercial cultivars of pears are harvested while hard and green in color. However, the time of harvest is critical, because if the fruits are picked too early, their dessert quality is poor, and if they are picked too late, their storage life is much shortened. The range of maturity for optimum quality for either fresh market or processing is rather narrow. Color, flesh firmness, and elapsed period from full bloom to readiness for harvest provide useful indices of harvest maturity of Bartlett pears (21). A pattern of green to yellow color changes in Japanese pears can be used to evaluate variations in the degree of maturity of fruit on the trees, the rate of maturation of individual fruits, the dropping tendency of mature fruit, and the harvesting dates (22). IV. Postharvest Handling

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If the pears are going into long-term storage, they need to be cooled down or precooled to storage temperature within 48 h of harvest. Forced-air cooling is the most common method, since chloride used in hydrocooling may have a detrimental effect on the pear skin. Once precooled, the pears can be either stored in bulk bins or processed through a packing line. A mechanized packing

Page 190

line washes, dries, sorts, grades, and packs the pears into smaller shipping containers. During this process, small and defective fruits are culled, while sound fruits are graded by size and packed into 20- to 22-kg boxes with 70165 pears per box depending on pear size. Boxes may be volume-filled, and tray-packed boxes usually have polyethylene liners. The fruits may be individually wrapped in tissue-type paper to cushion them in transit. Wrapping has become less common in recent years, because the pool of workers skilled in this practice is getting smaller. A postharvest handling system for bartlett pears is shown in Fig. 1 (23). V. Ripening

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Although the pears can ripen while still attached to the tree, a generally accepted commercial practice is to pick the fruit before the onset of respiratory climacteric rise. This practice aids in increasing shelf life of fruit during storage and transport. The biochemical and physical changes associated with the visible process of ripening include changes in color, texture, sweetness, and astringency, and the development of the characteristic flavor of a given cultivar. Fruit respiration begins to rise before visible ripening sets in. During this period, profound biochemical and metabolic changes take place which initiate the ripening process (24). The changes in weight loss, firmness, and chemical composition during maturation of Anjou pears are presented in Fig. 2 (5). Pears may require special ripening conditions for best quality. They ripen best and with more aromatic flavors at 18.321.1C than at either lower or higher temperatures. In fact, some cultivars will not ripen if the temperature

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is above 24C (25). Once a fruit is eating ripe, its shelf life is very short but may be prolonged by refrigerated storage. Flavor, texture, and color of pears are dependent on the stage of ripeness, Ripening is the transformation of the physiologically mature fruit from an unfavorable stage of consumption to a favorable state. In pears, ripening takes place after harvesting. Ripening proceeds under the control of natural growth regulators, i.e., auxins, cytokinins, gibberellins, abscisic acid, and ethylene, and in pears is preceded by a sharp increase in respiration rate (5).

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The ripening process involves a wide array of physiological and biochemical changes in the fruit. Flavor changes remarkably during this phase. Starch is converted to sugar and sorbitol to fructose. Fruit acidity and tannin content drop. Aromatic esters that give pear fruit their distinct flavor are produced. Pectins increase, cell walls soften, and cell membrane becomes leaky (24). Softening of the flesh and the rise in ethylene evolution and respiration associated with ripening were delayed when mannose was vacuum infiltrated into intact fruit of cv. Bartlett (26). Holding the fruits at 30C between harvest and storage suppressed the subsequent normal ripening processes of skin yellowing and flesh softening (27). At higher concentration of ethrel, fruit firmness decreased more rapidly than in the controls. Total soluble solids (TSS) tend to increase during ripening, the increase being greater with high ethrel concentrations, while acidity decreases. Starch content decreases sharply

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during the initial 5 or 10 days. Pigments increase while phenolics decrease during ripening (28). Most early-ripening pears, so-called summer pears, do not have a long storage and break down quickly in cold storage. Late-maturing pears usually have a better storage life. In fact, many of these late-maturing pear cultivars, such as Anjou, Bosc, Comice, Packham's Triumph, and Passe Crassane, require a period of cold storage to develop maximum flavor (5). VI. Chemical Composition. The general composition of raw and dried pears is presented in Table 4 (29,30). The chemical composition of some important types of pears grown in India is given in Table 5. Nutritionally, pears are considered to be a fairly good source of fiber and can provide substantial amounts of

Page 191

Fig. 1 Postharvest handling system for Bartlett pears. (From Ref. 23.)

Page 192

Fig. 2 Changes in weight, firmness, and chemical composition during maturation of Anjou pears. (From Ref. 5.)

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potassium in the diet. The major organic acid in pears is malic acid. Various amounts of citric, tartaric, and oxalic acids may also be found. Pears are also known to contain sugar, alcohol, and sorbitol, which has wide applications in the manufacture of sugar-free foods, but also cause gastrointestinal discomfort in sensitive individuals at high concentrations.

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Reducing sugars, of which fructose is the major component, constitute over 80% of the total sugars present in pears. These fruits also contain maltose, galactose, xylose, and probably arabinose. Other carbohydrates in pears include starch and cellulose. During ripening, the starch of the fruit is converted into sugars. High-quality pear flavor is associated with high sugar content (31). Values for total sugar in common pear cultivars range from 8 to 11% per unit weight of edible pulp (32). The main sugars in pear are listed with the amounts in Table 6 (33). The impact of sugar is affected by the juiciness of the fruit. Fruit that is dry tends to taste less sweet than fruit that is juicy. The presence of juice within the fruit appears to enhance the impact of sugar on the taste (31).

Table 4 Nutritional Composition of Raw and Dried Pears (100 g edible basis) Content Constituent Raw Dried Water (%) 87.7 26.0 Food energy (kJ) 264.60 1369.80 Protein (g) 0.7 5.4 Fat (g) 0.4 3.2 Carbohydrate total (g) 15.8 64.1 Fiber (g) 1.4 Calcium (mg) 13.0 61.0 Phosphorus (mg) 16.0 84.0 Iron (mg) 0.3 2.3 Vitamin A (iu) 20.0a 120.0 Thiamin (mg) 0.02 0.2 Riboflavin (mg) 0.04 0.32 Nicotinic acid (mg) 0.1 1.1 Ascorbic acid (mg) 4.0 12.0 aEquivalent to 6 mg of all-trans-retinol Sources: Refs. 29 and 30

Table 5 Composition of Edible Portion of Important Types of Constituent Bagugosha Kashmiri N

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Moisture (g/100 g) Protein (g/100 g) Fat (g/100 g) Minerals (g/100 g) Fiber (g/100 g) Other carbohydrates (g/100 g) Calcium (mg/100 g) Phosphorus (mg/100 g) Iron (mg/100 g) Vitamin A (I.U./100 g) Thiamin (mg/100 g) Riboflavin (mg/100 g) Nicotinic acid (mg/100 g) Vitamin C (mg/100 g) Source: Ref. 5

86.5 0.4 0.1 0.3 2.1 10.6 20.0 20.0 1.5

83.6 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.6 14.9 20.0 20.0 1.0

0.2 1.0

3.0

Page 194 Table 6 Sugars of Pear Fruit and Their Concentration Sugar Dry weight (%) Fructose 7 Glucose 4 Sorbitol 3 Sucrose 2 Xylose * Galactose * Arabinose * *Minor amount. Source: Ref. 33.

The pectic constituents in pears depend on the type, the stage of ripening, and the storage conditions. During ripening, protopectin is largely hydrolyzed into soluble pectin, and this conversion is the principal factor concerned in the softening of pears. The soluble pectin content of bartlett pears was found to be 0.07% at the time of picking (unripe stage) and 0.70.8% in the ripe fruit (2).

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Pears have a very low nitrogen content. Protein nitrogen constitutes only about 8% of the total nitrogen. Lysine, phenylalanine, and leucine are the most abundant amino acids in the protein of pears, especially during maturation (2). The vitamin values of pears are presented in Table 4. Pears also contain biotin, pantothenic acid, folic acid, and vitamin B12. The concentration of ascorbic acid and biotin is found to be much greater in the peel than in the pulp of pears.

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Malic and citric acids are the principal organic acids present in pears. Table pears contain more of malic acid, while in some juicy pears, citric acid account for up to 45% of total acids. The acidity level of pears varies from pH 2.6 to 5.4 (31). The organic acids present in pear fruits are shown in Table 7. The enzymes present in pears are amylase, catalase, peroxidase, xanthineoxidase, pectin galacturonase, protopectinase, and pectase. A high pectin polygalacturonase activity has been demonstrated in ripe bartlett pears. Polyphenolase is considered to be responsible for the browning of pears when cut, chlorogenic acids being the chief substrate. Ripe pears
Table 7 Organic Acids Known to Be Present in Pear Fruits Whole fruit Pulp Peel Quinic Malic Malic Glycolic Citric Citric Succinic Quinic Quinic Lactic Shikimic Shikimic

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Galacturonic Source: Ref. 24.

Glyceric Mucic

Glyceric Citramalic

contain appreciable amounts of acetaldehyde, whic agent in the production of scald and breakdown in t stated to be related directly to the concentration of a

In general, extreme bitterness and astringency is un gency and bitterness are often associated with the s the fruit often helps to remove the astringency and and other flavor components, some bitterness and a Bitterness and astringency are attributed to the pres substances (tannins). Many compounds of this class phenolics of high molecular weight tend to be more of low molecular weight tend to be bitter (35).

Although sweetness, acidity, astringency, and bitter flavor, the aromatic volatiles define the various dist as many as 77 volatile components (36) have been ile compounds in fully ripe pears were ethyl, propy accounted for 70.6% of the total volatiles (37). The been attributed mainly to the presence of esters. An decadienoic acid, has been identified (36).

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Table 8 Volatile Compounds Isolated from Bartlett Pear Type Con Alcohols Ethyl, propyl, butyl, amyl, hexyl, and octy Acetates Methyl, ethyl, propyl, butyl, amyl, hexyl, 4-oxy-transMethyl and ethyl Butenoates Octanoates Methyl, ethyl, and ethyl-3-hydroxy Decanoates Methyl and ethyl Dodecanoates Ethyl Tetradecanoates Ethyl Hexadecanoates Methyl Octedecanoates Methyl and ethyl trans-2 Decenoates Methyl and ethyl cis-4 Ethyl trans-2 Dodecenoates Ethyl cis-6 and ethyl trans-2 Tetradecenoates Methyl and ethyl cis-8 and methyl and eth Hexadecenoates Methyl and ethyl Octedecanoates Methyl Decadienoates Methyl cis-2, trans-4, methyl and ethyl tra butyl and hexyl trans-2, cis-4 Dodecadienoates Methyl and ethyl trans-2, cis-6 Tetradecadienoates Methyl and ethyl cis-5, cis-8 Hexadecadienoates Ethyl Decatrienoates Ethyl trans-2, trans-4, cis-7 Ethyl trans-2, cis-4, cis-7 Dodecatrienoates Ethyl trans-2, cis-6, cis-9

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TetradecatrienoatesMethyl and ethyl trans-2 trans-4, cis-8 a-Farnesene Source: Ref. 36.

Page 196

VII. Storage A. Low-Temperature Storage

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Compared to apples, pears have a shorter storage life. This fruit has a higher respiration rate at all temperatures, even at optimal storage temperatures. Summer and autumn pears have a shorter storage life than winter types. Pears grown in cooler areas are also known to have a shorter storage life and develop core breakdown sooner than those grown in warmer areas. Pears can be held longer than the recommended storage term without visible damage, but they lose their ability to soften properly and this is an important part of the ripening processes. The metabolic processes required for softening no longer function. The pear loses its ability to synthesize the enzymes required to soften the fruit. Recommended storage conditions, storage life, and physical characteristics of pear fruit are given in Table 9 (5). Bartletts are best stored at -1.7C to -1.1C, while other varieties are best stored at -1.1 to -0.6C. The relative humidity should be at least 9095%. If the air flow in storage is high,

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then the relative humidity should be at least 95% to compensate for the drying effect of the air. Postharvest dipping of pears in 5% calcium chloride greatly improved their keeping quality. This treatment reduced fruit softening and gave firmer fruits during storage (38). B. Controlled- and Modified-Atmosphere Storage The storage life of pears can be successfully extended with controlled-atmosphere (CA) storage. Pears are sensitive to carbon dioxide. At levels higher than 3%, core and flesh browning may develop, while at 5% serious brown core damage occurs. Any efforts to control the atmosphere during pear storage must consider the phytotoxic effects of carbon dioxide. Optimum carbon dioxide levels for pears are 0.81.0%, and optimum oxygen levels are 2.02.5% (19).

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Partially ripe Bartlett pears were dipped in a solution of citric acid, ascorbic acid, and/or calcium chloride and were stored in air or in CA for 7 days at 2.5C followed by 1 day in air at 20C. Whole fruits were also stored under the same conditions. Firmness of pear slices was maintained by storage in 12% CO2 and in 0.5% O2, respectively, or by dipping in 1% calcium chloride and storing in air or under CA conditions (Table 10) (39). When stored in air at 0C, bartlett and anjou pears coated with either Prolong or Multi-save were firmer, higher in titratable acidity, and greater in color than noncoated fruits. In CA storage, however, coated fruits were in most instances comparable to noncoated fruits (40). Some retardation in ripening of pears was obtained when unripe fruits were held in modified atmosphere (MA) packs at 20C (41).
Table 9 Recommended Storage Conditions, Storage Life, and Physical Characteristics of Pear Fruit

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Storage temperature (C) Low High Relative humidity (%) Approximate storage period (days) Highest freezing point (C) Water content (%) Source: Ref. 5.

-2 -0.6 9095 1428 -0.94 89.1

Page 197 Table 10 Effects of CaCl2 and/or Low O2 on Firmness of Bartlett Pear Slices Stored at 2.5C for 7 days and at 20C for 1 day Firmness (N)* Treatment Day 7 Day 8 Water + air 39.1b 29.8c 10% CaCl2 + air 53.8a 39.6b Water + 0.5% O2 40.5b 38.3b 10% CaCl2 + 0.5% O2 59.2a 46.3a Whole fruit, freshly sliced 39.7b 26.2c *N = firmness measured with U.C. fruit firmness tester supplied with an 8-mm tip. abcMean separation in columns for each evaluation time by Duncan's multiple range test, 0.05 level. Source: Ref. 39.

Polyethylene box liners provide an inexpensively generated modified atmosphere around the fruit in shipping containers; this can extend the storage life of the pears. C. Subatmospheric-Pressure Storage

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Subatmospheric pressure significantly (at the 1% level) softened and extended the storage life of pears. Pears were stored for 3.5 months under normal refrigeration. At 461 mm Hg, they were stored successfully up to 5 months, at 278 mm Hg for up to 7 months, and at 102 mm Hg for up to 8 months (42). Decreases in firmness were especially delayed at 102 mm Hg. The green color of the pears was retained fairly well up to 5 months at 120 mm Hg. Degradation of chlorophyll was delayed by subatmospheric pressure. The lower the pressure, the longer the chlorophyll was retained. Subatmospheric pressure delayed losses of sugar in the pears. At the end of the storage, the sugar contents of pears from subatmospheric pressure were significantly (at the 1% level) less than that of controls (Fig. 3). However, the treated pears were still marketable at that time (42). D. Irradiation

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Pears were irradiated with g-rays at 500, 1000, and 1500 Gy or x-rays at 40, 60, and 100 Gy before cold storage in CA or normal atmosphere. Ripening was accelerated after irradiation, as shown by respiration and ethylene activity tests (43). Pear fruits could be stored satisfactory for 7 months at 00.5C, 92% RH, in 2% CO2 and 2% O2 (44). E. Postharvest Diseases and Disorders

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The skin of pears turns brown when bruised by rubbing against a hard surface such as a conveyor belt or the side of a pallet bin. Such friction bruises can also occur in transit in loose packs of fruits and may appear as continuous bands around the fruit (21). The common physiological disorders of pears are core breakdown, scald (superficial and senescent), and loss of ripening capacity. Like apples, pears are affected by gray mold rot and blue mold rot. In addition, a type of decay called bullseye rot also occurs late in the pear storage season, causing considerable losses of pears in districts of Washington, Oregon, and British Columbia. This disease is caused by

Page 198

Fig. 3 Effects of subatmospheric pressure storage on (A) firmness, (B) chlorophyll, and (C) total sugars of pears. (From Ref. 42.)

1019/2989

Penzicula malicorticus. Senescent scald can develop in pears that have been stored beyond their potential postharvest life. Scalded fruits often change their background color during storage and lose their capacity to ripen. Fruit from very early or late harvest, fruit suffering delayed cooling, and fruit held at too high a storage temperature are also more susceptive to senescent scald. Symptoms begin on the fruit surface but can progress into the flesh during ripening, proper harvest maturity, good temperature management, and avoiding too long storage are all important in minimizing senescent scald of pears (45). VIII. Processing

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Pears are consumed primarily as fresh fruit. However, a good portion of the crop is crushed to produce juices for beverages and wines. In the United States, large quantities are canned and some are dried. Pears are a good source of pectin and also contain appreciable amounts of sugar and thiamin. They are reported to help in maintaining a desirable acid/base balance in the

human body. Pears have been recommended for pa betes because of their low sucrose content (2). A. Canned Pears.

Bartlett pears are preserved by canning. Pears are w kaline solution to remove pesticide residues, then w and held in cold storage prior to canning. Pears are anically, or by the lye peeling method (5% NaOH a They are washed and then halved in two pieces leng halves are preserved in 2040% sugar syrup, depend The filled cans are exhausted in water at 79.4C for The sealed cans are heat processed in boiling water and cooled in water. Pears are also chopped into sm fruit cocktail. The standard of identity for canned fr less than 25% and not more than 45% pears in the p B. Canned Pear Products

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Pears are pureed for baby food and for the manufac jams. Pear concentrates, especially charcoal-filtered products, have a bland taste and are finding wide ap sweetening agents in no-added-sugar fruit spreads a Perry is a fermented beverage similar to cider but p C. Dried Pears

A small percentage (less than 1%) of the pears prod cess usually involves sulfuring and requires 2430 h tent ranging from 15 to 25%. D. Candy

Rani and Bhatia (46) prepared a good-quality candy Bagygosha cultivars by steeping the slices in 40 B increased by 10 Brix and dried in open sun. Candy was of better quality. Candy packed in polythene ba istic pear flavor for about 16 weeks at 37C and for temperature. The fresh Sand pear contained 85% m 20.1% in the candy-made fruits (Table 11) (46). As 50% after 40 weeks of storage at room

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Table 11 Composition of Sand Pear and Bagugosha Pear Frui Fruit Composition Sand pear Bagugos Moisture (%) 85.0 83.0 TSS (%) 10.8 14.5 Reducing sugars (%) 4.2 8.6 Nonreducing sugars (%) 6.3 10.1 Acidity (%) 0.10 0.20 Ascorbic acid (mg/100 g) 1.9 2.1 pH 3.7 3.5 aRT = Room temperature Source: Ref. 46.

Table 12 Changes in Composition of Pear Candy During Stor Sand pear candy Refrigerator RTa Constituent Fresh 24 weeks 24 weeks Moisture (%) 20.1 20.2 19.3 TSS (%) 74.0 75.0 79.0 Reducing sugars (%) 34.7 36.4 39.5 Nonreducing sugars (%) 38.4 36.6 38.9 Acidity (%) 0.17 0.09 0.07 pH 3.7 4.9 4.8 Ascorbic acid (mg/100 g) 20.0 10.3 10.0 aRT = Room temperature Source: Ref. 46

temperature. The changes in composition of pear ca ures are shown in Table 12. The varieties Leconte, to be suitable for jam and chutney. Stone pear was rified juice and preserve (47) E. Juice and Concentrate

1025/2989

A clear juice of excellent flavor can be prepared fro treatment with a pectic enzyme1s. It is recommende acidification, as a beverage. In California, the Bartl pear nectar. The nectar is the pulpy liquid food whi weight and additional optimal ingradients including F. Utilization of Fruit Waste

Pear waste obtained during the peeling, coring, and amounts to 3035%. The composition of fresh waste preparation of vinegar, brandy, or denatured alcoho ing syrup suitable for canning of pears, or for table useful stock
Table 13 Chemical Composition of Pear Fresh Waste Constituent Content (%) Total solids 14.816.3 Proteins 0.50.6 Crude fiber 2.2 Total sugars 7.18.3 Ash 0.30.4 Source: Ref. 2.

1026/2989

Page 201

feed that is comparable in nutritive value to beef pulp mixed with beet molasses. Pear waste can be used as a soil conditioner and in composting (2). References 1. FAO, Production Year Book, Vol. 44. Food and Agriculture Organization, Rome, 1990, p. 162. 2. Publications and Information Directorate, Wealth of India, Vol. 8, Raw Materials, Council of Scientific and Industrial Research (CSIR), New Delhi, 1969, pp. 330333. 3. Samson, J. A., Tropical Fruits, Tropical Agriculture Series, Longman, London, 1980.

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4. Yadav, I. S., Germplasm collection of pome, stone and nut fruits in India, Central Institute of Horticulture Northern Plains, Lucknow, Indian Council of Agricultural Research (ICAR), 1988, p. 74. 5. Westwood, M. N., Temperate Zone Pomology, W. H. Freeman, San Francisco, 1978. 6. Fisher, D. V., Heat units and number of days required to mature some pome and stone fruits in various areas of North America, Proc. Am. Soc. Hort. Sci. 80:114 (1961). 7. Lombard, P. B., C. B. Cordy, and E. Hansen, Relation of post-bloom temperature to Bartlett pear maturation, J. Am. Soc. Hort. Sci. 96:799 (1971). 8. Mellenthin, W. N., Effect of climacteric factors on fruit maturity and quality of pears, Proc. Wash. State Hort. Assoc. 62:67 (1966).

1029/2989

9. Williams, M. W., H. D. Billingsley, and L. P. Batjer, Early season harvest size prediction of Bartlett pears, J. Am. Soc. Hort. Sci. 94:596 (1969). 10. Wang, C. Y., W. M. Mellinthin, and E. Hansen, Effect of temperature on development of premature ripening in Bartlett pears, J. Am. Soc. Hort. Sci. 96:122 (1971). 11. Wang, C. Y., and W. W. Mellenthin, Induction period and threshold temperature for premature ripening in Bartlett pears, J. Am. Soc. Hort. Sci. 97:557 (1972). 12. Raese, J. T., Response of Anjou pear trees to nitrogen fertilizer and other elements in the Pacific North-west. The Pear (T. Van derzwet and N. F. Childers, eds.), Horticultural Publications, University of Florida, Gainesville, 1982, pp. 269273.

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13. Gregorn, R. W., Fruit Science, J. B. Lippincott, Chicago, 1949, p. 630. 14. Williams, M. W., H. M. Courey, H. Moffatt, and D. L. Coyier, Pear Production, U.S. Department of Agriculture Handbook 526, 1978. 15. Kim, K. Y., M. D. Cho, J. K. Kim, S. B. Kim, and B. W. Moon, Effect of Ethephon on fruit thinning in pears, J. Korean Soc. Hort. Sci. 29(1):13 (1988). 16. Bound, S. S., K. M. Jones, and T. B. Koen, Ethephon concentration and timing effects on thinning Winter Cole Pears, Australian J. Exp. Agr. 31(1):133 (1991). 17. Shah, A., S. S. Boms, and A. J. Roy, Effect of fungicidal sprays on the incidence of leaf spot disease of pear, Prog. Hort. 17:363365 (1985).

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18. Porritt, S. W., M. Meheriuk, and P. D. Lidster, Postharvest disorders of apples and pears, Agr. Can. Publ. 1737/E, 1982, p. 66. 19. Salunkhe, D. K., and B. B. Desai, Postharvest Biotechnology of Fruits, Vol. I, CRC Press, Boca Raton, FL, 1984, p. 123. 20. Kvale, A., Maturity indexes for pears, Acta Hort. 285:103 (1990). 21. Ryall, A. L., and W. T. Pentzer, Handling, Transportation and Storage of Fruits and Vegetables, AVI, Westport, CT, 1974. 22. Kajiura, I., M. Omura, Y. Sato, and Y. Machida, A ground colour ratio curve: A useful method for the evaluation of the cultivar-specific characteristics of maturation for determining the harvesting dates of Japanese pears, J. Jpn. Soc. Hort. Sci. 49(1):15 (1980) (in Japanese).

1032/2989

23. Kader, A. A. Postharvest Technology of Horticultural Crops, 2nd ed., University of California Division of Agriculture and Natural Resources, 1992, p. 296. 24. Hulme, A. C., and M. J. C. Rhodes, Pome fruits, The Biochemistry of Fruits and Their Products, Vol. 2 (A. C. Hulme, ed.), Academic Press, New York, 1971, p. 333. 25. Maxie, E. C., F. G. Mitchell, W. F. Sommer, R. G. Snyder, and H. L. Rae, Effect of elevated temperature on ripening of Bartlett pear (Pyrus communis L.), J. Am. Soc. Hort. Sci. 99:344 (1974).

Page 202

26. Watkins, C. B., and C. Frenkel, Inhibition of pear fruit ripening by mannose, Plant Physiol. 85(1):56 (1987). 27. Downs, C. G., A. E. Pickering, and M. Reihana, Influence of temperature between harvest and storage on the ripening of Packhams Triumph pears, Sci. Hort. 39(3):235 (1989). 28. Mann, S. S., and B. Singh, Effect of Ethrel on ripening of fruits of Patharnakh pear harvested on different dates, Acta Hort. 279:529 (1990). 29. USDA, Composition of Foods, USDA Handbook 89, U.S. Department of Agriculture, Washington, DC, 1982.

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30. Adam, C. F., Nutritive Value of American Foods in Common Units, USDA Handbook 456, U.S. Department of Agriculture, Washington, DC, pp. 112113. 31. Visser, T., A. A. Sharp, and D. P. De Vries, Acidity and sweetness in apple and pear, Euphytica 17:153 (1968). 32. Strachan, C. C., A. W. Moyls, F. E. Atkinson, and J. E. Britton, Chemical composition and nutritive value of British Columbia tree fruits, Publ. Can. Dept. Agr. 862, 1951. 33. Ash, A. S. F., and T. M. Reynolds, Water soluble constituents of fruit. II. An examination of the sugars and polyols of apricots, peaches, pears and apples by paper chromatography, Australian J. Chem. 8:276 (1955). 34. Luckwill, L. C., and A. Pollard, Perry Pears, University of Bristol Press, Bristol, 1963.

1035/2989

35. Williams, A. A., A. G. H. Lea, and C. F. Timberlake, Measurement of flavor quality in apple, apple juices and termented ciders. Flavor quality: Objective measurement, ACS Symp. Ser. 51:71 (1977). 36. Jennings, W. G., and R. Tressl, Production of volatile compounds in the ripening bartlett pear, Chem. Mikrobiol. Technol. Lebensm. 3:52 (1974). 37. Shiota, H., Changes in the volatile composition of La France pear during maturation, J. Sci. Food Agr. 52(3):421 (1990). 38. Haggag, M. N., Effect of preharvest and postharvest calcium treatments on storage behaviour of Le Conte pears, Alexandria J. Agr. Res. 32(3):175 (1987).

1036/2989

39. Rosen, J. C., and A. A. Kader, Postharvest physiology and quality maintenance of sliced pear and strawberry fruits, J. Food Sci. 54(3):656 (1989). 40. Meherink, M., and O. L. Lau, Effect of two polymeric coatings on fruit quality of Bartlett and Anjou pears, J. Am. Soc. Hort. Sci. 113(2):222 (1988). 41. Geeson, J. D., P. M. Genge, R. O. Sharples, and S. M. Smith, Limitations of modified atmosphere packaging for extending the shelf-life of party ripened Doyenne de Comice pears, Int. J. Food. Sci. Technol. 26(2):225 (1991). 42. Salunkhe, D. K., and M. T. Wu, Effects of sub-atmospheric pressure storage on firmness, chlorophyll and total sugars of pears, J. Am. Soc. Hort. Sci. 113 (1973).

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43. Al-Bachir, M., and P. Sass, Effect of ionizing radiation on the respiration intensity of pears during storage, Acta. Agron. Hung. 38(12):49 (1989). 44. Schwarz, A., A trial of cold storage of pears in controlled atmosphere. V. Beuree Bosc. Revue Suisse de Viticulture, d'Arboriculture et d'Horticulture 23(3):157 (1991). 45. Cappellini, R. A., M.J. Ceponis, and G. N. Lightner, Disorders in apple and pear shipments to the New York market, 19721984, Plant Dis. Rep. 71:852856 (1987). 46. Rani, U., and B. S. Bhatia, Studies on pear candy processing, Indian Food Packer 39(5):40 (1985). 47. CFTRI, Annual Report, Central Food Technological Research Institute, Mysore, India, 1975, p. 26.

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Page 203

9 Plum
V. P. Bhutani and V. K. Joshi Dr. Y. S. Parmar University of Horticulture and Forestry, Nauni, Solan, Himachal Pradesh, India I. Introduction.

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Plum is one of the important stone fruit crops of the world. Plums are generally consumed fresh, with the exception of a small quantity used for canning and beverage preparation. Plums with high sugar content and firm flesh are dried without the removal of stone and are called prunes. The total world production of plums is estimated to be around 6,523,000 tonnes (1). The plum- and prune-producing countries of the world are listed in Table 1. Among these, the United States, the USSR, China, and Romania produce more than 50% of the total world production (Fig. 1). II. Botany A. Types

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Plum belongs to the genus Prunus of the subfamily Prunoidae of the family Rosaceae. Weinberger (2) reported nearly 200 species in the genus Prunus. Plums have a basic chromosome number of 8, but the somatic chromosome number ranges from 16 to 48. Plums and related species have been placed in the subgenus Prunophora, section Euprunus and Prunocerasus (3). The important plums are of three types: the European (Prunus domestica), the Japanese (P. salicina), and hybrids of the latter. Other species are of interest to plum breeders (Table 2) for imparting desirable characters to existing cultivars or for use as rootstock. 1. European Plums

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Prunus domestica is the most important source of commercial cultivars. European plum is said to be native to eastern Europe or western Asia (4) and has been cultivated in Europe for at least 2000 years. P. domestica plums are hexaploids and originated as a result of hybridization of diploid (P. carasifera) and tetraploid (P. spinosa) species, followed by chromosome doubling (5). P. domestica fruits exhibit both yellow and green ground colors and also both red and blue skin

Table 1 World Production of Plums During 1989 Country Production ( 1 Africa 31a Algeria 40a Egypt 40a Morocco 18 South Africa North and Central America 86a Mexico 786 United States South America 50a Argentina 86 Chile Asia 37a Afghanistan 770a China 38a India 33a Iraq 15a Israel 70a Japan 40a Korea 12a Lebanon

1044/2989

Pakistan Syria Turkey Europe Albania Austria Bulgaria Czechoslovakia France West Germany Hungary Italy Norway Poland Romania Spain Switzerland Great Britain Yugoslavia Oceania Australia Commonwealth of Independent States All other countries

50a 31 166 13a 82 139 49 146 382b 180 133 13a 75 765a 145 31a 15b 819 20 1050a 67

1045/2989

Total aFAO estimate bUnofficial figure Source: Ref. 1

6523

Fig. 1 Major plum- and prune-producing countries and t production (1000 MT). (From Ref. 1.)

colors, with an unlimited range of variation. The siz and flavor of the fruit also support the above origin ated varieties of European plums have been classifi groups.

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Prunes. This is commercially the most important gr fruit is oval with bulging of the central side, blue or firm, thick, and freestone. Prune fruits are high in s and can be successfully dried without removing the ant cultivars are Agen (French), Stanley, Sugar, Im Epineuse, Italian, German, Giant, and Tragedy.

Reine Claude (Green Gage). The fruit is characteriz or less round fruit with greenTable 2 Important Plum Species Species P. alleghaniensis Porter P. americana Marsh P. angustifolia Marsh P. cerasifera Ehrh P. cocomila Ten P. domestica L. P. hortulana Bailey P. insititia L. P. maritima Marsh P. maxicana Wats P. munsoniana Wight and Hedre P. nigra Ait

Characteristics of v Fruit, ornamental Winter hardiness, fruit Earliness, disease resista Rootstock, fruit Fruit Fruit productivity Fruit Fruit Ornamental, fruit Fruit Fruit, disease resistance Winter hardiness, fruit

1048/2989

P. rivularis Scheele P. salicina Lindl. P. simoni Carr P. spinose L. P. subcordata Benth P. umbellata Ell Source: Ref. 2.

Disease resistance Fruit (size and firmness) Fruit Fruit, domestica parent Fruit, dwarfing rootstock Fruit

Page 206

yellow or slight red color. The flesh is sweet and juicy. Cultivars include Reine Claude, Bavay, Jefferson, Washington, Imperial Gage, and Hand, used for canning and the fresh market. Yellow egg. Yellow egg is a small group of plums used for canning. The fruit is large, long, oval, and usually with yellow skin and yellowish flesh. Cultivars include Yellow Egg, Red Magnum, Bonum, and Golden Drop. Lombard. Lombard is a group of large oval red or pink plums, and of somewhat fair quality. Important cultivars are Pond, Bradshaw, and Lombard.

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Another European species, P. insititia, includes the small-sized fruits. Plums of this species are known commercially as Damsons, Bullaces, and Mirabelles. The plants of this species are compact and dwarf, having smaller leaves and flowers, and can be easily distinguished from P. domestica by their growth habits. The fruits are less than 1 in. in diameter, round, and purple (in the Damsons) or yellow (in the Mirabelles). Damsons are excellent for preserves and jams, but are not eaten fresh. Mirabelles have excellent flavor. 2. Japanese Plum (P. salicina)

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The Japanese plum is next in importance to the large-fruited European plums. It is believed to have originated in China rather than in Japan. It was introduced in Japan 200400 years ago, from which it disseminated around the world. It is readily distinguished from P. domestica by its rough bark, numerous persistent fruiting spurs, and by mostly oblate to heart-shaped fruits, with a more pointed apex than other species. Fruits are never blue. Trees of the Japanese plum come into bloom quite early and thus make it susceptible to frost. There is considerable variation in tree growth habit among cultivars. Some are spreading in habit while others exhibit upright growth. Leaves are medium sized, sharp pointed, and almost free of pubescence. Flowers are produced three in a bud on either one-year-old shoots or on spurs. 3. American Plums

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Most native American plums are self-unfruitful, so pollinizers should be placed in the orchards. Some of the species and clones are described briefly. P. americana Marsh: Fruits are yellow or orange with golden yellow flesh. Leading cultivars are Desoto, Hawkeye, Wyant, Weaver, and Terry. P. hortulana Bailey: It is more resistant to brown rot and is used for jams and marmalades. Important cultivars are Wayland and Golden Beauty. P. munsoniana Wight and Hedre: It is resistant to spring frost and brown rot of the fruit. The important variety is Wild Goose, widely planted in the lower Mississippi valley. P. besseyi Bailey: It is used for hybridizing and as a dwarfing rootstock for other plums.

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P. subcordata Benth: It is native to south central origin and northeast California. The fruits are used commercially for preserves and jellies. B. Cultivars The cultivars of plum can be broadly classified into three categories, the European plums, the Japanese plums, and its hybrids. Some of the important plum cultivars and their characteristics are briefly described in Tables 3 and 4. C. Fruit Growth and Development The pattern of fruit growth in plum, as in other prune species, is the double sigmoid curve (10). Prior to fertilization, one of the two ovules of the plum fruit aborts. During the subsequent

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1055/2989

development of the fruit, the outer wall of the ovary gives rise to three distinct layers of pit. Two hypodermal layers in the ovary produce the skin of the fruit, which consists of the cuticle, the epidermis, and a few layers of collenchymatus cells. The flesh contains most of the vascular bundles of the fruit, which are embedded in the lignified tissue of the pit. The fresh weight of the fruit and its size increases throughout the growing season (11). The sugar and total soluble solids content increase throughout the period of growth. Organic acids accumulate in the fruit during early stages of growth and then gradually decrease (11). The phenolic content of the fruit is high during the early stages, decreases subsequently, and then remains constant until harvest (4). Volatiles which determine the flavor or aroma are also produced. Wax develops on the skin of the fruit. The fruit attains its full size and optimum maturity, although it is still unripe (4).

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During ripening, pectic substances in the cell walls change from an insoluble to a soluble form, resulting in softening of the fruit. The chlorophyll content of the skin decreases and carotenoid content increases. The plum is considered to be a climacteric fruit. The respiration rate is high during growth. As maturity approaches, it decreases to a preclimacteric minimum and increases irreversibly to a maximum during ripening (4). At this stage, the fruit is soft and sweet, with a characteristic flavor (12), and is ideal for eating. Subsequently, senescence sets in, whereupon the respiration rate decreases and the fruit becomes overripe. III. Production. A. Soil and Climate

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Owing to the wide variability of species, plums are grown over an extensive area. Cold, wet, and windy weather during bloom are harmful to the crop (7). In general, European plums require 8001000 chilling hours for satisfactory bud break in the spring, except for lower requirements of winter chilling by cultivars of the Japanese plum.

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Due to their early bloom, plums are prone to spring frost injury. A northern slope is preferable, particularly for the Japanese plum, which tends to delay the bloom period and thus avoid early frost injury. A gentle slope is preferred rather than a dead level or a pocket. Proximity to large bodies of water is advantageous to moderate the summer heat and winter cold. The tree is not very fastidious in its soil requirement, but well-drained, deep loamy soils are considered the best. European plums have been reported to do better on clay soils, whereas Japanese plums prefer light soils (7). B. Propagation 1. Methods

1059/2989

Plums are propagated by T budding or chip budding in autumn or spring on seedling rootstocks or clonally propagated ones. These can be propagated by hardwood cutting and by leafy, softwood cuttings under intermittent mist (13). Some clones respond to indole butyric acid (IBA) application (20005000 ppm) and to increasing bottom heat to about 20C. Misra et al. (14) reported maximum percentage of rooting and field survival when basal cuttings of Santa Rosa were treated with 2000 ppm IBA + 100 ppm boron.

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In vitro propagation techniques for multiplication of plum rootstocks and cultivars have also been developed (1518). Howard et al. (19) reported long-term improvement in rooting of plum rootstock cv. pixy cuttings taken from stock plant hedges. Gebhardt and Goldbach (20) described a micrografting technique for use on shoots derived by shoot tip culture. A mechanically strong graft union was formed during the course of 3 weeks' subculture of micrografts in a liquid medium without the application of growth regulators. Histological examination of the graft union

Table 3 Important Characteristics of Some European Cultivar Cultivar Queenston California Blue Washington French prunes (Agen, Petite) Imperial Epineuse Irognois (Italian Prunes Hall) Early Italian Early Early Oval Oval Ripening time Early Early

Fruit sh Oval

Oval Roundish

Stanley (Agen Grand Duke) Early Grand Duke Midseason Bluefre (Stanley President) Midseason Bluebell (Stanley President)One week after Stanley

Oval Oval Oval

(table continued on next page)

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(table continued from previous page)

Cultivar Italian (Fellenburg) Reine Claude (Green Gage) Lombard President Vision Albion Victoria Damson Brandley's King Farleigh Prolific

Ripening Fruit Stone time shape adhesive Midseason Oval Free M Late Early Late Late Late Late Oval Oval Oval Oval Oval Oval Free Free Free Free Cling Free

L L L L

Midseason Roundish Free Tapering

S L

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Page 211

revealed callous formation, cytodifferentiation, and xylogenesis leading to the formation of vascular connections. 2. Rootstocks The plum is grown mostly on plum stocks, though seedlings of peach, Japanese apricot, and almond can also be used (21,22). In India, plum is propagated mostly on wild apricot stock by shield budding. The characteristics of important rootstocks are mentioned below. Myrobalan (P. cerasifera). Myrobalan is the most satisfactory rootstock, particularly for the European plums. Its roots are tolerant to poor soil aeration, with adaptation to a wide range of soils and resistance to crown rot, but it is susceptible to root-knot nematodes and oak root fungus (23).

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Myrobalan B was developed at East Malling Research Station, U.K. It is now recognized as the standard rootstock for producing vigorous trees (24). Myrobalan C is vigorous, immune to root-knot nematodes, and resistant to water logging, but it does not perform well on extremely heavy soils. Myrobalan GF 31 produces vigorous trees and can be propagated largely through cuttings. It is precocious and performs well even on dry, stony soils. Myrobalan 27 is vigorous and tolerant to drought and exhibits very good K absorption (25). Myrobalan 5-Q rootstock tends to delay ripening but has not been fully tested.

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Mr. S. 2/5 is thought to be a spontaneous pentaploid hybrid of P. ceresifera P. spinosa (26). It has good resistance to water logging, good water use efficiency, and resistance to calcareous soils. Marianna. Marianna originated in Marianna, Texas, in 1870. It is an open-pollinated cross between myrobalan plum and P. munsoniana. It is a vigorous rootstock, resistant to rosette virus (7). It is widely used in Australia. The important characteristics of some clonal selections made from this stock are enumerated below. Marianna 2624 produces semivigorous trees and is adaptable to heavy and wet soils and resistant to oak root rot and root-knot nematodes. It uses nitrogen efficiently (27).

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Marianna 4001 rootstock produces very large trees with very good anchorage and is reported to be tolerant to drought and bacterial canker (28). Marianna GF 8-1 produces large trees and is resistant to water logging, viruses, and root-knot nematode. Okie (28) has described it as suitable for both heavy and sandy soils with a wide pH range. Black plum (Morrison's plum stock) produces very large trees with high productivity and is compatible with all Japanese and most European plums. It is resistant to crown gall and is widely suitable for wet soil (29). Prunus domestica Selections. In Europe, selections from P. domestica have been widely used, and the distinguishing features of the important ones are enumerated below.

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Ackermann's (Marunke) produces semidwarf tree and hastens fruit ripening. The productivity is low to medium. Black Damas clones have been selected at East Malling Research Station, U.K., and are listed alphabetically (A, B, C, D, etc.). Damas produces large-size tree and delays fruit ripening (30). Brompton seems to be compatible with all European plums and tends to produce medium to large trees (28). It is reported to be cold resistant and incompatible with some prune cultivars. Common plum grows semiwild in England, produces small to medium trees, but has shown incompatibility with some cultivars (3133).

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Pershore (Yellow Egg) tends to produce semidwarf to large trees and is compatible with most of the European plums. Gross grune reine claude (Large Grune Reine Claude) is used by nurserymen in Europe and produces medium-sized to vigorous trees (8). Prune GF 43 is a selection from French prune, produces vigorous but dwarfing trees, and has shown resistance to water logging, and root and collar rot. It may delay ripening (28). Damas GF 1869 is a cross between P. domestica and P. spinosa. It produces medium-sized trees and is winter hardy, resistant to high pH, water logging, and bacterial canker (28).

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Prunus insititia Selections. St. Julien stocks are frequently used in Western Europe in addition to P. domestica and P. cerasifera clones. These have long been recognized as the dwarfing stock for plums and are closely related to damsons. Many clonal stocks have been made, and the important ones are described below: St. Julien A produces small to medium trees for all compatible scion cultivars. It is precocious, resistant to low winter temperature, and exhibits good Ca absorption. St. Julien K is a very dwarfing plum rootstock but has not been fully evaluated as yet. St. Julien GF 655-2 produces medium-sized trees. The productivity on this rootstock is high and may hasten fruit ripening.

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St. Julien hybrid 1 is selected from a cross between P. insititia and P. domestica. It produces trees of medium size and is tolerant to high pH. St. Julien hybrid 2 is a promising semidwarf rootstock and is tolerant to collar rot. It can thrive on good soil but is unsuitable for stony, light soils (28). St. Julien W 61 produces trees of medium size. Trees on this rootstock yield high, with large fruits. Pixy is a selection from St. Julien from France by East Malling, U.K. The rootstock is dwarfing, induces precocity, and promotes earlier ripening. It is tolerant to bacterial canker but susceptible to drought. The fruit size remains small. It is compatible with most of the European plums.

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American Plum Rootstocks (P. americana). P. americana produces semidwarfing trees and is compatible with a wide range of cultivars of European prunes, Damsons, Japanese plums and native American types (34). The stionic region is brittle, and the scion tends to overgrow the rootstock. It is highly resistant to cold. Beach plum (P. maritima) has been classified as the most dwarfing rootstock (28). Its productivity is low and anchorage poor (8). Western Sand Cherry (P. besseyi) is a very dwarfing rootstock and is compatible with most of the Japanese and European plums. Its productivity is good. However, it exhibits poor bud union when it is used as a stock for P. insititia (35). Other Species and Hybrids. Other rootstocks include the following.

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Peach (P. persica) is a semivigorous rootstock and has proved satisfactory for light, welldrained soils. However, peach rootstock should be avoided if the trees are to be planted on a site earlier occupied by peach plantation. Halford, Lovell, Nemaguard, and S-37 are preferred as rootstocks. Apricot (P. armeniaca): Before the advent of peach and plum nematode-resistant rootstocks, plums were budded on apricot because of its high immunity to nematodes. However, apricot stock is not preferred because of delayed incompatibility. Japanese plums perform better than European plums on apricot roots

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Almond (P. amygdalus): Some plum cultivars, particularly French prunes, perform better on almond rootstock. It produces a semivigorous trees and is suited chiefly to deep, light soils. GF 677 is a selection from the cross between P. amygdalus and P. persica. It is vigorous, resistant to drought, but is sensitive to water logging and root-knot nematode. It is compatible with most of the Japanese and European plums. GF 557 is also a selection from P. amygdalus P. persica and produces a medium to largesized tree. It is resistant to drought, root-knot nematode, and high-pH soil, but is very sensitive to water logging. Florida Sand plum (P. angustifolia) may be useful as a dwarfing stock for Japanese plum. Trees bear early (36).

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Wild peach (P. mira) is native to China and northern India, and gives satisfactory union in the nursery with Japanese plum and French prune. It appears to be resistant to crown gall but is highly susceptible to oak root rot (37). Nanking cherry (P. tomentosa), native to China, is a very dwarfing rootstock that is resistant to frost and drought. Trees bear early, and the productivity is good. However, it is susceptible to bacterial canker. Sloe (P. spinosa) is native to Europe. It is a very dwarfing stock, compatible with French and Italian prunes. However, productivity is low (28). C. Cultural Practices 1. Planting and Early Care

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Two-year-old feathered trees and 1-year-old whips are suitable for European plums and the Japanese types, respectively. Spring planting is usually recommended to avoid danger of winter injury, except in regions where winter cold is not severe. Healthy and virus-free plants are planted in well-worked soil, especially in previously dug and filled pits large enough to accommodate the root system in its natural spread-out position. Before planting in their permanent position, all broken roots are trimmed, and setting of the plants should be slightly deeper than their position in the nursery (7). Soil around the plants should be trampled firmly to remove all air pockets. A few inches of loose soil is left on top to act as a mulch, and trees should be headed back at the time of planting to 60 cm.

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Most orchards are planted on a square 6 6 m. A closer spacing of 5.4 5.4 m may be adapted on sandy soil. With the increasing availability of dwarfing rootstocks, high-density plantings are being experimented with. Sansavini (38) reported that the introduction of dwarfing rootstocks, compact, and super cultivars of plum has resulted in high-density orchards (8001200 trees/ha). Various types of hedgerow planting with trees spaced 2.403.0 m in rows 4.86.6 m apart are under observation (39). High densities should not be attempted without dwarf rootstocks, because excess vigor requires overpruning, which reduces yield and quality. The use of growth retardants to control growth is expensive and sometimes unsuccessful. However, application of paclobutrazol resulted in 23 times reduction in vegetative growth and 2 times increase in fruit yield (40), though its foliar application increased vegetative growth compared to soil application (41). Besides paclobutrazol, other

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growth retardants such as succinic acid -2,2-dimethyl hydrazide (SADH) and dikeglulac have also been tried for reducing vegetative growth and early flower induction (42). The most common faults observed in establishing the newly planted tree are injudicious irrigation and lack of weed control, which causes more stunting and mortality of trees than any other factors during the first two years. Light irrigation during the first year should be applied every 23 weeks, avoiding excess water which creates an oxygen deficiency and leads to death of roots.

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Most of the plum cultivars are self-unfruitful and require cross pollination (43). Even some of the partially self-fruitful cultivars such as Santa Rosa and Beauty benefit from pollinizers. For pollination, for at least every third tree in every third row a pollinizer should be planted with one strong beehive per acre. When cultivars produced little or no pollen, a pollinizer branch should be grafted on every tree. 2. Training and Pruning Plum trees are generally trained to the modified central leader or to the open-center system depending on the growth habit of the variety. The varieties with spreading habits of growth (Burbank and many Japanese varieties) are better trained to the open-center system, whereas those with upright growth (such as Santa Rosa, Stanley, and Wickson) should be trained to the modified leader system.

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One-year-old whips are simply headed back to the desired height, while in branched trees, three to five appropriately placed, wide-angled branches are selected as scaffold branches, each of which is cut back to one-half or one-third of its length. In the modified leader system, the central leader is kept dominant over the scaffold branches. Hedgerow trees, especially on dwarf rootstock, are trained to a central leader to encourage upright growth to a height of 34 m.

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Primary branches are spaced 1520 cm apart along the trunk, while secondary branches are selected during the second, third and fourth dormant seasons. At the end of 4 years of growth and pruning, seven to nine well-spaced secondary branches are kept. In general, plum trees require little pruning while young. Heavy heading back of the shoots is avoided, as this would result in long, upright growth and high, dense tops. Only light thinning out of small branches is practiced to promote sunlight, facilitate spraying operations, and develop a healthy spur system (7). However, in areas where warm, dry temperatures favor heavy fruit setting and where irrigation water is limited, heavy pruning is practiced to promote vigorous wood growth and large fruits (44).

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The plum tree bears most of its fruit on vigorous spurs on 2-year-old wood or more. The fruit spurs of European plums are more branched, longer, and more slender than Japanese types (7). Moreover, the Japanese varieties have a tendency to overbear, therefore, a heavier pruning is recommended than European plums. Pruning back the fruiting branches prevent limb breakage because of the heavy cropping tendency of these cultivars. The Japanese varieties bear fruits laterally on 1-year-old wood, similar to peach. They also bear laterally and heavily on spurs, so the amount of pruning is recommended to be the same for these varieties as for the peach.

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The extent of pruning should be regulated so as to induce an annual extension growth of 2550 cm in young bearing trees of both the European and Japanese plums. Older trees of European and Japanese plums require about 15 cm and 25 cm annual extension growth, respectively, for proper fruiting (7). With upright-growing cultivars such as Wickson, Kelsey, and Santa Rosa, it is necessary to cut the branches back to outward-growing branches to develop a more spreading tree. With the naturally spreading varieties, such as Burbank, the straight-outgrowing branches should be cut back. Most European varieties develop into well-shaped trees even if very little pruning is done (39). 3. Intercultivation and Cover Crops.

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A combination of cultivation and cover crops is generally recommended for young and bearing plum orchards. However, plum trees perform better under sod or sod mulch than the peach or cherry (7). If the orchard is planted on a slope, either the tree basins extending up to the canopy or only narrow strips on either sides of the tree need be kept clean. The rest of the orchard floor is

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kept under permanent sod with occasional mowing or manual cutting. La Rue and Gerdts (45) also recommended seminoncultivation as an ideal system for plum orchards. According to them, a 1- to 1.5-m strip along the trees should be kept clean by occasional cultivation or by pre-emergence herbicide application. It is generally agreed that shortly before or after bearing has started, cultivation should be reduced to a minimum, as excessive cultivation tends to deprive the soil of its humus, which consequently reduces the tree growth. If the land is fertile and the tree distances are such that intercrops of vegetable or small fruits can be grown, such a practice is recommended until the plums start bearing.

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Cover crops are not recommended in rain-fed orchards because they compete with the fruit plants for moisture. However, where irrigation facilities exist, cover crops may be used to prevent soil erosion. Clover, rye grass, peas, alfalfa, or other legumes can be used to enrich the soil with nitrogen. Cover crops can improve the fertility and soil structure but tend to make the orchard cooler during the flowering periods, as they accumulate less heat during the day and lose heat faster at night (45). 4. Weed Control

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Control of weeds in plum orchards is an important floor management practice. The conventional method of hand weeding is costly and at times injurious to the surface feeder roots of the fruit plants. From the late 1950s onward, the development of selective and efficient herbicides enabled grasses and broad-leaf weeds to be controlled. Among the herbicides, the use of atrazine, simazine, diuron, oxyfluorfen, and glyphosate have been found to be most effective for weed control in plum orchard. The herbicides commonly used in plum orchards along with rates and times of application are given in Table 5. Besides controlling weeds, this weed management practice exerts a profound influence on growth and productivity (59), leaf nutrient status (49), and fruit quality (60,61).

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It is not advisable to control weeds with the use of herbicides during the first season because of possible injury to unestablished trees. Weeds can be controlled by tillage or by mulches of grass, sawdust, pine needles, or black plastic. In the second and succeeding years, chemical herbicides can be used to check weed growth. A wide variety of inorganic and organic mulches alone or in combination with herbicides are also used for weed control (Table 6). The use of different covers or mulching materials is known to be beneficial, chiefly through their influence on soil moisture conservation and uptake of nutrients by the plants. Mulching also regulates soil temperature, prevents soil erosion, and prevents surface runoff of water. 5. Fertilization

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Leaf analysis is generally used as a diagnostic procedure in plums. In 1928, for the first time, the symptoms caused by the presence of lime in the soil and those associated with K deficiency were distinguished (69). In the same year, Smith and Thomas (70) described the condition called exanthema in P. domestica. These symptoms were later confirmed to be caused by Cu deficiency (71). Further, little leaf in plums was found to be associated with very low Zn content (72). Lime-induced iron deficiency in stone fruits has been reported (73). In fact, most of the earlier nutritional research on Prunus spp. was on the identification of micronutrient deficiencies or toxicities by leaf analysis (74,75). The standard leaf sampling procedures have been described (8491).

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Potassium was the first of the major nutrients to be investigated. Later, the threshold level of leaf K at which leaf necrosis and leaf roll disappeared was determined (76). Optimal leaf N content in plum cv. Stanley was observed to be between 2.33 and 2.52% and optimal K to be

Table 5 Characteristics of Herbicides Used in Plum Orchards Rate (kg/ha actual actTrade ive Herbicide name ingredients) Time of app Simazine Tafazine 4.0 Apply in early spring befo per season. Can be applied DichlobenilCasoron 4.5 Apply in early spring befo the fall. Do not use on ligh er on moist soil. Diuron Karmex 4.0 Low rates in sandy soil. A weeds are 10 cm high. Paraquat Gramaxone 0.61.2 Apply any time. More effe cloudy day or in the eveni cessary during the season. simazine or terbacil. Atrazine Atrataf 4.0 Late fall to early spring. C paraquat. Terbacil Sinbar 2.04.0 Early spring. Use lower ra trees established for at lea Glyphosate Roundup 2.2 Any time. Apply to active spray. Do not apply within

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Table 6 Type and Method of Mulching in Plum Orchards Mulch Method of app Hay 0.1 m depth beneath tree to dri Straw mulch 0.1 m depth beneath tree Black polythene 1.5 m width centered on the tre Hay mulch plus herbicide 0.1 m depth sufficient to contro Sawdust 0.1 m depth beneath the tree to Pine needles Not indicated

between 3.2 and 3.4%, while the deficiency thresho were 2.1% N and 2.0% K. Dhillon and Bal (77) rec yield and quality of Kataru Chak (P. salicina Lindl and K status were 2.89, 0.28, and 2.89% respective

Most of the fertilizer experiments have shown that rate of N fertilization, yield and N concentration of creased (7881). However, Ystaas (82), Chohan and Bhutani et al. (48) could not record a significant inc application. Application of increasing amounts of N up to a certain level only, but when P and K are app rates, the leaf N content increases progressively.

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Seasonal changes in leaf nutrient content of plums h ded (92). Percentage of N and P in leaves was high declining rapidly in the late season. Leaf nutrient el interaction among themselves, affecting the translo ments. There exists a positive correlation between l Mg, and K (80). Badyal (93) reported N to have a d leaf N, Ca, Mg, S, Mn, and Zn and an inverse relati and B content in Santa Rosa plum. Bhutani and Bha correlation between N and Mg, which could serve a fertilizer recommendations. Leece (92) has comput tent of leaves from the midpoint of the shoot and ha ent ranges from deficient to excess or toxic levels ( used in practice should, however, be determined loc and for each climate.

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Fertilizer application varies from place to place and factors such as climate, plant species, plant age, roo nutrients in the soil, soil moisture, soil pH, and cati of the soil. A study done in Bulgaria by Vitanova (9 the amounts of N, P, K, Ca, and Mg needed each ye moval by the plum trees in the form of fruits, fallen wood (Table 8). The fertilizer doses are normally st years. Bajwa and Mishra (95) recommended applic 95 g of single superphosphate, and 60 g of muriate of the tree.
Table 7 Nutrient Levels in Leaves of Plums and Prunes Nutrient Deficient Low Normal Dry weight (%) N 1.7 1.72.3 2.43.0 P 0.09 0.090.13 0.140.25 K 1.0 1.01.5 1.63.0 Ca 1.0 1.01.4 1.53.0 Mg 0.20 0.200.29 0.300.80 Na 0.02 Cl 0.3 Dry weight (ppm) Fe 60 6099 100250

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Cu 4 45 Mn 20 2039 Zn 15 1519 B 20 2024 indicates that levels are not established Source: Ref. 92

616 40160 2050 2560

Page 218 Table 8 Estimated Annual Removal of Nutrients by Mature Plum Trees Element Amount (kg/ha) Element Amount (kg/ha) N 24.662.6 Ca 3.911.6 P 4.613.1 Mg 2.16.7 K 23.361.8 Source: Ref. 94

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Teskey and Shoemaker (7) recommended application of 224336 kg/ha of complete fertilizer in plum orchards. For optimum yield, different workers recommended different rates of N, P2O5, and K2O) (kg/ha) as 45:45:45 (96), 120:60:60 (97), 120:30:150 (98), and 200:240:300 (94). Cartier (99) reported application of mineral fertilizer in autumn and spring at a total rate of (kg/ha/year) 70120 N, 80120 P2O5, and 160220 K2O. Azad and Sharma (100) recommended application of 60 kg FYM and 500, 250, and 600 g of N, P2O5, and K2O to the fully grown plum tree. The heavy application of K fertilizer is necessary for prune trees during years of heavy cropping to prevent collapse of trees.

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The entire dose of P and K along with farmyard manure is applied in DecemberJanuary, whereas half of the N is applied before flowering and the remaining half after fruit set. Under rainfed conditions, N fertilizers are applied in one lot, 15 days before bud break (101). Normally the fertilizer is spread evenly over the surface under the branches. Smith et al. (102) found that N application could be reduced by 51% when it was applied in trickle irrigation water without any reduction in yield or leaf N content. The effects of different methods of K application are usually noticeable by their effect on leaf K content. In plums cv. Agen, Uriu et al. (103) observed better K uptake when it was applied in drip irrigation than from deep placement in conjunction with sprinkler irrigation.

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Soil application of nutrients has been found to become limiting due to different constraints such as steep gradient of the soil, poor aeration, drought conditions, rootstocks, and nutrient interactions. Under such conditions foliar feeding has been reported to provide a better possibility to supplement the nutrient requirements. However, plums have been reported to be less responsive than apple and citrus. Ystaas (82) and Leece and Dirou (104) did not observe any effect on yield when urea was sprayed on plum trees in spring or autumn. La Rue and Gerdts (45) did not recommend foliar sprays, as plum trees absorbed little N by this method of application. Nevertheless, significant response to growth, yield, and leaf N status by foliar application have also been reported (1,105,106). Mishra (107) reported that autumn urea sprays improved the yield of Santa Rosa plum. Increase in fruit yield following autumn urea sprays indicate the high effectiveness of this method for

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building up tree N reserves, which are critical for tree development in early spring. 6. Irrigation In order to attain good fruit size, sufficient new growth, and flower bud differentiation, plum orchards must be irrigated. It is not necessary, however, to maintain the soil moisture far above the permanent wilting percentage (7), as no advantage in terms of higher percentage of large fruits have been observed. If the available soil moisture becomes a limiting factor before the fruits are fully grown, then the percentage of large-sized fruits may decrease markedly (108). La Rue and

Gerdts (45) stated that plum requires readily availab decreasing amounts for rest of the season.

The irrigation can be done by furrow, portable pipe widely used because it requires less water per year total water requirement for the entire season varies rigation requirements of plum depends on the soil t rangement of the trees (109,110). 7. Fruit Thinning

Most Japanese-type plums tend to bear heavy crops duce limb breakage, to increase fruit size and unifo late floral initiation for the next year's crop. Thinnin produce maximum-sized fruits (45). Thinning is ge or by using chemicals (Table 9) from full bloom to ages of chemical thinning over hand or mechanical better fruit size, and improved fruit quality (122). H often varies greatly. This lack of consistency is a co D. Diseases and Pests

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1. Diseases

Bacterial Canker (Pseudomonas syringae or P. mo (gummosis) on bark or outer sapwood and fruits is with all cultivars and species. Disease development of early spring. Also, frosty weather during bloom a of bacterial canker. The disease may be controlled b fungicides such as copper oxychloride (0.3%).

Crown Gall (Agrobacterium tumefaciens). Crown g in the temperate fruit areas. The organisms live in t soil. Infection takes place through wounds. Galls st result from hyperplasia and hypertrophy of cells. C nursery stock, since nothing can be done after the o gall-resistant rootstocks should be used to avoid lat

Oak Root Fungus (Armillarella mellea). The fungu the trunk. Infected trees show progressive yellowin ted growth

Table 9 Important Fruit-Thinning Chemicals for Plums Chemical Concentration (ppm) NAA 1050 Petal fal

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NAAm 3-CPA 2,4,5-T 2,4,5-TP Sevin DNOC CEPA Paclobutrazol (PP 333)

20100 100300 225 50100 10002500 10002500 100500 10002500

Petal fal Full bloo Full bloo Full bloo Full bloo Full bloo Petal fal 2030 da

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because of trunk girdling and death of the root system. Soil fumigation in autumn after fruit harvest with carbon bisulfide is recommended for control. The fumigant should not be applied closer than 22.7 m from any living tree, as the material is toxic to living roots.

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Brown Rot (Monilina fructicola). In brown rot, both blossoms and fruits are attacked. The first symptoms are browning and death of blossoms, which persist on the tree. On fruit, it begins as a tiny brown spot and rapidly enlarges to a large, soft, watery, brown area. Within a few days, the entire fruit is infected. The disease extends from them into shoots, causing wilting and cankering on the young branches. The disease can be controlled by spraying trees with Difolatan (0.15%) or Captan (0.3%) about 3 weeks before harvest. Diseased and mummified fruits on trees as well as from the orchard floor should be collected and burnt.

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Cytospora Canker (Cytospora lucostima). Canker prevalent on the European plums, while Japanese plums are resistant to the disease. The fungus usually infects limb areas weakened by sunburn, overcropping, and scale insects. Cankers develop in the bark along main scaffolds, resulting in girdling and sudden collapse. Shot hole borers are believed to spread the disease. Good cultural practices such as adequate fertilization, irrigation, and scale insect control are important in preventing canker. Application of Bordeaux paste on weakened limbs also help in preventing occurrence of the disease. Plum Pocket (Taphrina pruni). Plum pocket affects the fruit, which become greatly enlarged, distorted, hollow, and bladderlike. It is readily controlled by any fungicidal spray containing copper (7).

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Black Knot (Dibotryon morbosum). The symptoms of black knot appear as large, black, cankerlike growth on the wood. Control of this fungal disease requires removal of the affected portion showing the swelling. If black knot appears on the trunk, its practical control is not possible, but the tree may live for several years depending on the severity of infection. Infected prunings are burned to control the disease.

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Sharka or Plum Pox. Sharka or plum pox virus is transmitted by aphids and by budding and grafting material. The disease is characterized by chlorotic leaves and shallow depressions on the fruit. Occasionally, the leaves may show reddish patches, bands, or rings. Irregular or ring-shaped depressions appear all over the fruit surface. The spread of the disease can be checked by removing and burning the infected trees as soon as they are detected (123). Control of aphids by the application of organophosphorus insecticides is also helpful in checking the spread of the disease.

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Prune Dwarf. The viral disease prune dwarf is transmitted through budding and grafting material. The disease is indicated by small, narrow, thickened, and distorted leaves, with reduced terminal growth due to shortened internodes. The fruits become abnormally enlarged. No control measure is presently available. The spread of the virus, however, can be checked by planting only indexed plants. Plum Line Pattern. Plum line pattern is a viral disease which is transmitted through grafting and affects the foliage only (124). The symptoms in the leaf are quite similar to sharka except that they are more sharply defined and frequently follow the vein structure. The infected trees remain stunted; leaf size, trunk growth, and fruit quality are reduced. The disease can be prevented only by planting certified virus-indexed trees. Infected seedlings can be made virus free by heat therapy.

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2. Pests San Jose Scale (Quadraspidiotus perniciosus). San Jose scale is a serious pest of fruits including plum and is distributed throughout the fruitgrowing areas of the world. The adults,

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which feed on sap from limbs, twigs, and fruits, are small, circular, and gray. Less infested trees show small grayish specks on the bark, covered with a gray layer of overlapping scales that appear as if they were sprayed with wood ash. Dead leaves adhering to fruit spurs during the dormant season indicate the presence of San Jose scale. Effective control is usually obtained by universal oil spray (IL 50 L water) during the spring crawler hatch in early May. Alternatively, spray with suitable insecticides such as chlorpyriphos (0.4%), fenitrothion (0.05%), dimethoate (0.03%), or phosphamidon (0.03%) to kill the crawlers during May (101).

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Stem Borer (Anarsia lineatella). Stem borers attack the fruits and twig terminals. To control this, the hole is cleared with flexible wire and then a cotton wick soaked in gasoline or methyl parathion (0.2%) is inserted and the hole is plugged with mud. In case of fruit infestation, 0.05% endosulfan or fenitrothion is sprayed. Plum Fruit Moth (Laspeyresia pomonella, L. funebrana). The plum fruit moth larvae enter both immature and mature fruit and tunnel deeply into the fruit tissue. The entrance is usually surrounded by grass and droplets of gum (123). For effective control, carbaryl (0.1%) is applied about a month before the anticipated date of harvest.

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Plum Sawflies (Haplocampa minuta, H. flava). Plum sawflies lay their eggs on flower sepals. The white grubs that emerge damage the young fruits by boring holes into them and feeding on the fruit tissue and kernel. For effective control, spray just after petal fall with insecticides based on carbaryl, demeton, or dimethoate.

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Nematodes. The nematodes that attack plum roots are Meloidogyne incognita (root-knot nematodes), Pratylenchus prunil (lesion nematodes), and Criconemoides sp. (ring nematodes). Nematode infestation leads to malfunctioning of the roots, as a result of which the above-ground parts of plants show stunting and yellowing of leaves. Proper rootstock selection can reduce the damage caused by the root-knot nematode, to which Marianna 2624, Myrobalan 29 C, and Nemaguard are resistant. In case of nematode infestation, carbofuran granules are applied (100300 g/tree, depending on the size of the tree). In case of bearing trees, the granules should be applied after harvest of the crop. E. Maturity.

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Optimum maturity standards are dependent on the cultivar and the intended use of the fruit (6). Plums destined for long-distance transportation have to be picked at a firm ripe stage. The maturity indices used for plums and prunes include skin and flesh color, flesh firmness, juiciness, soluble solids, and ratio of soluble solids to acids. Fisher (126) found that total soluble solids (TSS) content of the flesh was a more consistent index of eating quality of plums than flesh firmness. However, flesh color, TSS-toacid ratio, and firmness were found to be reliable indices of maturity of plum (127,128). According to Biondi et al. (129), except for skin color, all other parameters used for maturity indices were correlative. The optimum picking maturity varies from cultivar to cultivar. For Santa Rosa plums it was calculated to be 94 3 days from full bloom (125). In California, French prunes require an average of 158 days to mature, with a range of 145165 days (6).

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Sprays of different chemicals affected various physicochemical characteristics of Japanese plum; for instance, with KNO3 the size of the fruits increased, while Ca (NO3)2 enhanced their firmness (130). Similarly, the application of growth regulators/retardants as such or in combination with other chemicals influenced various chemical characteristics of the treated fruits (131,132). Another growth retardant, Semifresh, prevented undesirable changes in the properties of the fruit (133) and has the potential for enhancing the postharvest life of plum fruits.

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F. Harvesting

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Plums usually ripen unevenly over the tree. Therefore, fruit should be harvested in two or three pickings. Plums which are picked for canning are usually harvested at one time. They are picked by hand into buckets or baskets with padded liners, or into picking bags. So far as possible, the peduncle should be allowed to remain attached to the fruit. Precautions must be taken not to puncture the fruit with fingernails, etc. Care should also be taken to prevent direct exposure of the fruit to sun. Attempts to harvest plums mechanically have not succeeded due to the susceptibility of the fruit to physical damage. However, prunes are now harvested mechanically. Further, mechanical harvesting of prunes resulted in gathering of more than 75% of the crop (134). Skin color of mature oriental plums varies from light green to yellow, redblushed, or solid red. Each cultivar has its characteristics color relating to readiness for harvest; for instance, beauty, having 85% surface

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yellowish green or trace of red, and Santa Rosa, with 40% of surface red color, or full light greenish yellow. Further, beauty with yellowish green color at harvest will be completely red when the ripening process is completed. Coloring and softening are the major changes. Soluble solids do not increase appreciably after harvest. Containers for prunes and plums include baskets, crates, wood lugs, and cartons. The use of fiber board is increasing for tight-fill and tray packs. Plums are packed in shallow crates about 45 in. deep, packing not more than three layers of fruit. After packing the fruit should be cooled immediately to 0C, which would stop the ripening process in plums for a period of about 12 days (7). G. Packaging and Transportation

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In packaging, the fruits are assembled in convenient units for handling and transportation to protect them during marketing and storage operations. Improvements in packaging have contributed greatly to more efficient transportation and marketing of fresh fruits (135). Among the packaging materials most commonly used in earlier times were woven leaves, grass stems which have been replaced by wood, cardboard, and recently plastics. Plastic film is most effective in minimizing the loss of moisture and nutrients from fresh fruits. Packages such as waxed fiber board cartons, parchment wraps, and other specially treated packing materials retard moisture loss significantly. While refrigerated trains or trucks are common in some developed countries for the transportation of fruits, most countries have to be satisfied with ordinary truck or trains, resulting in far greater losses. Packaging of Santa Rosa plums revealed that existing conventional wooden boxes fabricated from Pinus

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roxburghii can be substituted by the woods of Prunus puddum, Lannea caromantalica, Toona ciliata, and Celtis australis trees. These boxes also maintained fruit quality during transportation (136). IV. Chemical Composition

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The approximate composition of the fruit is given in Table 10. The fruit is a rich source of sugars. It has very little starch and no sucrose at the immature stage, but the latter increases during ripening and its concentration exceeds the reducing sugar content. D-glucitol, sorbitol, galactose, mannose, arabinose, rhamnose raffinose, and xylose are the other sugars detected in plum (137,138). Although D-glucouronic acid is rare in the free state, it is found as a constituent of many polysacchrides such as gum of fruits. Amygdalin, a glycoside, is present in the seed of plum fruit. Various pectic substances contribute to the texture of the fruit (139,141). Phenolic substances present in the plum fruit include neochlorogenic catechin, caeffeic acid, chlorogenic acid, and rutine (143,144), with phenolic acid as the predominant phenol. Their distribution in pulp and

Page 223 Table 10 Approximate Composition of Plum Fruit Component Range Fruit 36126 Fresh weight (g) 8688 Water (g/100 g of edible portion) 0.40.8 Protein (%) 0.1 Fat (%) 6.79.9 Total sugar (%) 0.93.4 Fructose (%) 1.75.2 Glucose (%) 1.04.2 Sucrose (%) 1.32.4 Dietary fibers (%) 1.42.7 Organic acid (total) (meq H+/100 g) 0.142.54 Malic acid 0.030.04 Citric acid 0.120.41 Quinic acid 0.3 Ash (%) 125187 Energy (kj) 16.330.5 Titratable acidity (meq H+/100 g) Minerals (mg/100 g) 120190 K 0.03.0 Na

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Ca Mg Fe Zn Vitamins (mg/100 g) Vitamin C Thiamin Riboflavin Niacin Carotene Flavanon (mg/100 g) Anthocyanin (mg/100 g) Pectin (%) Kernel (% by weight) Water Protein Fat Lecithin Carbohydrates Ash Fiber Amygdalin Phosphorus

6.08.0 4.07.0 0.10.4 0.1 4.011.0 0.020.05 0.040.05 0.20.9 0.260.78 46.357.0 926 0.810.98 9.6 20.023.9 39.5 0.15 15.0 3.4 12.2 0.3 0.3

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HCN Sources: Refs. 138, 139, 140, and 142.

0.07

Page 224 Table 11 Type and Concentration (mg/g dry weight) of Phenolic Compounds in Plum Fruit Phenolic compound Pulp Exocarp Neochlorogenic acid 2.6 6.25 Chlorogenic acid 0.11 1.37 Caffeic acid 0.055 0.036 Catechin 0.10 0.74 Rutin 2.20 Anthocyanins 6.30 Proanthocyanins 0.79 0.59 Source: Ref. 144

exocarp of fruit is shown in Table 11. Some of these compounds contribute to the astringent taste of the fruit

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The major organic acids found in plums are malic and quinic acid, which impart an acidic taste to the fruits. Flavanones are also present, but due to their lack of color these are not easily detected. Though the fruit has other vitamins also, it is vitamin C which is present in a quantity to be of nutritional significance. The protein content of the fruit is low, like other fruits, and the chief amino acids present include asparagine, aspartic acid, glutamic acid, glutamine, serine, threonine, a-alanine, g-aminobutyric acid, valine, leucine, and proline, besides traces of hydroxy proline. The color of the fruit is mostly contributed by anthocyanins, which are located in the epidermal layers. The color effects of anthocyanin have been explained based on their complexes with metals. Their color shades are dependent on the pH of the medium. Cyanidin-3-rutinoside and peonidin-3-rutinoside are the major anthocyanins of plum. Anthocyanin content increases in fruit as they approach

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maturity. Carotenoides also contribute to the color of some plum cultivars and are affected by drying (145). The fruit is a good source of minerals such as K, Na, Ca, Mg, Fe, and Zn A number of compounds have been associated with ripening of plum, including a variety of terpenes, alcohols, aldehydes, and esters (4), which may distinguish a ripe fruit from an underripe one. The aroma of plum blossoms is due to the presence of benzaldehyde. The surface of the fruit contains wax layers containing D-glucose, L-arabinose, D-xylose, L-rhamnose, gluconic acid, and hexanoic acid Prunes contain low sodium, a higher level of dietary fiber, iron, b-carotene, and potassium (Table 12), besides being a natural laxative. Prune juice could be used as humactant (146). Its consumption reduces plasma low-density lipoprotein cholesterol significantly compared to grape juice (147)

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The composition of plum pit shows that it is a source of proteins and fats. A fatty oil can be extracted from the kernel which is bitter in taste and has in it HCNa toxic compound. It can be used as a lubricant, an illuminant, and for hair dressing (140) V. Storage The plum is a climacteric fruit and has a short shelf life (148). To extend the storage life of fruit (149), its temperature must be lowered as soon after harvest as possible. Precooling which removes field heat from the fruit should be done immediately after harvesting, packaging, and

Page 225 Table 12 Nutrient and Mineral Content of Fresh Plums and Dried Prunes Content (per 100 g edible portion) Nutrient Plum Prune Moisture (%) 85.2 32.4 Energy value (kJ) 230.0 1000.0 Carbohydrate (g) 11.0 55.5 Dietary fiber (g) 2.0 7.2 Protein (g) 0.8 2.6 Total fat (g) 0.6 0.5 Nicotinic acid (mg) 0.5 2.0 Pantothenic acid (mg) 0.18 0.46 Riboflavin (mg) 0.10 0.16 Thiamin (mg) 0.04 0.08 2.0 4.0 Folic acid (mg) 192.0 1194.0 Vitamin A (mg) Vitamin B (mg) 0.08 0.26 Vitamin C (mg) 10.0 3.0 Vitamin E (mg) 0.65 Sodium (mg) 0 4.0 Potassium (mg) 172.0 745.0 Calcium (mg) 4.0 51.0 Magnesium (mg) 7.0 45.0

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Phosphorus (mg) Iron (mg) Copper (mg) Zinc (mg) Source: Ref. 137

10.0 0.1 0.04 0.10

79.0 2.5 0.43 0.53

palletizing (150). The ideal storage condition for plums are a temperature of -0.6 to 0C and a relative humidity of 8590%. The storage period depends on the cultivar. Most cultivars can not be stored for longer than 34 weeks, but others can be stored for up to 3 months. Some varieties exhibit chilling injury if stored at 0C for a long time. To prevent chilling injury, the temperature is raised from -0.6C to about 7C after 710 days, and this temperature is maintained for the rest of the storage period (4). A. Postharvest Diseases

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Plums are very susceptible to mechanical damage resulting from fruit compression during packing. Bruising is also caused by vibration during transit (149). The bruised tissue first appears to be water soaked or glossy and later on turns brown. Higher temperatures also accelerate the process. Prunes may also split or crack along the sides or ends, causing faster decay. Brown rot, rhizopus rot, blue mold rot, cladosporium rot, and gray mold rot are the important diseases causing severe postharvest losses. The amount of decay during storage and reduction of molds by chemical treatment is related directly to the method of harvest and temperature of incubation.

Page 226

Molds that cause decay are species of Cladosporium, Monilinia, Rhizopus, Mucor, Penicillium, Botrytis, Alternaria, and Aspergillus. Prunes treated with chlorine, estconazole, and potassium sorbate showed no mold growth up to 10 days and significantly reduced decay (149). Prunes harvested mechanically showed significantly less decay than hand-picked prunes.

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There is a lack of awareness among marketers of the need for postharvest protection of fruits from fungal attack. The common methods of control include preharvest fungicidal spray, fumigation of fruits by gases and dips in antibiotics (151), fruit wrappers and skin coating (152), gammaradiation (153), a combination of heat and chemical treatments (154), and use of wax emulsions (155). According to Krishnaih et al. (156), postharvest application of food-grade fruit coating containing fungicide or O-phenylphenol (OPP) as an active ingredient controlled fungal rots in alu-bukhara fruits (plum) caused by Aspergillus niger, Geotrichum candidum, Monilinia fructicola, Rhizopus stolonifer, Trichoderma, and Penicillium digitatum. B. Low-Temperature Storage

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A storage temperature of about 0C with 9095% relative humidity has been recommended to hold both European and Japanese plums for about 24 weeks, depending on the cultivar and the stage of fruit maturity (157). At low storage temperature (04C), fruit development is distinctly slower than at higher temperatures (812C). Slightly unripe plums had better resistance to fungal infection than tree-ripe plums (158). Plums with higher soluble solids content and picked late could be stored for 45 months (157). The nonsealed polyethylene liners used in the containers further reduces loss of moisture.

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During storage, loss in weight ranging from 1.4 to 2.3% due to shriveling in plum fruits is commonly observed, depending on the cultivar, while the loss due to diseases ranged from 08.9% after 30 days of storage at 01C and 9095% RH immediately after harvest, depending on the variety (159). Storage losses were found to depend on the time of picking, infection by Botrytis cinerea and Monilinia spp., and the temperature of storage, but the effects of these factors varied with the varieties (160). If fruits are held longer in cold storage, there is a danger that shriveling, mealiness, internal browning, and abnormal flavor will develop. However, ripening of early Italian prunes was enhanced by a few days' exposure to low temperature (161). These prunes develop more color, have less acid, and are softer than prunes ripened immediately at ripening temperature without cold treatment. Treatment of plum fruits with wax emulsion was effective in reducing

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percent loss in weight and spoilage during storage (162). Internal breakdown has been associated with maturity stage and storage temperatures of the fruits. The use of dual-temperature storage reduces considerably the incidence of internal breakdown compared to a single-temperature regime in Songold plums (163,164). C. Controlled-Atmosphere Storage

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Controlled atmosphere (1% O2 and less than 0.2% CO2) extended the storage life of Englishgrown Victoria plums up to 4 weeks at -0.6C. The interruption of storage by 2 days at 18.3C in air after the 16th day further extended the storage life and reduced internal browning and jellying (165,166). The exposure of Italian prunes to CO2 concentrations of 2060% for 2 days at 7.2C prior to storage at 0C reduced softening and decay (167). Sealing of plums in polyethylene bags extended the storage life of fruits, most probably by accumulation of a higher concentration of CO2 in the sealed polyethylene bags (168,169). The CO2 also retarded color and ripening of plums in transit and increased their marketable life (170). Exposure to a lowO2 atmosphere inhibited ripening, including a reduction in ethylene production rate, retardation of skin color, and flesh softening with maintenance of titratable acidity. However, the most important detrimental effect

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Page 227

of low-O2 treatment has been the development of an alcoholic off-flavor that had a logarithmic relationship with ethanol content of fruit skin (171). Plums cv. Santa Rosa and Songold could be stored under controlled atmosphere at 0.5C in 4% O2 + 5% or 7% CO2 for 14 days in excellent condition without internal browning (172). D. Hypobaric Storage.

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Ripening of plums was greatly delayed at 100 mm Hg and 20C, but at 6C there was no difference in ripening between normal and lowpressure storage (173,174). Hypobaric storage is also a form of controlled-atmosphere storage in which the produce is stored in a partial vacuum. The vacuum chamber is vented continuously with water-saturated air to maintain O2 levels and minimize water loss (175). Reduction in partial pressure of oxygen and reduction in ethylene levels in hypobaric storage result in retarded ripening of fruits (176). E. Irradiation

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The ionizing radiations have been found particularly useful to disinfect the produce from fruitflies and other insect pests and to extend the shelf life of produce by restricting the growth of pathogenic microorganisms and slowing down the rate of metabolism of the produce (176). The advantages of gamma-radiation (177) over other procedures include its use as a continuous and more effective process without residual radioactivity or chemical residue. The preservation and extension of the refrigerated life of fresh fruits by irradiation is of considerable interest to postharvest technologists. However, it is dependent on a number of factors such as cultivar maturity, permeability of packaging materials, preirradiation chemical treatment, and storage temperature employed. Among the vitamins, ascorbic acid is the most radiosensitive vitamin (176). Use of radiation (up to 1 kGY) in disinfestation of Cepatitis capitata prevented its eggs from hatching. Based on triangle tests, no

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difference in sensory qualities in plums with or without irradiation could be detected except for the change in color (178). However, before the process can be utilized, it should meet the criteria laid down: There must be higher tolerance of host to radiation than spoiling organisms or metabolites, it must be more economical than other treatments, and the wholesomeness of the treated fruits must be confirmed. VI. Processing Most plums are dehydrated to prunes. Some are canned, and a few are used for preparation of jams, jellies, beverages, wines, and brandies. A. Jam

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Like all other fruits, jam or jelly can be prepared from plum fruit, but most of the times it is used in the preparation of mixed-fruit jam. The procedure is similar to that for any other fruit. Analysis of plum jam detected the presence of sugars such as a- and b-maltose and glucose besides sucrose (179). Late-ripening varieties are generally more suited than early ripening ones, mainly due to their better acid sugar balance and high dry matter content (180). B. Juice Prune juice is not a fruit juice in the usual sense but rather a water extract of dried prunes (181). It is rich in minerals and acts as a mild laxative. Prune juice has become a popular breakfast drink in the United States (146). According to Woodroof and Luh (182), prune juice is produced either by a

diffusion or a disintegration process. In the diffusio are leached out in a succession of hot water extracti juice by the disintegration process, the prunes are c integrator; a filter aid is added to the slurry, which i process gives higher yield than the former. Salunkh based on the use of enzyme to rapidly hydrolyze th the juice, the fruits could be steamed for 810 min, p skin and seeds, followed by enzyme treatment for 6 22.523 Brix, flash-pasteurized to 88C, and filled the top, the containers are inverted and then cooled ized alternatively (182). Addition of pectinolytic en yield, causing a slight change in total soluble solids crease in apparent viscosity (Table 13) and improvi fecting the flavor (184).

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Processed prune juice possesses unique characterist butyric acid, citrulline, O-phosphoethanolamine, an anins, (-)epicatechin, phloridzin, and acids such as presence of anthocyanin in prune juices would be a while its degradation was found to be enhanced by fural (HMF). Cultural practices, season, maturity, s affect fruit juice composition. A natural plum juice duced (185,186). C. Beverages

Plum fruits are utilized to a limited extent in the pre types, such as ready-to-serve beverages, nectar, squ acidic, not more than 40% juice can be used in swe nectar, 20% juice extracted enzymatically, with 15 Another product from such a juice is plum appetize tract which includes mint extract (0.4%), ginger (0. cumin (0.25%), cardamom (0.25%), black pepper ( benzoate (0.065%). D. Concentrates

1149/2989

Prune juice concentrate is made from prune juice or by heat processing. However, frozen concentrate is bottled or canned. According to Woodroof and Luh ing pectinol enzyme and the filtered juice is then ev preserved by freezing and marketed as
Table 13 Effect of Enzymatic Treatment on Physicochemical Enzyme level Juice yield (%) (%) No enzyme 60.0 0.5 79.0 1.0 82.0 1.5 78.6 Source: Ref. 184. TSS ( Brix) 9.6 9.0 9.0 9.2

Titratable acidity (%) 2.0 2.1 2.1 2.1

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frozen prune juice concentrate. Preparation of plum juice concentrate is one of the best methods of utilizing fruits during glut seasons (188). When subjected to concentration at 5060C under vacuum of 6976 cm Hg, plum juice can be concentrated to 73 Brix (189). The increased concentration enhances total soluble solids, total solids, reducing sugars, browning, and viscosity, while it decreases acidity and pectin content slightly. E. Canned Plums

1151/2989

Canning of plums is an important industry in several countries such as Great Britain (182). Plum canning consists of washing and destemming fruits simultaneously, followed by grading. The graded plums are inspected for imperfections and filled into cans or glass jars, either by hand packing or using automatic filling machines. Either hot syrup or water at 8893C is then added. The concentration of syrup may range from 0 to 55%. The filled cans, which are double seamed, are exhausted at 8893C for 810 min. The average time for processing the cans in boiling water is 1035 min depending upon the can size. The heat-processed cans are cooled in a rotary cooler with water spray to 38C or air cooled.

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Prunes are a less important crop than peaches and pears with respect to canning. Italian cultivars of prunes are canned in the fresh state and labeled as purple plums. The process of canning is similar to that for plums with the exception that the prunes are packed in 40 Brix syrup in enameled cans. For canning, the prunes are harvested at firm ripe stage. Large-size dried prunes of the French cultivar prune de Agon are used for canning. Before canning, prunes with 18% moisture are blanched in boiling water for 45 min, rinsed, and packed into cans after sorting and making allowance for the dried prunes to take up part of the syrup during processing and storage. Usually, the syrup used for canning is 20 Brix. The rest of the procedure is the same as for plums.

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Prunes can also be canned as dry pack prunes in a similar manner except that syrup is not used and the cans after the first roller operation are exhausted for 20 min in live steam, sealed, and allowed to cool in air. Before serving, these are cooked in water and are used as a betweenmeals snack (190). Mature plums are usually picked before optimal ripeness and maximum color development based on texture rather than color, as they are then more resistant to bruising during mechanical harvesting and soften less during pasteurization.

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In sensory tests, firmer plums are generally preferred to softer fruits. Sensory intensity ratings of the color of canned plum halves show good agreement with total anthocyanin content. To avoid artificial coloring, ripe fruits of anthocyanin-rich plum cultivars should be used (191). The anthocyanin concentration of canned plums increased considerably when plum cultivars with high initial anthocyanin content were canned, but successive softening and sloughting of ripe plums could be prevented by the addition of 500 ppm CaCl2 (191). The increase in firmness is due to the reaction of divalent ions with the free carboxylic groups of pectates. However, the use of various pure can liquids (distilled water, sucrose, glucose compound syrup in distilled water or combined with other additives, e.g. ascorbic acid, citric acid, EDTA, SO2, and Ca2+ added separately) did not stabilize the anthocyanin content. Anthocyanins diffuse from the skin into the can liquid during storage, as

1155/2989

revealed by the analysis of color by absorption spectroscopy. Overripe plums, which are usually considered unsuitable for industrial canning, produced canned plums with higher anthocyanin content than the conventional product, necessitating reconsideration of present industrial quality criteria (192). Upon comparison of traditionally canned plums with skin in pouches (with or without added sugar), it was observed that stability of total anthocyanin increases with decreasing amount of fluid surrounding the fruit. Preservation of plums in this type of packaging requires very little

Page 230

liquid and therefore results in better retention of color and sensory quality of product (191). During processing and storage of plums, the decrease in pigmentation has been attributed to polymerization, and the condensed anthocyanins have better stability than monomeric molecular diffusions (193,194). The overall loss of pigment from skin by diffusion can be reduced considerably by processing skins in pouches without added liquid (191). A combination of plums and aronia fruit can be used in compote production (195). The phenomenon of cyanogenesis in canned stone fruits including plums has also been described (196). F. Dried Plums.

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About 75% of the world's supply of dried prunes is produced in California and in the Pacific Northwest. Although sun drying was very common earlier, today they are mostly dehydrated, to prevent spoilage during the rains. The French prune cultivar is most commonly selected for dehydration, as well as imperial sugar varieties. Prunes are prepared for drying by cleaning with air blast and water sprays, dipping in cold or hot water, followed by spreading in a single layer on trays and dehydrated to 18% moisture in a forced-air tunnel dehydrator.

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Conventional dried prunes are sometimes dried to a very low moisture content (4.0%) in a vacuum shelf drier. Being free flowing and hygroscopic, dehydrated prunes require very careful handling and packaging. Pitted prunes are dehydrated after perforation to achieve better dehydration and reconstitution character. Dried prunes, prune flakes, nuggets, and granules are also available commercially for use in fillings and other bakery spreads, while low-moisture prune powder is utilized as a sweetening and flavoring agent in whole wheat or rye bread (182).

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An innovative process called osmotic dehydration has been described for drying fruit pieces/ slices or chunks when exposed to concentrated sugar syrups or salt to remove about 50% water from the fruit by osmosis (197,198). The partially dried fruit can be further dried by conventional dehydration technology including vacuum; in the latter case it is called Osmovac. The process has several advantages, including reduction of time of exposure to high temperature, minimal heat damage to color and flavor, acid reduction in some fruit, and incorporation of more sugar, thereby increasing the acceptability of the final product.

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Pretreatment of Santa Rosa plums with a boiling solution of Na2CO3 (3%) + ethyloleate (2%) for 45 s followed by osmotic dehydration produced an acceptable product (199). Similarly, osmotically dried prunes were found to be excellent in physicochemical characteristics and sensory qualities (200). Thermal treatment of the fruit reduced the overall quantity and quality of the isolated wax, converted the cuticular layer of the plum from hydrophobic to hydrophilic, increased the osmotic rate, and shortened the drying time (201). During dehydration, degradation of dihydroxycinnamic acid was found to be related directly to the evolution of polyphenol oxidase activity, and the degradation was worse when the drying temperature was low; the reverse was true with flavanoids (144). However, anthocyanin changed only during the initial hours of drying.

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A recent approach in drying is the thin-layer dehydration of plums at a temperature of 60120C, an air moisture content of 0.0081.8889 kg/water, and an air velocity of 0.52 m/s (202). Drying of prunes in multishelf dryers using solar-heated air in turbulent flux over the material has also received some attention, although in variable climates some conventional energy may be required to give additional air heating (203). G. Purees Puree is an intermediate product which can be used for processing into different products. It is packaged aseptically. An aseptic bulk storage system for acid fluid products was developed which

includes pulping, concentration, preheating, deaera to achieve microbiological and enzymatic stabilizat ing prior to storage of the sterilized product (182). W moisture, 47.7% fat, and 13.6% sugars (including la product of excellent organoleptic quality was obtain unsalted sweet cream butter (57%) with plum puree (10%), and granulated sugar (8%) (204). The prune used in ice cream mix, confectionery products, and H. Steep-Preserved Plum

The preservation of fruits by steeping does not requ equipment or packaging materials. It is of practical fruit industry in terms of extending the seasonal ava the fruits. However, plums cannot be preserved in s tion for long, as they lose color, texture, and flavor (205). I. Wine

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Plum fruit gives wine with an appealing color and a quality. The pulp is fermented to produce the wine. grapes, the sugar content originally present in the fr tractive, but the color and flavor make plums accep wines are quite popular in many countries, particula many and Pacific coastal states (206).

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To prepare plum wine, for every pound of plum, 1 l is added followed by addition of starter culture. The allowed to ferment for 810 days before pressing. It impossible to press the fruit before fermentation (20 of pectolytic enzyme before fermentation facilitates creasing the yield of juice and hastening wine clarif tional sugar may be added to the partially fermented pending on the type of wine required, i.e., table or d filtration, bottling, and processing is similar to that wine. According to Vyas and Joshi (207), for prepa wine, the plum fruits should be fully ripe, diluted w 1:1 ratio (whole-fruit basis), and 0.3% pectinol, 150 and enough sugar to raise TSS of the must to 24 B added. A considerable improvement in the quality o wine takes place upon raising the sugar content of t Brix. Potassium metabisulfite (KMS) is commonly wine fermentations (206), but it reduces the color o The use of sodium benzoate instead of KMS produc better color and sensory qualities without affecting chemical characteristics (208). Some of the physico characteristics of a plum wine are given in Table 14

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Table 14 Physicochemical Characteristics of Plum Wine Characteristics Ethanol (% v/v) Total soluble solids (Brix) Titratable acidity (% malic acid) Volatile acidity (% acetic acid) Esters (mg/liter) Color (tintometer color units) Red Yellow Total coloring matter and tannins (mg/100 ml) Source: Refs. 207 and 208.

Table 15 Mineral Content of Plum Wine of Different Varietie Mineral content Variety Na K Mg Ca Fe Methley 26 1450 20 93 4. Green gage 15 1258 20 139 6. Santa Rosa 20 1008 18 82 12. Source: Ref. 220.

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Among the cultivars evaluated, Santa Rosa plums m quality (209). The mineral content of wine (Table 1 methley, and green gage plums was desirable from tional points of view (210). Plum fruit is acidic in n atable wine, besides dilution of the pulp with water able is use of a yeast, Schizosaccharomyces pombe, agent in plum must besides Saccharomyces cerevis used for alcohol production (211). The deacidificat this yeast was independent of the sugar content of t adversely affected by 2.5 pH and SO2 content of mo while addition of ammonium sulfate enhanced the m by this yeast (213). However, the activity of the yea higher concentrations of ethanol, and the color of th quantity of the acid metabolized. More information needed before making use of this approach to prepa

1168/2989

To produce quality wine, besides acids, a proper ba good fruity flavor are prerequisite. Application of o water blanching the fruit increased TSS and decrea loss in anthocyanin and mineral content occurred. T wine prepared from water blanched and osmotically best (214). The process could become economical i er fruit and vegetable processing.
Table 16 Physicochemical Characteristics of an Experimental Plum Vermouth Total sugars (%) 4.8 Titratable acidity (% malic acid) 0.79 Ethanol (% v/v) 14.5 Volatile acidity (% acetic acid) 0.04 pH 3.34 Vitamin C (mg/100 ml) 3.2 Total phenols (mg/liter) 390 Aldehyde (mg/liter) 112 Esters (mg/liter) 219 Color (tintometer color units) 10.1 Red 9.0 Yellow 0.1 Blue

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Source: Ref. 215

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J. Vermouth Vermouth of commercial acceptability can be prepared from plum (215). Vermouth with increased alcohol contents (Table 16) had increased aldehyde, ester, and phenol contents, but acidity and vitamin C declined. The spices extracted contributed to the increase of total phenols, esters, and aldehyde content. The best product had about 15% alcohol and was sweet in nature K. Plum Brandy Brandies derived from fruits other than grapes are referred to as fruit brandies. Several countries produce true fruit brandies, often highly regarded for their distinctive flavor (206)

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The generic name of plum brandy is Silvovitz and is a national drink of middle European countries such as Romania, Hungary and Yugoslavia. Imported Yugoslavian Silvovitz is often aged in oak, mulberry or acacia cooperage (206). Most of the samples are light yellow and have little evidence of wood-aged character. Plum brandies produced in the Alsace region of France are mostly named after the variety of the fruit used (216). The varieties used are similar to those used for dried prunes. Besides overproduction, a significant amount of cullage fruit, usually having defects of size or side splits made the growers think to utilize the fruit for making Silvovitz from plum. The method of making plum brandy is similar to that of grape brandy produced in large quantities (206)

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The aroma components of an experimental brandy include aliphatic fatty acids, free acids, free fatty acids, aromatic acid, esters, alcohols, ethyl acetate lactone and unsaturated aliphatic aldehydes (217). Fruit traits affected the HCN content in fruit brandies and the prune fruit had the lowest HCN content (218). Among the volatiles were the carboxylic acid, alcohol, and aldehydes found in plum brandy References 1. FAO Production Year Book, Vol. 43, Food and Agriculture Organization, Rome, 1990, p. 210 2. Weinberger, J. H., Plums, Advances in Fruit Breeding (J. Janick and J. N. Moore, eds.), Purdue University Press, Lafayette, IN, 1975, p. 336

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3. Knight, R. L., Prunus, Tech. Commun. Bull. Hort. Plantation Crops 31:649 (1969) 4. Cambrink, J. C., Plums and related fruits, Encyclopaedia of Food Science, Food Technology and Nutrition (R. MaCre, R. K. Robinson, and M. J. Sadler, eds.), Academic Press, London, 1993, p. 3630 5. Crane, M. B., and W. J. Lawrence, The Genetics of Garden Plants, 4th ed., Macmillan, London, 1952 6. Westwood, M. N., Temperate Zone Pomology, W. H. Freeman, San Francisco, 1978, p. 488 7. Teskey, B. J. E., and J. Shoemaker, Tree Fruit Production, 3rd ed., AVI, Westport, CT, 1978, p. 358

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8. Kishore, D. K., R. M. Pandey, and Y. P. Gupta, Plum, Temperate Fruits (S. K. Mitra, D. S. Rathore, and T. K. Bose, eds.), Horticulture and Allied Publishers, Calcutta, 1991, p. 241 9. Norton, J. D., G. E. Boypau, D. A. Smith, and B. R. Abrahams, Santa Rosa plum, Hort. Sci. 26:213 (1991) 10. Ugolik, M., Physiologische Problems in Obtbau, 1970, p. 265 11. Josan, J. S., and G. S. Chohan, Maturity study in plum cv. Kala Amritsari under subtropical conditions, Prog. Hort. 14:11 (1982) 12. Dirninger, N., A. Scheeffer, and N. Humbert, The flavour components of Mirabelle plums: Changes in aroma composition during ripening, Sci. Aliments 9:725 (1989)

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13. Hartmann, H. T., and C. J. Hansen, Rooting of soft wood cuttings of several fruit species under mist, Proc. Am. Soc. Hort. Sci. 66:157 (1955) 14. Misra, R. S., J. P. Tiwari, and K. R. Joshi, Effect of IBA and catechol on the rooting of commercial cultivars of plum grown in U.P. hills, Prog. Hort. 18:24 (1986)

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161. Proebsting, E. L., G. H. Carter, and H. H. Mills, Interaction of low temperature storage and maturity on quality of early Italian prunes, J. Am. Soc. Hort. Sci. 99:117 (1974). 162. Dev, S. S., P. S. Kahlon, and C. S. Sidhu, Effect of various treatments on the shelf life of plum (Prunus salicina L.), National Seminar on Recent Advances on Postharvest Management of Temperate Fruits, Vegetables and Ornamental Plants, Dr. Y. S. Parmar University of Horticulture and Forestry, Solan, India, 1989, p. 22 (Abstr.). 163. DeKock, V. A., Die involved van hanterings-en obergingstemperature op. die Kwalitelt van pruine, Unpublished Report, DFB Technical Department, 1984.

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164. Hartmann, P. E. O., V. A. DeKock, and M. A. Taylor, Picking maturities and cold storage requirements of Songold plums, Deciduous Fruit Growers 38(5):161 (1988). 165. Allen, F. W., Carbon dioxide investigations: Influence of carbon dioxide upon cherries, plums, peaches and pears under simulated transit conditions, Proc. Am. Soc. Hort. Sci. 37:467 (1939). 166. Smith, W. H., The refrigerated storage of Victoria plums in low oxygen atmosphere, J. Hort. Sci. 42:223 (1967). 167. Ryall, A. L., Certain physiological effects of carbon dioxide treatments of plums, Proc. Am. Soc. Hort. Sci. 32:164 (1935).

Page 240

168. Boyes, W. W., Effect of polyethylene on the keeping quality of apricot, peaches and plums, Farming S. Afr. 30:346 (1955). 169. Couey, H. M., Modified atmosphere storage of Nubiana plums, Proc. Am. Soc. Hort. Sci. 86:166 (1965). 170. Allen, F. W., W. T. Pentzer, and C. O. Bratley, Carbon dioxide investigations: Dry ice as a supplement to refrigeration of plums in transit, Proc. Am. Soc. Hort. Sci. 44:141 (1944). 171. Dangyeng, Ke., L. R. Sinobes, and A. A. Kader, Physiology and prediction of fruits tolerance to low oxygen atmospheres, J. Am. Soc. Hort. Sci. 116:253 (1991).

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172. Truter, A. B., and J. C. Combrink, Controlled atmosphere storage of peaches nectarines and plums, J. S. Afr. Soc. Hort. Sci. 2(1):10 (1992). 173. Ueda, Y., M. Nakamoto, and K. Ogata, Keeping quality and control of ripening in various fruits and vegetables in low pressure storage, J. Jpn. Soc. Food Sci. Technol. 27:149 (1980). 174. Salunkhe, D. K., and M. T. Wu, Effects of subatmospheric storage on ripening and associated chemical changes of certain deciduous fruits, J. Am. Soc. Hort. Sci. 98:113 (1973). 175. Salunkhe, D. K., H. R. Bolin, and N. R. Reddy, Storage, Processing and Nutritional Quality of Fruits and Vegetables, 2nd ed., CRC Press, Boca Raton, FL, 1991, p. 243.

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176. Salunkhe, D. K., and B. B. Desai, Postharvest Biotechnology of Fruits, Vol. I, CRC Press, Boca Raton, FL, 1984, p. 157. 177. Salunkhe, D. K., Gamma radiation effects on fruits and vegetables, Econ. Bot. 15(1):28 (1961). 178. Moy, J. H., K. Y. Keneshiro, A. T. Ohta, and N. Nagai, Radiation disinfestation of California stone fruits infested by medfly effectiveness and fruit quality, J. Food Sci. 48:928 (1983). 179. Chepurnoi, I. P., S. M., Kunizhev, and N. A. Katunkin, Gas chromatographic analysis of carbohydrates in liquid food products during crystallization, Izvestiya-vyssbikh-UchebynykhZavendonii-Pischevaya Stavropol 3:30 (1986).

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180. Rein, S. J., K. Otto, and H. Jacob, On the baking quality of important plum and damson varieties, Erwerbsobstbau 30(7):180 (1988). 181. Gorsel, H., L. C. Van, E. L. Kerbel, M. Smiths, and A. A. Kader, Compositional characterization of prune juice. J. Agr. Food. Chem. 40:784 (1992). 182. Woodroof, J. G., and B. S. Luh, Commercial Fruit Processing, AVI, Westport, CT, 1986. 183. Salunkhe, D. K., and H. R. Bolin, Dehydrated protein fortified fruit juice, Food Prod. Dev. 6:84 (1972). 184. Joshi, V. K., S. K. Chauhan, and B. B. Lal, Extraction of juices from peaches, plums and apricots by pectinolytic treatment, J. Food Sci. Technol. 28:64 (1991).

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185. Wani, M. A., and S. P. S. Saini, Processing of plums, J. Food Sci. Technol. 27:304 (1990). 186. Kharchenkeva, O. V., L. T. Kochetova, Z. H. Bonebo, N. Seredich, and V. M. Shashnyi, Production of natural plum juice containing pulp, Konsew Ovoschech Promysh. 3:22 (1976). 187. Joshi, V. K., S. K. Chauhan, and B. B. Lal, Evaluation of enzymatically extracted plum juice for preparation of beverages, J. Food Sci. Technol. 30:208 (1993). 188. Aulch, W., Manufacture of concentrates of plum puree, German Democratic Republic Patent 138597 (1979). 189. Wani, M. A., S. P. S. Saini, and G. S. Bains, Physico-chemical changes during preparation of plum juice concentration, J. Food Sci. Technol. 27:29 (1990).

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190. Luh, B. S., C. E. Kean, and J. G. Woodroof, Canning of fruit, Commercial Fruit Processing (J. G. Woodroof and B. S. Luh, eds.), AVI, Westport, CT, 1986. 191. Weinert, I. A. G., J. Solms, and F. Escher, Diffusion of anthocyanins during processing and storage of canned plums, Lebensm. Wisse-uTechnol. 23:396 (1990). 192. Weinert, I. A. G., J. Solms, and F. Escher, Quality of canned plums with varying degree of ripeness. Chemical characterisation of colour changes, Lebensm. Wisse-u- Technol. 22:307 (1989). 193. Weinert, I. A. G., J. Solms, and F. Escher, Polymerization of anthocyanins during processing and storage of canned plums, Lebensm. Wisse-u- Technol. 23:445 (1990).

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194. Markakis, P., Stability of anthocyanins in foods, Anthocyanins Food Colour (P. Markakas, ed.), Academic Press, New York, 1962, p. 163.

Page 241

195. Nachevski, V., Combined usage of plums and aronia for compote production, Khaanitedna Promishlenost 40(3/8):34 (1991). 196. Voldrich, M., and V. Kyzlink, Cyanogenesis in canned stone fruits, J. Food Sci. 57:161 (1992). 197. Farkas, D. F., and M. E. Lazar, Osmotic dehydration of apple pieces. Effect of temperature and syrup concentration on rates, Food Technol. 23:688 (1969). 198. Ponting, J. D., Osmotic dehydration of fruits: Recent modifications and applications, Process Biochem. 8:18 (1973).

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199. Lal, B. B., V. K. Joshi, R. C. Sharma, and R. Sharma, Drying of Santa Rosa plum, National Seminar on Emerging Trends in Temperate Fruit Production in India, Dr. Y. S. Parmar University of Horticulture and Forestry, Solan, India, 1992, Abstr. 141. 200. Vaidya, D., Use of natural membrane technology for the dehydration of prunes, National Seminar on Emerging Trends in Temperate Fruit Production in India, Dr. Y. S. Parmar University of Horticulture and Forestry, Solan, India, 1992, Abstr. 128.

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201. Sharma, R. C., and S. Tanchev, Studies on the effect of thermal treatments on cuticular layer of prune cv. Kostindiesaka in relation to osmotic dehydration, National Seminar on Recent Advances on Postharvest Management of Temperate Fruits, Vegetables and Ornamental Plants, Dr. Y. S. Parmar University of Horticulture and Forestry, Solan, India, 1989, p. 42 (Abstr.). 202. Weitz, D. A., E. A. Luque, and R. D. Piacentini, Solar drying simulation of prunes arranged in thin layers, Drying Technol. 8(2):287 (1990). 203. Techasena, O., A. M. Labort, and J. J. Bimbenet, Simulation of plum drying in deepbed, Drying Technol. 9(4):947 (1991). 204. Kozlov, V. N., and A. S. Destik, Butter with apple and other fruit fillers, Tovarovedenie 18:29 (1985).

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205. Mudahar, G. S., and G. S. Bhatia, Steeping preservation of fruits, J. Food Sci. Technol. 20(2):77 (1983). 206. Amerine, M. A., H. W. Berg, R. E. Kunkee, C. S. Ough, V. L. Singleton, and A. D. Webb, Technology of Wine Making, 4th ed., AVI, Westport, CT, 1980. 207. Vyas, K. K., and V. K. Joshi, Plum wine making: Standardization of a methodology, Indian Food Packer 36(5):80 (1982). 208. Joshi, V. K., and V. P. Bhutani, Evaluation of plum cultivars for wine preparation, XXIII Int. Hort. Congress, Italy, 1990, Abstr. 3336. 209. Joshi, V. K., and V. P. Bhutani, Effect of preservatives on the fermentation behaviour and quality of plum wine, XXIII Int. Hort. Congress, Italy, 1990, Abstr. 2585.

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210. Bhutani, V. P., V. K. Joshi, and S. K. Chopra, Mineral composition of experimental fruit wines, J. Food Sci. Technol. 26:332 (1989). 211. Azad, K. C., K. K. Vyas, V. K. Joshi, and M. P. Srivastava, A preliminary study on the deacidification of fruit juices for alcoholic fermentation, ICFOST, 1986, Abstr. 52. 212. Vyas, K. K., and V. K. Joshi, Deacidification activity of Schizosaccharomyces pombe in plum musts, J. Food Sci. Technol. 25:306 (1988). 213. Joshi, V. K., P. C. Sharma, and B. L. Attri, A note on deacidification activity of Schizosaccharomyces Pombe in plum must of variable compositions, J. Appl. Bacteriol. 70:385 (1991).

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214. Vyas, K. K., R. C. Sharma, and V. K. Joshi, Application of osmotic technique in plum wine fermentationEffect on physico-chemical and sensory qualities, J. Food Sci. Technol. 26:126 (1989). 215. Joshi, V. K., B. L. Attri, and B. V. C. Mahajan, Studies on preparation and evaluation of vermouth from plum, J. Food Sci. Technol. 28:138 (1991). 216. Yugoslavia and its growing prune exports, Pacific Fruit News 148:2, 7 (1970). 217. Crowell, E. A., and J. F. Guymon, Aroma constituents of plum brandy, Am. J. Enol. Vitic. 24(4):159 (1973). 218. Janda, L., J. Gavrilovic, and D. Stojanovska, Effect of cultivars on content of hydrocyanic acid in brandy made from plums, Jugoslovensko Voscarstvo 21(4):47 (1987).

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Page 243

10 Peach and Nectarine

V. K. Joshi and V. P. Bhutani Dr. Y. S. Parmar University of Horticulture and Forestry, Nauni, Solan, Himachal Pradesh, India I. Introduction.

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Peach (Prunus persica (L.) Batsch), along with its smooth-skin mutant nectarine, is one of the most important temperate stone fruits grown in the world, though its culture has found a reasonable place in the subtropics too, despite the quality of fruit being poor (1). The native home of peach is China and not Persia, where it was grown as far back as 2000 B.C. (2,3). Three wild species are still grown there, namely, P. davidiana in the north, which is used as rootstock; and P. mira and P. fergamensis, which are indigenous to the Tibetan plateau and Sinkiang Province, respectively (3). The large-sized fruit varieties are grown mainly in the temperature regions of the world, where they find congenial environmental conditions for the healthy development of the plant and fruit. Important centers of commercial production of peaches lie between latitudes 30 and 45 North and South (1). The leading peach-producing nations are Italy, the United States, France, Japan,

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Argentina, Australia, Germany, Spain, and Greece. The approximate peach and nectarine production by different countries and the world is presented in Fig. 1. II. Botany A. Taxonomy

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The peach belongs to the family Rosaceae, subfamily Prunoideae, genus Prunus, and subgenus Amygdalus. The scientific name for the peach is Prunus persica (L.) Batsch. All commercial cultivars belong to P. persica (L.) Batsch. Other peach species are P. davidiana, P. mira, P. fergamensis, and P. kansuensis (1). Another species, P. behmi, considered a natural hybrid of almond and peach, occurs extensively in the dry temperate zone of Kinnaur, India, and is commonly used as rootstock for almond, peach, and plum (5). The subgenus Amygdalus to which peach belongs is characterized by sessile or short stalked flowers, open before leafing and commonly borne on 1-year-old shoots. The flowers are simple, perfect, complete, and perigynous and are always found in a lateral position. The fruit is drupe with a thin epidermis, a fleshy mesocarp,

Page 244

Fig. 1 Major peach- and nectarine-producing countries in the world and their production. ( 1000 MT). (From Ref. 4.)

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and a stony endocarp containing the seed. The fleshy mesocarp may adhere to the stone (clingstone) or be separate from it (freestone). The fruits are variable in size, shape, color of skin, and flesh. Most of the cultivars have bitter kernels, while a few have sweet kernels. A nectarine is a fuzzless peach and is usually smaller in size. The nectarine is considered botanically a variety of P. persica peach and is classified as P. persica, variety nucipersica (Schneid). The lack of pubescence is controlled by a single recessive gene. B. Cultivars

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Most of the peach cultivars in use evolved through breeding programs. The choice of peach cultivars for any region is governed by three factors: (a) the type of market to be served, (b) the distance to market, and (c) adaptability to local soil and climatic conditions (3). Cultivars for table purposes should be yellow fleshed, freestone, and regular annual producers. For canning purposes, the fruit should be yellowfleshed, clingstone, with a small nonsplitting pit, uniform size, no red color at the pit, and it should mature evenly. However, in recent years, many freestone varieties have been canned. If the fruit is to be dried, it should be freestone, white fleshed, and particularly sweet in addition to the characteristics given above for canning. The important characteristics of a number of cultivars being grown in the world for various purposes are presented in Table 1. Besides Elberta and few other such as Redhaven and RioOso-Gem, most peach cultivars are regional in

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their adaptation, performing well in one region or locality and poorly in other. The electrophoretic pattern of superoxide dismutase isoenzymes (17) could not distinguish different peach cultivars, but pollen isoenzyme pattern (18) exhibited variations in esterase, isocitrate dehydrogenase, malate dehydrogenase, and acid phosphatase. Freestone cultivars showed less isoenzyme variation than clingstone types. Variations in the morphological characteristics of the stone in peach varieties could be used as a marker, and varieties with common origins had similar stones. Estimating two enzyme activities, namely, phosphoglucomutase (PGM) and 6-phosphogluconate dehydrogenase (PGD), helped in early verification of peach almond hybrids (19).

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As many as 39 enzyme systems have been examined in peach, of which 14 isoenzyme loci have been identified (20). However, three loci have been shown to have allelic variability within

Page 245

peach germ plasm, indicating no widespread variability for this parameter (20). Still, however, there are insufficient markers for linkage map development and gene tagging. Another technique, restriction fragment length polymorphism (RFLP) is rapidly being developed for genetic marking in plants and could become a promising method of generating marker genes in peach (21,22). Genetic transformation of plants, where foreign genes are introduced and expressed, holds promise for exploitation in peach for many single-gene traits of economic importance. Further, use of DNA recombinant technique could help in manipulating the characteristics of peach.

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The period of sexual repression in peach and nectarine seedlings can be curtailed genetically by reducing the minimum length of the selection cycle (23). Further, in dwarfed peach and nectarine, genes did not effect heritabilities of fruit weight, fruit firmness, or ripening date (24). Biological productivity as determined genetically remained unaffected by rootstock or planting density. C. Fruit Development

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The life of a fruit begins with initiation of the fruit bud, which after fertilization is ultimately converted into the fruit. The growth of peach fruit exhibits a double sigmoid curve with three rapid growth periods and two lag phases of growth. The first one is very rapid and continues until the pit begins to harden. In the second stage, the growth of the flesh is slow as the seed develops and the seed coat hardens. In the last stage, the growth of fruit again increases. The young fruit just formed goes through a period of rapid cell division and growth (25).

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During the early stages of fruit growth, the developing ovules are matured by the ovary and its ancillary parts, which are normally green and thus capable of photosynthesis. Sucrose is the major sugar transported from the leaves to the fruit, except in the phloem where it is the sorbitol. The role of sucrose synthetase and other related enzymes in sucrose accumulation in peach has been reported (26). Part of the sugar is normally used in the synthesis of pectic substances and cell wall materials or is converted into the usual storage products such as starch.

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Changes in peroxidase, IAA oxidase, IAA decarboxylating and protease activity in developing peach fruit have been reported (2730). In the development of peach fruit, ethylene evolution also varies, showing a peak after 78 days of full bloom in pericarp, and is associated with a concurrent increase in ACC (amino-cyclopropane-1-carboxylic acid), which is responsible for ethylene synthesis and ethylene-forming enzyme (31). The total and dihydroxy phenols also increase during cell expansion, decrease sharply prior to onset of ripening, and increase slightly during ripening. Fruit set, stone weight, total soluble solids, and Brix-acid ratio increases, while acidity decreases with the advancement of maturity the greatest changes are in sucrose and sorbitol contents (32,33). Changes in some other physicochemical characteristics also take place and are depicted in Figs. 2 and 3. Quinic acid, which decreases with increase in malic acid, registered an increase upon maturity (34). The

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total pectin content of the fruit also shows a sigmoidal curve. III. Production A. Climate The climatic requirements for peach and nectarine are the same. Both do best in a hot summer climate and are only moderately winter hardy. Peaches are not only less hardy than apples and pears but also generally require less winter chilling to break rest. Thus, they are grown at lower latitudes than apple and pear. A commercial peach planting may be a failure if the site selected

Table 1 Important Characteristics of Some Cultivars of Peach Stone Cultivar Ripening datea adhesion Alexander Early season Free M Babcock Baifeing Candor Congres Damyanka Dixigem Dixired Early Amber Early Redhaven Early White Giant Elberta Fairhaven Feichengtao Flordacrest Flordaglo 2 weeks earlier than Elberta Mid-season -45 Mid-early -30 -42 Early -45 -58 0 -19 Early Early Free Cling Free Free Free Cling Cling Semifree Semifree Free Free Cling Semifree Semifree

S m G M L L M M M M L

L L M

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Flordagreen Flordastar Flordasun Goldcrest Halberta Giant Hawthorne J. H. Hale July Elberta Burbank

Early Early Early +12 Mid-season +1 -16

Semicling Free Semifree Free Free Free

M M

L L L L

(table continued on next page)

(table continued from previous page)

Cultivar Kateru Maygold Nectared Redglobe Redhaven Redtop Rio-Oso-Gem Romea Saharanpur Prabhat Sharbati Splendid Superba de Tomra Struma Suncrest Sunhaven Ripening datea Late Early Mid-season -14 -38 -23 -7 Same as Redhaven 4 weeks earlier than Flordasun Late Late August

Stone adhesion Frui Free Small Cling Mediu large Good s Mediu Free Good s Free Large Free Large Mediu Free Mediu Cling

Late -19 -38

Free Free Semifree

Mediu Large Mediu large Large

Larges Large

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Sunred Sunrise Venus Veteran

Mediu large a+ or - indicates later or earlier date of ripening compared to E Source: Refs. 616.

1st or 2nd week of May Semifree Semifree 3032 days after Redhaven -10

Small Mediu Large

Page 248

Fig. 2 Physicochemical changes during peach development cv. Flordasun. D1 to D10 indicate different dates from February 29, 1988 to May 2, 1988, after every week. (From Ref. 32.)

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experiences high humidity. Good air drainage is important in selecting a site, to increase drying as well as to reduce frost problems (35). Slightly sloping land allows better air drainage and lessens hazards of frost damage. In general, a northeastern exposure is desirable. It may prevent too early bloom, and there is less chances of winter injury.

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The winter chilling required to break the dormancy of the bud varies considerably among varieties. The most common symptoms of lack of chilling are delayed and sporadic foliation, prolonged flowering, floral bud abortion, and changes in fruit shape and other quality characters. The months of December and January are the most important for chilling accumulation. Traditionally, chilling is computed as the cumulative hours below 7.2C. Weinberger (36) stated that high temperature during winter not only prolonged the rest period of peach buds but also counteracted the influence of chilling. Couvillon and Erez (37) observed that high daytime temperature (above 18C) prevents an accumulative effect. Winter oil, which contains 1.5% dinitro-ortho-cresol or naphthalene oil can be used for breaking the dormancy (38). The dormancy breaking can be improved by spraying with 10% KNO3 a few days before the winter oil spray.

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The amount of sunshine exposure is another important consideration in peach growing. Sunlight governs the rate of food manufactured by the leaves, which in turn affects size, fruit color, and other quality characteristics. Areas situated in deep valleys or where cloudy weather prevails for longer periods are not fit for peach cultivation. Areas that experience frequent hail storms should also be avoided for peach culture.

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Fig. 3 Changes in some physicochemical characteristics of peach fruit at different stages of maturity (DAFB = days after full bloom). (a) Changes in fresh fruit weight of Monroe peaches. (b) Changes in linalool content in mesocarp tissue. (c) Changes in benzaldehyde content in mesocarp tissue. (d) Changes in g-decalactone ( ) and d-decalactone ( ), mesocarp tissue. (From Ref. 33.)

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Peach flower buds which have just begun to swell can withstand temperatures as low as -6.6C, open blossoms show injury at about -3.3C, and young fruit following petal fall are killed at -2.2C (39). Injury to crotch and trunk cambium occurs at -9 to -6C (40). Careful selection of site and cultivars will reduce the risk of damage from spring frosts. B. Soil

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Deep, well-drained soils of medium texture are ideal for both peaches and nectarines. Peach trees do not tolerate wet soils, particularly during the growing period. Submergence of the root system for even a few days during the growing season will result in death of roots and ultimately the plants. Therefore, a high water table and hard impervious soil should be avoided, as they cause yellowing and premature fall of foliage, cessation of growth, and death of the tree in severe cases (41). Waterlogging injury is associated with the release of hydrolyzing enzyme due to the shortage of oxygen, which acts as a cyanogenic glucoside in the tree and releases hydrogen cyanide, which is autotoxic. The pH of the soil should be from 5.8 to 6.8. Highly acidic or saline/sodic soil should be avoided for peach cultivation. C. Rootstocks.

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Peach cultivars are propagated on seedling roots and to a lesser extent on clonal rootstocks. Seeds for raising rootstocks are obtained from three sources: from wild trees, from commercial cultivars, and from special rootstock selections (42). Rootstocks raised from wild peach seeds lack uniformity and are genetically variable, whereas plants raised from the seeds of known cultivars are more uniform. Among the seed rootstocks, Lovell, Halford, and Nemaguard are the most commonly used. Nemaguard is the preferred rootstock in areas where root-knot nematodes are most common. Peach almond hybrids are important peach rootstocks in Europe and are useful on alkaline soils because of their resistance to chlorosis. Several other Prunus species, such as P. davidiana, P. amygdalus, P. armeniaca, P. insititia, P. salicina, P. tomentosa, and P. besseyi, are also used as rootstocks for peach in specific situations (43,44). It is necessary to know stock-scion compatibility, which is

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the primary requirement, for without it the tree will not be fully productive or even survive. Beside compatibility, other attributes such as a high percentage of germination or rootability of cuttings, straight plant growth, and homogeneity of orchard stand are important. In peach production areas, there are many rootstock problems relating to microclimate, macroclimate, soil genesis, and pest ecology. Rootstocks that are tolerant to nematodes, excess soil moisture, high soil pH, and adaptable to varied soil types are discussed below: Nematodes. Nematodes are more harmful to peach than other pests and diseases, and reduce production by 15%. Root-knot resistance is known in Shalil, S-37, Nemaguard, and Okinawa seedlings and in P. armeniaca, P. davidiana, and P. mume (44).

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Waterlogging: The cause of waterlogging varies from excess seasonal rainfall to poorly drained soil or a combination of both. Plum species and plum hybrid rootstocks that are resistant to waterlogging include Damas 1869, Myrabi, GF 2037, and Prunier (44). Drought resistance: Drought resistance is obtained by using peach-almond hybrids, such as Rubira, GF 556, GF 577, and De Bale (43). Soil reaction: Soil pH affects rootstock growth and nutrient uptake. Peach seedling rootstocks show quite good performance in slightly acidic soil. Soil alkalinity is a problem in many regions, and adaptability to alkaline soil has been obtained through the development of

peach-almond hybrids and the use of P. insititi sources. Damas 1869, St. Julien hybrid 1 and 2 Myrabi, I-D-20, Montclar, and Amandier adap to alkaline soil (43).

Soil fertility: Adaptability to soil texture is necessar maximum tree growth. Vigorpromoting rootstocks as Nemaguard, Myran, and GF 677 should be avoid very fertile soils. Instead, Saint Julien hybrid 2, GF GF 2037, and Damas 1869, which are tolerant to he soil, should be preferred.

Dwarfing: There is no proven dwarfing stock for co mercial peach. For peach, St. Julien 2 gives interme vigor. Other semidwarf rootstocks are Rubira, Pisa Citation (43). P. besseyi and P. tomentosa are the o dwarfing rootstocks (45), but these are poorly comp with peach.

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Winter hardiness: Winter hardiness is a necessary a ute of rootstock in many peach production regions. (42) determined the cold hardiness of root systems peach seedling rootstocks and found Siberian C, Ch Lam Tao, Baily, and Harrow blood to be hardy, wh Gold Drop and Elberta were tender. Several other r stocks, including Montclar, GF 2037, and Damas 1 were also found to be cold hardy (43).

Disease resistance: Soil-borne rootstock diseases a many, and the genes for resistance are found in sev Prunus species. Rootstocks that are resistant to seve orchard diseases (42) are as follows:

Disease Resistant rootstock Crown gall Rubira-T, GF 655.2, Prunier, St. Julien 1 an Bacterial canker Damas 1869, GF 655.2 Root rot Myran-T, Myrabi-T, Prunier-T

D. Propagation

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Peaches are commonly propagated by budding and ing the scion variety on peach seedlings (46). Peach lings are commonly budded in the nursery during th first season of growth. Peach can also be propagate splice or cleft grafting. As the subsequent growth o peach nursery stock is greatly influenced by the gro rootstock before budding or grafting, seedlings are couraged to make good growth by maintaining high fertility, complete weed control, and appropriate so moisture. Ring budding during AprilMay and T or budding from June to September give good success Budding should be done 5 cm above the soil line (4 Three days after budding, the seedling is cut back to point 7.5 cm above the bud; leaves are left intact. A 1015 days, the rootstock is cut back to the top of th as it begins to grow out. By the end of the growing son, trees in the 0.5- to 1.5-cm caliper range are rea sale.

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The optimum time of grafting peach is DecemberJa Sharma and Singh (49) observed maximum success January under subtropical conditions. Success up to in grafting subtropical peaches can be obtained with use of polythene striped tying material (50). Kanwa Kahlon (51) obtained 98% success by grafting in ea November. Growing peach trees from cuttings subs tially reduces the cost and time needed to produce n trees. In recent years, the technique has gained imp ance in the context of high-density plantings and cl propagation of rootstocks. Peach can be propagated either soft or hardwood cuttings (5254).

Both scion cultivars and rootstocks can be propagat through tissue culture. There have been numerous r on in vitro propagation of peach via axillary shoot m plication (5562). The

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process involves the culture of shoot apices taken from juvenile or mature plants on a medium that allows the continued production and growth of axillary shoots. Mante et al. (63) regenerated shoots from proximal regions of immature cotyledons with the embryonic axis removed on Murashige-Skoog (MS) medium. Not only were the shoot tips found to propagate rapidly on MS medium, best results were obtained with half-strength medium with 0.15 mg NAA/ liter for 3 days (64).

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In field trials, no difference in vigor was found between micropropagated and conventionally propagated peach rootstocks (65), and modification of the in vitro propagation technique has potential for rapid production of plants. Cobianchi et al. (66) observed that the vegetative growth of micropropagated trees was less than that of grafted trees, although the differences diminished over the year. A second area of tissue culture that has been intensively investigated in peach is embryo and ovule culture. The culture of ovules allows the rescue of embryos from fruit as early as 53 days postbloom (67,68). E. Cultural Practices 1. Planting

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Sites that have not previously been planted with peaches, with good air drainage, are the best for planting. The site of the orchard should be properly cleared of bushes and weeds. A flat to moderately sloped area can be planted with straight rows; where the area is relatively steep and has a gradient higher than 45, contour planting should be adopted. For commercial peach, trees are planted at a distance of 46 m by the square method. One-year-old nursery trees are planted in late winter or early spring. The planting pit should be large enough to accommodate the tree roots in their natural position. The trees should be planted at the same depth as they were in the nursery. The soil around the plant should be pressed firmly to eliminate air pockets. If the soil is dry, the tree should be watered immediately after planting. Besides solid planting, peaches can be interplanted as fillers in widely spaced fruits such as apple, pear, and citrus.

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For many years, the spacing in peach trees has been 6 6 m. Due to the short span of orchard life, particularly on old peach sites, planting trees much closer has become a common practice. This system of growing plants under ultradensity (about 10,000 trees/ha) is called meadow orcharding. By increasing tree numbers per unit area, yield increases during the third and fourth growing seasons have been sizable (69,70). High-density plantings sometimes present pruning problems, particularly in area where a large percentage of the trees live beyond the short life expectancy. Erez (71) suggested a combination of paclobutrazol and pruning treatment to reduce pruning and increase yield in such areas. Martin et al. (72) have reported reduction of canopy growth, increase in the number of vegetative and floral buds, and increase in fruit yield and size with the soil application of paclobutrazol. Such dense plantings are

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more manageable in cooler climates, or in arid regions. 2. Training and Pruning

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Numerous training systems have been proposed for peaches and nectarines (73). However, the standard open-vase form is the most efficient system for low-density plantings. The tree is headed back to 6176 cm at the time of planting. If the tree has a few weak lateral branches, these are usually removed completely. Three to four well-distributed branches are selected for the permanent scaffold, and all other limbs are removed. The selected limbs are cut back to two or three buds. During the first growing season undesirable branches, suckers, and water sprouts are removed. Where two limbs develop at the same node, one should be removed. Severity of pruning should be minimized during early seasons, as heavy pruning results in smaller trunks, delays commercial bearing, and drastically reduces yield (3)

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After the first season's growth, three or four primary wide-angled scaffold limbs distributed evenly around the trunk are selected. Upright limbs with narrow crotch angles should be avoided. Scaffold limbs should be spaced about 6 in. apart vertically around the trunk and all other branches removed. The selected branches are lightly headed back to an outward-growing lateral. The main leader should be cut off just above the top scaffold branch. The principal aim is to train the tree to a symmetric, open-center tree, as shown in Fig. 4. As the tree grows, five to seven subscaffolds are selected and headed back lightly. Ample space must be provided between structural limbs for adequate light infiltration. The side branches on the scaffold which grow toward the ground, toward the center of the tree, or straight upward should be thinned out, but some small laterals all along the laterals should be kept for early fruiting,

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optimum tree growth, and protection from sunburn (74).

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Following proper training and pruning in the first 2 years, the tree should have its main framework well formed by the third year. At this time, only light to moderate pruning is needed to keep the center open and the fruiting branches well spaced. At the end of the third to fourth season of growth, a tree should have three or four primary scaffolds and five to seven secondary scaffolds 46 ft above the ground (Fig. 4). There are much evidence to show that heavy pruning of peaches in the third, fourth, and fifth years greatly reduces yield. Hence, light to moderate annual pruning should be practiced so that the tree may attain its full size during this period. Mature peach trees are pruned more heavily than other fruit trees. Since the peach tree bears its fruit laterally on one-year-old growth, peach trees respond better to pruning. The major objective in pruning bearing trees is to promote new shoot growth for the following year's crop. In order to keep the tree height reasonably low,

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the fruiting branches should not be allowed to grow far away from the scaffold or subscaffold limbs (75). Summer pruning can greatly complement the pruning program, but it should never be substituted for dormant pruning (76). Removal of vigorous upright growth several weeks before harvest can increase light penetration into the tree and result in fruit color improvement (76). Summer pruning should consist of thinning cuts made within the tree canopy which open up areas to light penetration. Dormant pruning is generally done during the middle of winter. However, in cooler areas is should be delayed to the middle of February in order to avoid lowtemperature injury.

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In recent years, high-density plantings have become more popular, as they yield early return to growers and permit mechanical pruning. The high-density systems which are most prominently used in peach orchards are hedgerow, tatura trellis, and meadow orchards. The Hedgerow. In most cases, the hedgerows are established by planting trees 2.53.5 m apart in rows, with 4.55.5 m between rows (77). Trees are usually trained with tree scaffolds in the shape of a V. In some instances, the hedgerows are established with central leader trees or with three scaffolds all in line with the tree row. The preferred planting direction for these hedgerows system is north-south.

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Tatura Trellis System. The tatura trellis system is one of the highest-yielding systems and was developed in Australia. Trees are planted 6 m apart between rows and 1 m apart in rows, resulting in a planting density of 1666 trees/ha. Each tree has two primary limbs trained east and west across the interrow space at an angle of 60 from the horizontal (78), forming a V-shaped canopy (Fig. 5). The canopy is supported by a permanent trellis constructed of high-tensile galvanized steel fence posts. High-tensile wire (2.8 mm) is used to place five permanent training supports. Shoots inside and outside the V are moved by a specially built cutter bar. With this system, trees start bearing in their second year.

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Fig. 4 One-, two-, and four-year-old trees before (left) and after (right) pruning.

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Fig. 5 (a) Tree on tatura trellis 1 year after planting, unpruned. (b) The same tree after pruning. (c) Fully grown peach tree after pruning.

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Meadow Orchard. The term meadow orchard was coined by Hudson (79) in 1971 to describe an ultrahigh-density apple orchard meant for mechanical harvesting. The original peach meadow system was developed for mechanized harvesting (80). The trees are planted at 1.5 0.5 m (13,333 trees/ha). Trees start bearing in the second growing season and soon reach two to three times higher yields than those of mature conventional orchards. Trees are mowed off by cutter bar 0.150.75 m above ground at harvest. This mechanized peach meadow orchard has two main drawbacks. It is not suitable for cultivars that ripen in mid- or late season, due to insufficient time for top regeneration, and the shock to the plant is severe, due to complete removal of the canopy. 3. Orchard Floor Management

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Young trees growing in sod make far less growth as compared with cultivated checks. The reduction in growth as well as yield is caused by competition for water and nutrients (41). Therefore, intercultivation or chemical herbicides should be used for young peach orchards for the first 23 years after planting to obtain vigorous growth and early production. If the orchard is planted on a slope, either the tree basins extending up to the canopy or only narrow strips on either side of the tree be kept clean. The rest of the orchard floor is kept under permanent sod. If the land is fertile and the tree distances sufficient, intercrops of vegetables or small fruits can be grown until the peaches start bearing. This practice generates income, particularly during the initial, unproductive phase of the orchard. Intercrops such as soybean, cowpea, and turmeric gave good economic returns (81). In an experiment, intercropping with soybean and pineapple resulted in increased plant vigor and leaf

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N content (82). Other cover crops such as rye, ryegrass, peas, and clover can be used to improve fertility and soil structure. The merits of cover crops as enumerated by Teskey and Shoemaker (41) include retardation of soil erosion, runoff and leaching, increase in the organic matter of the soil, an aid in water infiltration, an indicator of moisture or nutrient deficiencies, and a check on growth in the fall, thereby encouraging maturity of the tree tissues.

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The common herbicides which can effectively control weeds in peach orchards are atrazine, simazine, diuron, terbacil, oxyfluorfen, paraquat, and glyphosate. These herbicides should be used by growers on mature trees but not on young trees. The general characteristics of herbicides used in peach orchards are given in Table 2. In addition, a wide variety of inorganic and organic materials such as straw, hay, black polythene, and composted conifer have been used in peach orchards (Table 3). Mulching followed by herbicide application has been effective in peach orchards. It is generally agreed that cultivation should be reduced to a minimum, as it is detrimental to the soil and feeder roots. 4. Fertilization

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A wide diversity exists in both climatic and soil conditions in different peach-producing areas of the world. Because of this diversity, fertilizer recommendations vary from region to region. Leaf analysis is most frequently used to assess the nutritional requirements of a plant. Organs other than leaves, including flower buds, bark, wood, and various part of the fruit, have been suggested for diagnostic work to a lesser extent (105). The earliest information on leaf analysis in peaches was published by Van Slyke et al. (106) in 1903, and Warren and Voorhes (107) in 1906 used plant analysis to determine the nutrient contents in various parts of the tree. Later, a number of reports showed how fertilizer application could modify the nutrient composition of peach leaves. It is apparent, however, that leaf nutrients are a result of many factors acting together and therefore, for best evaluation of the nutritional status of the orchards, analysis must include both leaf and soil analysis together with

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careful observations of the tree and other factors that may influence nutrient composition (108110).

Table 2 Characteristics of Herbicides Used in Peach Orchards Rate (kg/ha) Trade actual active Herbicide name ingredient Time of ap Atrazine Atrataf 5 Late fall to early spring paraquat. 2 Peach nursery. ChloroambenAmiben 3.0 Applied as a granular fo around established tree Dalapon Dowpon 4.8 Spray to wet vegetation at least 4 years. Dichlobenil Casoron 4 4.5 Apply in early spring b G in the fall. Irrigate in, if above 27 Diuron Karmex 5 Lower rates in sandy so 2 Peach nursery. Glyphosate Roundup, 2.2 Any time. Apply to acti Weedoff spray. Do not apply wit Oxyfluorfen Goal 0.20.3 Peach nursery. 2.0 Early spring. Can be m Paraquat Gramoxone 0.61.1 Apply any time. More t sary during season. Use more. Can be used in m

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Simazine

Tafazine

918 5 1.83.6

Terbacil

Sinbar

Apply in early spring b in sandy soil. Peach nursery. Early spring. Use lower ic matter. Use only on t

Nitrogen is the primary nutrient required by peach t element needed. Insufficient N results in decreased Applications of other essential plant nutrients may these nutrients should be monitored through foliar a requirements.

Beutel (111) has recommended about 3555 kg of N fertilizer dose of 5565 kg N as well as P2O5 and 110 orchards. K fertilizer results in better fruit size and exceed 1.6%, no benefit from K is obtained. Phosph beneficial to bearing peaches, but P is important for which may be deficient in peach orchards are Zn, M ents have been successful in supplying these nutrien (112) recorded significant increases in peach yield 0.5% ZnSO4, which was as effective as soil

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Table 3 Different Types and Methods of Mulching in Peach O Mulch material Method of app Straw mulch 10 cm thick beneath tree to drip line Hay 10 cm thick beneath tree to drip line Cereal straw 10 cm depth, 26.9 MT/ha eventually to cov Straw manure 1.3 m square around trees Black polythene 1.3 m width centered on tree or spread to d

application of 1 kg ZnSO4 per tree. Singh et al. (113 and improvement in fruit quality with foliar applica and Zn, although Zn proved more effective than Fe than the citrus and apple. Normally, trees of 16 yea but older trees receive about the same amount of fe 5. Irrigation

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Adequate soil moisture is required for optimum gro ods of water stress can lead to reduction in tree grow physiological stress may ultimately affect tree survi ted 20% more marketable yields in irrigated plots th fruits ripen 23 days earlier than nonirrigated fruits, while two pickings are required for the latter (116). irrigate and how much water to apply for optimum

Irrigation is necessary during the dry and hot summ creases the rate of evapotranspiration. Peaches need son (3). Since peaches contain about 85% water, su critical. Gregory (117) solved this problem by insta ation system. Mitchell and Chalmers (118) suggeste ant for the management of high-density peach orch duction in the normal requirement of water supply r having reduced need for summer pruning. Basin, fu irrigation are commonly employed, depending on th ility of water and financial resources. In slopy orch trickle methods are suitable, whereas in plain rectan sprinkler, bubble, and trickle irrigation methods can

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6. Thinning of Fruits.

Peach trees normally set more fruits than required f cessary to produce marketable-sized fruits, to reduc vigor. A heavy fruit load encourages small, poor-qu ity. It is cheaper, however, to reduce the crop by ad than by resorting to heaving fruit thinning (41).

Thinning increases the leaf-to-fruit ratio, thereby m and moisture supply per fruit. Daniell (121) reporte produce a peach of good size and quality. However fruit after thinning varies with the cultivar, tree vigo number being 30

40 leaves per fruit (41). Fruit thinning always decre total yield is offset by the increase in the price of fr

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Time of thinning is related directly to the size of the (121) reported that blossom thinning produced larg at any other time. Fruit thinning should be done imm ies should be thinned before late-maturing ones. At mechanically, or using chemicals (41). The advanta mechanical thinning are reduced thinning cost, and Chemical thinning reduces the labor required and p a relatively short period. A large number of chemic naphthaleneacetic acetic acid and amide, 2-(3-chlor chloroethylphosphonic) propionic acid, naphthypht ic acid (CEPA, ethephon), and many others, have b grees of success, but the most widely used chemica effective on most varieties when applied 1 or 2 day tion of ethephon causes adequate thinning of peach other types of injury (123). Another approach is the at the time of full bloom. Byers (124) has shown am acre plus X-77 (1.0 pt/100 gal) surfactant as the mo guidelines for timing and rates of various thinning c presented in Table 4. These can be made applicable varietal response.

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F. Pests and Diseases 1. Pests

Peach Leaf Curl Aphid (Brachycadus helichrysi). P ous pest of peach in all the peach-growing countrie floral and vegetative buds by sucking sap, as a resu remain smaller, then become highly distorted and tu nymphs remaining inside the flowers suck the sap, Consequently, poor fruit set, premature drop, and su The badly curled leaf whorls usually dry and shed.
Table 4 Thinning Chemicals for Peaches Chemical Concentration (ppm) NAA 1050 GA 100200 2,4-D 50 2,4,5-T 40100 Ethephon 50250 3-CEPA 300 CGA 15281 5001000 Paclobutrazol 2000 DNOC 10002500 Sevin/carbaryl 10002000

3045 days a Full bloom Full bloom Full bloom Petal fall to 710 mm ov 710 mm ov Petal fall to 1 or 2 days 21 days aft

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Ammonium thiosulfate

3% (air blast spray) Full bloom

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The leaf curl aphid infests stone fruits from autumn to the beginning of summer, depending on altitude, causing injury to foliage and fruits (130,131). For the control of peach leaf curl aphid, application of systemic insecticides such as methyl demeton (0.025%) and dimethoate (0.03%) at pink bud stage has been effective (132,133). For proper control, another postbloom spray is given 10 days after petal fall. Gupta et al. (134) obtained best control of the aphid by application of aldicarb 15 g a.i./tree to the soil below the tree canopy before bud burst.

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Peach Scale Insect (Eulecamium coryli). Peach scale insects are widely distributed in all the temperate peach-growing regions. They suck the sap and thus restrict the vigor and production of the tree. Although prebloom application of dormant spray oil is also effective, postbloom application of monocrotophos (0.04%), oxydemeton methyl (0.025%), dimethoate (0.03%), quinalphos (0.05%), fenitrothion (0.05%), or diazinon (0.03%) are more effective in killing the pest (135). Peach Twig Borer (Anarsia lineatella). Peach twig borers damage the twigs of stone fruits. The pest can be controlled by application of carbaryl (0.1%), malathion (0.05%), or endosulfan (0.05%). Affected shoots and fruits should be removed and destroyed.

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Stem Borers (Sphenoptera lafertei and S. dadkhani). Adult stem borer beetles feed on foliage and lay eggs scattered singly all over the tree. Upon hatching, the young grubs bore into the stem under the bark, making minute galleries. As a result, the bark splits, gum oozes out of the stem, and leaves turn pale. The tree becomes weak and may die in the case of severe infestation. Stem borers can be controlled by cleaning the holes with flexible wire and then inserting 0.5 g paradichlorobenzene (PDCB) and plugging the hole with mud or inserting cotton wick soaked in gasoline or methyl parathion (0.2%) in the larval gallery already cleaned by iron spokes and then plugging the hole with plaster (136).

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Peach Fruit Flies (Dacus spp.). When the fruit is about to ripen, peach fruit flies puncture it and lay eggs inside the fruit. Maggots feed on the pulp. Fruits develop brownish patches due to rotting and drop from the tree. Incidence reduces the yield and quality of the fruit. Effective control of the pest is possible by spraying with 0.0025% deltamethrin, 0.05% fenthion or 0.05% fenitrothion, or 0.03% dimethoate (137,138). Spraying should be done 2 weeks before fruit harvest. The combination of a bait spray containing 0.1% malathion and 0.3% each of protein hydrolysate and sugar at resting sites of the fruit flies (139) has given the best results.

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Shot Hole Borer (Scolytus spp.). Shot hole borers often attack weak and declining trees. The beetles burrow into the bark, making small perforations that exude dark fluid. It is difficult to control shot hole borer infestation because of its widespread attack and hidden feeding site. Proper sanitation of the orchard helps in minimizing its attack. Chemical control suggested for the stem borer may help in mitigating incidence. 2. Nematodes

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More than 30 species of plant parasitic nematodes have been reported in peach orchards (140). Some cause serious problems and, if not controlled, can become the limiting factor to the successful production of peaches. Nematodes associated with peaches can be divided into three groups based on their feeding habits: (a) sedentary endoparasites such as root-knot nematodes, (b) nonsedentary endoparasites such as root lesion nematodes, and (c) ectoparasites, such as ring, stunt, and dagger nematodes. Five species belonging to the root-knot group (Meliodogyne), seven to the root lesion group (Pratylenchus), six to the ring nematode group (Criconemella), and three to the dagger nematodes group (Xiphinema) are commonly encountered on peach roots.

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Control programs for nematodes in peach orchards involve treatment with nematicides, which usually result in economically important enhancement of growth, yield, and survival of trees. The

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use of resistant rootstock is another reliable approach to the nematode problem. Most of the research work has been done to evolve root-knotnematode-resistant rootstocks. As a result, several rootstocks of peach that are resistant to root-knot nematodes have been evolved. These include Nemaguard, Lovell, Shalil, S-37, Okimanu, and Nemared. If a nematode problem other than root knot is encountered, a nematicide such as carbofuran granules (Furadan-3G) at the rate of 60 kg/ha in nursery beds or 100300 g/tree, depending on the size of the tree, should be applied. Bertrand (141) has reported fenamophos (Nemacur 3E) as the only approved nematicide for peaches in the United States. The decision to use postplanting nematicides should be based on the results of a soil assay. For preplanting application, sufficient time should be given between application and planting for the pesticide to dissipate from the soil. Nematoderesistant cover crops should be grown, and

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weeds which are hosts for nematodes must be controlled. 3. Diseases Peach Leaf Curl (Taphrina deformans). Peach leaf curl has been known in Europe since the early part of the nineteenth century. Higher temperatures during the second half of February and March along with high humidity are favorable for infection. The disease appears soon after bud burst, and the affected leaves become deformed, thickened, puckered, rolled, and reddened. Infected flowers and fruit drop rapidly. Incidence can be controlled by spraying carbendazim (50 g/100 liters water) or copper oxychloride (300 g/100 liters water) before the break of dormancy (142).

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Bacterial Spot (Xanthomonas pruni). On peaches and nectarines, the bacteria of bacterial spot overwinter in bark tissues near bud scales and leaf scars. The disease manifests itself on the leaves as angular dark brown spots of 0.53.0 mm diameter. The necrotic tissue of the spot is cut off and shed, resulting in the appearance of shot holes in the leaves. Severely affected leaves turn yellow and drop off. Twig lesions are also formed on defoliated plants. The disease flourishes during years with warm, wet weather (143). Springer (144) has shown that the use of glyodin 30 sol (1 pt) plus terramycin 17 W (0.25 lb) resulted in a higher level of protection of the leaves to infection than the recommended rate (0.5-lb) of terramycin.

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Brown Rot (Monilinia spp.). The brown rot fungus infects blossoms, twigs, and fruits. Masses of ash-gray, powdery spores appear on the surface of infected parts. Infected blossoms wither and die. The fungus spreads through the peduncle and reaches branches and causes twig blight. Fruit rot is the most destructive phase of the disease. Rotted fruits or mummies left on the tree or on the ground become a subsequent source of infection. Management practices include spraying plants with thiophenate methyl before blooming and benomyl 1 month before picking fruits (145). All mummies should be removed, and the soil should be plowed before flowering.

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Bacterial Gummosis (Pseudomonas syringae). Bacterial gummosis is manifested by circular to elongated soaked gumming lesions on bark and outer sapwood and fruits. In severe incidence, gummy pockets are commonly found on main branches and lateral shoots. The pathogen survives in infected plant parts, spreads through wind-splashed rain, and infects planting material. Gummosis can be controlled by scrapping the gum pockets and painting with mashobra paste (stearic acid 25.5 g, marpholin 9.0 ml, water 350 ml, lanolin 136 g, and nonsterile dihydro streptomycin sulfate 3.1 g), formulated by Agarwala (146). Sprays of Bordeaux mixture have been inconsistent in the control of the disease in field trials (147).

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Powdery Mildew (Sphaerotheca pannosa). Symptoms of powdery mildew appear on the leaves, which become coated with a thick layer of mycelium, causing them to curl. Older leaves show white patches; young shoots and fruits are also infected. The fungus overwinters in

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clestothecia in the fallen leaves, and release ascospores in spring to cause new infection. The disease can be effectively controlled by three sprays of carbendazim or thiophenate (50 g/100 liters water) before opening of blossoms at petal fall and 2 weeks later (148). Silver Leaf Disease (Stereum purfureum). Silver leaf disease is a serious problem in cooler climate. Affected foliage shows hay-gray, approaching more to the color of lead. Affected wood exhibits brownish discoloration. There is no effective control measure for this disease. Covering of fresh wounds with copper oxychloride paint can reduce the incidence of this disease. 4. Viral Diseases

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Peach Yellow. Peach yellow causes the tree to develop willow shoots on the main arms, leaves are pale yellow and rolled. Fruits on yellow-affected trees mature early and are insipid and bitter in flavor. Affected trees usually die in 25 years. The disease is transmitted by leaf hoppers. Affected trees should be uprooted and burnt. Little Peach. Little peach causes new growth with tight rosettes. Affected trees usually die during the first year of infection. The disease can be controlled easily by removal of infected trees in early spring.

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Red Suture. Red suture is distinguished from yellow by a swollen suture, which ripens before the fruit ripens. Little peach- and suture-affected trees develop less yellowing and willow shoots and are difficult to diagnose in the early stages. Such infected trees may be uprooted to prevent further spread. Peach Yellow Bud Mosaic. Yellow bud mosaic is caused by the tomato ringspot virus, which is transmitted by nematodes and is therefore difficult to control.

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Stem Pitting. Stem pitting is caused by tobacco ringspot virus and induces serious derangement in the xylem with failure of normal lignification. Trees infected in early life are dwarfed, tend to break off at ground level, and normally die within 15 years of infection (149). The disease is transmitted by nematodes. Nursery production areas should be fumigated to kill nematodes. Diseased trees should be removed, and the sites where diseased trees were removed should be fumigated before replanting. G. Maturity, Harvesting, and Handling

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A large number of maturity indices, such as days after full bloom (DAFB), calendar date, fruit size, firmness, sense of touch, pit discoloration, freeness of pit, taste, ground color, sugar, acidity, starch, sugar-to-acid ratio, and multiple linear regression analysis, have been assessed (150156). Ground color, texture, solids-acid ratio, and titratable acidity of peach were found to be good maturity indices (157). The days required from flowering to maturity vary in different cultivars, ranging from 78100 days after full bloom to up to 127 days (157162).

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Deshpande and Salunkhe (162) proposed the use of a ratio of soluble solids to acids as a reliable index of peach maturity for harvest, whereas Sidwell et al. (163) found that the eating quality of Elberta peaches could be determined on the basis of chlorophyll content (0.0618 mg/g fresh weight). Visaglie and Eksteen (164) also found that color, flesh, firmness, the total soluble solids content of juice, and light transmission (OD 700740 nm) could be used as reliable maturity indices. Nondestructive light measurement and pressure of the fruits are also interrelated (165). The critical figures for flesh firmness with a pressure tester (5/16-in. plunger) is about 1617 lb (162). Onset of softening coincides with an increase in red fruit color (about 100 days after fruit set), when the respiration rate and ethylene production reach a maximum (166). Various quality characteristics of peach fruits have also been found to be related to maturity (167).

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Peaches should be harvested after the attainment of harvest maturity. Since peaches do not

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mature uniformly, several pickings are needed to produce good-quality fruits based on ground color, size, and suture. Peach harvesting coincides with the prevailing high seasonal temperatures, which accelerate ripening process during marketing, but it declines to half with each reduction of 5.6C from 21.1C. After picking, the fruits should immediately be stored under cool conditions. Peaches ripen with good flavor and aroma at temperatures above 15C but with undesirable flavor at 10C, and there is internal breakdown instead of ripening at 4.4C (41).

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Hand harvesting is the standard method for the fresh market, but machines have been developed for harvesting peaches (168). In California, clingstone peaches are harvested mechanically with limb and shock-wave-type trunk shakers. Ende et al. (169) recommended the Trel-pik harvester for harvesting peaches for processing, with its capacity to collect 6080 tonnes of fruit per day from trees trained on tatura trellis. Mechanical harvesting, however, results in considerable fruit loss due to mechanical injury, bruising, and the picking of immature fruits due to uneven ripening. Low tree profile trunk and limb damage from shaker action and subsequent invasion by fungi result in increased decay and rotting. For successful mechanical harvesting, the overall mechanical system and orchard practices have to be properly planned and managed (31). However, use of trunk shakers, padded catch frames, and improvements in shaker attachments reduces the damage. Defuzzing

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treatments, however, which are frequently used to improve the surface feel of peaches, may lead to a purple-black discoloration (170). Nectarines and peaches require careful handling to avoid damage, as some cultivars are softer and are more difficult to handle than others (171). The use of foam plastic in picking baskets and bins, shallow bulk bins, manual transfer of fruit from bins to size graders, and cool storage all enable fruit of very soft cultivars to be marketed fresh. Vibration injury gives more rapid weight loss, decay, and ripening in peaches and nectarines in warm fruits (26C) than in cool fruits (5C); to prevent this, tight packs are recommended. IV. Grading, Packaging, and Transportation A. Grading.

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Grading and packaging of fruits is essential, as properly graded fruits fetch better prices in the market. Grading is done both for size and quality. Peach fruits are graded in terms of end use. Different agencies have established separate standards for grading. For example, the U.S. grade standard for U.S. Fancy stipulates that, except for John Rivers cultivar, each nectarine shall have not less than one-third of its surface showing the red color characteristics of the variety (172). Similarly, four grades or groups of quality of peach for harvesting have been prescribed. There are other regulations for packing peaches, including the indication Peach on the sides of the box, the number of pieces, the variation in diameter, etc.

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Selective grading based on fruit color, firmness, using high absorbance and vibration techniques, have been developed, but lack of universality limits their application (173). A computer-aided vision system has been developed to inspect the color and grade of fresh-market peaches automatically (174), consisting of a solid-state camera, computer vision hardware, an illumination chamber, and a conveyor. The sorter system could easily be implemented into an on-line system (175). Another technique called image analysis of color for grading of peaches has also been developed (176). An approach based on the determination of firmness using an Instron is also proposed for on-line sorting of peaches (177). Variations in firmness of mesocarp of peach fruit of different maturities were observed using the Instron universal machine (178). A sufficiently accurate method of determining the sugar content in the intact peach fruit, based on

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near infrared (NIR) spectroscopy, has also been advocated for grading fruits (179).

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B. Packaging Packaging is the final step in the preparation of fruits for the fresh market and involves placement of fruits in sales or shipping containers or in convenient units for proper handling as well as protection during marketing and transportation. The choice of package and packaging materials depends on the specific requirements of the fruit to be packaged, especially its susceptibility to mechanical injury such as cuts, compressions, impacts, and vibrations. Further, it needs to be ensured that the individual specimens do not move with respect to each other or to the walls of the package.

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The earliest packages were constructed mostly of plant materials, but a wide range of packages constructed of wood, fiber, jute, or plastics is now available. To withstand the pressure of handling and transportation, the package should be strong enough, nontoxic, allow rapid cooling, remain unaffected by moisture, be presentable, and low in cost (180). Further, the package should not seriously impede exchange of O2 and CO2, nor the removal of vital or sensible heat (172). Pads of paper-covered excelsior, corrugated paper, and plastic film with entrapped air bubbles are widely used for protection from pressure bruising.

1328/2989

The wooden peach box, with a two-layer place pack, has been a standard shipping container for Western fruit for many years, but labor and material costs have now forced a substantial change. Now, the Du-All crate (a combination of wood and fiber board) and volume-fill corrugated fiber board boxes have largely replaced veneer baskets and nailed wooden boxes. Western peaches are commonly filled in fiber board boxes holding 8.28.6 kg, although peaches are also packed in molded trays or cups in two- and three-layer packs in corrugated boxes.

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Packaging of peaches and nectarines in sealed film liners and their subsequent storage resulted in fermented fruit flavors. This was prevented by putting holes in each liner for the lug box, which holds about 10 kg of fruit, which also reduced weight loss compared to unlined controls (181). However, high RH in the ventilated film liners stimulated decay organisms, necessitating treatment of fruits with fungicides before packaging. There is no evidence of commercial use of sealed or perforated film liners in shipping containers for peaches and nectarines.

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Loss of moisture can also be a problem with peaches and nectarines. Hruschka (182) found that, under similar conditions of low humidity, peaches lose more weight than nectarines. The use of polyethylene film liners in packing trays and fruit waxing reduced moisture loss of nectarines during storage (183,184). Use of packaging to reduce moisture loss from fruits is important. Packing peach fruits in wooden boxes with paper linings pretreated with KMnO4 followed by storage reduces physiological weight loss, decay, and increase in TSS, acidity, and ascorbic acid with increase in storage. Wooden or cardboard boxes with shredded paper linings or egg trays as cushioning materials have also been tried. Cardboard boxes with egg trays was the best packaging system for peach, as revealed by the physicochemical characteristics of fruits after storage for 6 days (185). Of two types of wrappers tried, paper bags and dry paddy, the latter proved better for wrapping mature fruits of

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Flordasun peach for storage (186). The changes in some physicochemical parameters of peach with two types of wrapper are shown in Table 5. Nectarines can be packed to tight or loose fill, in 38- and 25-lb volume-fill boxes, or in count lugs, panta, and tray boxes. The additional costs of count packing is cost effective in comparison to many peach packs on large-sized nectarines because of their premium prices (187). Prepackaging in consumer packaging or simply unitization for sale in the retail store at some point before the product reaches the checkout counter has been practiced too. Advantages of prepackaging to the self-service store include labor savings at the checkout counter due to unit prepricing, and reduction in product losses due to customer handling during inspection and selection from bulk display. The most widely used materials for prepackaging include bags, plastic film bags, mesh

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Table 5 Effects of Stage of Maturity and Wrappers on the Phy dasum Fruits During Cold Storage Stage of maturity and Loss in Spoilage Total so wrappers used weight (%) (%) solids Matured fruits 29.0 Nil 9.0 Paper 11.5 Nil 10.0 Dry paddy straw Ripe fruits 15.3 13.9 9.2 Paper 3.5 6.7 9.0 Dry paddy straw Control 30.7 18.1 9.0 Matured fruits 4.7 34.7 9.0 Ripe fruits Source: Ref. 186.

bags, consumer trays, shrink-film wraps, stretch wr cups. Emphasis has been on prepackaging, which p tection for firm ripe peaches than the usual bulk pac baskets. C. Transportation

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Large quantities of fruits are transported over long der refrigeration in the developed countries. The ve or rail transport are refrigerated by mechanical mea be insulated and refrigerated. The containers are de space and maintain the temperature of the precooled However, in the less developed countries transporta geration, which leads to considerable postharvest lo dioxide could also be used to provide refrigeration.

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The importance of handling more than one field or and with a minimum of manual labor has been reco many years. Wheeled clamp trucks have long been tracks of containers around the packaging house. M have come into general usage for handling palletize from orchard to wholesale store (172). Wooden pal general use at all modern packing houses. Accordin weight, and cost of wooden pallets will lead to a su use during transport, although in-house use of wood both shipping points and warehouses. Experience w not, generally, been satisfactory. A computer simul orgia peach postharvest system, covering harvest ac through to boxing at a packing house, including wa ing, has also been presented (189). V. Fruit Ripening

1336/2989

Peaches and nectarines are climacteric fruits that ex activity, a surge of ethylene production, and accum ripening of fruit (190192). Changes in organic acid have also been recorded (192). Melting and nonmel ently with respect to ethylene production and respo

Page 266

ment (193). Increased cellulase activity is related directly to the degree of softening (194). Amylase, invertase, polyphenol oxidase, and polygalactouronase enzyme activities have been found to increase during ripening (195199). The changes in polyphenol oxidase and peroxidase activities could be seen and correlated with browning in the developing fruits using a computer video image analysis technique (200).

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Controlled ripening after harvest, used widely for other fruit crops, could be used effectively for peaches. However, the metabolism of fruit with abnormal ripening (ripening mutants) can provide insight into the normal fruit-ripening process as revealed by behavior of several slowripening genotypes (201). Interestingly, these fruits exhibit no increase in carbon dioxide, ethylene production, flesh color, or firmness during 1 month or longer storage in air at 20C (202,203).

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Sensory descriptive analysis can be employed to evaluate maturity and ripening of peach fruits (204). Among the sensory qualities, aroma is most important; changes in the aroma compounds also take place on ripening. Esters, alcohols, acids such as benzaldehyde, aldehyde, lactones with C6, C8, and C10, together with decalactone, are among the compounds contributing aroma (205207). The primary aromatic compounds which are present in the intact tissue of the cell produce the secondary volatiles after their disintegration (208). These differences are attributed to the stage of maturity and the synthesis of enzymes. The concentration of most of these compounds increases during maturation of fruit (209). The process of ripening is followed by senescence, during which growth of the fruit ceases and the processes of ageing replace those of ripening (210212).

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Growth regulators such as alar (SADH) and ethephon have similar effects on peach maturation and ripening. The former is sprayed at pithardening stage, thus affecting fruit set, and the latter is applied just before harvest, thus affecting ripening. The ultimate effect of both chemicals is uniform ripening, fewer pickings, improvement in internal flesh and skin color, and better fruit quality including increased TSS (213216). Spraying trees with paclobutrazol after full flowering followed by storage (20 days at 8C) reduced ethylene production after 12 days of storage without affecting the fruit firmness and total acids (217). Peach fruits harvested at 50% pink half-color stage gave the best keeping quality with KMnO4 (1000 ppm) in paper lining as ethylene absorbent or after treating the fruit with cycocel at 4000 ppm (218). Use of calcium nitrate (1%) as a preharvest spray on peach leads to minimum loss of weight, lower respiration, and lower disease incidence, with

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maintenance of the edible quality of fruits for 6 days (219). However, use of more than 2% calcium chloride damaged the fruit skin (220). Mineral nutrition of peach can also influence postharvest fruit quality. Amelioration of K deficiency increases the titratable acidity of the fruit, altering the quality (221). Application of Mg without K accentuated the K deficiency, but their combined use improved yield and fruit size with a delay in maturity of 24 days (222). Potassium tended to increase redness on skin, whereas Mg tended to decrease red pigmentation, as was true with the use of N application (223). However, the latter also increased splitpit disorder. Enhancement of N or Mg decreased the shelf life and firmness of fruits (224) but increased browning resistance and soluble solids content of peach fruit with a lowering of titratable acidity (225). VI. Chemical Composition

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Peach fruit has an outer exocarp, a mesocarp, and a stony endocarp known as seed. The approximate composition of the fruit is given in Table 6. The major portion of the fruit is water. It is either in free or bound form and maintains the turgor of the cells, and indirectly the texture of the fruit, besides being a good solvent (180). More than 90% of total fruit is flesh at harvest maturity, with a pulp-to-stone ratio of 8.519.50 depending on cultivar (227).

Page 267 Table 6 Approximate Composition of Peach Fruits Constituent Average range Moisture (%) 8689.1 Sugars (% wt. basis): 7.548.45 Total 2.45 Reducing 6.35 Nonreducing Proteins (%) 0.61.2 Fat (%) 0.3 Fiber (%) 1.2 Dry matter (%) 12.17 Titratable acids (% malic acid) 0.63 Energy (kcal) 50 Minerals (%) 0.8 0.02 Thiamine (mg/100 g) Riboflavin (mg/100 g) 0.04 Niacin (mg/100 g) 0.5 Vitamin C (mg/100 g) 127 Minerals (mg/100 g edible portion) 21 Magnesium 2.0 Sodium 453 Potassium 0.06 Copper

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Sulfur Chlorine Calcium Phosphorus Iron Acid-base balance Oxalic acid (mg/100 g) Phytin P (mg/100 g) Phenolics (g/100 g fresh wt.) Carotenoids (%): White flesh cvs. Yellow flesh cvs. Leucoanthocyanin (mg/100 g) Sources: Refs. 7, 34, 226, 231, 234, 243

26.0 0 15 41 2.4 99 1.0 1.0 0.030.14 0.190.59 0.750.79 20.3178

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The carbohydrates are the most abundant group of constituents and are present as lowmolecular-weight sugars or high-molecularweight polymers. Sugars in free or bound form are the important constituents of peach and are dependent on the cultivar as well as the root stock (228). Sucrose is the major nonreducing sugar, glucose and fructose are the main reducing sugars, and other sugars such as galactose, xylose, glucitol, and sorbitol are also found in peach. A portion of the carbohydrates is present as dietary fiber, which is not digested but is significant from a nutrition point of view. Cellulose, pectic substances, and hemicelluloses are the carbohydrate polymers that constitute the fiber. Morguchi et al. (229) found glucose and fructose as the

predominant sugars in equal amounts in the beginn fruit development, but later on sucrose started accu However, sorbitol remained at low level in the deve peach fruits

Starch is commonly found in the outermost cells of (162). Amygdalin (D-L) occurs in the seeds of peac content of glycoside and HCN in peach fruit as suc different treatments is given in Table 7. The mean a acid content (essential) of the peach has also been r (231). Like proteins, the fat content of peach fruit is and is mostly associated with cuticular layers on the of the fruit. The fatty acid content of the pistil of di peach varieties is similar, but the reverse was the ca anthers (232). Malic acid is the dominant acid, with amounts of citric acid and quinic acid (233). Ripe p are characterized by high Brix-acid ratios. Lactones as flavor components also contribute to the titratabl of peaches.

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The ripe peach has phenolic compounds having sig from pharmacology, color, and flavor development view. These include chlorogenic acid and its isome chlorogenic acid (highest in skin and peels), and ca (234). North Chinese crisp peach (nonfibrous) has t highest concentration of catechin and leucoanthocy (235). Chlorogenic acid, a caffeic acid derivative ep echin, catechin, and cyanidine are the prominent ph found in the mesocarp of Cresthaven peaches. Phen pounds are significant in the quality of both fresh a peaches, especially their implication in red color of astringency, and enzymatic browning of thermally peaches (236,237).

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The browning potential of peaches depends on the a phenolic compounds present in the fruit and the lev activity of polyphenol oxidase (PPO) enzyme (238) Normally, these compounds are physically separate PPO enzyme in the intact tissue, but with damaged bruising), PPO has access to phenolic compounds a ical reactions leading to browning taking place. Sen properties of fresh and processed peaches are affect great extent by cultural and environmental factors (

The visual impact of carotenoids in peaches is the p basis for color grading. The yellow-orange color of is attributed primarily to xanthophylls (240), while dish blush skin of some cultivars is due to anthocya primarily cyanidin-3-glycoside. Leucoanthocyanin however, depends on the variety (235).

Table 7 Glycosides and HCN Content in Fresh and Canned P Peach fruits Seeds (amygdalin, % dry wt.) Pulp (prun Sunhaven 0.09 0 Sunflower 1.02 0 Starking Delicious 0.49 1

1349/2989

Redhaven Stoned peach fruit Unstoned peach fruit Stone in brine Canned peach Source: Ref. 230.

1.11 HCN content (mg/kg) Pulp 0.158 0.022

B 0. 0. 0. 0

Page 269 Table 8 Approximate Composition of Peach Kernels Constituent Content Protein (%) 23.931.2 60.0 Albumins (%) 9.0 Globulins (%) 6.0 Prolamins (%) 8.0 Glutamins (%) Nonprotein nitrogen (%) 17.0 Fats (%) 39.254.5 63.8 Oleic acid (%) 15.4 Linoleic acid (%) 20.7 Saturated fatty acids (%) Lipid composition 98.0 Triglycerides (%) 1.1 Polar lipids (%) 0.5 Sterols (%) Starch (%) 3.6 Sugars (%) 2.2 Crude fibers (%) 14.8 Minerals (%) 2.7 Hydrocyanic acid (mg/100 g) 102.2 Source: Refs. 246248

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The predominant carotenoids and carotenol fatty acid esters in peach fruit were found to be zeaxanthin and b-cryptoxanthin, identified as xanthophyll, lycopene, b-carotene, a-ceratolene (hydrocarbon carotenoids), while b-cryptoxanthin, lutein, and zeaxanthin were identified as carotenol fatty acid esters. The carotenoids are important for color and their role in prevention of cancer (241). Exposure to solar radiation, even for 3 days, markedly stimulates anthocyanin development in peach fruit (242), reaching a maximum in 8 days of exposure. The main contribution of fruits including peach and their processed products to nutrition is undoubtedly the supply of vitamin C, among other vitamins present in the peach fruit. The vitamin C content depends on the variety, ripeness stage, and location (243,244). Peach fruit is also a good source of minerals.

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Peach kernel is a source of fats, protein, fiber, and minerals (Table 8). The proteins are rich in lysine, leucine, isoleucine, valine, threonine, basic and acidic amino acids, but poor in methionine. Characterization of peach seed oil and meal has also been reported (245). The kernel oil is utilized in food, cosmetics, and pharmaceutical preparations. It can be used as a fertilizer or as a cattle feed after debittering. However, peach kernel oil had marked toxic effect when fed to mice (246). Peach flowers and leaves are purgative and anthelminitic. VII. Storage A. Postharvest Losses Peaches are highly perishable fruits and exhibit a high rate of deterioration due to their high moisture content. Unless the process of ripening is controlled, the fruits become spoiled within

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Page 270

23 days after picking. Because they lack hard texture, peaches are highly susceptible to bruising. Losses also occur due to microbial spoilage during harvesting, transportation, and storage of fruits (249). Postharvest losses of peaches in California were estimated to be of the order of 1524% due to microbial decay (250). Fungi are the major cause of deterioration of fresh fruits, while crops which have been damaged during cultivation, harvesting, storage, transportation, or marketing are infected by weak pathogens. Physical injury induced by mechanical means, natural openings on the surface of fruits, or physiological injury or injury after harvesting due to high or low temperatures or chemicals are preconditions for development of weak pathogens.

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The important diseases of peach fruit at postharvest stage are summarized in Table 9. These diseases occur due to either contamination and infection that occur during the growing season, or during harvesting, handling, packaging, and transportation. Bacteria are responsible for most of the soft rots of fruits during transport (256,257) or in storage, such as soft rot by coliform bacteria, Erwinia coratovora, and Pseudomonas. Bacterial spot, a serious disease in several countries (258), is caused by Xanthomonas compestris pruni; it can be controlled by hygienic conditions and antibiotic spray. Postharvest spoilage can be prevented or retarded by use of chemical inhibitors, fungicides, hot water washes, and refrigeration (251). Blotches or spots developing on the peach skin after harvest have been associated with metal cations in water used to wash fruit (259263), rubbing or transit injury (263265), preharvest application of fungicides such as captan (266), and ammonnia leaks

1356/2989

from refrigeration equipment (267). Nectarine pox is another disorder of commercially grown nectarines (Prunus persica L.). It is characterized by superficial warty outgrowth (268), which may be due to deficiency of boron or infection with virus.

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Disinfestation of fruit insects is of particular concern when the fruit is being shipped across agriculture quarantine. Interest in methyl bromide fumigation of stone fruits also centered around quarantine measures to assure freedom from codling moths, which were not generally attracted to peaches or nectarines (269). Fumigants can be phytotoxic (270). Methyl bromidetreated nectarines were found to develop deep pitting, which tended to be greater at lower temperatures (4.5C) than at higher (26C); damage became more severe at higher concentration of fumigants (48 g/m3). However, fumigation with methylene bromide (48 g/m3) for 2 h at 21C controlled the incidence of Cydia pomonella, without a significant phytotoxic effect but with altered texture. The recent withdrawal of ethylene dibromide from use as a fumigant in the United States necessitates the development of alternative methods of control. The use of Bacillus subtilis and related organisms as

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biofungicides has been reported (271,272). A pilot test on simulated commercial peach packing lines showed that Bacillus subtilis as a biological agent was equal to treatment of fruits with benomyl (12 mg/kg) in controlling brown rot caused by Monilinia fructicola. B. Precooling Fruits are cooled immediately after harvesting to reduce the field heat and thus lower the temperature and retard the process of ripening. Practically all peaches shipped from the South-eastern states are hydrocooled in Maryland, Pennsylvania, and New Jersey. About one-third of the peaches produced in Michigan and the Great Lakes states are hydrocooled. California freestone peaches are precooled in precooling rooms or by forced air. Clingstone peaches for canning are often hydrocooled in orchard pallet bins and then top-iced before transportation (172).

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The amount of heat extracted from peaches at different temperatures and times in water of 2C indicated that in hot weather when peach temperature is high, cooling requirement increases (273). Because of channeling, hydrocooling of peaches in pallet bins where the depth is more than

Table 9 Important Postharvest Diseases of Peaches and Their Name of C disease Symptoms org Brown 1.Small, water-soaked spots on fruit surface Mon rot appears initially. sp. 2.Affected flesh becomes brown/black in 24 h.

3.Ashy tiffs of fungus, powdery mildew mass in rings; entire fruit decays, shrivels, and mummifies. Whisker's1.Circular tan area around healthy skin. Fun rot 2.Whole skin becomes tan to brown. Later, fungus grows near the center with black spores. Blue 1.Occurs on injured or overripe fruits with Pen mold small, tan-colored spots. expa 2.Skin over the spot breaks or slips. Black mold 3.Whole surface of fruit becomes blue. 1.Small, tan, slightly sunken. 2.Mold produces abundant black spores with sooty appearance.

Asp nige

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Green mold Grey mold

1.Found in injured or softened fruits.

Alte alte

2.Infected spot green, affecting skin but later covering entire fruit, including flesh. 1.Light brown spots, usually after long storage. Botr cine

Source: Refs. 251255.

0.30 m, the water may miss some of the fruits. This mersion or by maintaining good flow of water (274 100120 ppm chlorine in the hydrocooler and hydro by extensive storage, fungicides are recommended well to waxing and fungicide protection. Freshly ha cooled in flowing water at 10C; cooling parameter the weight to 520 kg increased the time to cool the dict cooling time of peach has been developed (276 known as hydro-air cooling has also been reported

Page 272

C. Low-Temperature Storage.

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The storage life of any fruit is influenced by temperature, which is known to affect the rate of respiration. Lowering the temperature, therefore, considerably reduces the respiration rate and extends the storage life. Refrigerated storage has made possible the marketing of fruits after their harvest season. But peaches have a shorter storage life than the majority of temperate fruits. Cold storage is the common practice to prolong the canning season. Peaches and nectarines are seldom stored except for a short period to overcome the glut in the market or to extend the processing season. In general, sound, well-matured fruits can be stored for 24 weeks at -0.5 to 0C and 90% relative humidity, depending on the cultivar and the growing season (278,279). However, peaches stored at 0C for more than 4 weeks tend to have dry and mealy flesh and may show marked browning around the pit. Some late-season peaches, such as Rio Osa gem, can be stored for 46 weeks at -0.6 to 0C and 9095%

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relative humidity before marketing (280). Storage conditions and other characteristics of peach have also been reported (281). Transferring fruit to 5C after storage for 1 or 2 weeks at 0C causes severe internal breakdown. Peaches harvested at the firm ripe stage and destined for processing often need 46 days for ripening, and storage for 1014 days at -0.5 to 0C reduces rhizopus decay during subsequent ripening without affecting brown rot (282,283). Generally, peaches are of better quality and have less decay if ripened before storage. Peaches and nectarines ripened after storage of 4 weeks at 0C retained a significantly better internal appearance, with less internal breakdown, than those ripened after storage. Those softened at room temperature almost reharden when returned to low-temperature storage (212).

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Nectarines have higher susceptibility to shriveling than peaches, and should be stored in low air velocity at proper temperature with useful supplements to protect the nectarines, including packing (284). Chilling increases the membrane permeability in tissue from various chillsensitive species. Intermittent exposure to room temperature has been advocated as a means of controlling wooly breakdown of peach in cold storage (285). Mealiness of peaches is associated with reduced electrolyte leakage and internal conductivity (286), and can be used as a nondestructive method to find out the presence of mealiness in intact fruit. A relationship between mealiness in nectarines tissue and Ca uptake, ion leakage, and internal air space has also been observed (287). The incidence of mealiness has been attributed to the presence of insoluble low-methoxypectic substances of high molecular weight which are formed by the action of pectinase increase during chilling (288)

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and which reduce activity of polygalacturonase during subsequent ripening (289). D. Controlled-Atmosphere Storage The preservative effect of low temperature becomes more pronounced when it is combined with control of the composition of the storage atmosphere than when either method is used alone. A reduction in oxygen concentration and/ or an increase in carbon dioxide concentration of the storage atmosphere reduces the rate of respiration of fresh fruits and vegetables and also inhibits microbial and insect growth. Either controlled-atmosphere (CA) storage or modified-atmosphere (MA) storage can be used.

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The storage life of peaches has been extended by storing them in controlled atmosphere (291297) in recent years as CA facilities become more common. Improved equipment is now available to establish and maintain CA conditions within storerooms and during rail and road transport. However, the results of experiments on CA storage indicate only a limited success (Table 10).

Table 10 Summary of Some Controlled-Atmoshpere Storage Storage conditions and treatment 1.1% air or plus 5% CO2 at 1.1C CA storage ma than air storag 2.5% CO2 + 12% O2 at 0C Peaches can be 3.1% O2, 5% CO2 as CA, intermittent warm- Fruits did not h ing for 2 days at 1820C after storage at 0C 20 weeks. in CA Fruits ripened or ternal breakdo Ripening at 1820C after storage in air 4.CA for 6 and 9 weeks or air storage; peaches Fruits had bett ripened after storage decay than afte 5.CA and air storage No extension i control. 6.Delay in start of CA or intermittent warming Treatment is b to 20C 7.CA: The conditions (a) 10% O2 + 10% CO2 ternal breakdo or respiration. (b) 2% O2 + 5% CO2 or (c) 10% O2 + 5% CO2 at 0C for 68 weeks 8.CA: The canning se 1.5% O2 + 1.5% CO2 pending on the

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or 2% O2 + 5% CO2 Source: Refs. 290297.

E. Subatmospheric-Pressure Storage

Storage of fresh produce under reduced pressure ha (298) and Salunkhe and Wu (299) found that subatm ficantly delayed the flesh softening of firm/mature to 93 days, compared to 66 days for fruit stored at t sugar and acid content were significantly altered by the end of the storage time both were comparable.

There is a problem of decay in abnormal ripening o storage (10 kPa) at 20C, although low pressure (10 tion, and sugar depletion in peaches during storage fruits was a more serious problem than accumulatio

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When peaches are stored under unfavorable conditi skin color, develop considerable off-flavor (dry and oration of flesh. In addition, fluctuation in storage t moisture on fruit, favoring the growth of microorga cay of the stored fruits.

Page 274

F. Irradiation

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Irradiation is another method of reducing the postharvest decay of fruits. After the end of World War II, the use of ionizing radiation for food preservation were extensively investigated, involving both perishable and nonperishable foods such as fresh fruits and vegetables. Among the radiations, gamma rays are well known for their lethal properties. At very high doses, radiation kills all forms of life, but at lower concentrations, the radiation can check processes such as sprouting and mycelial growth, reduce the number of microorganisms, and hence reduce the extent of spoilage (300). Irradiation can be successful only if, after inactivating the decay-causing organisms, the radiation does not injure the fruits by altering the flavor, texture, or appearance. Research at U.S. Department of Agriculture laboratories indicated that peaches innoculated with active cultures of Monilinia fructicola remained free of infection for 10 days at 27C after irradiation at

1373/2989

182,000 rad, while peaches inoculated with Rhizopus nigricans remained free for only 6 days with similar treatment. Untreated fruits were completely rotted in 5 and 3 days from brown rot and Rhizopus rot, respectively (301). Firm ripe peach fruits, when irradiated to different radiation doses and temperatures, had higher taste preference after 10 days of storage than after 1 day of storage. This was probably due to better ripening of treated fruits. However, after 10 days of storage, there was substantial increase in adjusted preference scores at the 3 105 radiation level. This was attributed to progressive reduction in mold growth (301,302). Thomas (303), while reviewing the current status of research on the use of ionizing radiation, stressed the need for its utilization in combination with other techniques (heat treatment, refrigeration, and inert atmosphere) to reduce spoilage due to fungal pathogens during storage.

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Gamma radiation at 4050 krad from cobalt-60 of California peaches and nectarines infested by Mediterranean fruit flies (Ceratitis capitata) prevented the hatching of eggs and better control of harvesting, shipping, and handling than controls (304). VIII. Processing Peaches are principally canned; only a small proportion is frozen, dried, or used to prepare other products such as jams, preserves, or beverages (305307). The quantity of peach utilized for processing in California is shown in Figure 6. A. Puree

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Peach puree is the starting material for preparation of other products. Heaton et al. (308) described the various steps involved in the preparation of puree. These are washing, trimming, cooking the fruits, and passing the pulp through a continuous rotary unit with perforation, followed by finishing with addition of ascorbic acid (0.14%). The puree is pasteurized and filled aseptically into bulk-capacity drums or largesize cans, which are closed using vacuum and nitrogen. A sensor mechanism for pitting of peach fruit has been developed (309). Initial color and viscosity of puree are important quality characteristics (310,311). Peach pulp flow behavior index ranged from 0.20 to 0.39, indicating the pseudoplastic nature of the pulp (311). However, the flow behavior of concentrated peach pulp (TSS 34.2 Brix) has recently been described to be thixotropic (312). B. Jam

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The fruits of peach can be used in the preparation of jam. Most of the time, it is combined with other fruits to produce mixed-fruit jam. The fruit is converted into pulp and mixed with the required amount of sugar. If needed, pectin is added for proper setting of jam. Jams for domestic

Page 275

Fig. 6 Quantity of peach utilized (%) for processing in California. (From Ref. 172.)

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use are commonly packed in glass containers and usually have sufficient sugar content to preserve them against spoilage due to microorganisms. Influence of formulation factors in the peach jam has also been reported (313). Long storage of jam affects its quality. The rate of deterioration in quality of plum was found to be about the same whether the jam previously had been stored at -20, 2, 32, or 47F (314). C. Nectar

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Nectar is another product prepared from peach. Woodroof and Luh (314) have described the procedure for making nectar, which includes washing, halving, and pitting the fruits, followed by passing over the inspection belt to remove any damaged fruits. Peeling is done by lye peeling (1% sodium hydroxide at 100C for 15 s), followed by immersion in cold water. After removal of the skins by rubbing, halves are cooked and passed through a disintegrator and pulped in a pulper. Syrup and citric acid are added and the product is passed through a deareator to prevent deterioration in color and flavor. It is pasteurized in glass jars at 100C for 2030 min or after filling hot in cans at 88C, inverting the can, and holding temperature for 3 min followed immediately by cooling. Heaton et al. (315) have developed an excellent peach drink. D. Juice and Beverages.

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Preparation of beverages including ready-toserve beverage, ginger appetizer, etc., is another outlet for utilizing peach. Because of the difficulty of extracting juice from the fruit, which is pulpy in nature, a process for juice extraction using pectiolytic enzyme has been reported (316). The addition of enzyme increased the juice yield, causing a slight change of TSS, pH, and acidity, and a drastic decrease in apparent viscosity (Table 11). Enzymatic extraction of the juice improves the color and clarity without affecting the flavor. The rheology of clarified peach juice indicated it to be Newtonian in nature, and an equation on the effect of temperature (560C) and concentration on viscosity has been described (317). Differences in types of sugars and acids in peach and nectarine juices have also been reported (Table 12).

Table 11 Effects of Enzymatic Treatment on Physicochemica

Enzyme level Juice yield TSS ( Titratable acidity (% ma (%) (%) Brix) ic acid) No enzyme 22.5 9.8 1.0 0.5 56.0 10.0 1.1 1.0 59.0 10.4 1.2 1.5 61.0 10.0 1.2 Source: Ref. 316.

E. Baby Food

According to Woodroof and Luh (314), clingstone stones for preparation of baby food because of the w better storability and nonmelting flesh, and thicker blended with sugar syrup, sterilized at 110C, and d or preserved in jars. The final peach baby food has 3.04.1, an acidity of 0.350.45% (citric acid), and a B of 7.08.5 cm. F. Canned Peaches

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Commercial canning of peaches is an important ind among the 10 top canned fruit and fruit juice packs (319). Yellow-fleshed cultivars are the most comm cessing and the fresh market. Peaches can be canne sliced, in water, syrup or juices of various grades (3 be of uniform large size and sharp yellow color, ten They should be picked at or near the optimum matu cessing should have proper maturity, a diameter of from blemishes.
Table 12 Comparison of Sugars and Acids in Peach and Nectarines Juicesa Parameter Nectarine Peach Sugar (g/100 ml) Mean S.D. 8.38 0.73 5.68 0.52 Sucrose 0.85 0.04 0.67 0.06 Glucose 0.59 0.02 0.49 0.01 Fructose 0.27 0.04 0.09 0.02 Sorbitol Acid (mg/100 ml) 140 39 109 16 Citric acid Tr. Tr. Ascorbic acid 383 67 358 72 Malic acid

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136 28 121 11 Quinic acid ND Tr. Tartaric acid aS.D. = standard deviation; ND = not detected; Tr. = Traces. Source: Ref. 318.

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For canning, peaches are lye peeled (1.52.0% hot lye). The halves are washed once then dipped in 1.0% citric acid (314). The peeled halves are filled into empty cans which are automatically filled with syrup by a vacuum syruping machine. The peaches may receive a syrup of 40, 25, 10 Brix, or water, depending on the brand, but most choice-grade canned peach halves have 2122 Brix. The filled cans are exhausted in a steam-filled exhaust box for 56 min at 9396C. Coding of cans is then done by specifying the cultivar grade and content. The processing time for canned peach depends on the maturity and cultivar of fruits; vacuum indicates satisfactory processing (323). The cans are double seamed and sterilized, usually for 2025 min at 100C, followed by cooling in water to 36C. Canned peaches are stacked, labeled, and stored until disposal in a warehouse at 20C with good ventilation. The quality factors for canned peaches are proper vacuum, headspace,

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drained weight, color, uniformity of size, absence of defects, texture, and flavor (324327). Nitrogen fertilization increased peach flavor and texture and decreased astringency and tartness of canned peach (328). However, canned peaches with low nitrogen and high potassium regime were poor in quality. Consumers prefer canned clingstone peaches having a cutout TSS of 2223%, a TSS-acid ratio of 3440, and titratable acidity of 0.35% (329). Less mature peaches gave canned product with lower drained weight than more mature peaches (330). Drained weight and cutout syrup Brix are inversely related and increase rapidly during the first week and then slowly reach an equilibrium 90 days after canning (319). Canned peach cultivars of July Elberta and Shimizu with citric acid in covering syrup and after 50100 days of storage gave the best product (161).

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Enzymatic firming of fruits using vacuum infusion of exogenous citrus pectin methylesterase (PME) may obviate low endogenous levels of PME for firming of peaches, which could be especially useful for freestone peaches, which have higher levels of endogenous endopolygalacturonase activity (331) and are prone to rapid softening. Javeri et al. (332) attempted to infiltrate PME using vacuum containing 100 mg/liter CaCl2 for 1 h, which significantly increased the firmness of canned peaches with increase in the calcium content. The important factors affecting HCN content in canned stone fruits include initial amount of glycoside and conditions of heat processing and enzymatic hydrolysis of glycoside.

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High-vacuum flame sterilization (HVFS) of fruits produces a canned product which is closer to fresh than conventionally canned product (333). The process is advocated to use 30% lesser energy in processing than the conventional sterilization procedure (334). In HVFS processing, the fruits are packed with little or no water, deareated to a high vacuum level, and given a minimal thermal treatment which enhances the attributes of canned fruits (334,335). The process required 7.5 min total heating time and 5.5 min for diced fruit to achieve biological stability (336). Comparison of cutout analysis of conventionally canned and high-vacuum flamesterilized processed peach after 1 and 18 months of storage has been made (Table 13). All the HVFS-packed fruits retained original flavor attributes and texture of fresh fruit for 18 months. Omission of covering syrup combined with necessary blanching treatment allowed packing of one-third more fruit into a standard can.

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Conventionally, peaches are canned in sugar syrup of 4042 Brix with 0.1% citric acid. To make the product nutritionally better, instead of covering sugar syrup, juice may replace a part of the covering medium (337). The product is claimed to have similar physicochemical characteristics but improved sensory qualities compared to conventional product. G. Diced Peaches The fruits used for preparation of diced peaches are of canning ripeness. The fruits are halved, peeled in 2% lye solution at 103C for 2038 s, and diced to give 1.27-cm cubes. Diced peaches

Table 13 Comparative Evaluation of High Vacuum Flame-Pro Diced Peach Fruits after Storage Storage Vacuum pack Conventional pack V time natural (303 in water (401 411 t Conditions (months) 406 cans) cans) Net weight 1 15.4 0.3 28.0 0.1 (oz) 18 15.4 0.5 27.9 0.2 Drained 1 15.4 0.3 18.5 0.0 weight 18 15.3 0.5 18.3 0.2 (oz) Vaccum 1 21.8 1.0 10.0 0.0 (in. Hg) 18 21.8 2.6 10.3 0.4 pH 1 3.68 0.01 7.5 0.1 18 3.72 0.01 3.75 0.1 TSS ( 1 10.7 0.1 3.83 0.4 Brix) 18 10.6 0.4 7.2 0.1 Titratable 1 7.2 0.1 4.8 0.2 acidity 18 8.0 0.3 4.8 0.2 (meq/ 100g) Source: Ref. 336

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and pears are sometimes mixed. Filling of the cans exhausting and processing for 20 min at 100C in a H. Steep Preservation

Steep preservation is a simple technique which can peaches. It does not require costly equipment or pac Mudahar and Bhatia (338), the steep preservation m but not for nectarines I. Marmalade

Marmalades have the characteristics of jellies and p fruit pulp, and may contain the skins suspended in j slightly underripe fruits that are rich in pectin and a alone or in combination with other fruits. Popular f and peach (339). J. Peach Butter

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Fruit butter is made by cooking the pulp to a smoot hold its shape but soft enough to spread easily. Frui in that the product is clear but more concentrated. S cial care is needed to avoid scorching (339). Usuall unit of sugar to 1 part fruit. For more flavor, cider, desired. The mixture is cooked to a heavy consisten sealed, and corked quickly. K. Peach Conserve

Conserves are similar to jams, with chopped nut (pe and flavor. Conserves may be a mixture of two or m ent in specific conserves being peaches. The produc fruit than marmalades.

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L. Fruit Bar. Fruit bars or leather is a product obtained by dehydration of fruit purees into leathery sheets. Peaches with high sugar and flavor but low fiber are suited to make leather, especially from culls and overripe fruits. Since fruit leather is poorly packed and unrefrigerated, it loses color and flavor gradually, and quality standards are difficult to maintain (339). M. Pickle

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Peach produces one of the most popular and acceptable pickles (339). Small freestone peaches from the grading tables of fresh or canned fruits are utilized. The fruits are peeled by dipping in boiling 2% lye, rinsed with water, and dipped in 1% citric acid solution, often with the addition of apple cider vinegar or brown sugar. Sweet peach pickles are made with 50 Brix syrup having a cutout of 30 Brix, though really sweet pickles have 6567 Brix of syrup with cutout of 40 Brix. The shrinkage is more in heavier syrup than in lighter syrups. Pieces of peach pickle tend to float in the syrup until they attain equilibrium. N. Refrigerated Peach Slices

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The use of low-temperature preservation is a very promising technique, but the primary reason for the limited shelf life of refrigerated peach slices is the loss of fresh natural flavor and development of a seedy flavor, and gradual softening of texture. Heaton et al. (340) have outlined the various steps involved in the preparation of refrigerated peach slices, which include harvesting freestone peaches at firm ripe stage, mellowing for 12 days, grading fruit for maturity and uniformity, followed by peeling in boiling 25% lye solution. The peel is then removed, followed by neutralization. The slices are packed in convenient size cans. The process is completed by coating 8 parts peaches with 1 part sugar containing 0.15% ascorbic acid and 0.06% sodium benzoate, mixing gently, filling into sterile glass or plastic jars, closing with vacuum or screw caps, cooling to 4C, and storage at 0C for 20 weeks.

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O. Dried Peaches Dehydration is the oldest and most common form of food preservation. Potential spoilage of dried fruit depends on how much water is available to the spoilage microorganisms, which is expressed in terms of water activity (aw). Yeast needs more water (0.85) than fungi (0.80) but less than bacteria (0.90) and aw is, therefore, a very stabilizing factor against microbial deterioration. Freestone peaches are used almost exclusively for drying. The quantities of peaches dried in some countries are shown in Fig. 7.

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The steps involved in common predrying treatments applied to the fruits are (a) selection and sorting for size, maturity, and soundness; (b) washing; (c) peeling by hand, lye solution, or abrasion; (d) cutting into halves, slices, cubes, or segments; and (e) sulfuring. The quality of dehydrated products depends on many factors, such as raw materials, drying temperature, process time, moisture content, and sulfur dioxide concentration.

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For many years, sulfur dioxide (SO2), an antioxidant, has been used for preservation besides protection of carotene and ascorbic acid contents of dried fruits. Packing material and packaging atmosphere can be used to control SO2 loss from dried peaches during extended storage (342). Nitrogen packing also reduces the loss of SO2 from fruit. However, marked reduction of SO2 in fruit before consumption can be induced by immersing the fruits in hot water (343). When boiling water was replaced by 20 Brix sugar syrup, the loss was increased by about 15%. According to Wagner et al. (344), for solar-dried nectarines and peaches, 1.25% SO2 solution was sufficient to attain the desirable level in the product. Dehydrated or sun-dried peaches, after a 3-min dip in

Page 280

Fig. 7 Quantity of dehydrated peaches produced in the world. (From Ref. 341.)

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1.0% ascorbic acid, had more attractive color and flavor than nontreated fruits. Peaches have drying ratios varying from 3.5:1 to 7:1, depending on cultivar and maturity. Peaches can be dried to under 4% moisture under vacuum only. The dried products are utilized as pie, tart, and turnover filling, while the powder provides excellent purees, spreads, or glazes, after proper dehydration and preparation. The effect of fresh fruit characteristics and cold storage on the quality of dried peaches has also been observed (345). The drying of the fruit could be achieved by solar or mechanical drier. In the latter case, forced air at high temperature is also used. It has been found that 75% air recirculation in the drying process required the least energy (346).

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Osmotic dehydration has received attention as an intermediate step in drying, dehydrofreezing, and freeze-drying of fruits (347). The method is based on removing only part of the natural water content of the fruit to produce products of high quality, especially flavor. During the process, exchange of sugars or other components take place. According to Giangiacome et al. (348), sugar exchange dynamics between the syrup and the fruits, including peach, was related not only to the flux of sugars from the syrup into the fruit, but to the individual sugars present in the fruit. The exchange is dependent on the species of fruit, the relative diffusibilities of the sugars, and enzymatic activity within the fruit. Peach was found to have complex behavior. According to osmosis laws, the fruit should be penetrated by all the sugars present in syrup, as their concentrations are higher in the syrup than in the fruit. Interestingly, sucrose was hydrolyzed but

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fructose leached out of the fruit regardless of hydrolysis. P. Fruit-Flavored Concentrate Anders (349) described a fruit-based concentrate of various flavors including peach which is marketed for nonalcoholic beverages, but which could be used with fruit, fruit-based formulated foods, or as a flavor enhancer after modification by processors.

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Q. Wine Wine has been made from almost every type of fruit, berry, herb, root, and flower at some time or another (350). However, dried peaches were not found to be very satisfactory for making wine, as they were too solid or pulpy and the extract too gummy. R. Brandy

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Brandy prepared from peach fruit is known as peach brandy, and it can be prepared in a similar manner to grape brandy (350). There have been sporadic attempts to prepare brandies from fruits including peach in California. Piepet et al. (351) and Stanciulescu et al. (352) have described methods for preparing fruit brandy including peach. The use of waste fruit of poor quality usually dissipated any chance of success. There appears to be some commercial demand for small quantities of fruit brandies in California (350). A simple gas chromatographic method to estimate ethylcarbamate in spirits including peach has also been developed (353). IX. Waste Management

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Processing of peach results in the generation of waste in the form of peel, seeds, and trimmings, and washing water having high BOD and COD (Table 14). The waste contains proteins, polysaccharides, sugar, amino acid, and pectin (355). Therefore, it is more of an asset than a liability if it can be processed into useful products. Nevertheless, it has to be treated to reduce BOD as per the stringent standards laid down by environmental protection agencies.

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The best method of pollution control is to develop and adopt methods of processing which generate less or no pollution, such as dry caustic peeling technology (356). Various methods to utilize the waste for recovery of by-products along with innovative measures for waste reduction have also been reviewed (357). Avakyan et al. (358) isolated actively growing fungi from cannery waste, and their reinoculation into peach fruit residue enriched the cannery waste with fungal protein and vitamin D3.

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Seeds of peach also constitute waste, but due to their high protein and fat contents they have potential for utilization, perhaps after detoxification. Agricultural residue including peach leaf litter, after pretreatment and fermentation, has proved to be a good source of methane gas (359). Enzymatic pretreatment of peach solid waste for ethanol production has been investigated for the utilization of the waste (360). However, more research is needed before it is advocated for industrial applications.
Table 14 Characteristics of Waste Generated from Processing of Peaches Peach fruit processed ( 103 tons) 1100 Waste water ( 103 gal) 4400 BOD (lb/ton) 60 Suspended solids (lb/ton) 10 Solids residuals (lb) 500 Source: Ref. 354.

Page 282

References. 1. Hesse, C. O., Peaches, Advances in Fruit Breeding (J. Janick and J. N. Moore, eds.), Purdue University Press, West Lafayette, IN, 1975, p. 285. 2. Evreinoff, V. A., Notes on the ancestors of the cultivated peaches (in French), Ann. Ec. Nutr. Sup. Agron. (Toulouse) 5:61 (1957). 3. Childers, N. F., Modern Fruit Science, Horticultural Publications, Gainesville, FL, 1983, p. 203. 4. FAO Production Year Book, Food and Agriculture Organization, Rome, 1989. 5. Randhawa, S. S., Wild Germplasm of Pome and Stone Fruits, Indian Agricultural Research Institute, Reg. Sta. Shimla, 1987, p. 51.

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6. Fidegrelli, C., G. Strade, Della, A. Liverani, and A. Minguzzi, Venus and Romea, two new cultivars for peach growing in Italy, Informatore-agrario 43(9):161 (1987). 7. Filipov, I., DamyankaA new Bulgarian peaches variety, Rasteniev. Deninauki. 24(4):99 (1987). 8. Ivascu, A., New varieties of white flesh peaches suitable for industrial processing, Productia Vegetabla Horticulturae 36(12):21 (1987). 9. Johnson, C. E., W. A. Young, J. E. Bourdreaux, W. J. Bourgeois, F. J. Peterson, and P. W. Wilson, Hawthorne peach, HortScience 25:1 (1990).

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10. Kirilov, B., and T. S. Bosolov, Fruit varieties approved by the state variety commission, Ovoslbicharstvo, Gradinarstvo-i-KonservnaPromischlenost, No. 4, 1987, p. 14. 11. Parmar, C., Kateru: A late ripening Himalayan wild peach, Fruit Var. J. 43(1):41 (1989). 12. Ramming, D. W., and O. Tanner, Goldcrest peach, Fruit Var. J. 41(2):52 (1987). 13. Sherman, W. B., P. M. Lyrene, and T. E. Crocker, Flordacrest, a peach for north central and north Florida, Agricultural Experiment Station, University of Florida, Circular, S-347, 1988, p. 5. 14. Sherman, W. B., and P. M. Lyrene, Flordaglo, a white flesh peach for central Florida, Agricultural Experiment Station, University of Florida, Circular, S-345, 1988, p. 4.

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15. Sherman, W. B., P. M. Lyrene, and T. E. Crocker, Flordastar, a peach for central Florida, Agricultural Experiment Station, University of Florida, Circular, S-346, 1988, p. 4. 16. Singh, S. N., and A. S. Parmar, Saharnpur PrabhatA promising peach for plains, Prog. Hort. 17:157 (1985). 17. Machado, C. A. E., B. H. Nakasu, E. A. Oliveira, and E. Karsten, Superoxide dismutase isoenzyme patterns in some peach genotypes, Pesquisa agropecuaria brasileira 21(11):1193 (1986). 18. Messeguer, R., P. Arus, and M. Carrera, Identification of peach cultivars with pollen isoenzymes, Sci. Hort. 31:107 (1987).

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19. Chaparro, J. X., R. E. Durham, G. A. Moore, and W. B. Sherman, Use of isoenzyme techniques to identify peach Nonpareil almond hybrids, HortScience 22:300 (1987). 20. Moore, G. A., Non-conventional techniques for peach breeding and genetic studies, The PeachWorld Cultivars to Marketing (N. F. Childers and W. B. Sherman, eds.), Horticultural Publications, Gainesville, FL, 1988, p. 122. 21. Evola, S. V., F. A. Burr, and B. Burr, The suitability of restriction length polymorphisms as genetic markers in maize, Theor. Appl. Genet. 71:765 (1986). 22. Helentjaris, T., M. Slocum, S. Wright, A. Schaefer, and J. Neinhuis, Construction of genetic linkage maps in maize and tomato using restriction fragment length polymorphisms, Theor. Appl. Genet. 72:761 (1986).

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23. Hansche, P. E., Heritability of juvenility in peach, HortScience 21:1197 (1986). 24. Hansche, P. E., Three brachytic dwarf peach cultivars: Valley gem, valley red and valley sun, HortScience 24:707 (1989). 25. Pathak, R. K., and R. A. Pathak, Peaches, Temperate Fruits (S. K. Mitra, D. S. Rathore and T. K. Bose, eds.), Horticulture and Allied Publishers, Calcutta, 1991, p. 179. 26. Moriguchi, T., Y. Ishizawa, T. Sanada, S. Teramoto, and S. Yamaki, Role of sucrose synthetase and other related enzymes in sucrose accumulation in peach fruit, J. Jpn. Soc. Hort. Sci. 60(3):531 (1992). 27. Kumar, S., and A. K. Goswami, Changes in peroxidase-IAA oxidase in developing peach fruits, Indian J. Plant Physiol. 28(4):331 (1985).

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28. Valpuesta, V., M. A. Quesada, C. SanchezRoldan, H. A. Tigier, A. Heredia, and M. J. Bukovac, Changes in indole-3-acetic acid, indole-3-acetic acid oxidase and peroxidase isoenzymes in the seeds of developing peach fruits, J. Plant Growth Regulation 8(4):255 (1989). 29. Miller, A. N., and C. S. Walsh, Indole-3-acetic acid concentration and ethylene evolution during early fruit development in peach, Plant Growth Regulation 9(1):37 (1990). 30. Galleschi, L., E. Scieno, R. Izzo, M. F. Quartacci, and A. Masia, Changes in protease activities during development of peach mesocarp, Plant Physiol. Biochem. 29(6):531 (1991). 31. Tonutti, P., P. Casson, and A. Ramina, Ethylene biosynthesis during peach fruit development, J. Am. Soc. Hort. Sci. 116(2):274 (1991).

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32. Dhillon, W. S., and S. S. Cheema, Physicochemical changes during development of peaches cv. Flordasun, Indian Food Packer 45(4):56 (1991). 33. Chapman, G. W., and R. J. Horvat, Changes in nonvolatile acids, sugars, pectin and sugar composition of pectin during peach (Cv. Monroe) maturation, J. Agr. Food Chem. 38:383 (1990). 34. Sandhu, S. S., B. S. Dhillon, and W. S. Brar, Changes in phenolics and anthocyanins in developing fruits of early and late maturing peach cultivars, Indian J. Hort. 43(1&2):69 (1986). 35. Frecon, J. L., Fresh market peach cultivars in Eastern North America, The PeachWorld Cultivars to Marketing (N. F. Childers and W. B. Sherman, eds.), Horticultural Publications, Gainesville, FL, 1988, p. 21.

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36. Weinberger, J. H., Prolonged dormancy trouble in peaches in the SoutheastIn relation to winter temperatures, Proc. Am. Soc. Hort. Sci. 57:107 (1956). 37. Couvillon, G. A., and A. Erez, Effect of level and duration of high temperatures on rest in the peach, J. Am. Soc. Hort. Sci. 110:579 (1985). 38. Zerem, A., Peach and nectarine cultivars and culture in Israel, The PeachWorld Cultivars to Marketing (N. F. Childers and W. B. Sherman, eds.), Horticultural Publications, Gainesville, FL, 1988, p. 227. 39. George, A. P., R. J. Nissen, and J. A. Baker, Low chill peach and nectarine cultivars, The PeachWorld Cultivars to Marketing (N. F. Childers and W. B. Sherman, eds.), Horticultural Publications, Gainesville, FL, 1988, p. 239.

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40. Westwood, M. N., Temperate Zone Pomology, W. H. Freeman, San Francisco, 1978. 41. Teskey, B. J. E., and J. S. Shoemaker, Peaches, Tree Fruit Production, AVI, Westport, CT, 1972, p. 149. 42. Layne, R. E. C., Peach rootstocks, Rootstocks for Fruit Crops (R. C. Rome and R. F. Carlson, eds.), John Wiley, New York, 1987, p. 185. 43. Rom, R. C., Progress in peach rootstock, The PeachWorld Cultivars to Marketing (N. F. Childers and W. B. Sherman, eds.), Horticultural Publications, Gainesville, FL, 1988, p. 302. 44. Rom, R. C., The peach rootstock situation: An international perspective, Fruit Var. J. 37:3 (1983).

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45. Layne, R. E. C., Dwarfing rootstocks and Canadian peach varieties, Pennsylvania Fruit News, 17: 2,25 (1978). 46. Hartmann, H. T. and D. E. Kester, Plant PropagationPrinciples and Practices, Prentice Hall of India, Pvt. Ltd. New Delhi, 4th ed., 1987, p. 623. 47. Preczewski, J. L. Production of peach nursery stocks, in the United States, The PeachWorld Cultivars to Marketing (N. F. Childers and W. B. Sherman, eds.), Horticultural Publications, Gainesville, FL, 1988, p. 318. 48. Pathak, R. K., and V. S. Pandey, Fruit Improvement Workshop, Ranikhet, India, Tech. Doc. 9, 1976. 49. Sharma, H. C., and R. N. Singh, Vegetative propagation of peach under sub-tropical conditions, Punjab Hort. J. 19:53 (1979).

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50. Thapar, A. R., Horticulture in the Hill Regions of North India, Directorate of Extension, Ministry of Food and Agriculture, New Delhi, 1960. 51. Kanwar, J. S., and G. S. Kahlon, Studies on peach propagation by grafting at Gurdaspur, Punjab Hort. J. 23:162 (1983). 52. Issell, L., Propagation peach trees from softwood cuttings, The PeachWorld Cultivars to Marketing (N. F. Childers and W. B. Sherman, eds.), Horticultural Publications, Gainesville, FL, 1988, p. 327.

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53. Issell, L. Propagation peach trees from hardwood cuttings, The PeachWorld Cultivars to Marketing (N. F. Childers and W. B. Sherman, eds.), Horticultural Publications, Gainesville, FL, 1988, p. 335. 54. Pandey, D., and S. P. Upadhayay, A note on the propagation of peach by hardwood cuttings, Prog. Hort. 13:71 (1981). 55. Almehdi, A. A., and D. E. Parfitt, In vitro propagation of peach: I. Propagation of Lovell and Nemaguard peach rootstocks, Fruit Var. J. 40:12 (1986). 56. Feliciano, A. J., and M. De Assis, In vitro rooting of shoots from embryo-cultured peach seedlings, HortScience 18:705 (1983).

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57. Hammerschlag, F. A., G. Bauchan, and R. Scorza, Factors influencing in vitro multiplication and rooting of peach cultivars, Plant Cell, Tissue Organ Culture 8:235 (1987). 58. Miller, C. A., D. C. Coston, E. C. Denny, and M. E. Romeo, In vitro propagation of Nemaguard peach rootstock, HortScience 17:194 (1982). 59. Negueroles, J., and O. P. Jones, Production in vitro of rootstock/scion combinations of Prunus cultivars, J. Hort. Sci. 54:279 (1979). 60. Parfitt, D. E., and A. A Almehdi, In vitro propagation of peach. II. A medium for in vitro multiplication of 56 peach cultivars. Fruit Var. J. 40:46 (1986).

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61. Reeves, D. M., B. D. Horton, and G. A. Couvillon, Effect of media and media pH on in vitro propagation of Nemaguard peach rootstock, Sci. Hort. 21:353 (1984). 62. Skirvin, R. M., M. C. Chu, and H. Kerns, An improved medium for the in vitro rooting of Harbrite peach, Fruit Var. J. 36:15 (1982). 63. Mante, S., R. Scorza, and J. M. Cordts, Plant regeneration from cotyledons of Prunus persica, Prunus domestica and Prunus cerasus, Plant Cell, Tissue Organ Culture 19:1 (1989). 64. Ognjanov, V., and D. Vyjanic-Varga, Vegetative propagation of peach in vitro, Jugoslovansko-Vocarstvo 23:429 (1989). 65. Navatel, J. C., and L. Bourrain, Micropropagation and fruit trees, Infos-CentreTechneque-Interprofessional-des-Fruits-etLegumes, France, No. 51, 1989, p. 6.

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66. Cobianchi, D., A. Liverani, and B. Marangoni, Nutrient status of Flavour Top and Redhaven peaches on various rootstocks in different agronomic situations, XVIII Convegno Poschicolo, Casena, Italy, May 3, 1986. 67. Ramming, D. W., In ovulo embryo culture of early-ripening Prunus, HortScience 20:419 (1985). 68. Win, I. C., H. T. Hsu, S. C. Lin, M. S. Rao, and M. N. Chiang, Improvement of Taiwan lowland peach, J. Agr. Res. China 37:405 (1988). 69. Hurton, B. D., Training peaches for completely mechanized production, HortScience 20:244 (1985).

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70. Ferree, M. E., Site selection to plantingSouthern USA, The PeachWorld Cultivars to Marketing (N. F. Childers and W. B. Sherman, eds.), Horticultural Publications, Gainesville, FL, 1988, p. 284. 71. Erez, A., Peach meadow orchard: Two feasible systems, The PeachWorld Cultivars to Marketing (N. F. Childers and W. B. Sherman, eds.), Horticultural Publications, Gainesville, FL, 1988, p. 424. 72. Martin, G. C., F. Yashikaida, and J. H. LaRue, Effect of soil applications of Paclobutrazol on vegetative growth, pruning time, flowering, yield and quality of Flavercrest peach, J. Am. Soc. Hort. Sci. 11:915 (1987).

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73. Awasthi, R. P. and Narender Sharma, Training and pruning in temperate fruits, Advances in Horticulture, Vol. 2, Fruit Crops (K. L. Chadha and O. P. Pareek, eds.), Malhotra Publishing House, New Delhi, India, 1993, p. 719. 74. Micke, W. A., A. A. Hewitt, J. K. Clark, and M. Gerdts, Pruning fruit and nut trees, University of California Cooperative Extension Service Leaflet 211, 1980. 75. Myers, S. C., Basics in open centre peach tree training, The PeachWorld Cultivars to Marketing (N. F. Childers and W. B. Sherman, eds.), Horticultural Publications, Gainesville, FL, 1988, p. 389. 76. Miller, S. S., Summer pruning affects fruit quality and light penetration in young peach trees, HortScience 22:391 (1987).

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77. Dejong, T. M., Peach planting/training systems in California, The PeachWorld Cultivars to Marketing (N. F. Childers and W. B. Sherman, eds.), Horticultural Publications, Gainesville, FL, 1988, p. 418.

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243. Zubechi, E., Ascorbic acid content of fruit grown at vineland Qutario, A. R. Ed, Hort. Exp. Sta. Prod. Lab. Vineland, p. 90 (1962). 244. Bhargava, J. N., Studies on some physiological changes in peaches with special emphasis on the endogenous levels of growth hormones, Ph.D. thesis, Himachal Pradesh Krishi Vishav Vidyalaya, Palampur, India, 1982. 245. Kamal, B. S., and Y. Kakuda, Characterization of the seed oil and meal from apricot cherry, peach and plum, J. Am. Oil Chem. Soc. 69(5):493 (1992). 246. Stosic, D., M. Gorunovic, and B. Popovic, Preliminary toxicological study of the kernel and oil of several species of genus Prunus, Plants Medicinales et Phytotherapie 21(1):8 (1987).

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288. Ben-Arie, R., and S. Lavee, Pectic changes occurring in Elberta peaches suffering from wooly breakdown, Phytochemistry, 10:531 (1971). 289. Bufsener, R. W., and R. J. Furmanski, Role of pectinesterase and polygalacturonase in the formation of wooliness in peaches, J. Food Sci. 43:265 (1978). 290. Anderson, R. E., The influence of storage temperature and warming during storage on peach and nectarine fruit quality, J. Am. Soc. Hort. Sci. 104:459 (1979). 291. Anderson, R. E., Long term storage of peaches and nectarines intermittently warmed during controlled atmosphere storage, J. Am. Soc. Hort. Sci. 107(2):214 (1982).

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292. Brecht, J. K., A. A. Kader, C. M. Heintz, and R. C. Norona, Controlled atmosphere and ethylene effect on quality of California canning apricots clingstone peaches, J. Food Sci. 47:432 (1982). 293. Dilley, D. R., Manipulation of the postharvest atmosphere of fruit crops, Postharvest Physiology and Crop Preservation, (Morris, Lieberman ed.) Plenum Press, New York and London, 1983. 294. Lurie, S., and E. Paris, Effect of acetaldehyde and anaerobiosis as postharvest treatments on the quality of peaches and nectarines, Postharvest Biol. Technol. 1(4):317 (1992). 295. Truter, A. B., and J. C. Combrink, controlled atmosphere storage of peaches, nectarines and plums, J. S. Afr. Soc. Hort. Sci. 2(1):10 (1992).

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296. Haard, N. F., and D. K. Salunkhe, Postharvest Biology and Handling of Fruits and Vegetables, AVI, Westport, CT, 1975. 297. Pantastico, E. B., T. K. Chattopadhyay, and H. Subramanyan, Storage and commercial storage operation, Postharvest Physiology, Handling and Utilization of Tropical and Subtropical Fruits and Vegetables (E. B. Pantastico, ed.), AVI, Westport, CT, 1975. 298. Ueda, Y., M. Nakamoto, and K. Ogate, Keeping quality and control of ripening in various fruits and vegetables in low pressure storage, J. Jpn. Soc. Food Sci. Technol. 27:149 (1980) (in Japanese). 299. Salunkhe, D. K., and M. T. Wu, Effects of subatmospheric storage on ripening and associated chemical changes of certain deciduous fruits, J. Am. Soc. Hort. Sci. 98:113 (1973).

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300. Baraha, L., Influence of gamma radiation dose on decay of citrus, peaches and on Penicillium italicim and Botrytis cinerea in vitro, Phytopathology 54:755 (1964). 301. Salunkhe, D. K., Gamma radiation effects on fruits and vegetables, Econ. Bot. 15(1):28 (1961). 302. Salunkhe, D. K., and B. B. Desai, Postharvest Biotechnology of Fruits, Vol. I, CRC Press, Boca Raton, FL, 1984, p. 157. 303. Thomas, P., Radiation preservation of foods of plant origin. V. Temperate fruits: Pome fruits, stone fruits and berries, CRC Crit. Rev. Food Sci. Nutr. 24(4):357 (1986).

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304. Moy, J. H., K. Y. Keneshiro, A. T. Ohta, and N. Nagai, Radiation disinfestation of California stone fruits infested by Medfly: Effectiveness and fruit quality, J. Food Sci. 48:928 (1983). 305. Mikel, W. B. and S. L. Olds, Peaches and nectarines, Encyclopedia of Food Science, Food Technol

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309. Delwich, M. J., and E. S. Drew, Sensor mechanism for improved peach pitting, Trans. ASAE 35(3):903 (1992). 310. Kuezynski, A., P. Varoquax, and F. Voaroguex, Reflectometric method to measure the initial colour and browning rate of white peach pulps, Sciences des Aliments 12(2):213 (1992). 311. Shah, G. H., and G. S. Bains, Flow behaviour of peach and apricot pulp and concentrates of some Indian varieties, J. Food Sci. Technol. 28(5):308 (1991). 312. Ibarz, A., and J. E. Lozano, Rhehological characteristics of concentrated plum and peach pulps, Revista Expanola de Ciencia Y Technologia Alimants 32(1):85 (1992).

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313. Carbonell, E., E. Costell, and L. Duran, Rhehological indices of fruit content in jam: Influence of formulation on time dependent flow of sheared strawberry and peach jam, J. Text. Study 22(4):457 (1991). 314. Woodroof, J. g., and B. S. Luh, Commercial Fruit Processing, 2nd ed., AVI, Westport, CT, 1986. 315. Heaton, E. K., T. S. Boggess, A. L. Shewfelt, K. C. Li, and J. G. Woodroof, The production and utilization of peach pulp juice drink and concentrate, Univ. Ga. Coll. Agr. Exp. Sta. Res. Bull. 136 (1973). 316. Joshi, V. K., S. K. Chauhan, and B. B. Lal, Extraction of juices from plum, peach and apricot by pectolytic enzyme treatment, J. Food Sci. Technol. 28(1):64 (1991).

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317. Ibarz, A., C. Gonzalez, S. Esplugas, and M. Vicente, Rhehology of clarified juices, peach juices, J. Food Eng. 15(1):49 (1992). 318. Gorsel, H. V., C. Li, E. L. Kerbel, M. Smits, and A. A. Kader, Composition and characterization of prune juices, J. Agr. Food Chem. 40:784 (1992). 319. Luh, B. S., C. E. Kean, and J. G. Woodroof, Canning of fruit, Commercial Fruit Processing (J. G. Woodroof and B. S. Luh, eds.), AVI, Westport, CT, 1986, p. 163. 320. Ministry of Commerce and Industry, Cyprus organisation for standards and control of quality canned peaches, Cyprus Standards Cys. SB:B, Ministry of Commerce and Industry, Nicosia, Cyprus, 1979.

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321. Cruess, W. B. Commercial Fruit and Vegetables Products, 4th ed., McGraw-Hill, New York, 1958. 322. Leonard, S. J., B. S. Luh, C. P. Chicester, and M. Simone, Relationship of fresh clingstone peach colour to colour and grade after canning, Food Technol. 15:492 (1961). 323. Garg, R. C., H. B. Ram, R. K. Srivastava, and S. K. Singh, Physico-chemical studies on maturity for canning of peaches in U.P., Prog. Hort. 6(9):57 (1975). 324. Leonard, S., B. S. Luh, and E. Hiureiner, Flavour evaluation of canned cling peaches, Food Technol. 7:480 (1953). 325. Leonard, S., B. S. Luh, and E. M. Mrak, Factors influencing drained weight of canned peaches, Food Technol. 12:80 (1958).

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326. Chung, J. I., and B. S. Luh, Effect of ripening temperature on chemical composition and colour of canned freestone peaches, Confructa 16:275 (1971). 327. Boggess, T. S., Quality and storage characteristics of canned peaches as influenced by the type of containers and enamel, Ga. Agr. Exp. Sta. Res. Rep. 185 (1974). 328. Carter, G. H., D. W. Ingalsbe, and A. M. Neubert, The effect of high rates of nitrogen and potassium on yield, quality and foliar, composition of Dixigem peaches in South Carolina sand hills, Proc. Am. Soc. Hort. Sci. 21:153 (1958). 329. Pangborn, R., S. Leonard, M. Simone, and B. S. Luh, Effect of sucrose, citric acid and corn syrup on consumer acceptance, Food Technol. 13:444 (1959).

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330. Fuleki, T., and F. I. Cook, Relationship of maturity as indicated by flesh colour to quality of canned peaches, Can. Inst. Food Sci. Technol. J. 9:443 (1975). 331. Pressey, R., and J. K. Avants, Differences in polygalactauronase composition of clingstone and freestone peaches, J. Food Sci. 43:1415 (1978). 332. Javeri, H., R. Toledo, and L. Wicker, Vacuum infusion of citrus pectinmethylesterase and calcium effects on firmness of peaches, J. Food Sci. 56(3):739 (1991).

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333. O'Mahony, M., L. Buteae, K. Klapman, I. Stavros, J. Alford, S. J. Leonard, J. r. Heil, and T. K. Wolcott, Peaches and sucrose. A novel approach to the sensory analysis of canned peaches incorporating signal detection and ranked multiple differences measures with minimal cross-sensory interference, M.S. thesis, 1981. 334. Carroad, P. A., S. J. Leonard, J. R. Heil, t. K. Wolcott, and R. L. Merson, High vacuum flame sterilization: Process, concept and energy use analysis, J. Food Sci. 45:696 (1980). 335. Heil, J. R., P. A. Carroad, R. L. Merson, and S. J. Leonard, Development of high vacuum flame processes for sliced peaches and pears, J. Food Sci. 48(4):1106 (1983).

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336. Leonard, S. J., J. R. Heil, P. A. Carroad, R. L. Merson, and T. K. Wolcott, High vacuum flame sterilized fruits: Storage study on sliced clingstone peaches, sliced bartlett pears and diced fruit, J. Food Sci. 48:1484 (1983). 337. Vyas, K. K., and V. K. Joshi, Canning of fruits in natural fruit juices 1. Canning of peaches in apple juice, J. Food Sci. Technol. 19(1):39 (1982). 338. Mudahar, G. S., and G. S. Bhatia, Steeping preservation of fruits, J. Food Sci. Technol 20(2):77 (1983). 339. Woodroof, J. G., Other products and processes, Commercial Fruit Processing (J. G. Woodroof and B. S. Luh, eds.), AVI, Westport, CT, 1986.

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345. Fourie, P. E., C. F. Hansmann, and G. L. Wium, Effect of fresh fruit characteristics and cold storage on the quality of dried apricots and peaches, J. Hort. Sci. 67(1):59 (1992). 346. Walker, T. H., and L. R. Wilhelm, Drying fruit with recirculated air for energy savings, Am. Soc. Agr. Eng. 92:6535, p. 20 (1992). 347. Bolin, H. R., C. C. Hussoll, and N. G. Ke, Effect of osmotic agents and concentration on fruit quality, J. Food Sci. 48:202 (1983). 348. Giangiacomo, R., D. Torreggiani, and E. Abbo, Osmotic dehydration of fruits. Part 1: Sugar exchange between fruit and extracting syrups, J. Food Processing Preserv. 11(1):183 (1987). 349. Anders, O., Fruit flavoured concentrate provide food flavour systems, Food Processing 48(3):24 (1987).

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350. Amerine, M. A., H. W. Berg, R. E. Kunkee, C. S. Ough, V. L. Singleton, and A. D. Webb, The Technology of Wine Making, 4th ed., AVI, Westport, CT, 1980. 351. Piepet, H. J., E. E. Bruchmann, and E. Koeb, Technologie der Obstrannerie, Eugen Ulmar, Stuttgart, 1977. 352. Stanciulescu, G., d. Rusnac, and G. Bortes, Technologia Distilalator Alcoolice din Fructe si vin, Ceres, Bucharest, 1975. 353. Andrey, D., A simple gas chromatography method for the determination of ethylecarbamate in spirits, Z. Lebensmitt. Untersuch. Forschung. 185(1):21 (1980). 354. Moon, N. J., and J. G. Woodroof, Plant sanitation and waste disposal, Commercial Fruit Processing (J. G. Woodroof and B. S. Luh, eds.), AVI, Westport, CT, 1986, p. 613.

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11 Papaya
U. T. Desai and A. N. Wagh Mahatma Phule Agricultural University, Rahuri, Maharashtra, India I. Introduction

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Papaya, a native of tropical America, has now spread all over the tropical world. It is known by different names, such as papaw (England), mamao (Brazil), lechoso (Venezuela), and fruta bomba (Cuba). Papaya is grown mostly for fresh consumption or for production of proteolytic enzyme papain from the fruit latex. It is consumed in large amounts in most areas of the tropics and is thought to contribute greatly to the vitamin C component of the diet in rural areas of America. Latex production is labor intensive and concentrated mainly in the areas where the cost of labor is low. Brazil, Mexico, Thailand, Indonesia, and India are the leading producers (1) of papaya (Table 1). In addition, Hawaii, Taiwan, Puerto Rico, Peru, Bangladesh, and Australia also cultivate this crop commercially. Hawaii and Latin American countries also export papayas to the United States. II. Botany

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Papaya (Carica papaya L.) is a small, unbranched, soft-wooded tree, almost an herb, with latex vessels in all parts (2). The plant is usually dioecious, with either male or female flowers. However, trees with hermaphrodite flowers also occur (3). Papaya fruit is a large, fleshy, hollow berry weighing 0.52.0 kg. It is usually cylindrical or nearly cylindrical on hermaphrodite trees and more round on female trees. The central cavity is surrounded by numerous small seeds which are arilated with slippery sercotesta. Seedless fruits also occur, which develop parthenocarpically. The genus Carica, to which papaya belongs, is a member of the small family Caricaceae which is comprised of four genera (4). The chromosome number of eight species of Carica is 2n = 18. The Caricaceae are predominantly dioecious, with male and female flowers born on separate plants. However, C. papaya has pistillate and staminate forms, and a third type,

1503/2989

adromonoecious plants, may be phenotypically ambivalent, producing staminate, perfect, and pistillate flowers under different seasonal or environmental conditions (5).

Page 298 Table 1 Major Producers of Papayas in the World Production (1000 Production (1000 Country MT) Country MT) Brazil 1560 China 120 Mexico 650 Colombia 80 Thailand 536 Mozambique 45 Indonesia 354 Cuba 40 India 280 South Africa 39 Zaire 205 Source: Ref. 1.

A. Cultivars

1505/2989

According to Story (5) Solo of Hawaii, Hortus Gold of South Africa, Improved Peterson of Australia, and Betty of Florida are the cultivars of papaya where the type is maintained by inbreeding. Semank of Indonesia has big, red-fleshed fruits, and Guinea Gold (bisexual), Sunny Bank, and Hybrid-5 (dioecious) are the important cultivars of Queensland (6). In India, Washington, Honey Dew, Coorg Honey Dew, CO1, CO2, CO4, CO5, CO6, Pusa Delicious, Pusa Majesty, Pusa Giant, Pusa Nanha, and Pusa Dwarf are grown extensively. Coorg Honey Dew is mostly hermaphrodite. CO2, though dioecious, is a good table type with high papain yield. CO5 is recommended exclusively for papain production, while CO6 is a duel-purpose type. Pusa Majesty is a good keeper, with little spoilage in transport. Pusa Giant withstands strong winds and is considered suitable for canning (7). Waimanalo is a new addition in Hawaii, while Cariflora, tolerant to papaya ring spot virus, has been developed for South Florida

1506/2989

and the low Caribbean region (8). In Florida, Solo Blue Stem, Red Rock, and Betty are the major cultivars. In Taiwan, Panama Red and Solo No. 1 are grown commercially. Solo 62/3, Sunrise, and Solo cultivars reported from Trinidad are known to have desirable characters. For cultivation, the cultivars with only hermaphrodite trees are generally preferred, because the andromonoecious types are heterozygous and their phenotypic form is much affected by environment. Temperature, soil moisture, and plant vigor all affect this variability. In South Africa, Hortus Gold is grown with 945 female and 135 male trees per hectare to provide the 1016% males required for pollination in a dioecious planting (5). B. Fruit Development

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Under congenial conditions, the growth and development of papaya proceed at a faster rate. Fruit matures in 46 months depending on the climate and the cultivar. It follows a double-sigmoid growth curve. During development, the pulp:peel ratio increases up to 1.52.5 months, remains steady up to maturity, and declines at final stage (7). The matured stage is characterized by skin color break. Selvaraj et al. (9) studied changes during fruit development of four cultivars with respect of sugars, organic acids, amino acids, vitamins, and minerals. The water content varied from 87 to 97% and carbohydrates from 2 to 12%. The dry matter increased from about 7% at 15 days after anthesis to 13% at harvest. During this time, there was a steady decline in alcohol-insoluble solids, starch, and several minerals, and an increase in total sugars. The total and nonvolatile acidity and organic acids, citric and malic acids, decreased to a minimum at the full ripe stage (9). Ripe Washington fruits contained the highest

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vitamin A and C. K, P, and Ca were high in early growth stages, whereas Fe showed little change during fruit development. Blakesley

Page 299

et al. (10) reported that organoleptic qualities, volatile profiles, and lipid content of papaya were highly dependent on the degree of fruit maturity. Forbus et al. (11) evaluated papaya at five stages of maturity for difference in intensity of delayed light emission (DLE) of chlorophyll, b-carotene, and Hunter color values. High correlation was observed between DLE intensity and physical and chemical properties that relate to papaya maturity. III. Production A. Soil and Climate

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Soils for papaya cultivation vary from latosols to coarse volcanic rocks. However, soils must be well drained and well aerated, and papaya performance is most satisfactory in fertile soils. Being a shallow-rooted plant, papaya can be grown in soils about 45 cm deep. Prolonged waterlogging results in rotting of stem and roots, yellow foliage, leaf dropping, and growth reduction. A welldrained, loamy soil, rich in nutrients, is best for papaya cultivation (12). Papaya grows well in tropical climates. It requires a warm, humid climate and can be cultivated up to an elevation of about 1000 m. Some cultivars may survive light frost. Lower temperature (less than 10C) decreases fruit growth, sweetness, and fruit size. It also influences flower sex and fruit setting. A locality with high wind velocity is unsuitable, since wind damages leaves and causes trees to fall.

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B. Propagation. Papaya is normally propagated by seed from hand-pollinated, genetically maintained stock. Otherwise, being cross-pollinated, highly heterozygous, and with several sex forms, plants raised from a general seed lot exhibit great phenotypic variability and differ very much in performance. An isolation distance of 5001000 m is desirable for a cultivar. A live barrier of tall-growing orchards around the seed plot is an added advantage against foreign pollen.

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The freshly extracted seed can be oven dried and preserved in air-tight bottles or polyethylene bags to retain viability. A good-quality seed is uniform in size and color, and has high viability. Such seed germinates within 1520 days in a seed bed or germinating medium. Good seed germination can be achieved by presowing treatments such as 100200 ppm thiourea (13) or 200 ppm gibberellic acid (GA). A seed quantity of about 500 g is sufficient for a hectare. Besides propagation by seed, which is the only commercially adopted mode, rooting of cuttings (14) and tissue culture have also been attempted (15). C. Cultural Practices 1. Planting

1513/2989

The site selected for papaya should be well drained and protected from high winds. The land should be well prepared by repeated deep plowing, harrowing, and leveling. Pits measuring 45 45 cm are dug at a spacing of 1.2 1.2 to 2.5 2.5 m, depending on the land contour, climate, soil type, vigor of cultivar, mode of cultural operations, and size of fruit desired. Close spacing gives more yield per hectare but with reduction in fruit size, while wider spacing gives more yield per plant with better fruit size (16). Trees may also be planted in blocks with three to four rows to facilitate modernized orcharding (3). The pits should be filled with soil containing 2025 kg farmyard manure and 1 kg bone meal or 1.5 kg superphosphate. Sometimes, the soil mixture is allowed to settle down in the pits before actual planting is done, which can be achieved by irrigating the pits a few days before transplanting. This also ensures an adequate

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amount of soil moisture at the time of planting. The best time for planting is in the evening.

Page 300

1516/2989

The size of the seedling has a significant influence on its subsequent growth and productivity. Generally, sturdier and smaller plants, 1520 cm tall, with dark green leaves, perform better upon transplanting than tall and weak seedlings. Since the seedlings have long, fast-growing root systems, they usually show greater transplant shock when transplanted very late. Seedlings with good fibrous root systems make excellent transplants and recover from transplant shock much better. It is necessary to life the seedling with the complete tap root as well as fibrous roots intact. The roots must have a small root ball (soil) attached to them so that the seedlings can recover fast. It is also necessary to adjust the planting season according to market demand, climatic conditions, and also the availability of seedlings. Most commercial papaya cultivars produce about 4060% male plants, more in dioecious types. Therefore, it is advisable to plant three seedlings in one pit for such cultivars. The

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spacing between seedlings in a pit should be 30 cm. For this, one each is planted at the corner of an equilateral triangle of 30 cm in each pit. Immediately after planting, copious irrigation should be given to avoid wilting. Thereafter, the frequency of irrigation should be determined based on prevailing weather conditions. 2. Irrigation

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Among the conventional systems, the ring method of irrigation is better than the basin system. The total water requirement of CO2 papaya under tropical conditions has been estimated as 18001900 mm. Irrigation at 60% depletion of available soil moisture for dual purposes (fruit and papain), at 40% depletion for fruit production, and at 20% depletion for papain production, is advocated (17). Awada et al. (18) recommended next irrigation at 1.3 times pan evaporation in the previous week for solo papaya. Drip irrigation was found to be more useful than all other methods for water saving, increase in yield, and quality produce (18, 19). Papaya responds well to adequate irrigation, which helps rapid fruit development and regular fruit yield. At early stages, irrigation at shorter intervals gives good plant establishment and encourages development. Adequate moisture levels result in normal growth, lower levels shift the plants

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toward sterility, while higher levels result in production of undesirable carpellodic type (7). 3. Manures and Fertilizers

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Nutritional needs of papaya vary with stage of plant development. Fast growth rate, continuous fruiting, and heavy yields demand frequent application of fertilizers, and hence, bimonthly applications have been recommended (20). However, the demand significantly increases after flowering (21). Adequate fertilization of young plants has a positive correlation with stem diameter and yield. The tissue for sampling has also been standardized as the petiole of the sixth leaf from the top which is recently matured (22), and the youngest flower of the tree in the axil (23). The optimum concentration of nutrients in the tissue are reported to be N at 1.251.52%, P at 0.140.25%, and K at 3.614.42% (2426). Overfeeding with nitrogen results in soft fruit (18). Deficiencies of micronutrients such as Fe, Cu, Zn, B, and Mo affect plant growth and yield of papaya (27). In general, depending on the soil type and cultivar, 250500 g/tree each of N, P, and K with adequate amounts of organic

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manure should meet the general fertilizer needs of papaya. 4. Weed Control Weeding should be a regular feature in the early life of a plantation. Clean culture and mulching with plastic or plant material are reported to produce highest yields, and legume or grass cover crops as well as weeds reduce the yield. In Hawaii, paraquat (0.51.0 lb/acre) and diuran (2.55.0 lb/acre) were effective to control weeds and increase yields (28). As a preemergence application, Fluchlordlin or Alachlor or Butachlor at 2.0 kg a.i./ha have been reported to be effective (29).

Page 301

5. After Care After every three to four irrigations, the soil should be stirred to provide good aeration. Small plants may be given support with the help of bamboo sticks. Regular harrowing and weeding are necessary to keep the plantation clean and in good condition. This also checks incidence of pests and diseases. In initial stages, when papaya plants are still young, it is profitable to grow intercrops such as French bean, onion, green gram, black gram, and cowpea in summer, and cauliflower, cabbage, potato, and peas in winter. After the papaya plants start bearing, intercrops should not be grown. Some growers prefer to sow green-manure crops in papaya orchards and plow them in to improve soil fertility.

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Well-cared-for papaya plants start flowering from the fifth month onward. At this stage, it is easy to identify male (long-hanging, branched inflorescence with many tabular flowers), female, and hermaphrodite plants. Generally, 10% male parents are adequate for fertilizing female plants. At this stage, excess male plants should be removed, retaining healthy and robust male plants distributed uniformly throughout the plantation. It may be necessary to remove some fruits to encourage proper development of the remaining fruits. This also improves the shape of the fruit. The fruits should be thinned at an early stage to avoid adverse effects. D. Diseases and Pests

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Damping-off of seedlings in the nursery (Phythium ophanidermatum, P. ultimum, Phytophthora palmivora, Rhizoctonia spp.), stem and root rot (P. aphanidermatum, P. palmivora, Calonectri spp. Ascochyto sp.), powdery mildew of leaves (Odium caricae), black spot of leaf (Cercospora papaya), fruit rot (Colletotrichum gloesporiodes, P. palmivora, Rhizophus stolonifer), fruit anthracnose (Cercospora gloesporiodes), and fruit blight (P. palmivora) are the common fungal diseases of papaya. In addition, Fusarium spp. and Rhizoctonia solani are also associated. Selection of sell-drained sites, soil drenching and spraying with copper fungicides are the control measures for fungal diseases. Cultivars Wiaminalo-23, Line-8 Solo, Wiaminalo-24, and Line-40 are resistant to P. palvimora. However, viral diseases are most destructive. Papaya mosaic virus is the most devastating, and it is vector transmitted (Aphis spp., Myzus persicae). Other viruses

1525/2989

affecting papaya are papaya leaf curl, papaya apical necrosis, papaya ring spot, papaya bunchy top, papaya yellow crinkle, tomato spotted wilt virus, and tobacco ring spot virus. Several mites (Tetranychus cinnalsarinus, Hemitarsonemus biculatus) are serious pests of papaya in Hawaii (30). There are no other serious insects. However, sucking types such as aphids and thrips may act as virus vectors and need control. Reniform nematodes (Rotylenchulus reniformis) and root-knot nematodes (Meloidogynie sp.) cause severe damage to papaya, for which Furadan (25 g/plant) may be used (7). E. Maturity, Harvesting, and Handling.

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The fruit is cut off with a thin-bladed knife and placed stem end down in a box padded with paper or wood wool to prevent bruising. The fruits are packed in bamboo baskets for transport over short distances and in wooden crates for long distances. Up to six fruits are packed in each crate by providing proper cushions between individual fruits. Papaya which is yellow but firm is best suited for transport at a storage temperature of 7.5C and can remain in good condition for about 21 days. Long fruits with a narrow cavity travel well; fruits with a large and wide cavity are often bruised in transit.

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The mature green fruits are immersed in 42C for 30 min followed by another immersion at 49C for 20 min. They are then cooled under a water shower. Because this treatment requires that fruits be picked while relatively green, a loss of quality due to insufficient development of sugars and flavor is anticipated. Irradiation treatment with 75 krad when combined with hot water treatment of 49C for 20 min controls the decay (31). Postharvest treatment to control decay in papayas also includes hot water treatment followed by a wax dip containing a fungicide.

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Papaya, being a tropical fruit, is susceptible to chilling injury at 7C or lower temperature, which is manifested as a lack of normal ripening with nondevelopment of color in flesh and skin, development of soft and watery tissues with pitting, increased disease development, and fewer reducing sugars (32). A controlled atmosphere can be used to increase storage life. The desirable range is 2% oxygen and 98% nitrogen (33). IV. Composition

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The ripe fresh fruits of papaya are eaten throughout the tropics; unripe fruits are commonly used as vegetables for cooking. Papaya is a very wholesome fruit, and Aykroyd (34) ranked it second only to mango as a source of carotene. It is relished for the attractive pulp color, flavor, succulence, and characteristic aroma. The typical composition of papaya is presented in Table 2. The varietal variation in chemical composition of papaya is shown in Table 3. A. Sugars

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Sugars are important constituents of papaya fruit. They act as flavorants as well as sweetener. The sugar content in papaya fruit varies considerably, depending on cultivar and cultural conditions. The sugar content in papaya grown in Florida has been reported to range from 5.65 to 7.1% (35,36). Indian cultivars were reported to have 10.010.2% soluble solids (37,38). Earlier workers reported conflicting reports on sugar content in papaya. Most workers reported traces or no nonreducing sugars in papaya. Chan and Kwok (39) reported that the discrepancy in the reported values was caused by the presence of invertase in papaya. During the extraction of sugars, an active invertase was shown to decrease the amount of nonreducing sugars, causing an increase in the expressed amount of reducing sugars. By inactivating the invertase with microwave heating

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Table 2 Composition of Fresh Fruit of Papaya Constituent Content Moisture (%) 89.6 Proteins (%) 0.5 Fat (%) 0.1 Carbohydrates (%) 9.5 Calcium (mg/100 g) 10.0 Phosphorus (mg/100 g) 10.0 Vitamin A (IU/100 g) 2020 Vitamin C (mg/100 g) 40 Nicotinic acid (mg/100 g) 0.2 Riboflavin (mg/100 g) 0.25 Source: Ref. 7

Table 3 Chemical Composition of Some Papaya Varieties Gro Vitamin A Vitamin C Sucro Variety (IU)a (g%) (%) Coorg Honey Dew 3649 66.6 1.49 Pink Flesh (selfed) 4715 88.2 1.41 Pink Flesh Sweet 3399 63.2 2.47 Solo Large Sweet 3749 93.8 1.10 (selfed) Solo (open pollinated) 6347 117.1 1.12 Solo Small (open 5381 125.9 0.95 pollinated) Solo Small (open 4965 91.7 0.99 pollinated) Sweet Medium Solo Yellow Sweet 5110 82.2 0.52 (selfed) Sunrise (open pollinated) 1600 46.3 0.48 Sunrise (selfed) 1599 71.3 1.96 Thailand 2199 46.6 1.82 Washington 5115 78.1 1.81 aIU = international unit. Source: Ref. 35.

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Page 304

before extracting sugars, the sugar composition of ripe papaya was determined to be 48.3% sucrose, 29.8% glucose, and 21.9% fructose (39). B. Acids Papaya contains low amounts of acid. The pH of papaya pulp ranges from 5.5 to 5.9. The total titratable acidity calculated as citric acid was 0.099% (40). It contains mainly citric and malic acids and smaller quantities of ascorbic acid and a-ketoglutaric acid (41). C. Volatile Compounds

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Flath and Florrey (42) identified 106 volatile compounds in papaya. Linalool, a major component, has odor characteristics very close to fresh papaya. Another major component, benzyl isothiocyanate, has a pungent off-flavor. Other off-flavor compounds in papaya puree were identified as butynic, hexanoic, and octanoic acids and their corresponding methyl esters. Maclead and Pieris (43) reported the presence of an additional 18 compounds, of which methyl butanoate was found to be responsible for the sweaty odor of some papaya fruits. Linalool, the compound responsible for the fresh papaya flavor, was found to be formed by enzymatic activity during cell disruption. D. Enzymes

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Papaya contains many enzymes which have important roles in quality and stability of processed papaya products. These enzymes include papain, invertase, esterase, polygalacturonase, myrosinase, and acid phosphatase (40). E. Vitamins Ripe papaya fruit contains about 5060 mg/100 g of fresh fruit as ascorbic acid. The carotene content in ripe papaya is reported to range from 2 to 2.5 mg (44). Munsell (45) reported for two samples of Guatemalan fruits 0.025 and 0.030 mg of thiamin, 0.029 and 0.38 mg of riboflavin, and 0.238 and 0.399 mg of niacin per 100 g of fruit. F. Minerals

1537/2989

The most abundant mineral in papaya is potassium, which is found combined with organic acids. The elemental composition of papaya flesh from Hawaii, as reported by Awada and Suchisa (45), was 0.12% N, 0.01% P, 0.21% K, 0.03% Ca, and 0.02% Mg. V. Storage.

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A commonly encountered physiological disorder in papaya fruit is chilling injury. The decline in quality due to chilling injury may be significant enough to cause complete rejection of the produce by the consumer (46). Injuries such as inability to ripen normally, lack of color development in the flesh, persistence of green color in the skin, abnormal loss of firmness, accumulation of water in the tissues, and increased susceptibility of the fruit to fungal attack may be encountered. Impairment of ripening, pitting of the skin, failure to hydrolyze sucrose to reducing sugars, and waterlogging of flesh have also been observed (4749). A. Low-Temperature Storage

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deArriola et al. (50) described the results of several storage trials of papayas conducted by several workers under different conditions. Solo papayas picked at three-quarters-ripe stage, according to

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color development, can be stored for 21 days at 7C (51). Less ripe papayas stored at temperatures below 20C were subjected to chilling injury and loss in quality (52). Abou-Aziz et al. (53) found that fruits did not ripen at 10C or less temperature and that at 16C, papayas could be stored successfully to maintain their characteristics. Temperatures between 13 and 16C have been found to be adequate for storing papayas (54). deArriola et al. (50) also observed that solo papayas were subjected to chilling injury when the fruit remained at 7C for 5 days. The injury was not observed when the fruit was stored at 1.0C. Chilling injury developed at longer times or lower temperatures than 12C. B. Controlled-Atmosphere Storage

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Controlled atmosphere (CA) has not turned out to be beneficial to lengthen the storage life of papaya (55). CA can be used for storing papaya by keeping oxygen at 1%, but must be done along with hot water, low-temperature storage, and fumigation with ethylene dibromide, the latter to control fruit fly (56). In the storage of papaya, temperature is as important as the degree of development and ripeness at the time of harvest. Hatton and Reeder (57) tested different storage atmospheres at 21C. The fruit maintained an acceptable quality for marketing and showed no significant differences in weight loss, external color ripening time, and soluble solids content. C. Subatmospheric-Pressure Storage

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Exposure of papayas to subatmospheric pressure (20mm Hg, 10C, and 9098% relative humidity) for 1021 days during shipment in hypobaric containers inhibited both ripening and development of disease (58). Fruits ripened normally after removal from hypobaric containers, although abnormal softening unrelated to disease occurred in 445% of the fruits of one packer. Postharvest fungicide wax application further decreased disease incidence. D. Irradiation

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Fungal attack can be controlled by gamma radiation, which extends the storage life of papayas. However, the dose of radiation required to control fruit rot is so high that the fruit cannot tolerate it. Therefore, irradiation has generally been used in combination with hot water treatment. Moy et al. (59) irradiated solo papayas with a dose of 2575 krad and found that fruit quality was improved as compared to fruit that had been only fumigated. Fungal control was effective with a dosage of 25 krad. Jivaratana et al. (60) found that the dosages of 25, 50, and 75 krad delayed the normal ripening process by 7 days. Clarke (61) reported that a dose of 75 krad was sufficient to control the Hawaiian fruit fly. In addition, this treatment has the additional advantage of extending the storage life of the fruit by delaying the ripening processes. VI. Processing

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A. Pickles Raw papayas can be used for making salted pickles by brine curing and adding spiced vinegar in the traditional way. Papayas are peeled, sliced, and blanched in boiling water for 3 min. The blanched slices are sprinkled with common salt and allowed to dry to some extent. These slices are placed in a jar, covered with vinegar, and one teaspoon of dehusked mustard seed is added to every 500 g of the fruit slices. Then turmeric powder is added. The jar is closed air tight. The slices are cured in 23 weeks to give good pickles (62).

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B. Jelly Fully developed but somewhat raw fruits are thoroughly cleaned, peeled, deseeded, and cut into pieces. They are cooked in water to extract pectin. The extract is cooled immediately and allowed to settle for about 2 h. The clarified extract is then syphoned out or decanted and filtered through thick cloth. From the clarified extract, papaya jelly can be prepared by mixing the extract with sugar and then cooking until a satisfactory sheeting test or a temperature of 106.5C is obtained. The product is packed hot in sterilized dry glass jars, cooled, covered with a thin layer of wax, and the lid is closed tight (63). C. Jam.

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Fully mature and ripe but firm fruits are peeled and the seeds and inner white rind are removed. The prepared fruit is cut into small, thin slices and cooked with a little water to soften the slices. The cooked slices are then mashed and sugar equal to or three-fourths of the mashed fruit slices, depending on the pectin content, is added. Citric acid at the rate of 5 g per kilogram of mashed fruit slices is added to improve the sugar-acid blend of the product and also to effect proper inversion of the sugar and avoid crystallization in the jam during storage. The mixture is then cooked with continuous stirring until it attains a thick consistency corresponding to 6568 Brix. The jam is filled hot into clean, sterilized, and dry containers, sealed air-tight, cooled, and stored. It is desirable to cover the surface with a thin layer of wax. D. Candy

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Fully mature but unripe fruit is peeled and the seeds are removed. The flesh is cut into 7.5 7.5 cm pieces which are pricked with a fork. These are then kept immersed in dilute water (15 g of lime per liter of water) for 34 h. The pieces are washed three or four times with fresh water and then boiled in sugar syrup of 40 Brix. They are left overnight for penetration of sugar into the fruit cells. The diluted syrup is fortified with additional quantities of sugar to raise the sugar concentration to 50 Brix. The process is repeated until the residual syrup strength reaches 7075 Brix. The syrup is then drained off. The pieces are further cut to the desired size and shape so that the individual pieces of the finished product are crisp, juicy, and almost transparent. The product is also packed in sterilized wide-mouthed bottles or tin cans, which are then hermetically sealed (64). E. Nectar

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Nectar is obtained by blending the thin pulp of the fruit with sugar and citric acid. The finished product has 1520 Brix and a mild acid taste. The ripe fruit is cut into slices, peeled by hand, and run through a pulper using a 1.5-mm or 1.7-mm screen. The resulting pulp is passed through a finisher using a 0.6-mm or 0.7-mm screen. The yield of the pulp from the raw stock is about 50%. The pulp is gradually thinned with water, after which the sugar (1.52.0 kg/kg pulp) and citric acid (12.517.5 kg/kg pulp) and the other ingredients are mixed. The nectar is filtered and heated to 8588C. It is filled into plain or lacquered cans and cooled in running water to about 38C. The cans are then left to cool to atmospheric conditions. F. Puree

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Gelation and off-odor development are major problems during the storage of papaya puree/ pulp in frozen condition or at low temperature. The preparation of puree has been described by Brekke et al (65). The papaya pulp is acidified with citric acid to adjust the pH to 3.43.5. The acidified

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pulp is heated at 96C for 2 min and cooled quickly to 30C to inactivate enzymes and stabilize the puree against deterioration during frozen storage. The puree is passed through a 0.5-mm screen to remove fiber and subjected to freezing for storage. Papaya puree can be used with sugar and water to prepare a flavored beverage of 14 Brix. It can also be used to prepare fruit cocktails, jams, and marmalades (65). G. Concentrate To make concentrate, papaya puree is treated with 0.050.2% pectinolytic enzyme at a temperature of 5060C to reduce the consistency and kept for 12 h. The depectinized puree is concentrated up to threefold in a vacuum concentrator (66).

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H. Slab The pulp can also be dehydrated after the addition of sugar (57.5%), citric acid (0.5%), and potassium metabisulfite (0.3%). It is spread on greased aluminum or stainless steel trays in layers of 1 cm thickness and dried in a cabinet drier at 5560C. The dried material, which has a leathery consistency, is rolled and cut into pieces of convenient size. The dried product keeps well for about 8 months at 2430C (67). I. Powder

1552/2989

The deseeded ripe fruit is cut into slices of 5 mm thickness. The slices are spread on screen trays and dried (at a temperature not exceeding 65.5C) to a moisture content of 810%. The dried slices are ground to pass through standard 20-mesh screens. The product obtained has bright color and retains much of the flavor of papaya. During drying, only vitamin C undergoes some loss (about 5%), which can, however, be minimized by the use of vacuum drying. J. Toffee

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In production of toffee, the fruit pulp is first concentrated in a steam-jacketed kettle to about a third of its original volume. The other ingredients are then mixed in and cooking is continued to a final weight equal to about one-fifth that of the fruit pulp. To this pulp, glucose, skim milk powder, Vanaspati (margarine), essence, and color are added and the mixture is cooked until it has a total suspended solids (TSS) of 82 Brix. The cooked mass is transferred to a hard but level and smooth surface which is smeared lightly with fat. Flavoring material, if desired, is added at this stage, and the product is spread into a thin sheet 0.330.50 cm thick. It is allowed to cool and set for 2 h. The solid sheet is cut into toffees and dried at 5055C to a final moisture content of 56%. These are then wrapped in tissue paper and packed in air-tight jars or tins (68). K. Tutti-Frutti.

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Tutti-frutti is used as an ice cream topping and is also used for bakery and confectionery products. Cubed papayas are soaked in 22.5% salt solution overnight and blanched for 23 min in boiling water. The cubes are heated in 40 Brix sugar syrup for 23 min and then the sugar content of the syrup is increased by 10 Brix by evaporation of the water through boiling. The papaya cubes are replaced in the syrup and the process is repeated daily for 5 days until a final syrup concentration of 70 Brix is attained. Other fruit essences such as orange, pineapple, and raspberry are added to the syrup and it is allowed to stand overnight. Then the papaya cubes are drained, rolled in powdered or granulated sugar, and sun-dried for 34 h.

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L. Freeze-Dried Chunks Papayas are trimmed, peeled, cut into chunks (1.5 1.5 1 cm), frozen at -25C, and freezedried (69). The effect of water activity (aw) on the stability of carotenoids was studied (69). Carotenoids were found to be stable at 0.33 aw, and both below and above this level their rate of destruction was higher. The optimum range of 0.220.33 aw (moisture 67%) was recommended for the storage of freeze-dried papaya. M. Dried Rolls

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Papaya fruit leathers, also called fruit rolls, are manufactured by the dehydration of papaya puree into leathery sheets (68). To make the leather, papaya puree is mixed with sugar, 10% (w/w), and poured out evenly into Teflon-coated pans or pans sprayed with a lecithin-release agent at a leading density of 4.9 kg/m2. Sodium bisulfite (NaHSO3) is mixed in as a SO2 treatment, which protects flavor and color during drying and storage. The purees can then be dried in a forceddraft oven at an air velocity of 110 ppm at 84C until they reach about 1213% moisture content. The leathers are removed from the pans, wrapped with a plastic film, and made into rolls. The product is a chewy candy, which appeals to the younger generation. N. Dried Slices

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Jagtiani (70) described a method for preparing dried papaya slices. Papaya slices 2.5 cm thick and dried to a moisture level of 1518% were judged to have better organoleptic qualities compared to thinner dried slices. The papaya was first sulfured for 2 h and then dried in a cross-flow drier at 7476C for 2 h and at 60C for 4 h.

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Siddappa and Lal (71) patented a procedure for drying mixtures of papaya juices, previously concentrated, with sucrose and other additives. Drying of papaya slices and chunks (72) can also be adopted. Gonzalez et al. (73) described the extraction of proteins from papaya leaves. Dabhade and Khedkar (74) prepared tutti-frutti candy from raw bits of lanced papaya having 1% acid, 68 Brix, and 25.7% moisture. The optimum relative humidity for storing this tuttifrutti was found to be 51%, and mold growth was observed above 70% relative humidity within 8 days. Mehta and Tomar (75) standardized a procedure for dehydration of ripe papaya slices, steeping in 70 Brix syrup containing 1000 ppm SO2, which gave the best product. The retention of carotenoids in the dehydrated slices was 50%. O. Papain

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Papain is the dried latex from the fruit, containing a protein-hydrolyzing enzyme which has a number of specific technological functions (76). Papain can now be classified into papain in flake or powder form, and spray-dried crude papain. Papain is a hydrolyzing enzyme which breaks down proteins into amino acids: It is therefore a protease or proteolytic enzyme. The usefulness of papain in industrial manufacture depends on its activity, and care must be taken in production, storage, and marketing to protect its activity. Papain, particularly in solution, is easily oxidized by exposure to air and is destroyed in aqueous solution by higher temperature (above 70C) or by sunlight. It is easily inhibited by contact with metals such as iron, copper, zinc, and many others. Papain is used as a technological tool or processing technique in the following areas:

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Food and beverage preparation and animal feeds Pharmaceutical applications, both primitive and modern Textile industries and garment cleaning Paper and adhesive manufacture

Page 309

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Fig. 1 Flow sheet of integrated process for production of papain and pectin. (From Ref. 90.)

Medical applications Sewage disposal Research Analytical chemistry Other miscellaneous uses

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Flynn (76) stated that the usage of papain in the beer industry has shown a steady increase over the past years, and that this trend is expected to continue over the next 4 to 5 years, but thereafter a larger rate of increase is likely to occur. There is also a great potential for increased use of papain in the meat industry, particularly in the developing countries. Increasing quantities of papain are being used in the pharmaceutical industry and medicine. These applications are still at the

Page 310

experimental stage. The largest use of papain in the pharmaceutical industry appears to be in the preparation of vaccines. Papain has long been used in tanneries for leather baling to achieve greater mobility and softness in hides and skins.

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Lack of drying equipment is the main cause of concern in drying the latex, especially in heavyrainfall areas. Sun drying leads to browning of the papain and to a considerable loss of enzyme activity. Papain is an economically important alternate product of papaya culture. Papaya cultivars differ in papain production efficiency. Red panama (77,78), CO6 (79), CO2 (80), and the lines CP 1512, CP 1513, and CP 5911 (81) are high yielding. Fruit shape (77), stage of maturity (82,83), season of tapping (84), tapping time of the day (77,78), pattern of tapping (85), and frequency of tapping (86) influence the papain yield. Four times increase in papain yield by the application of Ethephon, a latex stimulant, at 37mM in coconut oil has been observed by Shanmugavelu et al. (87). The process of collecting and drying papain is simple, needing no elaborate equipment. Fruits grown for this purpose should be thinned so that each one hangs separately. The unripe fruits are lanced with a

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nonmetallic or stainless steel knife, and the latex is collected in glass or porcelain vessels. Four cuts on a fully grown mature fruit give better yield of papain, and more than five tappings reduces quality. The four longitudinal cuts, about 3 mm deep, are made on four sides of the fruit, working from the stalk end to the tip, during morning hours. The process is repeated three or four times on untapped portions of the fruit at 34 day intervals over a period of 1216 days (7). The latex hardens in about 15 min and is then put in alcohol for precipitation, washed with acetone, and dried under vacuum over sulfuric acid at room temperature (49) or in a drier at 5055C (7). Sodium bisulfite added at the time of collection acts as a preservative and improves the quality of the product. Potassium metabisulfate (0.05%) added to the liquid latex in small quantities before it is dried also helps to extend the life of papain (7). The dried papain is

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powdered, sieved in a 10-mesh sieve, and stored in a suitable container. Papaya cultivation and the papain industry may prove to be profitable. Hayes (49) stated that this may depend on the profitable use of the scarred fruit. The quality of such fruits does not appear to be affected, but the appearance is less attractive, with lowered consumer acceptability. The green fruits, whether scarred or not, contain about 10% pectin on a dry weight basis, and it may be possible to use them profitably for the production of pectin (88,89). It was found economical to integrate papain and pectin production processes (90). A flow sheet of an integrated process which gave a papain yield of 0.25% and a pectin yield of 1% (jelly grade 200) on a fresh-weight basis is presented in Fig. 1. References

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1. FAO, Production Year Book, Food and Agriculture Organization, Rome, 1990. 2. Chandler, W. H., Evergreen Orchards, 2nd ed., Henry Kimpton, London, 1958. 3. Samson, J. A., Tropical Fruits, Tropical Agricultural Series, Longman, New York, 1980. 4. Badillo, V. M., Monografia de la familia Caricaceae, Maracay, Venezuela, 1971. 5. Storey, W. B., Papaya, Outlines of Perennial Crop Breeding in the Tropics (F. P. Ferwerda and F. Nit, eds.), Miscellaneous Papers Landbhogesch, Wageningen, Netherlands, 1969, no. 4, p. 511. 6. Agnew, G. M., Growing quality papaws in Queensland, Queensland Agr. J. 94:24 (1968).

1569/2989

7. Muthukrishnan, C. R., and I. Irulappan, Papaya, Fruits of IndiaTropical and Subtropical, Naya Prokash, Calcutta, 1985, p. 320. 8. Conover, R. A., R. E. Litz, and S. E. Malo, CarifloraA papaya ring spot virus tolerant papaya for South Florida and the Caribbean, HortScience 21(4):1072 (1980). 9. Selvaraj, Y., D. K. Pal, M. D. Subramanayam, and C. P. A. Iyer, Changes in chemical composition of four cultivars of papaya (Carica papaya L.) during growth and development, J. Hort. Sci. 57:135 (1982).

Page 311

10. Blakesley, C. N., J. G. Loots, L. M. Duplessis, and G. deBruyn, Gamma irradiation of subtropical fruits. 2. Volatile components, lipids, and amino acids of mango, papaya, and strawberry pulp, J. Agr. Food Chem. 27(1):42 (1979). 11. Forbus, W. R., Jr., S. D. Senter, and H. T. Chan, Jr., Measurement of papaya maturity by delayed light emission, J. Food Sci. 52(2):356 (1985). 12. Singh, S. P., and S. S. Dahiya, Grow papaya for health and wealth, Farm and Parliament 17(6):15 (1982). 13. Arumugam, S., and K. C. Shammugavelu, Studies on effect of sarcotesta on the seed germination of papaya (Carica papaya L.), Seed Res. 3:77 (1975).

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14. Allan, P., Papaws grown from cutting, Farming S. Afr. 39:35 (1964). 15. Rajeevan, M. S., and R. M. Pandey, Propagation of papaya through tissue culture, Acta Hort. 181:131 (1983). 16. Kohli, R. R., S. R. Biswas, P. R. Ramchandran, and Y. T. N. Reddy, Systematic design for spacing trial with Coorg Honey Dew papaya, Indian J. Hort. 43:88 (1986). 17. Balasubramaniayam, S., and M. V. N. Rao, Water requirement of CO2 papaya in sandy loam soils, South Indian Hort. 36:141 (1988). 18. Awada, M., W. T. Pai, R. H. Suchisa, and M. N. Padgett, Effects of drip irrigation and nitrogen fertilization on vegetative growth, fruit yield and mineral composition of the petioles and fruits of papaya, Hawaii Agr. Exp. Sta. Tech. Bull. 103:20 (1979).

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19. Shivanappan, R. K., Drip irrigation of vegetable crops, Punjab Hort. J. 19:83 (1979). 20. Purohit, A. G., Response of papaya (Carica papaya L.) to nitrogen, phosphorus and potassium, Indian J. Hort. 34:350 (1977). 21. Veeryannah, L., and P. Selvaraj, Studies on growth, dry matter partitioning and pattern of nutrient uptake in papaya, Proc. Natl. Sem. Papaya and Papain Products, Tamil Nadu Agricultural University, Coimbatore, India, 1984, p. 76. 22. Reddy, T. T. N., R. R. Kohli, and B. S. Bhargawa, Yield and petiole nutrient composition of papaya as influenced by different levels of N, P and K, Prog. Hort. 21:26 (1989).

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23. Sanyal, D., P. Ghanti, and S. K. Mitra, Sampling for mineral content in leaf and petiole of papaya Cvs. Washington and Pusa Delicious, Indian J. Hort. 47:318 (1990). 24. Awada, M., and C. Long, The selection of the phosphorus index and papaya tissue analysis, J. Am. Soc. Hort. Sci. 94:501 (1969). 25. Awada, M., and C. Long, Selection of the potassium index in papaya tissue analysis, J. Am. Soc. Hort. Sci. 96:74 (1971). 26. Reddy, V. T. N., R. R. Kohli, and B. S. Bhargawa, Effect of N, P and K on growth, yield and petiole composition in papaya (Carica papaya L.) cv. Coorg Honey Dew, Singapore J. Primary Ind. 14:118 (1986). 27. Nautiyal, B. D., C. P. Sharma, and S. C. Agrawala, Iron, zinc and boron deficiency in papaya, Sci. Hort. 29:115 (1986).

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28. Romanowski, R. R., Jr., J. A. Crozier, Jr., P. J. Ito, and J. S. Tanaka, Papaya, Res. Rep. Hawaii Agr. Exp. Sta. 181:28 (1972). 29. Prabha, C., Studies on chemical weed control in papaya (C. papaya L.) orchards, South Indian Hort. 34:350 (1988). 30. Purseglove, J. W., Tropical Crops: Dicotyledons, The English Language Book Society, London, 1968. 31. Akamine, E. K., and R. J. F. Wong, Extending shelf-life of papaya with gamma irradiation, Hawaii Farm Sci. 15:4 (1966). 32. Couey, H. M., Chilling injury of crops of tropical and subtropical origin, HortScience 17(2):162 (1982).

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33. Akamine, E. K., and T. Goa, Papaya, Hawaii Agr. Exp. Sta. Res. Bull. 114:122 (1969). 34. Aykroyd, W. R., The Nutritive Value of Indian Foods and the Planning of Satisfactory Diets, Govt. of India, New Delhi, 1951. 35. Pal, D. K., and M. D. Subramanyam, Studies on the physico-chemical composition of fruits of twelve papaya varieties, J. Food Sci. Technol. 17(6):254 (1980).

Page 312

36. Heid, J. L., and A. L. Curl, AIC 214, U. S. Citrus Products Station, Winter Haven, FL, Agricultural Chemical Research Division Contribution, 154, 1948, p. 41. 37. Madhav Rao, V. N., Papaya, Farm Information Unit Bull. 9, Ministry of Agriculture, New Delhi, 1974. 38. Lal, G., Preservation of papaya by processing, Paper presented at seminar on fruit and vegetable preservation, Mysore, India, 1961. 39. Chan, H. T., Jr., and S. C. M. Kwok, Importance of enzyme in activation prior to extraction of sugar from papaya, J. Food Sci. 40:770 (1975). 40. Jagtiani, D. J., H. T. Chan, Jr., and W. S. Sakai, Papaya, Tropical Fruit Processing, Academic Press, New York, 1988, p. 105.

1577/2989

41. Chan, H. T., Jr., T. S. K. Chang, A. E. Stafford, and J. E. Brekke, Non volatile acids in papaya, J. Agr. Food Chem. 19:263 (1971). 42. Flath, R. A., and R. R. Forrey, Volatile components of papaya (Carica papaya L. var. Solo), J. Agr. Food Chem. 25:103 (1977). 43. Maclead, A. J., and N. M. Pieris, Volatile components of papaya with reference to glucosinolate products, J. Agr. Food Chem. 31:1005 (1983). 44. Munsell, H. E., Composition of food plants of Central America. VIII. Guatemala, Food Res. 15:439 (1950). 45. Awada, M., and Suchisa, R., Nutrient removal by papaya fruit, HortScience 5:182 (1973).

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46. Rolz, C., Chilling injury in the quality of tropical fruits during their storage, Proc. Trop. Res. Am. Soc. Hort. Sci. 14:81 (1973). 47. Pantistico, E. B., D. B. Mendoza, Jr., and J. C. Hapitan, Jr., Better harvesting and storing will increase marketability of papaya, Los Banos Agr. 11 (1971). 48. Hardenburg, R. E., A. E. Watada, and C. Y. Wang, The Commercial Storage of Fruits, Vegetable and Forest and Nursery Stocks, U. S. Department of Agriculture Handbook 66, Washington, DC, 1986, p. 45. 49. Hayes, W. B., Fruit Growing in India, Kitabistan, Allahabad, 1953. 50. deArriola, M. C., J. F. deCalzada, I. F. Menchu, C. Rolz, and R. Garcia, Papaya in Tropical and Sub-tropical Fruits (S. Nagy and P. E. Shaw, eds.), AVI, Westport, CT, 1980.

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51. Lutz, J. M., and R. E. Hardenburg, The Commercial Storage of Fruits, Vegetables and Florist and Nursery Stocks, U. S. Department of Agriculture Handbook 66, Washington, DC, 1968. 52. Kahn, V. E., and G. Zauberman, Papaya variety selection and development of papaya products, Scientific Activities, 197174, Institute for Technology and Storage of Agricultural Products, Bet Dagan, Israel, 1955. 53. Abou Aziz, A. B., S. M. E-Nabawi, and H. A. Zaki, Effects of different temperatures on the storage of papaya fruit and respirational activity during storage, Sci. Hort. 3:173 (1975). 54. Wardlaw, C. W., E. R. Leonard, and R. E. Baker, Observations on the storage of various fruits and vegetables, Trop. Agr. (Trinidad) 11:9 (1934).

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55. Spalding, D. H., and W. F. Reeder, Current status of controlled atmosphere storage of four tropical fruits, Proc. Fla. State Hort. Soc. 87:334 (1974). 56. Akamine, E. K., and T. Goo, Effect of controlled atmosphere storage of fresh papaya (Carcia papaya L. var. Solo) with special reference to shelf life extension of fumigated fruits, Hawaii Agr. Exp. Sta. Res. Bull. 144 (1969). 57. Hatton, T. T., Jr., and W. F. Reede, Controlled atmosphere storage of papaya, Proc. Trop. Reg. Am. Soc. Hort. Sci. 13:251 (1968). 58. Alvarez, A. M., Improved marketability of fresh papaya by shipment in hypobaric containers, HortScience 15(4):517 (1980). 59. Moy, J. H., J. K. C. Chan, and A. M. Dollar, Bound water in fruit products by the freezing method, J. Food Sci. 36:498 (1971).

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60. Jivaratana, V., R. J. Cuevas, and H. D. Graham, Extension of storage life of papayas grown in Puerto Rico by gamma radiation treatments, J. Agr. Univ. Puerto Rico 54:314 (1970). 61. Clarke, I. D., Effects of radiation treatments, Biochemistry of Fruits and Their Products, Vol. 2 (A. C. Hulme, ed.), Academic Press, New York, 1971, p. 687. 62. Norris, B. E., Every Day Cooking for India and Pakistan, 3rd rev. ed., Taraporewala, Bombay, 1980. 63. Lal, G., and D. P. Das, Studies on jelly making from papaya fruit, Indian J. Hort. 13(1):3(1956).

Page 313

64. Kumar, V, Studies in Carica papaya Linn: Economics of papaya cultivation and fruit utilization with special reference to the production of papain, Indian J. Hort. 9(3):36 (1952). 65. Brekke, J. E., H. T. Chan, and C. G. Caveletto, Papaya puree and nectar, Hawaii Agr. Exp. Sta. Res. Bull. 170 (1973). 66. Chan, H. T., Jr., M. T. H. Kuo, C. G. Caveletto, T. O. M. Nakayama, and J. E. Brekke, Papaya puree and concentrate: Changes in ascorbic acid, carotenoids, and sensory quality during processing, J. Food Sci. 40:701 (1975). 67. Ponting, J. D., G. G. Watters, R. R. Forrey, R. Jackson, and W. L. Stanley, Osmotic dehydration of fruits, Food Technol (Chicago) 20(10):125 (1966).

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68. Chan, H. T., Jr., and C. G. Caveletto, Dehydration and storage stability of papaya leather, J. Food Sci. 43:1723 (1988). 69. Arya, S. S., V. Netesan, and P. K. Vijayaraghavan, Stability of carotenoids in freeze dried papaya (Carica papaya), J. Food Technol. 18:177 (1983). 70. Jagtiani, D. J., Fruit Preservation, Vikas, Delhi, India, 1980. 71. Siddappa, G. S., and G. Lal, Improvement in or relating to the manufacture of fruit juice products, Indian Patent 49590 (1964). 72. Sole, P., Preliminary assays on tropical fruit dehydration, Technical Investigations of ICAIT I No. 2 (in Spanish), Guatemala, 1982.

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73. Gonzalez, O. N., L. B. Dimaunahan, and E. A. Banzon, Extraction of protein from the leaves of some local plants, Philippine J. Sci. 97:17 (1968). 74. Dabhade, R. S., and D. M. Khedkar, Equilibrium relative humidity (E.R.H.) of tutti-fruitti candy, Indian Food Packer 35(2):16 (1982). 75. Mehta, G. L., and M. C. Tomar, Studies on dehydration of tropical fruits in Uttar Pradesh. III. Papaya (Carica papaya L.), Indian Food Packer 34(4):12 (1980). 76. Flynn, G., The Market Potential for Papain, Trop. Prod. Inst., G-99, London, 1975. 77. Lassoudiere, A., PapainProduction, properties, utilization, Fruits 24:503 (1969). 78. Foyet, M., L'extraction de la papaine, Fruits 27:303 (1972).

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79. Balmohan, T. N., R. Sankarnarayanan, S. Sathiamoorthy, M. Kulasekaran, and R. Armagam, Evaluation of papaya varieties for papain and fruit yield, Natl. Seminar on Production and Utilization of Papaya, Tamil Nadu Agricultural University, Coimbatore, India, 1992, p. 14 (abstr.). 80. Wagh, A. N., S. P. Patil, M. N. Bhalekar, K. N. Wavhal, and P. N. Kale, Evaluation of papaya varieties for yield and quality of crude papain, Maharashtra J. Hort. 6(1):7 (1992). 81. Kanan, M., and S. Muthuswamy, Association of certain biochemical constituents of green papaya fruits with papain production in eight genotypes, Natl. Seminar on Production and Utilization of papaya, Tamil Nadu Agricultural University, Coimbatore, India, 1992, p. 69 (abstr.).

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82. Singh, L. B., and R. D. Tripathi, Studies on the preparation of papain, Indian J. Hort. 14(2):77 (1957). 83. Bhalekar, M. N., A. N. Wagh, S. P. Patil, and P. N. Kale, Studies on the effect of age of fruit on yield and quality of crude papain, Natl. Seminar on Production and Utilization of Papaya, Tamil Nadu Agricultural University, Coimbatore, India, 1992, p. 71 (abstr.). 84. Reddy, Y. T. N., and R. Kohli, Effect of season on papain yield, Natl. Seminar on Production and Utilization of Papaya, Tamil Nadu Agricultural University, Coimbatore, India, 1992, p. 72 (abstr.). 85. Madrigal, L., A. Ortiz, R. D. Cook, and R. Fernandez, The dependence of crude papain on different collection (tapping) procedures for papain latex, J. Sci. Food Agr. 31:279 (1980).

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86. Bhutani, R., J. V. Chankar, and P. I. K. Manon, Papaya, Industrial Monograph, Central Food Technological Research Institute, Mysore, India, 1963, p. 16. 87. Shanmugavelu, K. G., R. Chittiraichelum, and V. N. Madhav Rao, Effect of ethephon on latex stimulation in papaya, J. Hort. Sci. 51:425 (1976). 88. Das, D. P., G. S. Siddappa, and G. Lal, Effect of extraction of papain on the pectin content of raw papaya, CFTRI Mysore Res. Bull. 3:300 (1954). 89. Varinesingh, P., and R. Mohammed-Maraj, Solar drying characteristics of papaya (Carica papaya) latex, J. Sci. Food Agr. 46:175 (1989).

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90. Nanjundaswamy, A. M., and M. Mahadeviah, Fruit processing, Advances in Horticulture, Vol. 4, Fruit Crops (K. L. Chadha and O. P. Pareek, eds.), Malhotra, New Delhi, 1993, p. 1865.

Page 315

12 Berries
P. M. Kotecha Mahatma Phule Agricultural University, Rahuri, Maharashtra, India D. L. Madhavi University of Illinois, Urbana, Illinois I. Introduction

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Berries are considered soft fruits and include botanically different types of fruits such as blackberries, blueberries, strawberries, cranberries, gooseberries and currants, and raspberries (Table 1). These fruits are used as desserts as well as in processing. They are canned, frozen, or made into jams, jellies, or preserves. The juices are used in beverages and ice cream. Production figures for all berries are not available. However, they are produced mainly in the United States, European countries, North America, China (1), and the USSR (Table 2). New Zealand is the largest producer of kiwi fruit (Table 3), followed by Italy, Japan, France, the United States, and Chile (1). Germany, Austria, and Japan are the major importers, with high percapita consumption. The rapid rise in kiwi fruit production, including highly successful international trade and rapid spread of production makes this fruit the most successful new fruit crop of this century (2).

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II. Botany. Blackberries are native to North America. They have strong and erect stems, except for the dewberry (Rubus procumbens). Blackberries vary in color, ranging from dark red to reddish black. Brison, Rosborough Womack, Cheyenne, and Hull Thornless are some of the cultivars of blackberries.

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Of about 15 species of the blueberry, only three are of commercial importance. The high-bush blueberry (Vaccinium corymbosum) is the most important, followed by the low-bush (V. angustifolium) and rabbit-eye (V. ashei) species. While cultivation of the low-bush species is concentrated in the northern parts of North America, the rabbit-eye blueberry is grown widely in the southeastern United States. Heatresistant hybrid species adaptable to southern regions of a warmer climate are being developed by crosses between high-bush and rabbit-eye species (3). Harnson, Morrow, Wolcott, Rubel, Rancocas, June, and Croafan are some of the commonly

Page 31 Table 1 Commonly Grown Berries in the World Common name Botanical name Rubus sp. Blackberries and dewberries Blueberries Vaccinium corymbosum High-bush V. angustifolium Low-bush V. ashei Rabbit-eye Cranberries V. macrocarpon Gooseberries and currants Ribes sp. Raspberries (red and black) Rubus sp. Strawberries Fragaria sp.

Table 2 Production of Strawberries, Raspberries, and Currant in Different Countries in the World Production (1000 MT) Country Strawberries Raspberries Curran United States 570 23 Poland 241 28 130 Korea 215 Spain 197 USSR 120 140 100 Mexico 117 Lebanon 100

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East Germany France West Germany Great Britain Yugoslavia Czechoslovakia Canada Netherlands Norway Hungary Austria Finland Australia Source: Ref. 1.

95 87 55 55 40 31 30 26 16 15 13 9 5

9 30 17 55 4 13 4 22

34 9 130 14 33 1 2 18 18 24 4 9

Page 317 Table 3 World Kiwi Fruit Production in 1990 Production ( 103 Country MT) New 292 Zealand Italy 210 France 45 Japan 55 United 31 States Chile 21 Greece 8 Australia 7 World 680 Source: Ref. 2.

grown cultivars in the United States. The Blue Chip cultivar of blueberry has excellent fruit color, firmness, and a pleasant acid flavor. It is a mid-season cultivar with resistance to cane canker (4).

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All commercial cultivars of cranberries are derived from Vaccinium macrocarpon, which is native to North America. The other commercially important cranberries are the small cranberry V. oxycoccus native to Europe and V. idaea, the low-bush cranberry or cowberry of eastern Canada (3).

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Gooseberries are grown both in Europe and North America. The European species is classified as Ribes grossularia. R. hirtellum (smoothberry), and R. cynosbati (prickly berry), are the most important species of gooseberry native to North America. Currants are grown mainly in Europe, and their cultivation is favored especially in Great Britain. The red currant is R. rubrum; the black currant is R. nigrum. The black currant is distinctly different in character and originated from red and white currants. A large proportion of the production of the gooseberry is used for processing. Colossal cultivar of the gooseberry has a large, round to oblong fruit of high quality (5).

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Kiwi fruit (Actinidia chinensis) was formerly called Chinese gooseberry. It is a vine crop, having excellent keeping quality of the fruit. The fruit is also called Ichang gooseberry, monkey peach, kiwi, and kiwi berry (6). The name now commonly accepted in the North American market is kiwi fruit (7). Internally, the fruit has a white central core running the length of the fruit and surrounded by a translucent inner pericarp (810). This region contains black seeds in locules radiating from the core. The inner pericarp is surrounded by an outer pericarp composed of thinwalled parenchyma cells. Both the inner and outer pericarp contain chlorophyll, giving the fruits its unique internal green color (11,12). Early commercial cultivars included Abbott, Hayward, Bruno, Allison, and Monthy, but the superior keeping quality of Hayward resulted in the almost total exclusion of other varieties (2,13). Recently, a new selection, Dexter, with better local adaptation, has been introduced in

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Australia (2). Hayward is the most common commercially grown cultivar in the United States. The commercial raspberry cultivars, ranging in color from red to black, are selections from the wild species of Europe, namely, Rubus idaeus or R. strigagus, a red raspberry native of North America. All black raspberries (black caps) originated from R. occidentalis, a species native to the southeastern United States. Yellow and purple (hybrid) raspberries of both R. strigogus and R. occidentalis are also available (3). The cultivars of raspberries include Black Knight, Black

Page 318

Treasure, Bountiful, Giant, Forever Amber, Jet, Prestige, Sensation, Sparkling Gem, Cumberland, Plum Farmer, Columbian, Royal Purple, Cuthbert, Herbert, Letham, Taylor, and Indian Summer. Brooks and Olmo (5) have described the genetics and characteristics of these cultivars.

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The strawberry cultivars of Fragaria virginiana belonging to North America have largely replaced F. vesca of Europe. F. chiloensis is widely distributed in the mountains of North and South America and includes most commercially important cultivars of strawberry. Some of the popular strawberry cultivars grown in the United States are Cardinal, Sunrise, Delite, Atlas and Apollo. The Arking is a late-ripening, rootrot-resistant cultivar adapted to Arkansas conditions (13). Brooks and Olmo (5) described several new cultivars of strawberries, including Allstar, Amazing, American Sweet Heart, Autumn Surprise, Candy Red, Deep Red, Honeoye, Prelude, Royalty, Rasanne, Spring Beauty, Spring Giant, Summer, Sunburst, Sweet Abundance, Sweet Surprise, Temptation, Tribute, Tristar, Tyee, Universal Red, Aberdeen, Aroma Blackmore, Catskill, Dorsett, Dresden, Fairmore, Fairfax, Gem, Green Mountain, Hebron,

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Mastodon, Maytime, Pathfinder, Redstar, and Wayzata. III. Production A. Blackberries

1603/2989

Most cultivated blackberries have been developed from native species. The most suitable soil is a clay loam, well drained but receiving plenty of moisture. The upright blackberries may be propagated either by root cuttings or by suckers. Trailing blackberries are usually propagated by tip layering. Blackberries of an upright growing habit are usually planted in rows 2 to 2.5 m apart, with the plants 12 m apart in the rows. Blackberries are pruned in such a way that they may be tied to wire trellises or stakes. Strongly growing varieties are usually pruned back to 11.2 m. Trailing varieties are cut back, leaving 2.55 m according to the distance between the plants. Nitrogenous fertilizers are applied in the spring, with plenty of potash and phosphates later in the summer to help ripen the canes. A bright orange rust on the underside of the leaves and crown gall, a bacterial disease, cause damage to blackberries.

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Blackberries are very perishable and thus have a short postharvest life of 34 days. They should therefore have a minimum of handling during and after picking. Most blackberries used for processing are harvested mechanically. Morris et al. (14) reported the effect of postharvest holding on the quality of machine-harvested blackberries. Under commercial conditions at harvest, mechanically harvested blackberries had both raw and processed quality comparable to hand-picked fruits regardless of berry temperature. The machine- harvested berries at higher temperature (36C), however, deteriorated more rapidly during storage than the hand-picked berries at the same temperature (14). The anthocyanins, soluble solids, and titratable acidity of blackberries are influenced by preharvest temperatures. The anthocyanin and soluble solids content were lower when blackberries ripened at lower temperatures. Loss of acids during fruit

1605/2989

ripening was accelerated by increasing temperature (15). B. Blueberries Acidic soil with pH from 4.5 to 5.0 is most suitable for blueberries. The soil should be well drained, with plenty of moisture below the root level. The application of 300 kg of superphosphate per acre is enough for blueberries; or one application of 180270 kg/acre of a complete fertilizer (about 5:10:5) can be made in the spring when the buds are sprouting. Usually, very little

Page 319

pruning is necessary for the first 3 years after planting. General pruning may be done at any time from the fall of leaves in the autumn to the beginning of growth in the spring. Blueberries picked early in the harvest season are commonly infected by Alternaria tenuis, whereas those harvested late are more commonly attacked by Botrytis cinerea and Glomerella cingulata (16). Plump, firm, and uniformly colored (light blue to blue black) blueberries that are free from injury and decay are harvested for the fresh market. While green or red color indicates unripeness, overripe berries are dull and usually soft textured. C. Cranberries

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The most suitable soil for cranberries is clay loam, well drained with plenty of moisture. The cranberry vines are reproduced by cuttings. These are set out in rows 3050 cm apart and 1528 cm apart in the row. Fertilizers are applied in the spring, after the last reflow has been removed. The application of 35 kg of sodium nitrate, 135 kg of rock phosphate, and 25 kg of sulfate of potash per acre is sufficient for cranberries (17). In cranberry growing, water is used extensively, but mostly for winter flooding. Enough water must be supplied to keep the vines in a healthy condition. The cranberry is attacked by several insects, such as leaf hoppers, fireworms, girdlers, and blossom worms, while the important cranberry diseases are blast, rot, and false blossoms.

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Cranberry fruit harvested for the fresh market should be plump, bright, firm, clean, uniform in color (light red to reddish black), and free from mechanical injury, sun scald, insect injury, or decay. The uniform maturity of cranberries permits growers to pick them in one lot. Berry size and color have been used as important indices of harvest maturity. Berries showing more than a slight amount of green color are considered immature. D. Gooseberries

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Gooseberries are grown in any good, loamy soil, preferably in a dry, sunny spot. They often flourish on land which is wet during a large part of the year. Gooseberries are usually propagated from cuttings or by layering. When planted in rows, they are placed .751.5 m apart in the rows, with the rows 1.52 m apart (9). Just after fruiting time, those stems which have borne three or more crops of fruit, and all but two of the sturdy shoots which may have sprouted from the base of the plant, are pruned out. The important diseases of gooseberries are whitepine blister rust and cane blight. Most of the commercial production of gooseberry is used for processing. Both green and ripe fruits are harvested, depending on end use. Color and flesh firmness have been employed as indices of harvest maturity. E. Kiwi Fruit

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Deep, fertile, well-drained, sandy loam soils are recommended for cultivation of kiwi fruit. Waterlogged or hard soils are avoided (18,19). Kiwi fruits are best grown in a warm temperate climate, but they can tolerate a wide range of conditions (18). Early winter frosts do not damage the fruit, but frost at any time during growing and early flowering may cause considerable injury. On the other hand, in climates that do not provide sufficient winter chilling, spring bud burst is erratic and cropping is poor (6). Both fruit and vines are easily damaged by winds, hence wind protection is usually required for kiwi crops. Soft- or hardwood cuttings are ideal for economic and rapid multiplication (18). Shield budding and whip or deft grafting are recommended for large-scale propagation, for topworking on old economic vine, or for grafting male plants (6).

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Page 320

The plants are transferred to permanent sites in the orchards when in a dormant condition and planted in rows at 7.59.0 m 4.25.0 m spacing. Male and female flowers occur on different plants. It is essential to have an adequate number of male plants, which should be evenly spaced and surrounded by female plants to ensure the most efficient pollination. Hence, on average, the ratio of female to male plants is maintained at about 6:1. Seed propagation is not recommended for kiwi fruit.

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The fruit-bearing habit of kiwi fruit resembles that of the grapes, and the plants are supported and trained either on single or multiple wire fences, or on pergolas. Fruits are generally borne on the current season's growth arising from the first three to six buds of the shoots of the previous year. Pruning is done twice a year, once in summer, when the growth of vines is very active to remove the undesirable vines, and again in winter, when the vines are in a dormant condition, to obtain regular crops of good quality. Either one or both of the following systems of winter pruning are adopted: (a) the leaders, which bear the fruiting laterals, are removed and replaced by tying down well-grown leaders from the growth of current season, and (b) the fruiting laterals may be shortened to two buds beyond where the fruit was borne during the previous season. The aim is to retain as many of the new leaders as possible and to remove those which have already fruited. This avoids

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overcrowding of leaders and laterals on the vines, which is essential for the production of high-quality fruits. Kiwi vines have relatively few pests or diseases, but where crops are destined for export, quarantine requirements necessitate a high degree of control. Leaf roller insects and armored scale are the major pests, but occasionally mites can be important. In some locations, root-knot nematodes, particularly Meloidogyne spp., can reduce production (2). Armillaria root rot and Phytophthora crown rot are both capable of causing the death of vines. Leaf infection by bacteria, Pseudomonas viridiflava, or by a range of weakly pathogenic fungi, occurs mainly as a result of leaf damage caused by wind or frost. Such leaf infections generally do not affect vine vigor. Infection of unopened flowers by P. viridiflava, known as bacterial blossom blight, can be important in some orchards but generally occurs spasmodically (18).

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Kiwi fruits are harvested while hard and unripe, but to optimize storage life and to ensure that they ripen to satisfactory eating quality, a minimum level of physiological development must be attained before harvest. In New Zealand, the fruits are harvested when the soluble solids content is above 6.2%. An indication of eating quality in ripe fruits can be obtained by measuring the soluble solids content. Fruits with a soluble solids content of less than 12.5% are regarded as having an unacceptable eating quality (2,20). Late-harvested fruits retain their flesh firmness during storage better than early-harvested fruits (2). In other countries, minimum soluble solid concentration has also been adopted as a maturity standard. Kiwi fruit, if left on the vine, will ripen and abscise from the plant at slightly overripe stage. However, ripening is not synchronized, and individual fruits can ripen over several months (2).

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Once the orchard attains acceptable maturity, all the fruits can be harvested on one occasion. Fruits are picked by snapping them off at the calyx, so that the fruit stalk remains on the vine (2). The fruits are collected in small boxes and then transferred into 200-to 250-kg bins for transport to the packing shed. After quality and size grading, the fruits are stored, either packed in single-layer trays ready for marketing or in larger bins (2).

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Kiwi fruits are handled in 12-in. (30-cm)-deep bins to avoid bruising. Bins are typically of in. plywood, smooth or coated on the inside and vented. To avoid cutting the fruit, ventilation slots are normally routed so that inside edges are tapered (7). Packaging is done in single-layer trays with perforated polyethylene liners in wooden or corrugated cartons. The polyethylene maintains high relative humidity and allows a small percentage of CO2 to build up, which aids in long-term storage (21).

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F. Raspberries Any type of soil with good drainage and sufficient soil moisture content is suitable for raspberries. Upright raspberries may be propagated either by root cuttings or by suckers. Raspberries usually produce fruit on a cane of one season's growth. The canes necessary for the bearing of the crops are produced during one season, flower or bear fruit the next, and must then be removed. The chief diseases are anthrocnose, cane blight or wilt, root knot, orange rust, and mosaic. American raspberry beetle, raspberry cane borer, and sawfly are the important pests of raspberries. G. Strawberries.

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Land for strawberries should be thoroughly cultivated and manured. Any good garden soil is satisfactory. Strawberries are propagated by means of runner shoots which come out from the parent plant and root at alternate nodes. Thorough but shallow cultivation is required, and removal of all runners until the end of the bearing season is recommended. Wilkinson (17) noted that heavy manuring is necessary in order to obtain a good crop and recommends 25 cartloads of well-rotted cattle manure per acre. Fairly frequent irrigation is required, as the roots do not penetrate more than 0.6 m deep. During the bearing season, the plants should be irrigated every third or fourth day. White grub, leaf roller, leaf beetle, weevil, and cutworm are the important pests, while leaf spot is the important disease of strawberries.

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Strawberries are generally harvested manually, owing to their tenderness and vulnerability to mechanical damage. Despite these factors, attempts have been made to develop prototype mechanical harvesters (22). Berries ready for harvest are fully red, or at least three-fourths of their surface is red or pink. A dull and shrunken appearance usually indicates overripeness. The percentage of calyx-free fruit of the strawberry was generally higher early in the season and decreased rapidly as the season progressed (23). Euparen (dichlofluanid) spray combined with gibberellic acid (5 ppm) plus 0.5% KH2 PO4 applied just before harvest improved harvesting of calyx-free fruit. Spayd and Morris (24) reported that as the strawberry fruits matured on the plant, the weight, percentage of soluble solids, ascorbic acid, and water-soluble pectin increased. The total solids, acidity, total phenols, cellulose, protopectin, and activity of

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polyphenol oxidase decreased with increasing fruit maturity. IV. Chemical Composition

1622/2989

The chemical composition of berries is presented in Table 4. The total soluble solids content ranges from 10.2 to 19.7% (25). The sugars constitute one of the major soluble components of berries. Reducing sugars form a major proportion of total sugars in the berries. In the majority of berries, citric acid is the predominant acid; with the exception of blackberry, wherein isocitric acid and its lactone predominate. The cranberry contains an appreciable amount of benzoic acid (26). The next important organic acid present in berries is malic acid. The most important vitamin in berries is vitamin C. Berries are also regarded as good sources of b-carotene, thiamin, riboflavin, and nicotinic acid. The volatile compounds in berries have been studied extensively (27,28). Croteau and Furgerson (28) examined the volatiles of cranberry and found that 42 compounds accounted for 95% of the aroma complex, while the remaining 5% contained over 200 compounds in very small

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concentrations. These compounds present in low concentration were, however, important in the overall aroma. Anthocyanin is a major pigment in berries. Raspberries contain mainly mono- and diglycosides of cyanidin. Strawberries contain mainly 3-glucosides of cyanidin and pelargonidin. The anthocyanins present in the skin of blueberries are 3-galactosides, 3-glucosides, and 3-arabino

Table 4 Chemical Composition of Berries Constituent Blackberries TSS (%) 15.2 Total sugars (%) 4.3 Acidity (%) 0.681.84 Ascorbic acid (mg/100 g) 20 Carotene (mg/100 g) 0.10.59 Thiamine (mg/100 g) 0.03 Riboflavin (mg/100 g) 0.034 Nicotinic acid (mg/100 g) 0.40 Minerals (%) 0.5 23.9 Phosphorus (mg/100 g) 208 Potassium (mg/100 g) 3.7 Sodium (mg/100 g) 63.3 Calcium (mg/100 g) 29.5 Magnesium (mg/100 g) Source: Ref. 25.

Cra

2.

0.

1625/2989

sides if delphinidin, petunidin, malvidin, peonidin, cyanidin and delphinidin glycosides in their skin (2 pon) are mainly the 3-galactosides and 3-arabinosid of cyanidin 3-glucoside and peonidin-3 glucoside (3 oside (41.9%) and cyanidin-3-glucoside (38.3%) w V. oxycoccus. Smaller amounts of the 3-galactoside were found in addition to 3-glucosides of delphinid freezing and cooking affects the content of anthocy compounds contribute to the color of berry fruits m erable changes in the phenolic compounds as fruit m ive enzyme system (36,37). Ellagic acid (Fig. 1) is in fruit, especially in strawberries (38,39) and other as an antimutagen, anticarcinogen, and a potential i

The composition of Hayward kiwi fruit is presented vitamin C, the average-sized fruit containing aroun g has been reported from Indian samples (6). There stages of storage, but the concentration then becom of the vitamin C present at harvest still remains. Ac levels as high as 7001000 mg/100 g (2).

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The total chlorophyll (chlorophyll a + b) in ripe kiw gradually during postharvest ripening (43,44,45). A oxidase (48), and peroxidase (49,50) are also presen ilar to those of papain. Actinidin concentration in th (2). Calcium oxalate has been identified as an irrita of the fruit and the special characteristics of the mu

Page 323

Fig. 1 Structure of ellagic acid.

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More than 90 volatile flavor compounds have been identified from kiwi fruit (2). If fruit is ripened soon after harvest, there is a marked increase in the concentration of volatile esters, especially ethyl and methyl butanoate; but when fruit is ripened after storage, ethyl acetate becomes relatively more important. Hexanal and hex-2-enal are also major volatile components (52). The contributions that individual components make to the perceived aroma and flavor are still unclear. However, a tangy or acid flavor, typical of slightly underripe fruit, is associated with low concentrations of the major volatile esters and high levels of citrate and soluble solids. Sweeter fruit contains higher levels of volatile esters (2). V. Storage A. Blackberries

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Due to their high perishability, prompt precooling of blackberries to -0.6 to 0C and 9095% relative humidity is essential, especially when the berries are destined to be shipped to distant markets. These berries cannot be stored satisfactorily for more than about 23 days, because longer storage results in loss of good marketing quality. Morris et al. (14) found that storage of machineharvested blackberries in 20 and 40% CO2 at 20C for up to 48 h maintained their raw and processing quality. These investigators further stated that the use of high-CO2 storage atmospheres with blackberries held at 20C partially offset the need for refrigeration to reduce their postharvest quality loss. B. Blueberries

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Blueberries in good condition can be stored at -0.6 to 0C with 9095% relative humidity for about 2 weeks. With some loss in quality, storage can be extended to 46 weeks (42). Rapidly precooling fresh blueberries to near 0C and maintaining that temperature suppresses decay development and preserves market quality (53). Mixtures of soft ripe berries with hard ripe berries, as may occur with late pickings, have poor storage potential because overmaturity contributes to deterioration. The ratio of soluble solids to acids increases with increasing ripeness. When the ratio exceeds 30, the fruit should not be sent to fresh markets but should be processed within 24 h (54). Moisture losses can be kept to 23% or less during storage and marketing through use of proper packaging, film caps, and maintenance of 9095% relative humidity (55).

Page

Table 5 Composition of Ripe Hayward Kiwi Fruit (2) Constituent Content (mg/100 g fresh weight unless o wise specified) Edible portion 9095% Water 8286% Fiber 1.13.3% Soluble solids 1217% Pectic compounds 0.20.9% pH 3.53.6 Lipid 70900 Mucilage 150 Chlorophyll 0.20.3 Energy value 4966 kcal/100 g Protein 0.41.0% Carbohydrate 1518% Organic acids 23% Titratable acidity (as 1.01.6% citric) Ash 450740 Tannin 5084 Oxalate 64 Vitamins 80120 Ascorbic acid 0.0140.02 Thiamin

1632/2989

Nicotinic acid Vitamin E Vitamin A Riboflavin Pyridoxine (B6 Minerals Potassium Chloride Calcium Magnesium Iron Zinc Manganese Nitrogen Phosphorus Sulfur Sodium Boron Copper

0.00.5 0.13 0.05 0.010.05 0.15 200450 3065 1651 1020 0.21.2 0.080.32 0.070.2 93163 2240 1330 2.84.7 0.20.37 0.060.3

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Handling of blueberries should be minimized to avoid damaging the bloom. Blueberries stored at temperatures of 4.5C and above gradually develop an undesirable, tough-textured skin. The use of controlled atmosphere to extend the shelf life of blueberries has not been successful. Bunemann et al. (42) tried several modified atmospheres ranging from 3 to 25% CO2 and 2 to 15% O2. They found that the off-flavors developed in berries held in all modified atmospheres. C. Cranberries

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Cranberries can safely be held at 0C only for about 2 weeks. At low temperatures (less than 2.2C), however, they usually develop flesh breakdown, characterized by a rubbery-textured red flesh. Lutz and Hardenburg (56) therefore recommended a storage environment of 2.24.4C with 9095% relative humidity to store sound berries for up to 24 months. Ringel et al. (57) observed that unscreened berries retained marketable condition longer than screened (sorted with field chaff removed) in both cold and common storage, probably because of the increased handling of screened berries before storage. Refrigerated storage extended the shelf life of berries up to 10 weeks at 4.4C with less water loss than in those at simulated common storage (15.6C). Hruschka (58) reported that if cranberries stored at low temperature (-0.6C) are exposed to 21.1C for 1 day, physiological breakdown can be reduced considerably.

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Wright et al. (59) found that a storage temperature of 2.2C was optimum for cranberries and that the storage life of fruit was reduced by about one-half by storage much above or below the ideal condition. Cranberries can be hydrocooled to avoid decay during short transits, especially under warm weather conditions (7).

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Most of the cranberry crop is now processed into sauce or juice. Fruit intended for processing is screened as rapidly as possible and utilized or frozen shortly after harvest. Such fruit can be frozen at -18C until needed without quality loss. Freezing berries enhances development of the desired color in the juice. Swanson and Weckel (60) reported that refrigerated storage at 4C is effective in preserving cranberries up to 10 weeks. Anderson et al. (61) indicated that controlled-atmosphere storage of cranberries offers little advantage over air storage in controlling postharvest decay and breakdown. Lockhart et al. (62) found that cranberries stored in N2 at 3.3C for 3 weeks and then transferred to air at the same temperature developed much less decay than berries stored continuously in air. D. Gooseberries and Currants

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Gooseberries and currants are rarely stored, owing to their high perishability. Lutz and Hardenburg (56) recommended 0C with 9095% relative humidity to hold the fruit in a marketable condition for about 2 weeks. As soon as they are picked, red currants, black currants and gooseberries should be precooled to a temperature lower than 4C to reduce damage during transport to market (63). Gooseberries were damaged by exposure to 12% CO2 for 4 weeks at 0C but not by 5% CO2 (63). Storage of hard green gooseberries for longer periods at 0C in perforated polyethylene bags is possible if some CO2 is allowed to accumulate (64). E. Kiwi Fruits

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The best protection of kiwi fruit after harvest requires cooling to near storage temperature within 6 h of harvest, avoiding any ethylene exposure, and storing at 0C (7). The cooling can best be achieved by using forced-air cooling. Kiwi fruit should be stored at a flesh temperature of 0C. At this temperature, flesh softening is slowed substantially when the ethylene level is below 100 ppb.

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Control of water loss and shriveling of kiwi fruit requires a relative humidity in the storage room at 9095%, and air flow during storage should be no higher than is needed to maintain fruit temperature. Freshly harvested kiwi fruit can be effectively ripened for early-season marketing by exposure to 10 ppm ethylene for 24 h at 20C followed by maintenance at 20C until soft (7).

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Several studies have been conducted on the potential benefit of controlled atmosphere (CA) storage for kiwi fruit (6567). The major benefits are a delay in flesh softening during storage and a reduction in Botrytis rot problem (68). Best results have been obtained in a controlled atmosphere of about 5% CO2 and 2% O2 at 0C (69). The fruit must be promptly cooled and placed under CA conditions as soon after harvest as possible. However, the presence of ethylene under CA conditions can negate the possible benefits and enhance flesh softening (70). Carbon dioxide levels of 10% in storage may be injurious to kiwi fruit. The kiwi fruit is very sensitive to ethylene (70). During packing and storage, fruit must be protected from exposure to even low levels of ethylene gas; concentrations above 6.03 ppm are considered unacceptable (2). For this reason, kiwi fruit should never be packed or stored together with other fruit crops.

1641/2989

Botrytis stem end rot (Botrytis cinerea), Alternaria rot (Alternaria alternata), Dothiorella soft rot (Dothiorella gregaria), Phoma rot (Phoma sp.) Phomopsis stem-end rot (Diaporthe actinidiae), Penicillium stem-end rot (Penicillium expansum) and buckshot rot (Typhula sp.) are some of the important postharvest diseases of kiwi fruits. It is important to maintain cleanliness in the vineyard, to avoid fruit injuries during handling, to brush the fruit to remove dead floral parts and other material on the fruit surface, to avoid contamination, to cool the fruit rapidly, and to maintain a constant 0C storage temperature (7). F. Raspberries.

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Prompt and continuous cooling of harvested raspberries to 0C is essential to preserve their marketable life for 23 days. Holding conditions of 0C and 9095% relative humidity throughout postharvest handling have been recommended. This temperature retards ripening and development of gray mold rot, Rhizopus rot, and Cladosporium rot and allows 2 or 3 days of storage prior to marketing (71). Smith (71) reported that an atmosphere containing 2025% CO2 slowed ripening and reduced decay, especially during refrigerated transport. G. Strawberries

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All types of berries, including strawberries, are precooled in precooling rooms or forced-air coolers. Wetting the fruit by hydrocooling is generally not advocated. Goble and Cooler (72), however, reported that hydrocooling of strawberries to 4.4C increased consumer acceptance due to the increased freshness and reduction in weight loss.

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Owing to their high perishability, strawberries are rarely stored. Lutz and Hardenburg (56) recommended a temperature of -0.6 to 0C and 9095% relative humidity to extend the shelf life of strawberries for about a week. Prompt removal of field heat extends the marketable life of the fruit by about a week if low temperature is provided. Maxie et al. (73) found that the rate of respiration of fresh Shasta strawberries soon after harvest was about 7.2 times as high at 20C as at 0C. Although strawberries are quite tolerant to higher CO2 levels in the storage atmosphere, low O2 concentrations (below 2%) have been known to cause fermented flavors (74). Harris and Harvey (75) reported that with increased CO2, the useful life of strawberries could be extended by about 50% over that in air at the same temperature. Since strawberries can tolerate high levels of CO2 (up to 20%), such high CO2 concentrations can be used to inhibit decay and retard the softening of strawberries

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without impairing the delicate flavor of the fruit (76). Analysis of

volatile compounds from strawberry fruits stored un has been reported (77). VI. Processing A. Jam

Strawberry jam is popular among consumers, becau flavor (78). The maturity of the fruit affects the qua of the jam (78). Low-sugar jam with replacement o sweeteners is becoming popular (79,80). B. Juice

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Juices from berries are widely used for the preparat ages, and ice cream. A significant quantity of juice of wine. In preparation of juice, frozen berries are t temperature, mashed, and heated to 50C to extract zymes are added to the pulp (0.1 g/kg of fruits). Th act for 2 h at 50C. The juice is recovered by centri lowed by filtration. The juice is preserved by the ad such as potassium benzoate or sodium sorbate and p for 1 min (81). The juice yield and quality are influ and processing parameters such as freezing-thawing ment, and fining. Sapers et al. (82) have reported th treatment on recovery of juice and anthocyanins fro thaw treatment increased juice yield by as much as in content by as much as 15-fold (Table 6).

Pulp or puree is one of the processed kiwi fruit prod ternational market. Although heat can be used to de production of kiwi fruit pulp, undesirable changes t flavor of the product. Consequently, it is recommen fruit be frozen immediately after manufacture and s

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C. Concentrates

Juice concentrate is widely produced as natural flav hindered by its susceptibility to browning and unde when held at room temperature for a short time or f gerated temperatures. In spite of the general popula flavor, this problem has hindered the application of to foods and beverages (85,86).

Table 6 Effects of Freeze-Thaw Treatment on Yield and Com Prepared by Single Pressing Juice yield (ml/100g) Soluble solids ( Cultivar Fresh Early Black 71 Pilgrim 68 Searles 54 Source: Ref. 82. Freeze-thaw 81 79 80 Fresh 8.5 8.7 10.3

Freeze-t 8.7 9.4 10.4

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D. Wine Berries can be used for preparation of wine. Frozen strawberries are thawed at room temperature and juice is prepared. The juice is ameliorated to 22 Brix by adding sucrose. One percent ammonium phosphate and 1% active yeast culture are added and mixed. The juice is transferred to jars and allowed to ferment at 16C until it reaches 0.10.2% reducing sugars. The wines are bottled, racked, and stored in the dark. Strawberry wine has appealing color. The composition, maturity, and mold contamination affects the quality of the wine (8789). Rommel et al. (90) in their studies on raspberry wine have observed that processing conditions and storage influenced the degradation of anthocyanins, color, and appearance of wine.

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A good-quality wine can be prepared from kiwi fruit pulp. Earlier attempts to make wine using conventional practices were unsuccessful because the product was described as grassy, green stalky in aroma and taste, and as being of unacceptable bitterness and astringency. A process was subsequently developed (91) which produced a white wine of outstanding character. Juice was extracted from crushed fruit with a rack and cloth press. The yield of juice (55.60%) was increased to 84% by pectolytic enzyme or press-aid treatment of pulp before pressing. The juice had high acidity (2%) and low sugar (10%), which necessitated juice amelioration for production of balanced wines. Wine made by fermenting juice and clarifying to brilliance with commercial pectolytic enzymes developed an intense, fruity, Riesling Sylvanertype aroma during fermentation and retained no undesirable astringency or bitterness (84). The removal of astringency and bitterness correlated

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with a reduction in total phenols and removal of flavonoids (92). E. Citric Acid Hang et al. (93) developed a method for the production of citric acid from kiwi fruit peel by solidstate fermentation using Aspergillus niger NRRL 567. In the presence of 2% methanol at 30C, 100 g of citric acid was produced per kilogram of kiwi fruit peel in 4 days. The yield was reported to be more than 60% on the basis of fermentable sugars consumed. The moisture content of the peel had a profound influence on production of citric acid, and the effect of methanol was more pronounced at higher moisture levels. Fruit-processing solid residues can serve as a substrate for the production of citric acid by A. niger in solid-state fermentation. VII. Medicinal Properties.

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In addition to their uses in food products, many of these berries such as cranberries, blueberries, and blackberries are popular for their medicinal properties. The extracts of berries have been used as herbal remedies or as well-defined pharmaceutical products for a long time. Some of their applications are as antiseptics, diuretics, antiinflammatory, antihyperglycemic, and anticarcinogenic agents (94,95). However, very little is known about the active compounds or the mechanism of action. In recent years, there has been a renewed interest in the elucidation of medicinal properties and nature of active phytochemicals in these berries. A. Antimicrobial Properties

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The antimicrobial properties of various berries are well known. Studies by Konowalchuk and Speirs (96) have shown that strawberry extract inactivated several enteric viruses and herpes simplex virus. Inactivation of poliovirus type 1 with strawberry extract was dependent on time, pH, and concentration. Strawberry extract also reduced subsequent infections with the virus. The inactivation of poliovirus type 1 by raspberry extract has been reported (96). Fruits of Vaccinium

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species have antifungal, antibacterial, and antiviral properties. The fruits contain a wide array of potentially antimicrobial phenolic compounds and high levels of organic acids. Extracts of cranberry and high bush blueberry were effective against various fungi such as Penicillium spp. and Aspergillus niger. Fractionation studies have demonstrated that the primary sources of antifungal activity are water-soluble, nonalkaloidal chemicals such as phenolics and acids (97). Cipollini and Stiles (97) have also reported that the antifungal activity of the fall-ripening species such as cranberries was much higher than the summer-ripening species such as high bush blueberries. They have attributed this to a higher concentration of organic acids and phenolics in the fall-ripening species. The antiviral properties of cranberry and cowberry extracts have been reported. Studies by Konowalchuk and Speirs (98) have shown that commercial cranberry juice was effective against poliovirus

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type 1 and the response was greater at pH 7.0 than at pH 2.6, similar to strawberry extract. Cowberry extracts have been reported to be active against influenza virus A2 and herpes virus A2 (99).

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The antibacterial properties of cranberry juice have been known for a long time. For decades cranberry juice has been prescribed in the treatment of bacteriuria and pyuria. Earlier studies suggested that the acidification of the urine was the mechanism by which cranberry juice produced bacteriostatic effect (100,101). However, recent studies have indicated that the effect could be due to an inhibition of bacterial adherence to mucosal surfaces by cranberry juice (102,103). Recently, Avorn et al. (104) demonstrated the beneficial effects of regular intake of cranberry juice on bacteriuria and pyuria in elderly women who are more prone to these infections. The randomized, double-blind study indicated a significant reduction in the frequency of infections. B. Antioxidant, Anticarcinogenic, and Cardioprotective Properties

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The extracts of many of these berries rich in various flavonoids and related compounds have antioxidant properties. The properties of anthocyanins, other flavonoids, and phenolic acids as free radical scavengers and inhibitors of lipid peroxidation have been described by many investigators (105,106). In a recent study, Costantino et al. (107) reported the antiradical activity of several cultivars of red currant, black currant, red raspberry, black raspberry, blackberry, and high-bush blueberry. All the crude extracts examined showed a remarkably high activity towards chemically-generated superoxide radicals. The extracts also showed an inhibitory activity towards xanthine oxidase, an enzyme which initiates free radical formation at the cellular level. Black currant extract exhibited the highest activity, being the richest in both anthocyanins and polyphenols. On the other hand, red currant extract seemed to contain more active substances than the other crude extracts.

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The antiradical activity of these berries may have significant beneficial effects against various chronic diseases associated with free radicals such as cancer, cardiovascular diseases, arthritis, and autoimmune diseases. Crude anthocyanin extract of bilberry (V. myrtillus), which has a very similar anthocyanin composition to highbush and low-bush blueberries, is highly effective in the treatment of various microcirculation diseases (108). The extract inhhibits platelet aggregation and reduces adhesiveness in vitro and in vivo (109). It also functions as a vasodilatory agent and is effective in promoting and enhancing arteriolar rhythmic diameter changes (110,111). The extract functions as a cellular respiration activator in cancer therapy and prophylaxis (112). In Europe, the extract (Myrtocyan) is marketed (Indena, Milan) as a pharmaceutical product. Similarly, cowberry fruit extract has been reported to inhibit transplanted

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sarcomas M-1 and 45, Pliss lymphosarcoma, and cholangioma RS-1 in rats (113).

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References 1. FAO, Production Year Book, Vol. 44, Food and Agriculture Organization, Rome, 1990, p. 171. 2. Beever, D. J., Kiwi fruit, Encyclopaedia of Food Science. Food Technology and Nutrition (R. MaCrae, R. K. Robinson, and S. J. Sadler, eds.), Academic Press, New York, 1993, p. 2626. 3. Ryall, A. L., and W. T. Pentzer, Handling, Transportation and Storage of Fruits and Vegetables, Vol. 2, Fruits and Tree Nuts, AVI, Westport, CT, 1974. 4. Ballington, J. R., C. M. Mainland, A. D. Draper, and G. J. Galletta, Bluchip blueberry, HortScience 17(2):272 (1982).

1662/2989

5. Brooks, R. M., and H. P. Olmo, Register of new fruit and nut varieties, List 32, HortScience 17(1):17 (1982). 6. CSIR, Wealth of India: Raw Material, Council of Scientific and Industrial Research (CSIR), New Delhi, India 1980, p. 69. 7. Mitchell, F. G., Postharvest handling systems: Small fruits (table grapes, strawberries, kiwi fruit), Postharvest Technology of Horticultural Crops (A. A. Kader, ed.), University of California, Davis, CA, Pub. 3311, 1992, p. 223. 8. Dadlani, S. A., B. P. Singh, and M. Kazim, Chinese gooseberry, a new fruit plant, Indian Hort. 16(2):13 (1971). 9. Randhawa, G. S., The Chinese gooseberry, Indian Hort. 1:27 (1957).

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10. Considine, D. M., and G. D. Considine, Foods and Food Products Encyclopeadia, Van Nostrand Reinhold, New York, 1982, pp. 247, 837. 11. Luh, B. S., and Z. Wang, Kiwi fruit, Adv. Food Res. 29:279 (1984). 12. Ferguson, A. R., Kiwi fruit: A botanical review, Hort. Rev. 6:1 (1984). 13. Astridge, S. J., Cultivars of Chinese gooseberry (Actinidia chinensis) in New Zealand, Econ. Bot. 29: 357 (1975). 14. Morris, J. R., S. E. Spayd, J. G. Brooks, and D. L. Cawthon, Influence of postharvest holding on raw and processed quality of machine harvested blackberries, J. Am. Soc. Hort. Sci. 10:69 (1981).

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40. Wang, S. Y., J. L. Maas, E. M. Daniel, and G. J. Galletta, Improved HPLC resolution and quantification of ellagic acid from strawberry, blackberry, and cranberry, HortScience 25:1078 (1990). 41. Daniel, E. M., A. S. Krupnick, Y. H. Heur, J. A. Blinzler, R. W. Nims, and G. D. Stoner, Extraction, stability, and quantification of ellagic acid in various fruits and nuts, J. Food Chem. Comp. Anal. 2:338 (1989). 42. Bunemann, G., D. H. Dewey, and D. P. Watson, Anatomical changes in the fruit of Rubel blueberry during storage in controlled atmosphere, Proc. Am. Hort. Sci. 70:156 (1957). 43. Robertson, G. L., and D. Swinburne, Changes in chlorophyll and pectin after storage and canning of kiwi fruit, J. Food Sci. 46:15571559 (1981).

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44. Fuke, Y., K. Sasago, and H. Matsuoka, Determination of chlorophylls in kiwi fruit and their changes during ripening, J. Food Sci. 50(5):1220 (1985). 45. Schwartz, S. J., and J. H. VonElbe, Kinetics of chlorophyll degradation to pyropheophytin in vegetables, J. Food Sci. 48:1303 (1983). 46. Lewis, D. A., and B. S. Luh, Development and distribution of actinidin in kiwi fruit and its partial characterization, J. Food Biochem. 12:109 (1988). 47. Soda, I., M. Kaneko, T. Sato, H. Nakagawa, and N. Ogura, Studies on utilization of kiwi fruit protease, J. Jpn. Soc. Food Sci. Technol. 34:36 (1987). 48. Park, E. Y., and B. S. Luh, Polyphenol oxidase of kiwi fruit, J. Food Sci. 50(3):678 (1985).

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49. Ogura, N., K. Kumakawa, M. Fukushima, I. Soda, T. Sato, and H. Nakagawa, Studies on peroxidase of kiwi fruit, J. Jpn. Soc. Food Sci. Technol. 35(1):1 (1988). 50. Prestamo, G., Peroxidase of kiwi fruit, J. Food Sci. 54:760 (1989). 51. Perera, C. O., I. C. Hallett, T. T. Naguyen, and J. C. Charles, Calcium oxalate crystals: The irritant factor in kiwi fruit, J. Food Sci. 55:1066 (1990). 52. Cossa, G., C. Trova, and G. Gandolfo, Extraction of identification of kiwi fruit volatile constituents, Industrie Alimentari 27:531 (1988).

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53. Hudson, D. E., and W. H. Tietsen, Effects of cooling rate on shelf life and decay of highbush blueberries, HortScience 11(5):656 (1981). 54. Ballinger, W. E., E. P. Maness, and W. F. McClure, Relationship of stage of ripeness and holding temperature to decay development of blueberries, J. Am. Soc. Hort. Sci. 103:130 (1978). 55. Hruschka, H. W., and L. I. Kushman, Storage and shelf life of packaged blueberries, U.S. Dept. of Agriculture Market Research Report 612, 1963. 56. Lutz, J. M., and R. E. Hardenburg, The commercial storage of fruits, vegetables and florist and nursery stocks, U.S. Dept. of Agriculture Handbook 66, 1968.

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57. Ringel, S. M., J. Kaufman, and M. J. Jaffe, Refrigerated storage of cranberries, U.S. Dept. of Agriculture Market Research Report 312, 1959. 58. Hruschka, H. W., Physiological breakdown in cranberries inhibition by intermittent warming during cold storage, Plant Dis. Rep. 54:219 (1970). 59. Wright, R. C., J. B. Demaree, and M. S. Wilcox, Some effects of different storage temperatures on the keeping qualities of cranberries, Proc. Am. Soc. Hort. Sci. 34:397 (1937). 60. Swanson, B. G., and K. G. Weckel, Refrigerated storage of fresh cranberries, J. Food Sci. 40:259 (1975).

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61. Anderson, R. E., R. S. Hardenburg, and H. C. Vaught, Controlled atmosphere storage studies with cranberries, Proc. Am. Soc. Hort. Sci. 83:416 (1963). 62. Lockhart, C. L., F. R. Forsyth, R. Stark, and I. B. Hall, Nitrogen gas suppresses microorganisms on cranberries in short-term storage, Phytopathology 61:335 (1971). 63. Keipert, K., Precooling and storage of currants, gooseberries and black currants, Landwirtschafsk Rheinland 12:45 (1978). 64. Kenny, A., Storage of gooseberries in plastic bags, J. Food Technol. 6:403 (1971). 65. Arpaia, M. L., F. G. Mitchell, and G. Mayer, The effect of ethylene and high CO2 on the storage of kiwi fruit, Hort Science 15:423 (1980).

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66. Arpaia, M. L., F. G. Mitchell, G. Mayer, and A. A. Kader, Effects of delays in establishing controlled atmosphere on kiwi fruit softening during and following storage, J. Am. Soc. Hort. Sci. 109:768 (1984). 67. Arpaia, M. L., F. G. Mitchell, A. A. Kader, and G. Mayer, Effects of 2% O2 and varying concentrations of CO2 with and without C2H4 on storage performance of kiwi fruit, J. Am. Soc. Hort. Sci. 110:200 (1985). 68. Mitchell, F G., M. L. Arpaia, and G. Mayer, Modified atmosphere storage of kiwi fruit, Proc. 3rd Natl. Controlled Atmosphere Research Conf. (D. G. Richardson and M. Meheriuk, eds.), Timber Press, Beaverton, OR, 1982, p. 235.

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69. McDonald, B., and J. F. Harman, Controlled atmosphere storage of kiwi fruit. Effect on fruit firmness and storage life, Sci. Hort. 17:113 (1982). 70. Harris, S., Ethylene and kiwi fruit, The Orchardist (N.Z.) 54:105 (1981). 71. Smith, W. H., The harvesting, precooling, transporting and storage of strawberries and raspberries, Food Invest. Board (Great Britain) Misc. Paper 1058, 1958. 72. Goble, W. E., and F. W. Cooler, Quality and consumer acceptance of hydro-cooled strawberries, Tenn. Agr. Exp. Sta. Bull. 344 (1962). 73. Maxie, E. C., F. G. Mitchell, and A. S. Greathead, Studies on strawberry quality, Calif. Agr. 13(2):11 (1959).

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74. Van Doren, A., M. B. Hoffman, and R. M. Smock, Carbon dioxide treatment of strawberries and cherries in transit and storage, Proc. Am. Soc. Hort. Sci. 38:231 (1941). 75. Harris, C. M., and J. M. Harvey, Quality and decay of California strawberries stored in CO2 enriched atmosphere, Plant Dis. Rep. 57:44 (1973). 76. Lipton, W. J., Controlled atmospheres for fresh vegetables and fruits-Why and when, Postharvest Biology and Handling of Fruits and Vegetables (N. F. Haard and D. K. Salunkhe, eds.), AVI, Westport, CT, 1975, p. 130. 77. Shamaila, M., W. D. Powrie, and B. J. Shura, Analysis of volatile compounds from strawberry fruit stored under modified atmosphere packaging, J. Food Sci. 57:1173 (1992).

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78. Spayd, S. E., and J. R. Morris, Influence of immature fruits on strawberry jam quality and storage stability, J. Food Sci. 46:414 (1981). 79. Hyvonen, L., and R. Torma, Examination of sugars, sugar alcohols, and artificial sweeteners as substitute for sucrose in strawberry jams: Keeping quality tests, J. Food Sci. 46:186 (1983). 80. Hyvonen, L., and R. Torma, Examination of sugars, sugar alcohols, and artificial sweeteners as substitute for sucrose in strawberry jams: Product development, J. Food Sci. 46:183 (1983). 81. Tressler, D. K., and M. A. Joslyn, Fruit and Vegetable Juice Processing Technology, AVI, Westport, CT, 1961.

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82. Sapers, G. M., S. B. Jones, and G. T. Maher, Factors affecting the recovery of juice and anthocyanin from cranberries, J. Am. Soc. Hort. Sci. 108: 245 (1983). 83. Venning, J. A., D. J. W. Burns, K. M. Hoskin, T. Naguyeh, and M. G. H. Stee, Factors influencing the stability of frozen kiwi fruit pulp, J. Food Sci. 54:396 (1989). 84. Lodge, N., T. T. Ngyyen, and D. McIntyre, Characterization of crude kiwi pectin extract, J. Food Sci. 52:1095 (1987). 85. Lundahl, D. S., M. R. McDaniel, and R. E. Wrolstad, Flavour aroma and compositional changes in strawberry juice concentrate stored at 20C, J. Food Sci. 54:1255 (1988).

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86. Wrolstad, R. E., D. D. Lee, and M. J. Poei, Effect of microwave blanching on the color and composition of strawberry concentrate, J. Food Sci. 45:1573 (1980). 87. Pilando, L., R. E. Wrolstad, and D. A. Heatherbell, Influence of fruit composition, maturity and mold contamination on the color and appearance of strawberry wine, J. Food Sci. 50:1121 (1985). 88. Ariuchi, N., Studies on the stability of anthocyanins in fruit liquors. II. Effect of citric acid and sucrose on stability of anthocyanin pigments in strawberry liquor, Tokushima Bunri Daigaku Kankyu Kiyo, 13: 31 (1975). (CA 89, 4538). 89. Rommel, A., Red Raspberry and Blackberry Juice and Wine: The Effect of Processing and Storage on Color and Appearance, M. S. Thesis, Oregon State University, Corvallis, OR, 1988.

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90. Rommel, A., D. A. Heatherbell, and R. E. Wrolstad, Red raspberry juice and wine. Effect of processing and storage on anthocyanin pigment composition, color, and appearance, J. Food Sci. 55:1011 (1990). 91. Heatherbell, D. A., P. Struebi, R. Eschenbruch, and L. M. Withy, A new fruit wine from kiwi fruit: A wine of unusual composition and Riesling Sylvaner character, Am. J. Enol. Vitic. 31:114 (1980). 92. Withy, L. M., and N. Lodge, Kiwi fruit wine: Production and evaluation, Am. J. Enol. Vitic. 33(4):191 (1982). 93. Hang, Y. D., B. S. Luh, and E. E. Woodams, Microbial production of citric acid by solid state fermentation of kiwi fruit peel, J. Food Sci. 52(1):226 (1986).

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94. Lokar, L. C., and I. Poldini, Herbal remedies in the traditional medicine of the Venezia Giulia region (northeast Italy), J. Ethnopharmacol. 22:231 (1988). 95. Liebstein, A. M., Therapeutic effects of various food articles, Am. Med. 33:33 (1927). 96. Konowalchuk, J., and J. I. Speirs, Antiviral activity of fruit extracts, J. Food Sci. 41:1013 (1976). 97. Cipollini, M. L., and E. W. Stiles, Antifungal activity of ripe Ericaceous fruits: Phenolic-acid interactions and palatability for dispersers, Biochem. Syst. Ecol. 20:501 (1992). 98. Konowalchuk, J., and J. I., Speirs, Antiviral effect of commercial juices and beverages, Appl. Environ. Microbiol. 35:1219 (1978).

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99. May, G., and G. Willuhn, Antiviral activity of aqueous extracts from medicinal plants in tissue cultures, Arzneim. Forsch. 28:1 (1978). 100. Moen, D. V., Observations on the effectiveness of cranberry juice in urinary infections, Wis. Med. J. 61:282 (1962). 101. Kinney, A. B., and M. Blount, Effect of cranberry juice on urinary pH, Nursing Res. 28:287 (1979). 102. Sobota, A. E., Inhibition of bacterial adherence by cranberry juice: Potential use for the treatment of urinary tract infections, J. Urol. 131:1013 (1984). 103. Schmidt, D. R., and A. E. Sobota, An examination of the anti-adherence activity of cranberry juice on urinary and nonurinary bacterial isolates, Microbios. 55:173 (1988).

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104. Avorn, J., M. Monane, J. H. Gurwitz, R. J. Glynn, I. Choodnovsky, and L. A. Lipsitz, Reduction of bacteriuria and pyuria after ingestion of cranberry juice, J. Am. Med. Ass. 271:751 (1994). 105. Meunier, M. T., E. Duroux, and P. Bastide, Antiradical activity of procyanidolic oligomers and anthocyanosides towards superoxide anion and lipid peroxidation, Plantes Med. Phytother. 23:267 (1990). 106. Namiki, M., Antioxidants/antimutagens in food, Crit. Rev. Food Sci. Nutr. 29:273 (1990). 107. Costantino, L., A. Albasini, G. Rastelli, and S. Benvenuti, Activity of polyphenolic crude extracts as scavengers of superoxide radicals and inhibitors of xanthine oxidase, Planta Med. 58:342 (1992).

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108. Baj, A., B. Bombardelli, B. Gabetta, and E. M., Martinelli, Qualitative and quantitative evaluation of Vaccinium myrtillus anthocyanins by high-resolution gas chromatography and highperformance liquid chromatography, J. Chromato. 279:365 (1983). 109. Morazzoni, P., and M. J. Magistretti, Activity of Myrtocyan, an anthocyanoside complex from Vaccinium myrtillus on platelet aggregation and adhesiveness, Fitoterapia 61:13 (1990). 110. Bettini, V., R. Aragno, M. B. Bettini, G. Braggion, L. Calore, M. T. Concolato, P. Favaro, G. Penada, and S. Montin, Vasodilator and inhibitory effects of Vaccinium myrtillus anthocyanosides on the contractile responses of coronary artery segments to acetylcholine: Role of the prostacyclins and of the endothelium-derived relaxing factor, Fitoterapia 62:15 (1991).

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111. Colatuoni, A., S. Betuglia, M. J. Magistretti, and L. Donato, Effects of Vaccinium myrtillus anthocyanosides on arterial vasomotion, Arzneim. Forsch. 41:905 (1991). 112. Seeger, P. G., Anthocyanins of Beta vulgaris, Vaccinium myrtillus, red wine and their significance as cellular respiration activators in cancer prophylaxis and cancer therapy, Arzneim. Forsch. 21:68 (1967). 113. Valavichyusk-Yu, M., K. K. Yankyavichyus, A. Vaichyunene-Ya, B. Virbitskas-Yu, S. F. Budrene, and A. A. Pyasyatskene, Antitumor activity of medicinal plants in the Lithuanian SSR: 9. Garden angelica, common comfrey, marsh violet, wonder violet, and cowberry, Liet. Tsr. Mokslu Akademijos Darbai Serija C Biol. Mokslai. 3:146 (1989).

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13 Apricot
V. M. Ghorpade and Milford A. Hanna University of Nebraska, Lincoln, Nebraska S. S. Kadam Mahatma Phule Agricultural University, Rahuri, Maharashtra, India I. Introduction

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Apricot is a delicious fruit having a characteristic, pleasing flavor. It is consumed fresh or in processed form-canned, dried, or frozen (1). The apricot (Prunus armeniaca) probably originated in central or western China, rather than in Armenia as its name suggests (2). The apricot requires cool weather to break dormancy and dry sunny weather or spring and a warm summer for fruit maturity. Hot weather with temperatures above 38C, however, injure the fruit (3). The specific climatic requirements of the apricot restrict its cultivation in the United States to California, which produces about 96% of the U.S. crop. Other apricot-growing states are Washington and Utah (4). Turkey, Italy, Greece, Spain, the United States, and France are the major producers of apricots (Table 1). The world production of apricots in 1990 was 2,103,000 metric tonnes (5,6). II. Botany

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The apricot belongs to the Rosaeceae family, and most cultivated apricots belong to the species Prunus armeniaca L. Closely related species include P. mume Sidb. and Zucc., the Japanese apricot, P. dasycarpa Ehrh, the black apricot P. brigantiaca Vill, the Briancon apricot from the French Alps, P. ansu Komar, P. sibirica L., and P. mandshurica (Maxim.). The apricot is diploid (2n = 16, x = 8). Flowers are borne singly or doubly at a node on very short stems (peduncles). Most commercial cultivars in the United States are self-fertile, but Perfection and Riland are examples of self-incompatible cultivars (7). Trees generally produce vigorous upright growth, but not as upright as plum. Floral initiation occurs in summer (late May or June), and most of the flowers which set into fruit are produced on spurs. Spurs are productive for 35 years. The highest-quality fruit is borne on younger spurs. Apricots are the first deciduous fruit trees to produce flowers in the

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spring after almond, and because of that are subject to frost damage. Trees bloom over a period of approximately 12 weeks, depending on weather conditions (7). Flowering is followed by the appearance of leaves, which are simple, alternate, and serrated, round-ovate

Table 1 Apricot Production and Utilization 19891990 in Majo Countries Country and Total produc- Commercial produc- Domesti year tion (t) tion (t) France 130,000 114,000 1989 107,500 94,300 1990 Greece 83,875 83,875 1989 113,360 113,360 1990 Italy 189,000 181,000 1989 181,500 175,000 1990 Spain 155,600 149,900 1989 115,200 110,600 1990 Turkey 445,000 445,000 1989 400,000 400,000 1990 Yugoslavia 46,000 37,000 1989 40,000 32,000 1990 United States

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1989 1990 Argentina 1989 1990 Australia 1989 1990 Chile 1989 1990 New Zealand 1989 1990 South Africa 1989 1990 Source: Ref. 7.

120,000 112,000 16,550 15,500 27,000 27,300 14,000 14,650 9,000 7,800 43,040 46,383

113,000 105,000 16,550 15,500 27,000 27,300 13,500 14,150 6,800 6,000 43,040 46,383

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to ovate, and sharp-pointed. Apricot cultivars curre approximately 3001200 h of chilling temperatures b ive buds require less chilling than reproductive (flo years with insufficient winter (December and Janua can occur. Apricots produce more flowers than are production of an adequate crop and often require th (thinning) to assure adequate fruit size. The apricot Other stone fruits in the genus Prunus include almo

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nectarine, peach, and plum (8). Other drupe fruit include olive, coconut, and mango. Botanically, a drupe fruit is a fleshy, one-seeded fruit that does not split open by itself, with the seed enclosed in a stoney endocarp, called a pit. The apricot fruit consists of a stony endocarp, a fleshy mesocarp, and an outer exocarp (skin). A. Cultivars

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Among the several cultivars of apricot, two cultivars, namely, Royal and Tilton, account for about 95% of U.S. production. Other important apricot cultivars are Moorpark, Hemskirke, Perfection, Flaming Gold, Improved Flaming Gold, Castlebrite, Harcot, Derby Gold, Katy, Modesto, Westley, and Patterson. Typical characteristics of commercial apricot varieties in California are reported in Table 2. A new apricot variety, Helena, will be available to U.S. growers in early 1995. Since 1975, more than two dozen venturesome growers throughout California worked with the U.S. Department of Agriculture, Agricultural Research Service at Fresno to monitor experimental apricots. Helena is larger and more flavorful, and the skin deeper orange than the Patterson variety, and Hargold and Harlayne apricot cultivars were released in the early 1980s (9). Recently, Boryana, a new apricot variety, was released in Bulgaria (10), whereas

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Xunyang, Hebaoxing (11), and Xingmer (12) were released in China. B. Fruit Development. A double-sigmoid growth curve is characteristic of stone fruits including apricots. Phase I of the growth curve results from enlargement of all parts of the ovary with exception of the endosperm and embryo. Lignification of the endocarp takes place during phase II, and growth is confined mainly to the endosperm and embryo. It is during phase III that expansion of the mesocarp (edible portion) leading to the mature fruit is resumed (13). The induction of parthenocarpy by gibberellic acid (GA) has been reported in apricot (14). Apricot maturity can be advanced by approximately 1 week with an application of one of various auxins (15). In contrast, a preharvest spray of 2500 ppm cytokinin or GA causes marked retardation in maturation of apricots (16).

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III. Production A. Soil and Climate Although less severely affected by high winter temperature than many other fruits, apricot trees shed their fruit buds as a result of warm winter weather (13). They do not thrive under conditions of late spring fog; the skin cracks and the fruit is wholly unsatisfactory. Good, welldrained soil is preferred. B. Propagation

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Apricots are budded or grafted on seedling stock of apricot. Apricots are grown commercially on apricot seedling, peach (P. persica), and plum (P. cerasifera) Myrobalan seedling. The main plum rootstocks include Myrobalan seedling, Myrobalan 29C, and Marianna 2624. Plum rootstocks are characteristically resistant to wet and poorly drained soil conditions (10). The union between apricot and plum root reportedly is not as sound as apricot on peach or apricot root, and occasionally some apricot varieties break off at the union during heavy wind storms. Apricots growing on plum roots may not be as productive as those grown on apricot or peach roots (7). Peach rootstock for apricot is quite popular. The stocks include those propagated from Lovell and Nemaguard seedlings. Apricots grown on peach are productive, but peach cannot tolerate wet and

Table 2 Commercial Apricot Varieties in California Variety Charact CastlebriteReleased by the USDA in Fresno, California, as a v fruit is yellow-orange, attractive with red blush. It eating quality. Derby, Principally grown in the Winters district of Califor Derby variety. It originated from a chance seedling and w Royal shipping, but not for drying because the stone can At least two distinct strains of the Derby variety ha ing fruit characteristics. Flaming Origin in Modesto, California, by Zaiger. The vari Gold Perfection variety. The fruit ripens early and has be Flavor and Large firm, fresh-shipping fruit, yellow-orange, de Spring third and fourth weeks of May. Giant Katy Large- to medium-size fruit developed by Zaiger. T fruit used for fresh shipping. Modesto Origin in Le Grand, California, by Anderson. The open-pollinated seedling of cv. Perfection. The fru a red blush, and orange fleshed. The tree bears regu Royal and several days ahead of Patterson. Modest

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Patterson Origin in Le Grand, California, by Anderson. The seedling of cv. Perfect unknown. The variety is f found with red blush. The fruit is medium to large, pears to be less affected by mild winters than the T ripens 3 to 4 days later than Tilton. Patterson is res for processing and makes a good dried product and Perfection Origin in Waterville, Washington, by the Goldbeck seedling planted in 1911 and the variety was introd fruit is large, oval, light yellow-orange skin, the fle firm, resists pit burning, is fair in quality, and is se days before Royal variety. Pinkerton Origin in Le Grand, California, by Anderson. The seedling of Perfection variety. The tree is a regular the flesh is yellow and firm. The fruit is freestone a ety Pinkerton has been used as an early flesh shipp

Table 2 Continued Variety Characte Royal The Royal and Blenheim varieties are considered to and tities. However, the Blenheim was thought to have o Blenheimheim, UK (Shipley's Blenheim), while the Royal wh French variety described first in Bon Jardinier in 18 embourg. The Royal-Blenheim is one of the leading canned, and frozen. The variety tends to alternate be fruit. It has excellent flavor when fully matured. It i ange, and the skin is yellow-orange; it often may ha not well adapted for the interior valleys of Californi the coastal regions of California. Tilton The variety originated as a seedling in Kings Count the leading apricots for processing in California, bu is adapted for drying, shipping, and canning; howev 10 days later than Royal. The tree tends to alternate When properly thinned it may bear medium- to larg often has a red blush. Tracy Origin in Le Grand, California, by Anderson. The v open-pollinated seedling of Perfection. It has mediu than Patterson, has firm flesh, and resists pit burning Westley Origin in Le Grand, California, by Anderson. The v Perfection Tilton. The fruit is medium to large, fle some fresh and drying. The tree tends to alternate be

1703/2989

Source: Ref. 7.

poorly drained soil conditions as well as plum. Peac Phytophthora rots and crown rots. Apricots grown as those on peach rootstocks. Apricot rootstocks are thora fungus and also do not have the resistance to stock does. However, apricot roots are thought to o productivity to apricots. A new rootstock developed peach plum hybrid and has shown promising resu impart some tree size control on selected apricot va C. Cultural Practices

One-year seedlings are best suited for new planting to keep trees thrifty. Ordinarily, three to five irrigat climatic conditions, should suffice. Apricot trees us thinned for proper size development of the fruit. Fr that overbear

Page 340

may set little or no fruit in the following year. Apricot trees bear most of their fruits on spurs but some of it on one-year-old wood. Since the spurs are rarely profitable for longer than 3 years, regular pruning is essential in order to renew them continually. For apricots, however, it should be mostly a thinning out unless the trees lack vigor. D. Diseases and Pests

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Gummosis, a bacterial disease which causes canker on the trunks and large branches, may also attack the blossoms, fruits, leaves, twigs, and dormant buds. Brown rot, a fungal disease, is common in some areas and affects blossoms, twigs, and branches. Green rot attacks the young fruits. Brown scale insect is the most important pest of apricot, and occurs mainly on twigs and small branches. The insect exudes a honeydew on which black fungus grows and discolors the fruit. E. Maturity and Harvesting

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Apricot fruit attains a characteristic flavor if it is allowed to ripen on the tree. As the fruit is left on the tree longer, the soluble solids content increases, acids decrease, firmness decreases, and consumer acceptance increases (17,18). Sharaf (19) reported gradual loss in soluble and insoluble proteins during ripening. Apricots used for drying are harvested fully ripened. Those used for canning should be less mature and firm enough to be pitted and processed. Fruit to be frozen is harvested riper than for canning, i.e., before it is firm enough to undergo heat processing (5). Air shipment of fresh fruit has now made it possible to harvest more mature fruit of full flavor and color, and such fruit is firm enough to withstand package house treatments and transport to distant marketplaces (20). Since apricots do not mature uniformly, selective harvesting involving two or more pickings is desirable. Selected trees with the highest proportion

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of mature fruit may be harvested completely (21).

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Various indices of harvest maturity of apricots have been employed. Ryall and Pentzer (4) stated that Tilton apricots harvested at an unripe mature stage contained 11.3% soluble solids and had an 8.5-lb average pressure test or firmness as measured with the Magness-Taylor pressure tester with a 5/16-in.-diameter plunger. About 85% of apricots having these values meet consumer acceptance tests. Deshpande and Salunkhe (22) found that total sugars and the ratio of soluble solids to acids of apricot increased from hard mature through firm mature to soft mature stage. These differences were maintained through 8 days of postharvest holding at 21.1C and 85% relative humidity. On the basis of a ratio of light transmittance at 650:590 nm, Romani et al. (23) differentiated Derby and Royal apricots as acceptable and nonacceptable. With maturation, the light transmittance decreased at 590 nm and increased at 650 nm. The greater change at 650 nm probably indicated

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decreasing chlorophyll content. Ryall and Pentzer (4) stated that the impact devices of mechanical harvesters are more effective than inertia shakers to remove fruits. Catch frames should be well padded, providing deceleration strips above the frame. IV. Composition The reported values for sugar content in apricots range from 1.57 to 11.85%, with an average value of 6.05%. On fresh fruit weight basis, the protein content of apricots is about 1% (Table 3). Apricot contains relatively large amounts of asparagine, aspartic acid, and alanine, and smaller amount of glutamine, serine, proline, valine,

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leucine, and g-aminobutyric acid (24). The fruit contains significant amounts of free amino acids

Table 3 Nutritional Composition (per 100 g of fruit) of Aprico Nutrient Heavy syrup Light syrup Juice pack Wa Calories 83 63 48 27 Protein (g) 0.53 0.53 0.63 0.71 Carbohydrates (g) 21.47 16.49 12.34 6.39 Fat (g) 0.08 0.05 0.04 0.16 Vitamin A (IU) 1230 1322 1691 129 Potassium (mg) 140 138 165 192 Sodium (mg) 4 4 4 3 Iron (mg) 30 39 30 32 Ascorbic acid (mg) 3.10 2.70 4.90 3.40 Fiber (g) 0.40 0.41 0.39 0.42 aWithout added ascorbic acid. Source: Ref. 7.

Page 342

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Citric acid is the principal acid in both fresh and canned apricots. The presence of polyphenolic compounds, namely, chlorogenic acid, and two p-coumaric acid derivatives (probably p-coumaryl quinic acids) with smaller amounts of quercetin, isoquercitin, an unidentified quercetin glucoside, rutin, catechin, and epicatechin, have been reported in apricots (25,26). Tang and Jennings (26) have shown myrcene, limonene, pcymene, terpinolene, trans-2-hexenol, a-terpineol, geranial geraniol, 2-methylbutyric and acetic acid, linalool and its two oxides a-octalactone and a-decalactone to be present, none of which, by themselves, has aroma suggestive of apricot. It seems that apricot aroma is due to the integrated response of these compounds when present in proper proportions (25). Tang and Jennings (27) added benzyl alcohol, caproic acid, and isomers of the linalool oxides, acaprolactone, a-octalactone, a-decalactone, and a-dodecalactone to the list of volatile

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compounds contained in apricots. The kernels of apricot seed are eaten like almonds and are crushed for oil. One major disadvantage of using the kernels as food or feed is the occurrence of the poisonous cyanogenic glucoside, amygdalin (a two-sugar compound made from benzaldehyde and cyanide) (28). Values ranging from 0.01% to 0.18% in apricot kernels have been reported (29,30). The glucoside is used in a cancer-treating drug, laetrile, and sold in Canada, Mexico, and Europe (it is not sold in the United States). The kernels are used in the United States as a medicinal food because of the presence of amygdalin (31,32). The kernel contains about 4045% oil, which is used as fuel and in cooking, in toilet cleaners, and in certain pharmaceutical preparations. V. STORAGE.

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Apricots can be stored at 0C and 9095% relative humidity for 12 weeks. Fruit stored at 4.47.2C loses flavor and acquires a mealy texture. Since apricots do not have waxy skin to impede moisture loss, high storage humidity is essential to avoid shriveling. A gel breakdown of flesh and off-flavors in Royal apricots stored at -0.6C for 3 weeks were reported (33).

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Packaging provides protection and a means of handling the produce during transportation. The type of packaging used varies with the product type (fresh, dried, etc.). Fresh fruits and vegetables have firmer texture and different flavor than processed items. The storage life of fresh fruit can be extended by reducing the undesirable physicochemical reactions that produce the severe textural changes associated with freezing and dehydration. New packages are introduced every day to meet product specifications. A detailed review of the current status of food packaging was prepared by Rice (34). Fresh fruits and vegetables can be packaged in various environments (35): 1. Aerobic packaging 2. Modified-atmosphere (MA) packaging 3. Controlled-atmosphere (CA) packaging

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4. Vacuum packaging In aerobic packaging, oxidative chemical reactions occur freely due to product exposure to oxygen. Castlebright apricot halves stored aerobically at 2C for 45 weeks after being dipped in a 3% calcium chloride solution (200 ppm calcium in tissue) did not differ in taste from controls. Higher concentrations of calcium were significantly different (0.1% level), but did not impart off-flavors (36). In modified atmosphere packaging, the product is sealed in a pouch and availability of O2 is controlled. Bolin and Huxsoll (36) reported that unpeeled, anaerobically packaged Castlebright apricot halves maintained a statistically firmer texture (p<0.05) during refrigerated storage under MA.

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Brecht (37) reported delay in decay of Patterson and Tilton apricots when stored at 2% O2 and 5% CO2 at 1.1C (controlled-atmosphere packaging). Fruit showed higher flesh firmness and

Page 343

lower pH in immature and overmature apricots than when stored in air (37). Claypool and Pangborn (38) showed that in CA storage, oxygen levels were more important than CO2 in influencing rate of acid loss. Blenheim apricots stored in atmosphere containing 2.53.5% CO2 had better flavor than those stored in higher CO2-containing atmospheres. Similar results were reported by Waniker et al. (39) for Moorpark apricots when stored at levels of 5% O2 and 2.5% CO2 under refrigeration. Gas-flush packaging is used to replace head-space oxygen in packages with CO2 or N2 in an attempt to increase product shelf life. Vacuum packages contain limited amounts of oxygen, thereby reducing enzymatic browning for a reasonable time.

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Claypool et al. (40) reported that Royal apricots stored at 0C in 2.53.5% CO2 and 2% O2 and then canned had better fruit quality as compared with those stored in air at 1.1C. Brooks et al. (41) reported that apricots tolerated concentrations of 1.64.2% CO2 for 2 days at 8.3C. Gerhardt et al. (42), however, observed abnormal ripening, and breakdown and browning of flesh when Moorpark apricots were stored at 7.2C for 10 days in 5, 10, and 15% CO2. No injury was evidenced in 5 days at 7.2C or in 10 days at 2.2C. Guelfat-Reich and Ben-Arie (43) observed severe internal browning of the flesh in CA storage at 0C and 219% O2 and 09% CO2. Based on available evidence, Ryall and Pentzer (5) concluded that CA storage of apricots for the fresh market was of little practical value.

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Brecht et al. (37) reported that CA storage (2% O2 and 5% CO2) at 1.1C maintained higher flesh firmness and lower pH and retarded decay (Alternaria and Monilinia) more effectively than air storage of immature and overmature apricot fruits (cultivars Patterson and Tilton). The CA storage of apricot fruits picked at optimum maturity, however, produced little benefit over air storage (44).

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The storage life of fruits and vegetables can be significantly increased by reducing atmospheric pressure under refrigeration and evacuation of ethylene (45,46). Burg and Burg (47,48), Toll (49), Wu and Salunkhe (50), and Jadhav et al. (51) showed that subatmospheric storage (lowpressure storage, hypobaric storage, vacuum storage), a form of CA with reduced atmospheric pressure at a given temperature, extended storage life of tomatoes, potatoes, bananas, avocados, mangos, cherries, limes, guavas, apples, peaches, pears, and apricots. The produce was maintained at a given temperature in a sealed container at a constant subatmospheric pressure ventilated with air saturated with water vapor by continuously evacuating the container with a sealed vacuum pump. The two major consequences of the storage of fresh produce under subatmospheric pressure are that: (a) oxygen supply to fruit is reduced, thus reducing the respiratory rate; and (b) ethylene and other gases

1723/2989

given off by the produce are evacuated, so the ripening and aging processes of the produce are inhibited. Figure 1 is a schematic diagram of a laboratory-scale apparatus for storage of fruits at subatmospheric pressures. Figure 2 shows a pilot-scale apparatus for subatmospheric pressure storage of fruits and vegetables (51). Apricots were stored at three subatmospheric pressure treatments (471 mm Hg, 278 mm Hg, and 102 mm Hg) and one control (646 mm Hg, atmospheric pressure at Utah State University, Logan). Both treated and control apricots were maintained at 32 2C and continuously evacuated by means of a vented-exhaust oil-seal pump. Constant ventilation was achieved by admitting air to each chamber through a vacuum regulator (Matheson model 49), which maintained the prescribed vacuum by allowing air to be bled into the system at the proper rate. Incoming air was saturated with moisture (containing a volatile fungicide, sec-butylamine) by

1724/2989

passing through a humidifier. The air flow through the apparatus was regulated with the valve at 30 ml/min, maintained 9095% humidity. Salunkhe and Wu (52) reported that 102 mm Hg pressure significantly delayed softening and extended storage life of apricots up to 93 days, in comparison with 53 days for control apricots (Fig. 3A). The subatmospheric pressure delayed formation of carotenoids for up to 6 days (Fig. 3B). The lower the subatmospheric pressure, the slower the losses of sugars

Page 344

Fig. 1 Schematic diagram of the apparatus for storage of fruits at subatmospheric pressures: A, nitrogen; B, oxygen; C, mixture; D, humidifier containing volatile fungicide sec-butylamine in humidifying water; E, constant-temperature chamber; F, storage container with 471 mm Hg pressure; G, storage container with 278 mm Hg pressure; H, storage container with 102 mm Hg pressure; I, storage container with 646 mm Hg pressure (atmospheric pressure at Utah State University); J, vacuum pump; K, temperature recorder; L, thermocouple; M, vacuum guage; N, vacuum regulator. (From Ref. 52, courtesy of D. K. Salunkhe, Utah State University, Logan, Utah.)

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and acids (Figs. 3C and 3D). However, there were no significant differences in the total carotenoids, sugars, and acids in the treated and control apricots at the end of the storage period.

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Salunkhe (53) studied the effects of 0, 2, 3, and 4 102 krad doses of gamma irradiation on the postharvest behavior of two cultivars of Chinese and Moorpark apricots. The effects of low (1.26 103 krad/h) and high (8.08 103 krad/h) rates of application of radiation were also investigated. The treated samples were stored at 0C and evaluated for mold growth and taste quality every seventh day for 42 days, starting 7 days after irradiation. He found that the refrigeration life of irradiated fruit increased to a limited extent, especially in those irradiated at 200- and 300-krad levels. The storage life of apricots irradiated at 400 krad decreased, regardless of irradiation rate, probably due to the breakdown of tissue which resulted in large, brown, bruiselike areas on the fruit. The adjusted taste preference scores for both varieties also declined progressively as the storage period advanced, regardless of the radiation dose and rate. Zehnder (54) reported that irradiation of fully ripe apricots at

1728/2989

180 krad retained good appearance and firm texture for 3 weeks at 4C and 90% RH, but the fruit lost its typical taste. The shelf life of apricots at 2025C was increased from 3 to 7 days after treatment with doses of 200300 krad, while higher doses such as 400 krad reduced the storage life as a result of reduction of natural immunity of fruits to microbes. It was also observed that irradiated fruits become undesirable after a storage period of 7 days due to accumulations of acetaldehydes, ethanol, and CO2 resulting from alterations in oxidation-reduction processes (55). Gulefat-Reich et al. (56) reported that irradiation at doses of 25200 krad generally increased the respiratory activity and accelerated the rate of ripening and softening. Although adjusted preference scores, in general, increased with higher radiation, Salunkhe (53) concluded that the optimum radiation dose for extending the storage life of apricots without losing quality was about 200 krad. Two different rates of

1729/2989

application did not reveal any appreciable difference in the amount of mold growth on apricots. There was considerable mold growth on fruits irradiated at the high dose (400 krad), because radiation made the fruit very soft and

Page 345

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Fig. 2 Pilot scale of apparatus for subatmospheric pressure storage: A, vacuum pump; B, constant-temperature room; C, rack; D, storage drum; E, window; F, sampling hole; G, vacuum gauge; H, holding board; I, vacuum regulator. (From Ref. 52, courtesy of D. K. Salunkhe, Utah State University, Logan, Utah.)

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Fig. 3 Effects of subatmospheric pressure storage on (A) firmness; (B) total carotenoids; (C) total sugars; and (D) titratable acidity of apricots. (From Ref. 52, courtesy of D. K. Salunkhe, Utah State University, Logan, Utah.)

Page 347

vulnerable to penetration of mold organisms. None of the four common molds infecting apricots, namely, Alternaria, Penicillium, Hormodendrum, and Stemphylium, was observed in irradiated fruits, indicating that ionizing irradiation inhibits the growth of these fungi. The breakdown and softening of flesh may appear due to high CO2 injury. High orchard temperatures of 39C cause flesh near the pit to soften and turn brown, resulting in a disorder called pit burn (5).

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The two most important diseases of apricots, brown rot (Monilinia fructicola and M. laxa) and Rhizopus rot (R. stolonifer), cause the greatest postharvest losses during shipment. Other important diseases are blue mold rot (Penicillium expansum), Cladosporium rot (C. herbarum), and gray mold rot (Botrytis cinerea). Ryall and Pentzer (5) described the symptoms of development and possible preventive measures of these diseases. The brown rot of stone fruits, including apricots, was controlled by increasing residues of 2,6-dichloro-4-nitroaniline (DCNA) on the fruit using a higher concentration of the fungicide (450900 ppm), raising the temperature of the treatment, and extending the time of the treatment (57). The combination of DCNA with other fungicides, such as captan, thiabendazole, or benomyl, is most effective in controlling Monilinia fructicola, which causes brown rot of apricots.

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VI. Processing More than 84% of the apricots produced in the United States are canned, dried, or frozen (Table 4). All of the mechanically harvested production, which is more than 50% of the total, is used in the United States for processing, mostly canning. The Patterson variety is the most suitable variety for processing. Fruits, picked by hand or to a lesser extent mechanically, are delivered to the canning plant and washed in a water bath containing chlorinated water. These are graded for size, and the small fruits which are unsuitable for canning are collected and directed for eventual use in concentrate and/or nectartype products.

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Fruits and vegetables can lose their typical fresh appearance and characteristic in only a short time after harvesting. However, if they are quickly cooled, this rate of deterioration can be retarded. This rate of change is increased if the plant cells have been bruised or if they have been ruptured during harvesting. This physical rupturing of the cells causes an increase in respiration rate, which can lead to physiological and physical decay through oxidative and other adverse chemical reactions. The reaction rate can increase as much as 25-fold (58). Because of this, the cut surface must be treated to minimize degradative chemical reactions. Also, respiration and chemical reaction rates can be retarded by lowering the product temperature.
Table 4 Volume Shares of Apricots Produced in the United States in 1990 Product type Metric tonnage (T) Percent of total Canned 59,944 53 Dried 24,384 21

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Fresh Frozen Baby food Total Source: Ref. 8.

18,288 8,128 3,048 113,792

16 7 3

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1740/2989

The product discoloration that occurs in stored fresh fruits and vegetables is due to enzymatic browning. The main enzyme associated with fruit and vegetable browning is polyphenol oxidase. The reaction sequence is either hydroxylation (at the one hydroxyl group) or oxidation (at the two methyl groups). For browning to occur, enzymes must be able to react with substrates such as chlorogenic acid, caffeic acid, and catechol. An oxygen supply and a catalyst such as copper also are required. It is necessary to control the reactivity of the enzyme to control enzymatic browning. There are different chemical and physical ways to inactivate enzymes. The most commonly used chemical for enzyme control is ascorbic acid, since sulfites may no longer be used on fresh produce in the United States. Ascorbic acid will act as a reducing agent, antioxidant, and as a metal-sequestering material, when used as a browning retardant. It also has nutritive value. Polyphenol oxidase also can be

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inactivated by compounds such as thiourea and L-cysteine (59). Use of zinc compounds to retard enzymatic browning in fresh, minimally processed fruits during storage has been reported. Fresh apricots that had been halved and dipped in ascorbic acid solution followed by some experimental dips, drained, sealed in pouches, and held in cold storage for 10 weeks remained fairly light during the storage time. However, when the pouches were opened, allowing the modified atmosphere to be replaced by air, some of the halves began to darken. Apricot halves containing zinc ion darkened much less than other fruit.

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Physical methods such as heating can be used to inactivate enzymes, but these result in changes in textural properties. A product temperature has to reach about 60C before most enzymes start to lose their activity. Enzyme denaturation is also dependent on acidity. Heat does not seem to be a viable method for use in minimally processed product because of its effect on texture. Schwimmer (60) showed that enzymes could be inactivated and inhibited by application of very high pressure, up to 6100 bar (Fig. 4). A. Canned Apricots The canning process is typical of that used with other stone fruits (Fig. 5). The washing process has several advantages, such as product cooling, removal of dust and other contaminants and

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Fig. 4 Pressure inactivation of enzyme. (From Ref. 60.)

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Fig.5 Flow chart of canning process of apricot fruits.

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reduction of microbial load. In addition, the quality and appearance of the product are improved. Washing is done in equipment designed to effectively direct high-pressure sprays so as to accomplish the desired effects without injuring the product. At this stage inferior and damaged fruits are removed. Size sorting is usually accomplished mechanically, by passing the product over screens containing different size holes or slits. The defective apricots are removed by passing the product over an inspection belt where trained personnel look for defects (immature, green, and overripe) and undesired material (leaves, sticks, and stones). The inspected and sized fruits are delivered to mechanical apricot cutters, which align the fruits so that they are cut along their sutures. The cut fruits are then opened and the loose pits drop through perforated stainless plates. Cut and pitted fruits are then delivered to the sizer and grader to be mechanically sorted, resulting in

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uniformly sized fruits. Consumers expect a specific number of units in each can. Therefore, it is important to mix various sizes to result in a specified number of units per can. Once the can has been filled, a topping medium-for example, sugar, water, or fruit juiceis added and the cans are immediately seamed. Canned apricots are sealed in heavy syrup, light syrup, juice pack (apricot or pear), or water. Can sizes include 8 oz buffet size; 1416 oz # 300s; 1617 oz # 303s; 29 oz # 2-1/2s, and 104117 oz # 10s. Then the product is ready to be cooked, to make it commercially sterile. Subsequent to cooling, the product is labeled and packed for market.

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The texture of canned apricot is influenced by many factors, including conditions of sterilization, maturity of fruits, and storage. Softening of canned apricots is due to conversion of protopectins to water-soluble pectins. This occurs enzymatically during ripening. In case of canning, pectic materials gradually move from the cell wall into the syrup, causing a gradual softening of texture. Higher acidity of the fresh fruit also results in complete breakdown of tissue. The higher concentration of hydrogen accelerates breakdown of the binding materials between cell walls during the heating process. Moorpark, with uneven ripening characteristics, is not considered suitable for canning (61). Brecht et al. (37) reported that immature apricot fruits could be prepared

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for canning in the shortest possible time by treating them with 100 ppm ethylene for 48 h to accelerate softening and color change. Patron (62) recommended that the use of immature fruit for canning should be avoided because of poor flavor, color, and softer texture following canning. Chitarra et al. (63) reported that the canning of slightly immature Patterson apricot fruit lead to immediate softening of halves to the extent that many were of unacceptable texture. French et al. (64) proposed that softening in canned Patterson fruit was accelerated when a chelator such as organic acid anions removed structural Ca from the cell wall once the cell membranes were lysed by heating. Drake et al. (65) reported that a Rival cultivar of apricot was more suitable for canning than Tilton (a standard variety) and produced equal or superior quality products with respect to all sensory qualities.

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B. Dried Products Dried apricots are produced from plump, fully ripe, fresh fruits (66,67). The fruits are picked and sun dried. Blenheim and Patterson apricots are the principal varieties used for drying. Common predrying treatments include (a) selection and sorting of fresh fruits, (b) washing, (c) cutting into halves and removal of pits, (d) spreading of fruits on drying trays, (e) sulfuring with burning sulfur or gaseous SO2, (f) placing of trays in full sun in dry yards to reduce moisture content to 1520%, and (g) grading (Fig. 6). The dried fruits can be stored at 4C and 75% RH for at least 69 months.

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Drying is one of the oldest food processing methods known. The essential feature of drying is to reduce moisture content of the fruit below the level at which enzymatic or microbial damage occurs. Although one of the principal reasons for sun drying of fruit is preservation, other factors play an important part in the selection of this process. Drying reduces the bulk weight of the product, but most important is the development of flavor and texture in the finished dried apricot.

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Fig. 6 Flow chart for apricot dehydration (dry-blanch-dry).

The special flavor and texture are winning over a n apricot as snacks because of the fruit's flavor and nu

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Sulfur dioxide (SO2) has been used for many years the only chemical added to dried apricots. SO2 is ge approved for use by the Food and Drug Administra drying are usually exposed to gaseous SO2 before b to prevention of enzymatic browning, SO2 treatmen ascorbic acid. The SO2 treatment of apricots before controlled so that enough SO2 is present to maintain the product throughout its life. Sulfured dried apric ppm. The amount of SO2 must be controlled in drie different SO2 levels in the fruit. After sulfuring, the drying. Sun drying is complete when the apricots h is dependent on condition of fruit, air moisture, and fruits, the cut and sulfured fruits are left in full sun usually in stacked trays, away from direct sunlight content to the desired level of 27%. After drying, th and to bring them to equilibrium moisture content. longer. The dried apricots are then ready for gradin are sorted according to USDA grades for sizes (Tab all quality of product.

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Relatively low moisture levels, high natural sugar l cludes product spoilage by microbial or enzymatic deterioration is darkening of the product due to grad spoilage in the true sense, but it does cause the prod able. The loss of SO2 cannot be eliminated complet perature plays an important role in determining the is so critical that storage life is cut approximately in apricots may be frozen with no adverse effects. How lowed to defrost in a low-humidity area prior to use tain maximum storage life for dried fruits.

1. Store dried fruits at 45C and 75% RH for excell washed and resulfured apricot)

Table 5 Names, Tolerance, and USDA Designations for Apric Name Size tolerance (fruit dia description Jumbo >1.38 Extra 1.251.38 Fancy Fancy 1.131.25 Extra 11.25 Choice

1755/2989

Choice Standard Slab

0.81 <0.8 No size limitation, applies to slab apricots. Gener shappen appearance caused by dr Source: Ref. 7.

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2. Keep temperature and relative humidity constant. 3. Be sure that product is wrapped and not exposed to air. 4. Protect dried fruits from high-intensity direct light. C. Nectar and Concentrate

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Fruits that are unsuitable for canning are delivered to a thermal screw where they are heated to approximately 100C and delivered to a pulping unit which removes the pits. The heated pulp is pumped through a series of finishers that remove some fibrous material such as the skins. The finished juice is then ready for the evaporation process or is used for preparation of nectar by mixing with sugar, water, and citric acid. The nectar is canned and sealed similar to the cutfruit canning process. The juice is concentrated to 32 Brix. The product is canned in 3.25-liter cans or aseptically filled in 250-liter drums. Also, juice is concentrated to dry powder for subsequent use in beverages, bakery products, jellies, puddings, and desserts. In addition, apricot juice powder has the following advantages (68).

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1. It saves weight and space because more than 85% of the water is removed; hence it is economical in transportation, storage, and handling to distant markets. 2. Juice powder can be preserved for extended periods without refrigeration. 3. Ease in handling and convenience and rapid reconstitution make it suitable for domestic and military requirements, especially for overseas use. 4. It has concentrated nutritive values. 5. It is stable at elevated storage temperatures and for an extended period of time. 6. It has high quality and nutritive value at the time of consumption.

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Apricot juice powder is made by a process developed at Western Utilization Laboratory, Albany, California, and popularly known as puff drying (Fig. 7). This process removes water from the fruit juice in such a manner that a porous structure is formed. The open, spongelike material aids rapid drying and also reconstitution. Control of the viscosity of the feed material is the key to the process. It must be low enough to permit bubble formation at full vacuum but high enough so the formed bubble will not collapse after breaking. Proper viscosity is achieved either by concentrating the juice or by adding enough sugar to make a soluble solids content of approximately 50% before puff drying. For the best drying results, viscous juice containing at least 50% soluble solids is allowed to flow on the metal trays. These are placed in a vacuum chamber which is equipped with tubes or hollow shelves to support trays. Steam or water is circulated through the shelves or tubes to

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heat or cool the juice rapidly. A tray load of 0.5 lb/ft2 is used with a maximum shelf temperature of 35C. Before heat is applied, the pressure is reduced to 2 mm Hg and maintained at this level for the 18-h drying period. At the end of the drying cycle, the product is cooled by circulating cold water through the shelves before the vacuum is restored and the dryer is opened. The friable, puffed material, easily removed from the trays, is ground to pass through a 6-mesh screen. Detraying, crushing, screening, and packaging are carried out in a room with humidity below 10% to prevent the hygroscopic powder from picking up moisture and becoming sticky. All lots of powder for each variety are mixed together for uniformity, placed in appropriate sized cans, and sealed * under half an atmosphere of air pressure. The moisture content of the powder is usually between 3 and 5% when packaged. For maximum storage stability and to prevent caking, the moisture content of the

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powders should not exceed 1%. This is accomplished by incorporating in the hermetically sealed container sufficient in-package desiccant (CaO) to reduce the moisture content of the powder to 1% or below. The desiccant is enclosed in a sift-

Page 353

Fig. 7 Puff drying: conversion of fruit juices into spongelike material for rapid drying. (From Ref. 79, courtesy of D. K. Salunkhe, Utah State University, Logan, Utah.)

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proof, moisture-permeable package which allows moisture to transfer from the product to the desiccant. The drying cycle is shortened several hours by use of the in-package desiccant.

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The quality of juice powders depends on the quality of concentrate used for drying, product temperature, time-temperature limits, and the additives used (69). Various additives are mixed with fruit juices before drying to obtain an optimum drying rate and final product quality. SO2 is added to prevent discoloration and damage to flavor during drying and storage. Addition of protein to juice concentrates produces nutritional sport drinks. Whey and soy proteins are used to formulate fruit and juice concentrates that are high in protein (Fig. 8) and because of high solubility in low pH. Examples of such products include weight management products, healthy children's drinks, or fruit-based sports drinks (70). Other additives such as alginate, modified soy protein, whey protein, glycerol, monostearate, cellulose, and gums are used as foam stabilizers in foam mat drying. Sucrose, corn syrup solids, and dextrose are added to the concentrate to help maintain a more open structure and thus

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aid in drying. The concentrated product is ideally suited for nectar reconstitution or as an ingredient in various sauces. Manan et al. (71) prepared ready-to-serve apricot beverages from the pulp of Gola and Chapta (descendants of Royal and Moorpark varieties) varieties of apricot. Nectars and squashes also were prepared and adjudged satisfactory after up to 6 months in storage (72).

Page 354

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Fig. 8 Apricot juice powder and reconstituted juice made from apricot. (Courtesy of D. K. Salunkhe, Utah State University, Logan, Utah.)

Concentrate can be processed further into different products. Bolin et al. (73) developed a film sheet from concentrate called apricot cloth. The apricot cloth was produced using a double drum dryer operating at 130C at a speed of 34 rpm (Fig. 9). The clearance between the rolls was 0.4 mm. Sodium bisulfite (0.5%) was added prior to drying to help protect the natural b-carotene and color during storage. The sheet of cloth retained 12% moisture and had a bright orange color and a good apricot flavor. The cloth was very versatile and could be used to make different products (Fig. 10). It could be cut into small strips, packaged, and marketed as is. Multilayers of

Page 355

Fig. 9 Double drum drier used to produce apricot cloth. (From Ref. 73, courtesy of D. K. Salunkhe, Utah State University, Logan, Utah.)

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cloth could be pressed and molded into bars and artificial dried apricots, cubes, and dices with sugar or flavor coating. Molded apricots and dried products could be fortified with vitamins, minerals, and other nutrients. The nutrients could be added to the apricot concentrate before drying or spread on the sheet of cloth before lamination. Atmospheric drum dryers are most common in food industries, although vacuum drum dryers have been used for certain specialty products.

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Fruit leathers are produced by sun drying or forced-air dehydration of an apricot puree layer on thin plastic film. The dried product has bright translucent appearance, chewy texture, and a good apricot flavor. These leathers can be stored by rolling them up while they are still on the plastic film, covering with more plastic, and sealing. Fruit leather retains its color and flavor for at least a month at room temperature and for a year when frozen (74). Salem and Hegazi (75) added 1625 ppm of SO2 to dried apricot sheets to improve color and acceptability scores. Bolin and Stafford (76) reported that sulfuring of dried sheets of apricot had no effect on carotenoids loss during drying. Addition of bisulfite to the sheet before drying resulted in losses of 18% of b-carotene after 13 weeks of storage at 32C, whereas the unsulfured product lost 32%. D. Frozen Products

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Freezing apricots is not a popular way of preservation in the United States. Apricots are more difficult to freeze successfully than other fruits due to their high susceptibility to browning and oxidation upon exposure to air. Enzymatic browning occurs very rapidly during freezing (77). Preferred apricots varieties for freezing include Patterson and Blenheim, with Patterson predominating. Frozen apricots are processed for three different product types: sliced halves, slices, and a multiple-scored apricot that is not completely sliced. The former two types are sold primarily to

Page 356

Fig. 10 Products made from apricot concentrate: juice, leather, cubes, artificial halves, cloth, and bar. (From Ref. 73, courtesy of D. K. Salunkhe, Utah State University, Logan, Utah.)

1773/2989

bakers, ice cream makers, and frozen dessert makers. The latter type is processed for use in jam and jellies. E. Jam, Jellies, and Preserves Apricot jam is processed similar to other fruit jam except that 0.5% more citric acid is added. Jellies consist of a ratio of 45 parts fruit juice to 55 parts sugar. Jellies and preserves contain whole chunks of fruit pieces and are permitted additional amounts of added pectic, citric, tartaric, malic, or lactic acid, and a buffer salt. No added flavor or color is permitted with the exception of mint and

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cinnamon jellies. Fruit gels can be obtained with lower sugar levels by using low-methoxy pectin, which produces a gel in a product without requiring large amounts of sugar. The gelling action is initiated by addition of calcium salts, which cause pectin to crosslink, thus providing a structural matrix. The general procedure is to blend dried apricots with water to obtain a semisolid paste or to use a commercially prepared puree. Lowmethoxyl pectin and low amounts of sugar are added and mixed well. Flavoring, orange peels,

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and pineapple are added to give flavor and texture to the product. The mixture is heated to about 65C and calcium chloride solution is added. At this point, the product is poured into molds and hot packed in containers and sealed. Upon cooling to room temperature, the product forms a flavored gel with good storability

Page 357

Page 358

F. Baby Foods

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Apricot concentrate is used in a variety of baby food formulations. The concentrate provides the color and characteristic tart-sweet flavor of apricots. Also, it supplies a significant amount of protein, fiber, vitamin A, and potassium of the natural food. The self-stable concentrate is low in sodium and fat free. Table 6 shows nutrient levels in terms of percent supply of U.S. Recommended Daily Allowance (RDA) by the federal Food and Drug Administration as standards to be used for nutritive labeling of food products. The nutritional values of each product are listed in the order of calories (cal), carbohydrates (CHO), fat, proteins, vitamin A, vitamin C, vitamin B (thiamin), vitamin B2 (riboflavin), niacin, calcium (Ca), and iron (Fe). RDAs are the levels of intake of essential nutrients considered in the judgment of the food and nutrition board of the National Research Council on the basis of available scientific knowledge

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to be adequate to meet the known nutrition needs of practically all healthy persons (78). References. 1. Salunkhe, D. K., and B. B. Desai, Deciduous fruitsStone fruits, Postharvest Biotechnology of Fruits and Vegetables, CRC Press, Boca Raton, FL, 1984, p. 141. 2. Magness, J. R., How fruit came to America, Natl. Geograph. Mag. C(3):325 (1951). 3. Seedling, R. A., Fruit and Vegetable Facts and Pointers: Plums-Prunes, United Fresh Fruit and Vegetable Association, Washington, DC, 1969. 4. Ryall, A. L., and W. T. Pentzer, Handling, Transportation and Storage of Fruits and Vegetables, Vol. 2, Fruits and Tree Nuts, AVI, Westport, CT, 1974.

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5. FAO, Production Year Book, Food and Agriculture Organization, Rome, 1990. 6. USDA Horticultural Products Review Circular Series, November 1990, U.S. Department of Agriculture, Foreign Agricultural Services, Washington, DC, 1990. 7. Southwich, S. M., and E. H. Stokes, Apricots, Encyclopaedia of Food Science, Food Technology and Nutrition (R. MaCrae, R. K. Robinson, and M. J. Sandler, eds.), Academic Press, New York, 1993, p. 247. 8. Paunovicz, S. A., Second International Workshop on Apricot Culture and Decline, Acta Hort. 209 (1988). 9. Brooks, R. M., and H. P. Olmo, Register of new fruit and nut varieties, List 32, HortScience 17(1):17 (1982).

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10. Nikolov, N. B., and R. Tsonev, BoryanaA new apricot variety, Rasteniev. dri Nauki. 25:78 (1988). 11. Chao, W. J., G. O. Yang, S. P. Chen, and X. Z. Yang, An early large fruited apricot varietyXungang Hebaoxing, J. Fruit Sci. 7:144 (1990). 12. Shang, Q. L., X. F. Du, C. F. Guo, and Q. S. Su, Xingnei, the best early apricot variety, China Fruits 4:49 (1991). 13. Romani, R. J., and W. G. Jennings, Stone fruits, Biochemistry of Fruits and their Products (A. C. Hulme, ed.), Academic Press, London, New York, 1971, p. 411. 14. Crane, J. C., P. E. Primer, and R. C. Cambell, Gibberellin induced parthenocarpy in Prunus, Proc. Am. Soc. Hort. Sci. 75:129 (1960).

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15. Romani, R. J., R. W. Breidenbach, and J. Van Kooy, Isolation yield and fatty acid composition of intracellular particles from ripening fruits, Plant Physiol. 40:561 (1965). 16. Cross-Raynaud, P., and J. M. Audergon, Apricot rootstocks, Rootstocks for Fruit Crops (R. C. Rom and R. F. Carlson, eds.), John Wiley, New York, 1987, p. 295. 17. Debney, H. G., K. J. Blacker, and J. B. Watkins, Handling and Storage Practices for Fresh Fruits and Vegetables, Product Manual, Queensland, Australia, 1980. 18. Wilkinson, A. E., The Encyclopaedia of Fruits, Berries, and Nuts and How to Grow Them, Shree Publishing, New Delhi, India 1988, p. 23.

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19. Sharaf, A., F. A. Ahmed, and S. S. ElSaadany, Biochemical changes in some fruits at different stages, Food Chem. 31:1928 (1989). 20. Myers, H. E., Marketing California apricots of fresh market1972, Federal State Market News Service, Sacramento, CA (mimeographed report, unnumbered), 1973. 21. Horsefield, B. C., R. B. Fridley, and L. L. Claypool, Optimizing mechanical harvesting procedure for apricots of non-uniform maturity, Paper 71110, Am. Soc. Agr. Eng., 1971 (mimeo). 22. Deshpande, P. B., and D. K. Salunkhe, Effects of maturity and storage on certain biochemical changes in apricots and peaches, Food Technol. 18:85 (1964).

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23. Romani, R. J., F. C. Jacob, F. G. Mitchell, and C. M. Sprock, Light transmittance characteristics of maturing apricot, Proc. Am. Soc. Hort. Soc. 83:226 (1963). 24. Whiting, G. C., Sugars, Biochemistry of Fruits and Vegetables, Vol. I (A. C. Hulme, ed.), Academic Press, London, 1971, p. 1. 25. Guichard, E., P. Schlich, and S. Issanchou, Composition of apricot aroma: Correlations between sensory and instrumental data, J. Food Sci. 55:735 (1990). 26. Tang, C. S., and W. G. Jennings, Volatile components of apricot, J. Agr. Food Chem. 15:24 (1967). 27. Tang, C. S., and W. G. Jennings, Lactonic compounds of apricot, J. Agr. Food Chem. 16:252 (1968).

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28. Liener, I. E., in Toxicant Occurring Naturally in Foods, NAS/NRC publication 1334, Washington, DC, 1966, p. 58. 29. Abd El-Aal, M. H., M. A. Hamza, and E. H. Rahma, In vitro digestibility, physico-chemical, and functional properties of apricot kernel protein, Food Chem. 19:197 (1986). 30. Stoewsand, G. S., J. L. Anderson, and R. C. Lamb, Cyanide content of apricot kernaels, J. Food Sci. 40:1107 (1975). 31. Biby, G., Personal communication, 1994. 32. Hayes, W. B., Fruit Growing in India, Kitabistan, Allahabad, 1953, p. 431. 33. Boyes, W. W., Effect of polyethylene wrappers on the keeping quality of apricots, peaches and plums, Farming (S. Afr.) 30:346 (1955).

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34. Rice, J., International trends in food, Food Process 12:77 (1987). 35. Salunkhe, D. K., H. R. Bolin, and N. R. Reddy, Storage, Processing, and Nutritional Quality of Fruits and Vegetables, Vol. II, Processed Fruits and Vegetables, 2nd ed., CRC Press, Boca Raton, FL, 1991. 36. Bolin, H. R., and C. C. Huxsoll, Storage stability of minimally processed fruit, J. Food Proc. Preservation 13:281292 (1989). 37. Brecht, J. K., A. A. Kader, C. M. Heintz, and R. C. Norona, Controlled atmosphere and ethylene effects on quality of California apricots and clingstone peaches, J. Food Sci. 47:432 (1982).

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38. Claypool, L. L., and R. M. Pangborn, Influence of controlled atmosphere storage on quality of canned apricot, J. Am. Soc. Hort. Sci. 97(5):636638 (1972). 39. Wankier, B. N., D. K. Salunkhe, and W. F. Campbell, Effects of controlled atmosphere storage on biochemical changes in apricot and peach fruit, J. Am. Soc. Hort. Sci. 95(5):604609 (1970). 40. Claypool, L. L., R. M. Pangborn, and J. F. Shaver, The influence of controlled atmosphere on quality of canned apricots, Proc. 17th Int. Cong. Horticulture 1 (Abstr.) 659 (1966). 41. Brooks, C., C. O. Bratley, and L. P. McColloch, Transit and storage diseases of fruits and vegetables as affected by initial carbon dioxide treatments, U.S. Dept. of Agriculture Tech. Bull. 5199, 1936.

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42. Gerhardt, F., E. Smith, and H. English, Effect of carbon dioxide on apricots and peaches and simulated transit conditions, Proc. Am. Soc. Hort. Sci. 38:243 (1941). 43. Guelfat-Reich, S., and R. Ben-Arie, Different factors affecting the keeping quality of Canino apricots in cold storage, Proc. 12th Int. Cong. Refrigeration, Madrid, Vol. 3, 1967, p. 447. 44. Hardenburg, R. E., A. E. Watada, and C. Y. Wang, The commercial storage of fruits and vegetables and florist and Nursery stocks, USDA ARS Agriculture Handbook 66, 1986, p. 35. 45. Hummel, C. E., and E. S. Stoddard, Methods of improving food preservation in home refrigerators, Refrig. Eng. 65:3339 (1957).

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46. Workman, M., H. K. Pratt, and L. L. Morris, Studies on the physiology of tomato fruits. I. Respiration and ripening behavior at 20 degrees C as related to date of harvest, Proc. Am. Soc. Hort. Sci. 37:952 (1957).

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47. Burg, S. P., and E. A. Burg, Ethylene action and the ripening of fruits, Science 148:1190 (1965). 48. Burg, S. P., and Burg, E. A., Fruit storage at subatmospheric pressure, Science 153:314 (1966). 49. Tolle, W. E., Hypobaric storage of mature green tomatos, U.S. Department of Agriculture Marketing Research Report 842, 1969. 50. Wu, M. T., and D. K. Salunkhe, Subatmospheric storage of fruits and vegetables, Utah Sci. 33:29 (1972). 51. Jadhav, S. J., B. C. Patil, and D. K. Salunkhe, Control of potato greening under hypobaric storage, Food Eng. 45(8):111 (1973).

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52. Salunkhe, D. K., and M. T. Wu, Effect of subatmospheric pressure storage on ripening and associated chemical changes of certain deciduous fruits, J. Am. Soc. Hort. Sci. 98:113 (1973). 53. Salunkhe, D. K., Gamma radiation effects on fruits and vegetables, Econ. Bot. 15(1):28 (1961). 54. Zehnder, H. J., Food irradiation in Switzerland, Proc. 4th Int. Conf. on Peaceful Uses Atomic Enery 12:319 (1972). 55. Rogachev, V. I., Use of ionizing radiations to prolang the storage life of fruit and berries (review of the work in USSR), Applications of Food Irradiations in Developing Countries, International Atomic Energy Agency, Vienna, 1966, p. 123.

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56. Guelfat-Reich, S., R. Ben-Arie, R. S. Kahan, and E. Eisenberg, Effects of gamma irradiation on the ripening of apricots after picking, Fruits (Paris) 24:137 (1969). 57. Eckert, J. W., Holding and storage: Postharvest diseases of fresh fruits and vegetables: Etiology and control, Postharvest Biology and Handling of Fruits and Vegetables (N. F. Haard and D. K. Salunkhe, eds.), AVI, Westport, CT, 1975, p. 81. 58. School, D., and J. E. Holt, Post-harvest energy transformation in horticultural produce, Agr. Syst. 19:197 (1986). 59. Choi, E. H., D. S. Jund, N. S. Cho, and Y. H. Shim, Characteristic and inhibition of polyphenol oxidase from Fuji apples, J. Korean. Agr. Chem. Soc. 30(3):278 (1987).

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60. Schwimmer, S., Sourcebook of Food Enzymology, AVI, Westport, CT, 1981, pp. 185, 201, 519. 61. Foytik, J., Trends and outlook, California apricot industry, Calif. Agr. Exp. Sta. Circ. 495, 1961. 62. Patron, A., Canning of apricot halves in water, Fruits 11(4):153 (1956). 63. Chitarra, A. B., J. M. Labavitch, and A. A. Kader, Canning induced fruit softening and cell wall pectin solubilization in the Pattern apricot, J. Food Sci. 54:990 (1989). 64. French, D. A., A. A. Kader, and J. M. Labavitch, Softening of canned apricots. A chelation hypothesis, J. Food Sci. 54:86 (1989).

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65. Drake, S. R., T. K. Toyama, and G. H. Carter, Comparison of Rival and Tilton apricots for canning, HortScience 12(1):7576 (1977). 66. Abdelhag, E. H., and T. P. Labuza, Air drying characteristics of apricot, J. Food Sci. 52:342 (1987). 67. Bhutani, V. P., and Y. P. Sharma, Studies on the drying of apricots grown under dry temperature conditions, Indian Food Packer 42:83 (1988). 68. Salunkhe, D. K., H. R. Bolin, and K. Salunkhe, High protein protein juice powders, Utah Sci. 32(4):112 (1971). 69. Ponting, J. D., W. L. Stanley, and M. J. Copley, in Food Dehydration, Vol. 2, (W. B. Van Arsdel, M. J. Copley, and A. I. Morgan, Jr., eds.), AVI, Westport, CT, 1973, p. 199.

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70. Giese, J. Protein as ingredients: Types, functions, applications, Food Technol. 48(10):5060 (1994). 71. Manan, J. K., S. G. Kulkarni, and I. C. Shukla, Studies on preparation of storage of pulp, squash, nectar and ready to serve beverages from two varieties of apricot (Gola and Chapta) grown in Kumaon region of Uttar Pradesh, Beverage and Food World 19(4):9 (1992). 72. Beerch, P., Unpublished data, Annual Report 198586, Central Food Technological Research Institute, Mysore, India, 1986, p. 61. 73. Bolin, H. R., G. Fuller, and J. Powers, Product development and applications for a dry apricot concentrate, Food Product Dev. 7(2):30 (1973).

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74. Revolutionary hot snacks, Food Process. (Chicago) 33(1):F4 (1972). 75. Salem, S. A., and S. M. Hagazi, Chemical changes occurring during the processing of sundried apricot juice, J. Sci. Food. Agr., 123126 (1973).

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76. Bolin, H. R., and A. E. Stafford, Effects of processing and storage on provatamin A and vitamin C in apricots, J. Food Sci. 39:10341036 (1974). 77. Joslyn, M. A., Preservation freezing of apricots for subsequent processing by bakers, baby food firms, and others, Frozen Food Recorder, Western Canner/Packer 34, no. 88, pp. 4550 (1942). 78. Stommel-Fungeman, M., and L. E. Ellis, Nutrition Guide to Brand Name Baby Foods, Heritage House, Jacksonville, FL, 1977.

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14 Avocado
S. S. Kadam Mahatma Phule Agricultural University, Rahuri, Maharashtra, India D. K. Salunkhe Utah State University, Logan, Utah I. Introduction

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Avocado is one of the important crops grown in Mexico, the United States, the Dominican Republic, Brazil, Colombia, and many other countries of South America, Central America, the Caribbean islands, and South Africa (1). Avocado is consumed mostly as a fresh fruit. In recent years, there has been a significant increase in the export of avocado fruit due to its dietary value (2). It is a high-fat fruit, which contains rare sugars of high carbon number and is relatively rich in certain vitamins, minerals, and nitrogenous substances (2). It is a popular food of Central America. It has high oil and low sugar content, so it is recommended as a high-energy food for diabetics. Avocados are eaten with bread and tortillas or in salads with lemon juice, salt, and pepper. Avocado oil is in great demand for the preparation of cosmetics. In Western Europe, imports of avocados have increased severalfold in the last decade. The major producers of avocado are Mexico, the Dominican

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Republic, Brazil (3), the United States, Peru, Venezuela, and Haiti (Table 1). II. Botany

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Avocado (Persea americana Mill.) belongs to the family Lauraceae, together with laurel and cinnamon. The avocado is an evergreen tree; it grows up to 20 m in height and may be equally wide. Leaves are arranged spirally. Flowers are small, 12 cm wide and equally deep, pea-green to yellow in color, with three whorls of three stamens (4) and a one-celled ovary. The flowers exhibit a unique pollination mechanism referred to as dichogamy. Each flower has two periods of opening; the first time it functions as a female, the second time as a male. The general tendency is for the pistil to be receptive before pollen is shed (4). Pollination occurs mostly by bees, but flies and wasps also contribute to this process. Fruits are mainly pear-shaped, but round to oval shapes are not uncommon. The color ranges from green to purple. The pulp is firm at first, but upon ripening it acquires a smooth, buttery texture. The large, round to egg-shaped central seed may be

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Table 1 Major Countries Producing Avocado Production (1000 Country MT) Country World 1463 El Salvador Mexico 320 South Africa United States 160 Cameroon Dominican 133 Israel Republic Brazil 115 Spain Colombia 81 Guatemala Indonesia 72 Peru Haiti 58 Philippines Venezuela 49 Congo Zaire 45 Costa Rica Chile 40 Madagascar Source: Ref. 4.

Prod

loose or closely attached to the pulp. The mature fru cado is comprised of soft pericarp and a single larg The pericarp consists of exocarp, mesocarp, and en the inner layer.

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Three ecological races (subspecies) are recognized, Guatemalan, and West Indian, which may be regard subtropical, semitropical, and tropical, respectively cultivars of commercial importance and hybrids of three races are available. The physiological differen among the three races are important commercially a to maturity date, fruit size, peel texture, flavor, oil c disease tolerance, storage characteristics, climate ad and cold tolerance of the tree (2). Mexican cultivars adapted to cool climates of the tropics and subtropi the most cold tolerant of the three races. The West I cultivars are best adapted to lowland tropical condi high temperature and humidity. The Guatemalan cu are intermediate between these two cultivars with re climatic adaption. The Mexican cultivars produce a fruit (85340 g) with a thick skin, which is usually s and glossy. The Guatemalan cultivars produce fruit in size (340560 g), with a relatively thick (1.6 mm) coarsely granular skin. The West Indian cultivars p fruits of intermediate size, and the skin is generally pliable, and leathery in texture. Fruits of the Mexica

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mature earlier than or simultaneously with the Wes cultivars. The Guatemalans and their hybrids are la ing cultivars. A. Cultivars

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There are hundreds of avocado cultivars, many of w hybrids between the races. The most popular avoca tivar in the world is Fuerte, which is a hybrid betwe Mexican and Guatemalan races. Hass is a Guatema fertile cultivar with medium-sized, roundish fruits t purple upon ripening. Neither is well suited to the t Florida cultivars (Pollock, Simmonds, Booth 8, Boo Lula, and Choquette) are better for that purpose (1) with its great range of climates from dry lowland to mountains, many cultivars such as Fuerte (8001800 Nabal (1001500 m above sea level) are grown. Cul such as Gottfried and Pernod (Mexican), Benix (Guatemalan), Black Prince, Simmonds, and Waldi Indian), Fairchild, Long (G X W), Johnson, Semi 3 Semi 44 (Puerto Rico) are grown at sea level in the Coast. Bacon and Zutano are recommended for cold California. Reed, Nabal, and Pinkerton are also gro california. Florida grows a wide range of varieties o avocado,

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including, Nadir, Booth 1, Nesbitt, Wagner, Nabal, and Brookstate. Israel grows Eittinger in addition to Hass, Fuerte and Nabal, Tova, Horshim, and Nordstein. Aztec has been grown in Honduras, where it has been producing a green fruit of good quality that weighs from 285 to 340 g. Recently, Lahar et al. (5) reported a new avocado cultivar named Iriet, which has average fruit size of 300500 g and green-yellow flesh. B. Fruit Development Seedling of avocados start bearing at 56 years, whereas vegetatively propagated plants usually bear earlier. Avocados have a marked tendency toward biennial bearing (7), which is partly controlled by genetic factors. Girdling increases the yield of alternately bearing varieties such as Pollock and Fuerte but has little effect on regularbearing varieties.

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Avocado fruit development is characterized by rapid cell division in the early stages, with cell multiplication throughout the entire growth period (6). In early-maturing varieties, the growth curve is steep and fruit increases in size when mature, while in late varieties the growth increments are smaller and decrease considerably before harvest time. In general, avocados tend to continue growing while attached to the tree. The differences in size between avocado varieties is determined more by cell division than by enlargement (6). The respiratory pattern of avocado is similar at all stages of development, but as the fruit matures and develops, the climacteric maximum appears earlier (8). The respiration pattern is divided into three stages (Fig. 1), the preclimacteric minimum; a period of low respiration; the climacteric maximum, a period when respiration is at its maximum, and the postclimacteric stage, with a decline in respiration (9). The ripening of avocado is initiated most

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probably by endogenously produced ethylene (10). Biale (11) has observed that with the Fuerte cultivar, 10 ppm ethylene is required to initiate the rise in respiration. Maximum synthesis of ethylene during ripening ranges from 100 to 700 ppm (12). In most cases, the changes unique to the ripening process occur during the sharp rise in respiration between the preclimacteric minimum and the climacteric peak (13,14). Fruit softening is generally discernible 12 days and edible ripeness 13 days following the climacteric rise. Ripening of avocado results in increased contents of fatty substances and free fatty acids. The unsaponifiable matter ranges from 1.04 to 2.10% (13). Despite the high-fat content of the mature

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Fig. 1 Respiratory rate and ethylene production at 20C in Fuerte avocados following harvest carbon dioxide, ethylene). (From Ref. 9.)

Page 366

avocado, however, evidence does not support the idea of lipid utilization as a respiratory substrate during the course of the climacteric. III. Production A. Soil and Climate

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Avocado grows on a light-textured, loamy soil. The subsoil of an ideal site for this crop should be porous in nature and well drained, as the roots are highly susceptible to water stagnation. Avocado plants can be grown successfully in clayey soils which are at least 60 cm deep with well-drained subsoil. However, some recommendations in the literature suggest a soil depth of at least 90 cm for maintenance of proper health and longevity of trees. In any case, shallow soil with rocky, ill-drained, hardpan subsoil must be avoided for avocado culture. Avocado is typically a tropical crop. However, it is found in both tropical and subtropical regions of the world where the winters are mild and free from freezing weather. The cultivars vary in their response to low temperature, with Mexican races relatively more tolerant than Guatemalan and West Indian races. B. Propagation.

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Vegetative propagation is followed for true-totype planting materials. The important asexual methods are layering, budding, or grafting. Seedling rootstocks are used to produce grafted or budded plants. Shield budding and Forkert budding have been tried in avocado (7). In-arch grafting, side grafting, and layering are some of the other methods of propagation that are used in avocado with varying degree of success (7). C. Cultural Practices 1. Planting

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Planting distance should be determined according to the growth habit of a particular variety in that area. In general, a spacing of 612 m depending on the variety and its growth habit, is recommended. The pits are prepared and filled with soil mixture containing good garden soil and farmyard manure. Young plants need proper care. The flowers in racemes are borne in the axils of leaves on the current season's shoots. The tip of the raceme is a vegetative shoot which further elongates into a vegetative shoot on which the next flush of inflorescence is produced. The flushes are produced on the same branches in succession as they elongate. Avocado flowers do not set fruits when the air temperature is below 13.3C (7). However, the differences among various races are well recognized and need to be fully understood before attempting cultivation. In certain cases, interplanting of different varieties may overcome poor

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fruit set due to imperfect flowers or selfincompatibility. The young plants need protection against cold, sunburn, and wind. In addition, adequate moisture in the soil and humidity in the air should be maintained for proper growth of these plants. In later stages, the avocado orchard needs shallow plowing or harrowing about 2 months before flowering to keep the weed population down. In any case, the intercultural operations should be light or shallow so that the surface/top-feeding roots of the tree are not injured. 2. Pruning

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Avocado trees need very little pruning, especially in the early years, as they develop uniform shapes naturally. In the case of grafts or budded plants, it may be necessary to remove the shoots arising from the root stock. In later stages, it may be desirable to remove lower branches which are coming down due to weight or unfruitful or interlocked branches. However, the terminal portions should never be pruned, as this reduces the fruiting branches.

Page 367

3. Irrigation Irrigation is necessary if there is no rainfall for extended period. It was found that a 21-day interval is the optimum irrigation frequency resulting in increased size and oil percentage of fruits and advancing harvesting date (6). Irrigation is best done by sprinkling or drip irrigation (15). Flooding is not desirable, as it promotes root rot. 4. Manuring and Fertilization Avocado requires heavy manuring of the major nutrients. Application of nitrogen was found to be essential for cultivation of avocado (7). In general, young avocado trees should get N, P2O5 and K2O in proportions of 1:1:1 and older trees in proportions of 2:1:2. At pH above 7, iron deficiency symptoms appear which may be corrected by applying chelated iron (7).

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D. Diseases and Pests Fruit spot disease caused by Colletotrichum gloeosporioides is the most commonly occurring disease of avocado. Infection of avocado fruits by Fusarium solani and Fusarium sambucinum causes accelerated softening of fruits (7). Fuerte varieties are susceptible to anthracnose (Glomerella cingulata var. minor) and stem rot (Dothiorella aromatica) from fruit set until harvest. Other diseases of avocados are cercospora spot (Cercospora purpurea) and scab (Sphaceloma perseae), which attack leaves as well as fruits. The most serious disease of avocados is root rot caused by Phytophthora cinnamomi, which may kill the tress. Root rot is accentuated by poorly drained soil. E. Harvesting, Handling, and Maturity

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Avocado fruits are harvested manually with the aid of ladders, picking bags, telescopic poles filled with a cutting blade and catch bag, and hand clippers. The fruit is removed from the tree by either clipping or snapping the stem at the base of the fruit. Clipping and leaving a short stem is preferred, since this reduces the chance of bruising and puncturing adjacent fruit once they are placed in containers (2).

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In countries which have implemented maturity standards for avocados, the selection of fruits to be harvested is generally based on weight and/or size (16). The California industry uses weight as a selection guide once the minimum oil content for maturity is reached. The Florida industry uses both weight and fruit diameter as selection criteria for harvest. Use of these parameters is very importance, since the harvest of avocados is often beset with the problem of variation in fruit maturity, especially early in the harvest season. Dry weight (21% minimum) or oil content (8% w/w minimum) are used as maturity standards (17). It is also important that the fruits are shaded following harvest to prevent an increase in internal heat, and precooling is generally recommended to remove the field heat. Removal of excess heat prior to packaging reduces the refrigeration required during shipment to maintain the fruit at recommended temperatures

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and to provide better control of the ripening process. Harvested avocados are graded by hand and then sized by weight devices. Inspection grades are based mainly on variety characteristics, shape, color, maturity, trimming of stems, defects, and decay (4). The modern packing houses are completely automatic except for the grading and packing of the fruits, which are still done manually. Fungus-caused skin defects, harvesting cuts, and bruises are principal factors in grade reduction. Fruit sizing is accomplished with either drop rollers (diameter) or weight sizers. The primary means of transporting avocados to the various markets is trucks within the country and later cargo ship for export. Transit time is an important factor, since wholesalers need at least 12 weeks to market the fruit advantageously (2). The majority of the crop is marketed as fresh fruit.

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Page 368

IV. Composition. The avocado is one of the most nutritive among fruits. The pulp has a buttery consistency, looks very much like cow's butter, and has a bland taste with a nutty flavor. The fruit is high in fat, proteins, and minerals but low in carbohydrates (Table 2). The fatty acid composition of the lipids of avocado fruit and avocado oil differs greatly with cultivar, stage of ripening, anatomical region of the fruit, and geographic location (18). However, the major fatty acid is always oleic, followed by palmitic and linolenic acids (1921). The fatty acids present in trace amounts are myristic, stearic, linolenic, and arachidonic (Table 3). Lipids of avocado seeds contain less oleic acid and more linoleic and linolenic acids than avocado pericarp. The cuticular wax contains C20 to C27 long-chain fatty acids (21).

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Fuerte avocados contain higher amounts of free amino acids than other fruits; the major amino acids are aspergine, aspartic acid, glutamine, and glutamic acid. The amino acids present in major quantities are serine, threonine, alanine, valine, and cystine. The amount of total protein, carbohydrate, and ash of avocado ranged from 1.21 to 2.26%, 1.82 to 7.80%, and 1.0 to 1.4%, respectively on a fresh-weight basis (22,23). Carbohydrate content ranges from 1.82 to 7.8% on a fresh-weight basis (22). Biale and Young (6) reported the presence of sugars (mannoheptulose) and perseitol in addition to glucose, fructose, and sucrose. During storage of avocado, there is a large drop in total sugar content, from 2.7 to 0.6% in Fuerte avocados. The mannoheptulose and perseitol almost disappeared, leaving glucose, fructose, and sucrose as major sugars after ripening (4). Avocados are rich in vitamin B6 (3.96.1 mg/g pyridoxine) and contain lesser amounts of biotin, folic acid, thiamin,

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riboflavin (23), calciferol (vitamin D), alpha-tocopherol (vitamin E), and 2-methyl-1,4-naphthoquinone (vitamin K).

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Immature avocado flesh possesses a bitter flavor with a prolonged aftertaste (2). The bitter flavor either diminishes upon ripening of some cultivars such as Fuerte and Haas or persists upon ripening of other cultivars such as Zutano (24). In ripe Fuerte avocados, about 75% of total volatile compounds are dominated by C6 alcohols and aldehyde. Major components include trans-hex-3-en-1-ol (25.6%), transhex-2-en-1-ol (19.1%), hexan-1-ol (17.9%), cishex-2-enal (8.7%), and hexanal (4.5%). Most of the volatile compounds are derived from lipid oxidation or degradation (4). Three long-chain C17 compounds, each with a terminal acetylenic bond, were isolated from immature avocado seed, exocarp, and flesh (24). Heating of avocado paste results in the development of off-flavor in the heated product. This precludes thermal processing as a means of processing or preserving avocado. Heating treatments ranging from 60C for 20 min to 90C for 1.4 min were

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the dividing line between off-flavor and nonoff-flavor formation. Benet et al. (25) identified the compounds contributing to heat-induced (100C for 15 min) bitter off-flavor in avocado slices to be 1-acetoxy-2,4-dihydroxy n-heptadeca-16-en (m.p. 56C) and 1,2,4-trihydroxy-nheptadeca-16-en (m.p. 56.5C). Comparison between heated and nonheated avocado slices showed that the concentrations of these chemicals were significantly increased by the heat treatment. The unsaturated fatty acid fraction most likely contributes to flavor deterioration of avocado salad after storage (26). V. Storage

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Avocado can be kept for about a month in cold storage. The optimum temperature differs with cultivar because cultivars differ in sensitivity to chilling injury (27). The chilling-tolerant cultivars such as Lula, Booth 8, and Taylor store best at 4.4C (27). All West Indian cultivars are chilling sensitive and store best at 13C for a maximum period of 2 weeks (27). A few cultivars, such as Fuerte, Hass and Booth 7, are intermediate in sensitivity and store best at 7.2C (27). The rate of ripening depends on the temperature of storage (28)

Page 369 Table 2 Average Nutritional Composition (on a fresh-weight basis) of the Edible Part of Avocado Fruit Component Fuertea Hassa Anaheimb Water (%) 71.2 74.4 79.3 Fat (%) 23.4 20.6 15.5 Protein (%) 2.0 1.8 1.8 Fiber (%) 1.9 1.4 1.7 Ash (%) 1.2 1.2 1.0 Sugars (%) 0.1 0.3 0.2 Glucose 0.1 0.1 0.2 Fructose 0.0 0.1 0.1 Sucrose Starch (%) 0.0 0.0 0.1 Organic acids (%) 0.17 0.32 0.24 Malic 0.13 0.05 0.11 Citric 0.0 0.03 0.01 Oxalic Energy (kJ/100 g) 980 805 956 Vitamins (mg%) 9 11 14 Ascorbic acid 0.07 0.07 0.08 Thiamin 0.15 0.12 0.21 Riboflavin 0.9 1.2 1.11 Pantothenic acid

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Nicotinic acid Vitamin B6 Folic acid Biotin Carotenoids (mg%) a-Carotene b-Carotene Cryptoxanthin Minerals (mg%) Potassium Phosphorus Calcium Magnesium Sodium Iron Zinc aGrown in Australia bGrown in California Source: Ref. 4

1.5 1.9 0.61 0.62 0.03 0.04 0.004 0.006 0.36 0.02 0.29 460 29 29 22 2 0.6 0.5 0.29 0.03 0.16 480 27 14 23 2 0.7 0.5

1.56 0.39 0.018 0.0034 0.24 0.03 0.22 460 29 19 22 2 0.6 0.5

Table 3 Average Fatty Acid Composition (as a Percentage of Hass Avocados Fuerte Fatty acid Mature pulp Ripe pulp Saturated 0.05 0.0 Myristic 12.2 13. Palmitic 0.52 0.6 Stearic 0.16 0.1 Arachidic Monounsaturated 4.6 3. Palmitoleic 72.8 69. Oleic Polyunsaturated 8.6 10. Linoleic 0.79 0.9 Linoleneic 0.28 0.2 Arachidonic Total saturated fatty acids (SFA) 12.93 14.7 Total unsaturated fatty acids (UFA) 87.07 85.2 UFA/SFA 6.73 5.7 Source: Ref. 4

A. Low-Temperature Storage

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Hatton et al. (29) observed chilling injury character ation of the vascular system in addition to uneven r off-flavors in avocado fruits. In some instances, the while in storage, but may subsequently develop chi In general, cultivars of the Mexican race are the mo alan cultivars are the least tolerant to low-temperatu ded storage temperature for cultivars of the West In Guatemalan and Mexican cultivars, 4C and 8C, re cados can be stored best at 7.2C (30). The storage cultivars (Fuerte, Hass, and Nabal) at 4C is limited Nabal avocados are more resistant to chilling injuri cados at low temperature is important in retarding t decay, since no postharvest fungicides are used (2). commend a relative humidity of about 8090% durin B. Controlled-Atmosphere Storage

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Several studies on use of controlled atmosphere (CA avocados have been reported. Early investigations w that within the range of 2.521.0% O2 concentration, peak extends in proportion to the decrease in O2 con (33) demonstrated that the delay of the climacteric with 10% CO2 and 21% O2. The presence of low O supress the intensity of respiration (11). In addition iveness of ethylene in stimulating the ripening proc 10% CO2 at 7.2C doubles the normal storage life o and Fuch) under refrigeration alone

(29,34,35). The maximum storage time for these cu (36) stated that the concentration of CO2 must be ke With CA storage, low temperature can be used with (37,38). The optimum temperature of CA storage, v imum storage time for any cultivar being 60 days (3 reported that CA inhibited the softening process, du istant to fungal invasion and development by C. glo a new technique, viz., intermittent periods of conse mosphere. This minimizes fungal attack, reduces w firmness and color of the fruit. C. Modified-Atmosphere Storage

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Modified-atmosphere (MA) storage differs from co the degree and method of control. Chaplin and Haw dos in sealed polyethylene bags and stored them at times. Modified atmosphere developed inside the b apparently nonripening while remaining enclosed. T did not influence the O2 concentration in the bags, a only after 11 days of storage. The ethylene concent ably. The storage of avocados at ambient temperatu alter the gas composition. The presence or absence fect on O2 and C2H4 levels, but the CO2 level was si sorbent block (Table 4). These investigators further life of avocados was a function of storage time (Tab vest life achieved by storage of fruit in polyethylen be expected to prevent losses resulting from premat D. Subatmospheric-Pressure Storage

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In subatmospheric-pressure systems, the commodit perature in a sealed container at less than atmosphe ally ventilated with moist air (80100% RH) with a v spheric pressure, the respiration of the commodity i content. In consequence of removal of ethylene and commodity, the ripening and aging processes are re sentially an aid to refrigeration and not its replacem

Table 4 Effects of Storage Time and Treatment on Gas Comp Sealed Polyethylene Bags Storage treatment Polyethylene bag

Storage tim 5 10 Polyethylene bag plus ethylene absorbenta 5 10 aVermiculite/cement block (approximately 60 30 10 mm) of KMnO4. Source: Ref. 41.

Table 5 Effects of Storage Time and Treatment on Total Post Life of Stored Avocados Storage time Total posthar (days) Treatment (days 5 Control 8 5 Polyethylene bag 11 5 Polyethylene bag plus 11 KMnO4 10 Controla 8 10 Polyethylene bag 16 10 Polyethylene bag plus 16 KMnO4 aOversoft at first examination. Source: Ref. 41.

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Apelbaum et al. (46) stored mature Hass avocados mm Hg for 70 days without adversely affecting ripe when they were transferred to atmospheric pressure 14C. The optimum condition for low-pressure stor Florida avocados was 20 mm Hg and 4.5C (36). F stored remained firm for 3 weeks, and loss attribute cay and chilling injury was minimal. Avocados stor either 76 or 760 mm Hg had decreased firmness du 3-week storage period and developed considerable injury and decay (43). The storage life of avocados on the fruits' susceptibility to decay and chilling inj E. Storage of Avocados on the Tree

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The avocado is unusual in that the fruit does not req picking as soon as it matures (2). Florida-grown cu can remain on the tree for a period varying from 3 w 3 months (36). Generally, the fruits of the summer (West Indian race) remain attached to the tree for sh periods compared to the late-maturity cultivars. Spa (36), however, does not recommend shipping of av fruits which have reached maximum maturity, beca reduced shelf life and internal seed sprouting. The p vest storage life of avocado is primarily a function tivar, maturity, and temperature. F. Irradiation

1840/2989

Postharvest treatment of fruits with ionizing radiati been found to delay ripening and senescence. It also trols fungal infections. Avocado is one of the fruits sensitive to radiation, and doses in excess of 20 kra brown discoloration in the mesocarp (4). A radiatio of 10 krad resulted in extension of storage life of Fu avocados by 45 days at 20C. Fruit treated with 50 not ripen (4); the tissue remained hard and turned b G. Postharvest Diseases and Pests.

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The two important postharvest decays of avocados caused by the fungi Colletotrichum gloeosporides P which causes anthracnose or black spot decay, and dia natalensis Pole-Evans, Phomopsis spp., and Do thiorella spp., which cause stem-end rot (2). Infecti C. gloeosporides occurs while the fruit is developin tree. All cultivars grown in Florida are moderately ible to anthracnose, whereas cultivars grown in Cal are even more susceptible to C. gloeosporides (47). rot occasionally results in heavy fruit losses. Immat fruits are more susceptible to this disease.

Page 373

VI. Processing Although avocados are consumed principally as fresh fruit, odd-sized and imperfect fruits are marketable, hence can be processed for the benefit of both growers and consumers (48). Amba Dan (49) has described several products of avocado fruits. A. Frozen Slices

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The avocado fruit is cut into slices along its longitudinal axis and seed is removed. The slices are then coated with an antioxidants such as an aqueous solution of ascorbic acid (0.5%) or half-strength lemon juice or a solution of citric acid for 1 min to prevent browning of fruit during freezing, storage, and upon thawing (50). After treatment with antioxidant, the halves are frozen quickly by immersion in liquid nitrogen or nitrogenous oxide (51). Smith and Winter (48) reported that rapid freezing of Hass and Fuerte avocado slices by liquid freon with proper treatment of the slices with ascorbic acid and malic acid produces a product comparable to fresh fruits. The time of immersion depends on maturity, variety, initial temperature, and size of the avocado half and usually varies from 15 to 50 s. After removal from the liquefied gas, the avocado halves are placed preferably at -18C (52).

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B. Guacamole Guacamole is a frozen savory spread prepared from ripe avocados (53,54). Fruits are washed, surface dried, halved, and pulped. The pulp is then blended with dehydrated onion powder (10 g/kg), salt (4 g/kg), and sulfur dioxide (300 mg/ kg). The pH of the mixture is adjusted to 4.9 by addition of citric acid (3%). Products are vacuum packed in cans and blast frozen for 30 min at -37C, then stored at -18C (4). C. Beverage

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Avocado beverage is a delicious drink with excellent nutritive properties. It is commonly consumed at the household level in developing countries, especially in the warm summer months. Fully ripe avocados are selected and washed. The fruit is sliced and the pulp is removed with a scoop. It is then blended with water, sugar, and citric acid. The beverage is bottled in sterilized glass bottles and chilled. Avocado beverage contains 10% pulp, 0.30.5% acidity, and 200 ppm benzoic acid (4). References 1. Samson, J. A., Tropical Fruits, Tropical Agriculture Series, Longman, London and New York, 1984, p. 235. 2. Ahmed, E. M., and C. R. Barmore, Avocado, Tropical and Sub-tropical Fruits (S. Nagy and P. E. Shaw, eds.), AVI, Westport, CT, 1980.

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3. FAO, FAO Production Year Book, Food and Agriculture Organization, Rome, 1990. 4. Nogalingam, T., Avocado, Encyclopaedia of Food Science, Food Technology and Nutrition (R. Macrae, R. K. Robinson, and M. J. Sadler, eds), Academic Press, London, 1993, p. 293. 5. Lahav, E., U. Lavi, D. Zamet, C. Degani, and S. Gazit, IrietA new avocado cultivar, Hort. Sci. 24:865 (1989). 6. Biale, J. B., and R. E. Young, The avocado pear, The Biochemistry of Fruits and Their Products, Vol. 2 (A. C. Hulme, ed.), Academic Press, New York, 1971. 7. Muthukrishnan, C. R., and J. B. M. Md. Abdul Khader, Avocado, Fruits of India: Tropical and Subtropical (T. K. Bose, ed.), Naya Prokash, Calcutta, 1985, p. 465.

Page 374

8. Zaubermann, G., M. Schiffmann-Nadel, and U. Yanko, The response of avocado fruits to different storage temperatures, HortScience 12:353 (1977). 9. Biale, J. B., The climacteric rise in respiration rate of the Fuerte avocado fruits, Proc. Am. Soc. Hort. Sci. 39:137 (1941). 10. Burg, S.P., and E. A. Burg, Ethylene action and the ripening of fruits, Science 148:1190 (1965). 11. Biale, J. B., The postharvest biochemistry of tropical and subtropical fruits, Advances in Food Research (C. O. Chichester, E. M. Mrak, and G. E. Stewart, eds.), Academic Press, New York, 1960.

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12. Adato, I., and S. Gazit, Postharvest response of avocado fruits of different maturity to delayed ethylene treatments, Plant Physiol. 53:899 (1974). 13. Biale, J. B., Synthetic and degradative processes in fruit ripening, Postharvest Biology and Handling of Fruits and Vegetable (N. F. Haard, and D. K. Salunkhe, eds.), AVI, Westport, CT, 1975. 14. Bower, J. P., and J. G. Cutting, Avocado fruit development and ripening physiology, Hort Rev. 10:229 (1988). 15. Levinson, B., and I. Idato, Influence of reduced rates of water and fertilizer application using daily intermittent drip irrigation on the water requirement, root development and responses of avocado trees (Cv. Fuerte), J. Hort. Sci. 66:449 (1991).

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16. Lee, S. K., R. E. Young, P. M. Shiffman, and C. W. Coggins, Jr., Maturity studies of avocado fruit based on picking dates and dry weight, J. Am. Soc. Hort. Sci. 108:390 (1983). 17. Lee, S. K., A review and background of the avocado maturity standard, California Avocado Society Yearbook 65:101 (1981). 18. Itoh, T., T. Tamura, T. Matsumato, and P. Dupaigne, Studies on avocado oil in particular on the unsaponifiable sterol fraction, Fruits 30:687 (1975) (in French). 19. Swisher, H.E., Avocado oil, J. Am. Oil. Chem. Soc. 65:1704 (1984). 20. Tango, J. S., S. T. Dacosta, A. J. Antunes, and I. B. Figueriedo, Composition of fruits oil of different varieties of avocados grown in Sao Paulo, Fruits 27:143 (1972) (in French).

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21. Mazliak, P., Avocado lipid constituents, Fruits 26:615 (1971) (in French). 22. Slater, G., Seasonal variation in the composition of California avocados, J. Agr. Food Chem. 23:468 (1975). 23. Hall, A. P., J. F. More, and A. F. Morgan, A vitamin content of California grown avocados, J. Agr. Food Chem. 3:250 (1955). 24. Brown, B. I., Isolation of unpleasant flavour compounds in the avocado (Persea americana Mill), J. Agr. Food Chem. 20:753 (1972). 25. Benet, G., A. Doleu, and C. Tertarsky, Compounds contributing to heat induced bitter offflavour in avocado, J. Food Sci. 38:546 (1973).

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26. Keppler, J. G., M. M. Horilex, P. W. Meijboom, and W. H. Feenstra, Isolinoleic acid responsible for formation of the hardening flavour, J. Am. Oil Chem. Soc. 44:543 (1967). 27. Ryall, A. L., and W. T. Pentzer, Handling, Transportation and Storage of Fruits and Vegetables, Vol 2, Fruits and Tree Nuts, 2nd ed., AVI Westport, CT, 1982, p. 610. 28. Eaks, I. L., Ripening, respiration and ethylene production of Hass avocado fruits at 20 to 40C, J. Am. Soc. Hort. Sci. 103:576 (1978). 29. Hatton, T. T., Jr., P. L. Harding, W. F. Reeder, and C. W. Compbell, Ripening and storage of Florida avocados, Agr. Res. Serv. U.S. Dept. Agr. Marketing Res. Rep. 697, 1965.

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30. Zaubermann, G., M. Schiffmann-Nadel, and U. Yanko, Susceptibility to chilling injury of three avocado cultivars at various stages of ripening, HortScience 8:511 (1973). 31. Lutz, J. M., and P. E. Hardenburg, The commercial storage of fruits, vegetables and florist and nursery stocks, U.S. Dept. Agr. Handbook 66, 1968. 32. Biale, J. B., Effect of oxygen concentration on respiration of the Fuerte avocado fruit, Am. J. Bot. 33:363 (1946). 33. Young, R. E., R. J. Romani, and J. B. Biale, Carbon dioxide effects on fruit respiration. II. Response of avocados, bananas and lemons, Plant Physiol. 37:416 (1962). 34. Pratt, H. K., and J. D. Goeschl, Physiological role of ethylene in plants, Annu. Rev. Plant Physiol. 20:541 (1969).

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Page 375

35. Spalding, D. H., and W. F. Reeder, Current status of controlled atmosphere storage of four tropical fruits, Proc. Fla. State Hort. Soc. 87:334 (1974). 36. Spalding, D. H., Storage of avocados, Proc. 1st Int. Tropical Fruit Short Course, The Avocado, Fla. Coop. Ext. Serv., IFAS, University of Florida, Gainesville, 1976. 37. Vakis, N., W. Grierson, and J. Soule, Chilling injury in tropical and subtropical fruits, Proc. Am. Soc. Hort. Sci. 14:89 (1970). 38. Spalding, D. H., and W. F. Reeder, Low oxygen and high carbon dioxide controlled atmosphere storage for control of anthracnose and chilling injury of avocados, Phytopathology 65:458 (1975).

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39. Spalding, D. H., and W. F. Reeder, Quality of Booth 8 and Lula avocado stored in a controlled atmosphere, Proc. Fla. State Hort. Soc 85:337 (1972). 40. Collin, M. N., Conservation of avocadoes by CO2 treatment, Fruits 39:561 (1984). 41. Chaplin, G. R., and M. G. Hawson, Extending postharvest life of unrefrigerated avocado fruit by storage in polyethylene bag, Sci. Hort. 14:219 (1981). 42. Burg, S. P., Hypobaric storage and transportation of fresh fruits and vegetables, Postharvest Biology and Handling of Fruits and Vegetables (N. F. Haard, and D. K. Salunkhe, eds.), AVI, Westport, CT, 1975.

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43. Salunkhe, D. K., and M. T. Wu, Effects of sub-atmospheric pressure storage on ripening and associated chemical changes of certain deciduous fruits, J. Am. Soc. Hort. Sci. 98:113 (1973). 44. Salunkhe, D. K. and M. T. Wu, Sub-atmospheric storage of fruits and vegetables, Postharvest Biology and Handling of Fruits and Vegetables (N. F. Haard and D. K. Salunkhe, eds.), AVI, Westport, CT, 1978. 45. Wu, M. T., and D. K. Salunkhe, Subatmospheric pressure storage of fruits and vegetables, Utah Sci. 33:29 (1972). 46. Apelbaum, A., G. Zaubermann, and Y. Fuchs, Prolonging storage life of avocado fruits by subatmospheric pressure, HortScience 12:115 (1977).

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47. Smoot, J., L. Houck, and H. B. Jonson, Market diseases of citrus and other tropical fruits, U.S. Dept. Agr. Handbook 398, 1971. 48. Smith, L. M., and F. H. Winter, Research on avocado processing at the University of California, Calif. Avocado Soc. Yearbook 54:79 (1970). 49. Amba Dan, Processed products of avocado and jackfruit, Indian Hort. 32(3):12 (1987). 50. Scutamore-Smith, P. D., The utilization of avocado as frozen savoury spread, Food Technol. (Austral.) 36:375 (1984). 51. Urbanek, J., Delicate avocado yields to liquid nitrogen freezing process, Canner Packer 135(5):31 (1966). 52. Lime, B. J., Preparation and storage studies of freeze-dried avocado salad, Food Technol. 23:317 (1969).

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53. Gomez, R. F., and R. P. Bates, Storage deterioration of freeze dried avocado puree and guacamole, J. Food Sci. 35:472 (1970). 54. Stephens, T. S., B. J. Lime, and G. P. Griffiths, Preparation of a frozen avocado mixture for guacamole, J. Rio Grande Val. Hort. Soc. 11:82 (1957).

Page 377

15 Annonaceous Fruits
A. G. Purohit Indian Institute of Horticultural Research, Bangalore, Karnataka, India I. Introduction

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Annonaceous fruits or annonas is a small group of edible fruits belonging to the genus Annona of the family Annonaceae. Annona squamosa L. (custard apple, sitaphal, sharifa, sugar apple, sweetsop) is the most important and widely distributed among the annonaceous fruits. The other edible annonas of minor importance are Annona reticulata L. (bullock's heart, Ramphal), Annona cherimola Mill (cherimoya, cherimoyar, Lakshmanphal), Annona muricata L. (soursop, mundla), and Annona atemoya Hort. (atemoya, Hanumanphal) a hybrid between A. cherimola and A. squamosa. The name custard apple is also applied to A. reticulata in the West Indies and atemoya in Queensland and New South Wales of Australia. Soursop (A. muricata) has the largest fruit among the Annonaceae. The fruit is spiny like a jackfruit, 1520 cm long, and may weigh from 1.5 to 3 kg. The other annonas, which are little known outside tropical America but which may be of value in breeding or as

1861/2989

rootstocks are pond apple (Annona glabra L. or Annona palustris L.), ilama (Annona diversifolia Saff.), soncoya (Annona purpurea Moc & Sesse.), and mountain soursop (Annona montana Macfad).

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The annonaceous fruits originated in the tropical regions of America. They are widely distributed throughout the tropics and subtropics, particularly in America, Egypt, certain African countries, the West Indies, and India (1). The custard apple is of commercial importance to Egypt, central Africa, and southern Asia. It is grown very successfully in Israel (2). It is generally found growing as a semiwild fruit in forests, rocky slopes, wastelands, and along field bunds and banks of streams. It is a shallow-rooted, hardy plant and flourishes well under very dry conditions. Owing to the presence of the alkaloid annonaine in the entire Annonaceae family, the vegetative parts of annonas are bitter and are not touched by goats and cattle. The presence of alkaloid is responsible for its resistance to insects, pests, and diseases.

Page 378

II. Botany. The Annonaceae family contains more than 40 genera, of which only two besides Annona produce edible fruits. The genus Annona includes some 120 species from warm countries, mainly from the American tropics and subtropics. Annona trees are medium to large in size, ranging between 2 and 5 m in height. The leaves are alternate, simple, deciduous (e.g., A. squamosa, A. reticulata, and A. cherimola) or persistent (e.g., A. muricata), without stipules. The flowers are bisexual, hypogynous, solitary or in clusters of two to five. The fruit is a fleshy syncarpium of berries formed by the fusion of the carpels and the receptacale (Fig. 1).

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The important morphological characters for identification of cultivated Annona species are pubescence, shape, and odor of leaves; type of areoles or segments; grittiness and taste of pulp; and color of flowers and fruits (3,4). The leaves and flower buds of A. cherimola are highly pubescent, while the leaves of A. squamosa, A. reticulata, and A. atemoya are moderately pubescent. A. squamosa has oval, lanceolate to oblong elliptic leaves. The leaves of A. reticulata are typically lanceolate with an acute apex, and emit a bad odor when crushed. The leaves of A. atemoya are very broad and resemble those of the cherimoya. A. squamosa has unfused areoles with deep margins and slightly gritty pulp with sweet and nonacidic flavor. In both A. reticulata and A. cherimola, the fruits are cordate with prominent shoulders and tip. In A. reticulata the fruit is smooth, pale yellow with a red blush, and covered with a grayish bloom. The fused areoles are represented by faint, five-angled

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(rhomboid) markings or indentations. The fruit has excessively gritty, tallowy, and insipid pulp. A. cherimola fruits have fused areoles and nongritty, subacidic

Fig. 1 Structure of flower and fruit in custard apple (Annona squamosa L.).

Page 379

pulp with fine taste and flavor which is not found in any of other species. The atemoya fruit resembles cherimoya in form but has distinct protuberances like custard apple.

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The chromosome number of custard apple is 2n = 14, with a basic number of 7 for annonas (2). Asana and Adatia (5) reported a chromosome numbers of 2n = 14 for four species of Annona. The pond apple (A. clabra) has 2n = 28 chromosomes. The custard apple has been found to hydridize readily with cherimoya, bullock's heart, and pond apple. Breeding has produced at least one notable hybrid, the atemoya (A. cherimola A. squamosa), which is of horticultural importance and is described as A. atemoya Hort. Atemoya is a distinct improvement over custard apple with respect to seedlessness, fruit size, percentage of pulp, and fruit quality. However, the low fruit set and yield are its greatest drawbacks. A. Cultivars

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There are no distinct varieties of custard apple and other annonas grown commercially, nor have efforts been made to multiply the desirable types by budding or grafting. The importance of tree selection and vegetative propagation for improvement of custard apple has been stressed (6). Venkataratnam and Satyanarayanaswamy (7) have described custard apple varieties, viz., Balanagar, red custard apple, Washington P.I. 107005, Washington P.I. 98797, mammoth, Barbados, and British Guiana. The first two are Indian selections, while the rest are from the West Indies. Fruits of red custard apple (Annona squamosa var. rubra) are distinguished by the deep pink color of the fruits as well as reddishcolored vegetative and floral parts. Red custard apple is found to breed true by seed (2). The Cuban seedless variety was introduced from Cuba in the Miami area of Florida (8). It bears seedless fruits of small to medium size and good quality. Venkataratnam (9) reported two

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varieties of bullock's heart. One was the squamose form, with heart-shaped fruit; the other was the reticulata form, which has distinct finger prints on the surface. The reticulate form bear more than the squamose form. Bailey (10) and Schroeder (11) recognized five forms of cherimoya, viz., laevis, tuberculate, mammillate, umbonate, and impressa, based on the nature of the areole. Several varieties of atemoya (A. cherimola A. squamosa) have been recognized in Queensland, Australia, where it is grown commercially under the name custard apple (12). Some varieties set fruit without had pollination, but others do not (8). B. Pollination and Fruit Set

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Annona as a group is notorious for low natural fruit set and frequently fail to produce a satisfactory crop. The custard apple is better than other species in this respect. Only about 2% of the flowers set and bear fruit in custard apple. Thakur and Singh (13) reported that in A. squamosa, A. reticulata, and A. cherimola the fruit set by open pollination was below 6%, while fruit set by controlled self-pollination was less than 1%. Fruit set by hand pollination was 44.4% in A. reticulata, 53.7% in A. cherimola, 57.7% in A. squamosa. Various factors which influence pollination and fruit set in Annona species are structure of flower, protogyny, compound pollen grains, pollen sterility, and temperature and atmospheric humidity (13,15). Hand pollination has been suggested to improve fruit set in cherimoya (16), atemoya (17), and bullock's heart (18). Artificial pollination has been used in some commercial cherimoya orchards in Chile (14). The success of hand

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pollination in increasing fruit set is, however, variable and uncertain. Attempts to improve fruit set in annonas with growth regulators were not successful. Therefore, stress should be given to selecting types or varieties which set a satisfactory crop without hand pollination. Deformed or asymmetrical fruits is another characteristic of the annonas. Carpels with unfertilized ovules cease growing and the fruit surface is sunken at that position, leading to deformed fruits at maturity.

Page 380

III. Production A. Soil and Climate Annonas are generally shallow rooted and do not require deep soils. Generally, shallow and poor classes of soils such as rocky, sandy, or silty loams are utilized for the cultivation of these fruits. The custard apple will tolerate dry stony soils better than most of the other annonas. Bullock's heart does better in somewhat heavier soil. The soil reaction may be acid, neutral, or moderately alkaline, but annonas prefer slightly acid conditions (pH 5.56.5). With the exception of pond apple (A. glabra), they do not tolerate waterlogging or high water tables. A high water table causes die-back disease in the plant.

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The climatic requirements of annonas vary according to their origins. The soursop (A. muricata) is the most tropical in its requirement and is very susceptible to cold. The bullock's heart is less resistant to cold as compared to custard apple. The cherimoya is the least tropical and thrives at elevations between 1200 and 2000 m. The atemoya should grow well wherever the custard apple is grown successfully. A rainfall of 5075 cm is considered optimum. Dry weather favors flowering, but fruits are set mostly at the beginning of the rainy season when the humidity is high. B. Propagation 1. Propagation by Seed

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Annonas are traditionally propagated by seeds, but the resulting plants vary widely in yield and quality of fruit. There are conflicting reports of methods of breaking seed dormancy and hastening seed germination. Ahmed (19) reported that fresh seeds showed 45% germination, but after being chilled by being left out at night for a week, the germination improved to 90%. Seeds kept for a year germinated well without pretreatment. The seeds can retain viability for 34 years. Venkataratnam (9) recommended sowing of fresh seeds, which normally take about 5070 days for germination. He stated that scarification and soaking for 3 days in water assist germination. Hayat (20), however, reported that the period of 13 months required for germination of Annona squamosa seeds was not reduced by scarification of the woody testa or by temperature treatment. 2. Rootstocks

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Vegetative propagation of annonas by budding or grafting is desirable for perpetuation of superior types or varieties and also to secure early high yields. Khan and Rao (6) reported that A. squamosa grafted on its seedling or A. reticulata rootstock came into bearing in 8 months after planting and gave higher yields, while seedlings took 22 months for fruiting. Venkataratnam (9) and Satyanarayanaswamy (21) reported that of the several different species of Annona tried as rootstocks, atemoya has proved to be the most vigorous and satisfactory rootstock for custard apple, and atemoya rootstock produced larger scion growth as compared to custard apple rootstock. However, custard apple on atemoya stock was found to give more yield, high-quality fruits, less rind, and higher pulp-to-seed ratio than on their own root system.

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Khan and Rao (6) reported that in-arch graftings of custard apple on A. squamosa and A. reticulata have both given 100% success. However, A. reticulata as rootstock showed better stock and scion girth, more scion height, and better yield. In Florida, A. squamosa rootstock was reported to be less vigorous than A. reticulata (8). Bullock's heart (A. reticulata) rootstock has been found to be most satisfactory for custard apple in the warm humid climate of the Nilgiri foothills of Tamil Nadu (22). In Uttar Pradesh, good success has been obtained on A. reticulata with custard apple cultivars Saharanpur Local, mammoth, and Balanagar (23). In general, both atemoya and A reticulata are equally satisfactory rootstocks for custard apple.

Page 381

A glabra tolerates flooding better than other annonas (4). However, A. glabra (Syn. A. palustris) and A. muricata rootstock were not found suitable for custard apples in India, owing to delayed incompatibility (9). The bullock's heart has been budded successfully on custard apple and atemoya (9). Since atemoya is a hybrid (A. cherimola A. squamosa), the seedlings do not give true-to-type plants. It has been successfully budded on custard apple rootstock. Cherimoya budded on custard apple is very vigorous (9). 3. Budding and Grafting.

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The comparative success of different propagation methods in custard apple was reported by Satyanarayanaswamy (21). In-arching was found to be superior to all other methods of propagation, with the percentage of success varying from 50 to 87%. Further, it could be done with considerable success in any part of the year. Side grafting gave only average success, ranging from 39.58 to 58.33%. The percentage of success in shield budding was very high, ranging from 42 to 75% (21). Inferior seedling trees of custard apple can be topworked with superior strains of custard apple or atemoya, which come to bearing in the first year. The optimum height for beheading the root-stock tree and top-working is 90 cm from ground level. Top-working employing shield budding techniques gives 7080% success in January and February (21). C. Cultural Practices

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1. Planting The spacing for annonas varies from 4 to 6 m, depending on soil fertility. Budded plants are planted in pits (60 60 60 cm) filled with farmyard manure, tank silt, and wood ash. 2. Training and Pruning

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The custard apple is a very slow-growing plant. It is desirable to train the plant to a single stem up to a height of 70 cm and thereafter four to six scaffold branches are encouraged. The custard apple and the other annonas bear mostly on the current season's growth and to a lesser extent on old wood. Therefore, severe pruning of bearing branches will cause reduction in tree size, flowering, fruiting, and yield. Moderate annual pruning, however, keeps the tree smaller without seriously affecting yield and increases the size of the fruits. Pruning is also done to remove dead wood and very old branches which bear less fruit. Pruning should be done only when the buds are about to start growth in the spring. 3. Fertilization

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Manuring is not practiced in custard apple, but the trees are found to decline prematurely if not manured. Manuring and irrigation are known to improve yield, size of fruit, and duration of fruiting period. Green manuring is the most economical practice of enriching soil. The quantity of bulk organic manure may be 5070 kg/tree per annum. The application of castor cake and bonemeal or superphosphate in the ratio of 2:1 was found to be beneficial (24). A fertilizer mixture containing 5 parts of ammonium sulfate or 2.2 parts of urea, 3 parts of single superphosphate, and 2 parts by weight of muriate of potash may be applied in the beginning of the rainy season at the rate of 250 g for each year of tree age up to 6 years. As the fruit is borne on new as well as old wood, there is probably little danger of providing too much nitrogen (2). 4. Interculture

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Plowing the orchard during the rainy season helps to control weeds, conserve moisture, and improve the health of the trees. Intercropping may be practiced by growing rain-fed crops, depending on soil type and climate. The plowing and interculture given to intercrops benefits the custard apple.

D. Disorders, Diseases, and Pests 1. Stone Formation

Custard apple fruits which are set late in the season ripen no matter how long they are left on the tree. S currence of stone fruit is very common during Nove between the developing fruits and malnutrition are nuring, and good cultivation considerably reduce st 2. Diseases and Pests.

The annonas are virtually free from pests and disea has been noticed in sandy and rocky soils during se nation of water in the soil. This disease is similar to been isolated. In humid areas of Puerto Rico, an an of flowers and fruits and dying back of shoots of An the mealy bug. It harbors around the stalk end and b the mealy bug does not cause serious damage to the marketability of the fruit. Mealy bug can be control sprays.

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E. Harvesting and Postharvest Handling

Annonaceous fruits mature at different times (Table which occurs at regular intervals. Harvesting is don harvested while they are still firm but have began to have become creamy yellow between the segments tendency to burst open on the tree if they are permi too green, the fruits will soften properly but their qu transported to the wholesale market in bullock carts straw and custard apple leaves at the bottom. The fr ing. The fruits are generally kept in straw for ripeni IV. Composition

Annona fruits are rich in carbohydrates and provide as calcium, phosphorus, and iron (Table 2). These a

Table 1 Duration of Flowering, Fruit Development, and Harv Parameter Custard apple MarchJuly M Duration of flowering 4 months Period of fruit development Harvesting period SeptemberDecember De Yield (fruits/tree) 5080

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Fruit weight, (g) No. of seeds per fruit

100250 6070

Page 383 Table 2 Composition of Custard Apple (A. squamosa) and Bullock's Heart (A. reticulata) Fruits Constituent Custard apple Bullock's heart Moisture (%) 73.5 76.3 Carbohydrates (%) 23.9 20.9 Protein (%) 1.6 1.4 Fat (%) 0.3 0.2 Calcium (%) 0.02 0.01 Phosphorus (%) 0.04 0.01 Iron (mg) 1.0 0.6 Calorific value/100 g 105 91 Vitamin C Traces Traces Carotene Traces Traces Source: Ref. 9.

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calorific value ranges from 822 to 1050 per kilogram as compared to 741 in mango. The dried kernels yield about 30% oil, which is used in the soap and paint industries. Ancorin, an alkaloid extracted from custard apple, has some insecticidal properties (26). The antimicrobial activity of 17 alkaloids isolated from A. cherimola stem bark was assessed (27). Most of the alkaloids at 100 ml/ml were active against the gram-positive bacteria Bacillus subtilis, Staphylococcus aureus, and Mycobacterium phlei but not against gram-negative bacteria tested. Anonaine at 100 mg/ml was active against Klebsiella pneumoniae, norushinsunine at 100 mg/ml was active against Pseudomonas aeruginosa, and anolobine was active against Escherichia coli and Salmonella typhimurium at 50 and 100 mg/ml, respectively. No other alkaloids tested were active against the yeast Candida albicans, with anonaine (at 3 mg/ml) showing the highest activity. Isoboldine,

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corypalmine, discretamine, and stepholidine were inactive against all the microorganisms tested (27) V. Storage Being a perishable fruit, custard apple cannot be stored for a long period. Cold storage is not promising for custard apple. The hard fruit becomes chilled at 15.5C or below. Although the ripe fruit can be kept for 6 weeks at 4.4C, the skin becomes brown and unattractive, and as a result, it loses market value (28). Custard apple fruits can be easily stored up to 7 days after treatment with 8% wax emulsion in combination with 400 ppm 24-D or 400 ppm 2,4,5-T (29). Custard apple fruits dipped in 500 ppm bavistin and placed in polyethylene bags containing KMnO4 had a storage life of 9 days instead of 5 days for untreated fruits (30). VI. Processing

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Annona fruits are almost entirely consumed as dessert fruits, although pulp may be mixed with milk to form a delicious drink or may be made into ice cream. Custard apple pulp has a pleasant texture and flavor. It is sweet, with moderate acidity. The sugar content of the fruit compares well with that of the fig. Soursop (A. muricata) can be eaten fresh or mixed with ice cream or milk to form a famous drink, as is used in Cuba, Java, and parts of America. Cherimoya (A. cherimola) pulp has a good flavor. Bullock's heart (A. recticulata) has fewer seeds, but its pulp is less delicately flavored than custard apple. Custard apple pulp can be used to prepare a ready-to-serve

Page 384

beverage after treatment with pectinase enzyme or for the preparation of jam. Canning has not proved quite successful, as the pulp develops bitterness and browning upon heating (31,32). Preliminary work on freeze-drying the pulp has been encouraging. There is a scope for utilizing the pulp for processing in different ways. The problems encountered during processing are development of bitterness, unpleasant repulsive off-flavor in the pulp upon heating beyond 65C, and the presence of gritty cells (33). A centrifugal process has been developed to separate the gritty portion from the pulp, which was otherwise objectionable in processed products. Bitterness precursors were present in the pulp but upon pectic enzyme treatment of pulp, the clarified pulp was found to be free from bitterness (33).

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References 1. Bose, T. K., Custard apple, Fruits of India, Tropical and Sub-tropical, Naya Prakash, Calcutta, 1985, p. 479. 2. Hayes, W. B., Fruit Growing in India, 3rd ed., Kitabistan, Allahabad, India, 1953. 3. Thakur, D. R., and R. N. Singh, Pomological description and classification of some annonas, Indian J. Hort. 24:11 (1967). 4. Ochse, J. J., M. J. Soule, M. J. Dijkman, and C. Wehlburg, Tropical and Sub-tropical Agriculture, Vol. I, Macmillan, New York, 1961. 5. Asana, J. J., and D. D. Adatia, The chromosome numbers in the family Annonaceae, Curr. Sci. 13:74 (1945).

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6. Khan, K. Fazlullah, and I. K. Sambasiva Rao, A note on the vegetative propagation and clonal performance in custard apple (Annona squamosa L.), Indian J. Hort. 10:140 (1953). 7. Venkataratnam, L., and G. Satyanarayanaswamy, Studies on genetic variability in Annona squamosa L., Indian J. Hort. 15:228 (1958). 8. Campbell, C. W., Minor tropical fruit cultivars in Florida, Proc. 83rd Annu. Meeting Fla. State Hort. Soc. Maimi, 1970, p. 353. 9. Venkataratnam, L., Sitaphal and other annona fruits in India, Indian Council Agr. Res. Farm Bull. N.S. 29, 1965, p. 44. 10. Bailey, L. H., Encyclopedia of Horticulture, Macmillan, New York, 1937.

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11. Schroeder, C. A., Fruit morphology and anatomy of the cherimoya, Bot. Gaz. 112:436 (1951). 12. Prest, R. L., and A. A. Ross, The custard apple, Queensland Agr. J. 80:17 (1955). 13. Thakur, D. R., and R. N. Singh, Studies on pollen morphology, pollination and fruit set in some annonas, Indian J. Hort. 22(1):10 (1965). 14. Saavedra, E., Influence of pollen grain stage at the time of hand pollination as a factor on fruit-set of cherimoya, HortScience 12(2):117 (1977). 15. Kshirsagar, S. V., S. T. Borikar, N. N. Shinde, and U. G. Kulkarni, Cytological studies in atemoya (Annona atemoya Hort.), Curr. Sci. 45(9):341 (1976).

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16. Schroeder, C.A., Hand pollination studies on the cherimoya, Proc. Am. Soc. Hort. Sci. 43:39 (1948). 17. Eastwood, H. W., The custard apple, Agr. Gaz. New South Wales 53:521 (1942). 18. Farooqui, A. A., S. R. Parvatikar, and U. G. Nalawadi, Preliminary studies on the problem of fruit-set in Annona reticulata L. I. Floral biology, Mysore J. Agr. Sci. 4:44 (1970). 19. Ahmed, M. S., The annonas in Egypt, Booki. Min. Agr. Egypt. Hort. Sec. 14:35 (1936). 20. Hayat, M. A., Morphology of seed germination and seedling in Annona squamosa, Bot. Gaz. 124:360 (1963).

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21. Satyanarayanaswamy, G., Vegetative propagation of custard apple and atemoya, Fruit Nursery Practices in India (L. Venkataratnam, ed.), Directorate of Extension, Ministry of Food and Agriculture, New Delhi, 1962, p. 134. 22. Sriram, T. A., and J. S. Sundararaj, An optimum rootstock for custard apple (Annona squamosa L.), South Indian Hort. 4:134 (1956). 23. Singh, S. N., Propagation of custard apple in Uttar Pradesh, Sci., Cult. 25:78 (1959).

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24. Rao, S. N., Annonas, the legendary fruit, Indian Hort. 19(3):19 (1974). 25. Alvarez-Garcia, L. A., Anthracnose of the Annonaceae, J. Agr. Univ. Puerto Rico 33:27 (1949). 26. Beerh, O. P., N. Giridhar, and B. Raghuramaiah, Custard apple (Annona squamosa) I. Physicomorphological characters and chemical composition, Indian Food Packer 37:77 (1983). 27. Simeon, S., J. L. Rios, and A. Villar, Antimicrobial activity of Annona cherimola stem bark alkaloids, Pharmazie 45(6):442 (1990). 28. Bombay Department of Agriculture, Cold and gas storage of fruits and vegetables, Leaflet 1, 1947. 29. Proc. All India Co-ordinated Fruit Improvement Project, 1983, p. 18.

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30. Babu, K. H., M. Zaheeruddin, and P. K. Prasad, Studies on postharvest storage of custard apple, Acta Hort. 269:299 (1990). 31. Salunkhe, D. K., and B. B. Desai, Custard apple, Postharvest Biotechnology of Fruits, Vol. 2, CRC Press, Boca Raton, FL, 1984, p. 133. 32. Martinez Cayuela, M., L. S. Medina, M. J. Faus, and S. Gil, Cherimoya (Annona cherimola Mill) polyphenol oxidase. Monophenolase and dihydroxyphenolase activities, J. Food Sci. 53:1191 (1988). 33. Nanjundaswamy, A. M., and M. Mahadeviah, Fruit processing, Advances in Horticulture, Vol. 4 (K. L. Chadha, and O. P. Parekh, eds.), Malhotra, New Delhi, 1993, p. 1835.

Page 387

16 Ber (Jujube)
O. P. Gupta Haryana Agricultural University, Hissar, India S. S. Kadam Mahatma Phule Agricultural University, Rahuri, Maharashtra, India I. Introduction

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Ber or jujube is one of the ancient and common fruits of India and China. It is drought resistant and can grow under marginal growing conditions. In view of the recent development in production technology of this crop, the cultivation of ber crop is becoming increasingly popular in many parts of Asia. This is considered to be an ideal crop for arid and semiarid areas of the subtropics and tropics. The origin of Zizyphus jujuba ber is reported to be India. Zizyphus vulgaris is a native of China (1). This was introduced in other parts of the world. The Zizyphus species are distributed throughout the tropical, subtropical and temperate regions of both hemispheres (2). Plantations of ber exist in Afghanistan, Iran, Syria, Burma, Australia (3), France (4), and the United States (5). The area under this crop in the world is not known. However, it is grown on over 22,000 ha in India. II. Botany.

1900/2989

Ber belongs to the genus Zizyphus and family Rhamnaceae. Zizyphus jujuba and Zizyphus mauritiana are the two most important species. Z. jujuba is the less tropical of these two and is native where the temperature ranges from -6 to +48C. Z. jujuba is deciduous and has glabrous leaves and is referred to as Chinese jujube or Chinese date. On the other hand, Z. mauritiana is evergreen, has pubescent leaves, and is commercially important in India. Other important species of ber (6) are Z. xylopyrus Wild, Z. mummularia Burm. I, Z. fumiculosa Buch-Ham, Z. spina Christi Wild, Z. vulgaris Lam., Z. oenoplia Mill, Z. glabrata Hyne, Z. oxyphylla Edgew, and Z. rugosa Lam. Khoshoo and Singh (7) reported that the correct number of chromosomes of the genus Zizyphus is 2n = 24. They also concluded that the genus Zizyphus is monobasic, with x = 12. Z. lotus and Z. sativa (Chinese jujube) are diploids, Z. mauritiana and Z. oenoplia are tetraploids, Z. rotundifolia is

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both tetraploid and hexaploid, while Z. jujuba (Indian jujube) contains an array of forms ranging from diploid to tetra, hexa, and octa types, of which tetraploidy is most

Table 1 Commercial Cultivars of Ber Grown in India Type Cultivars EarlyGola, Selected Safeda, Sandhura Narnaul, Seo Choncha ber, Badami Manuki, Guli, Seb, Narma Vanarasi, Delhi Banarasi Gola, Rohataki Gola, Nazuk, Noki Mid Khaithli, Sanur-5, Banarasi Karaka, Muria Muhrara, Me Darakhi, Kharki, Dandan, Banarasi, Walaiti, Thornless, Tikadi, Muthia, Muriya Pewandi, Mehrun Late Umran, Ilaichi, Pathani, ZG 2, ZG 3, Katha, Maharwati, wadi, Chameli, Ajmeri

predominant (7). Most of the polyploid types are ne free from multivalents nor are free from pollen ster Pollen sterility, however, does not appear to be a di vantage in the cultivated types, because even with octaploids, with about 90% pollen sterility, there is abundant fruit formation. A. Cultivars

1903/2989

A maximum number of varieties have been reporte available in China. About 125 varieties are availabl India (6). They are classified as early, mid, and late (Table 1). Self-incompatibility has been observed in varieties. It is therefore suggested that more than tw varieties be planted together. This also helps in regu the market. B. Fruit Development and Ripening

The growth of the ber fruit can be divided into three tinct phases. It is most active during the first 6 week the last 8 weeks. During the middle 8 weeks, growt very slow. Fruit growth continues up to harvest. In ing fruit, ascorbic acid increased rapidly during ear stages but declined toward the end (8). The specific ity of the fruit decreased from 1.1 to 0.99 during rip (9). The total soluble solids and ascorbic acid incre while titratable acidity decreased with the advancem maturity. The tannin content on a dry-weight basis creased during ripening (10).

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III. Production A. Soil and Climate

Ber grows on a variety of soils ranging from shallo deep and from gravelly and sandy to clay. It develo deep tap root system within a short period. It can be tivated on marginal lands which are otherwise unfit growing other fruit crops. It can tolerate salinity (11 can grow well with a wide range of temperature. Lo temperature conditions below freezing point are inj to the fruits as well as to young shoots. It can withs extremely hot conditions. During MayJune, ber tree their leaves and become dormant. Singh et al. (12) ted that dormancy in ber was characterized by leaf f cessation of growth, development of dark tan color hard and pubescent scales on the buds, dehydration buds, and bark having reduced nitrogen content.

Page 389

B. Propogation The vegetative propagation of improved selected varieties is most important to make ber cultivation economically viable. Generally, onebudded plants are preferred for commercial plantation. Among the various propagation methods, ring budding and shield or T budding have been quite common and successful. Propagation by cutting and air layering has also been tried, but with little success. C. Cultural Practices 1. Planting, Training, and Pruning

1906/2989

Ber is planted 8 m apart in a square system. Prior to planting, pits of 1 1 1 m are dug at 8 8 m distance. The pits are filled with original soil mixed with 50 kg of farmyard manure, 2 kg of superphosphate, and 30 g of Aldrex dust (5% Aldrin) or 50 g of BHC 5% dust. Transplanting in the field in JulySeptember is most favorable for maximum success (13). It is better to plant local varieties and use that root stock for in-situ budding with improved varieties. This favors better growth and adoption to environmental conditions than transplanting the plants in the field. The ber plants are trained during the first 23 years to have a strong frame. About five to six main primary branches are kept within a height of 12 m, well spaced in all directions. This enables the plant to grow in good and balanced shape. The fruit is borne in the axils of leaves on young growing shoots of the current year. Pruning of the ber tree is highly desirable. Hence, regular annual pruning is necessary to

1907/2989

induce good healthy growth which will provide maximum fruit-bearing area on the tree. This is also necessary to avoid crowding. The best time for pruning is the hot dry season, when the tree sheds leaves and goes to rest. This is generally done after fruits have been harvested. Improper pruning leads to hormonal and nutritional imbalances within the tree and may reduce the yield of subsequent crops considerably. 2. Manuring, Fertilization, and Irrigation.

1908/2989

Full-grown trees are fertilized with 2550 kg of farmyard manure during the dormant period. One kilogram of calcium ammonium nitrate (CAN) per tree is applied in two split doses, 50% of the dose during the rainy season (JulyAugust) and 50% at the time of fruit set. Additional application of nitrogen up to 500 g improved fruit set, reduced fruit drop, and markedly improved yield (14). Singh and Singh (15) reported the use of fertilizer in improving ber yield. Plants need irrigation until they establish and grow normally, but full-grown trees do not need much irrigation due to the tap root system and as they shed leaves during summer months. One or two irrigations are given during development of fruit to obtain higher yields. D. Pests and Diseases and Their Control

1909/2989

In general, ber plants are free from most of the dangerous pests and diseases. However, sometimes fruit flies and fruit borers (Meridarchis scyrodes Meyr.) are observed in ber orchards. The adult fly (Carpomyia vesuviana) makes hole and lays eggs inside the immature fruits. These eggs hatch in about 12 days and maggots come out of the eggs. The maggots start feeding on the fruit pulp and take about 10 days to complete their growth. The adults come out of the fruit and fall to the ground. Infected fruits subsequently drop, causing huge losses. Fruit flies can be controlled by spraying 50% carbaryl (Savin) (2 kg) and wettable sulfur (1.25 kg) in 500 liters of water. Phosphamidon (100%) at the rate of 150 ml in 500 liters of water can be sprayed. Spraying should be done when flowering has started until fruit set and can be repeated two to three times at an interval of 1015 days. The fallen infected fruits should be destroyed, and the area should be kept clean. Hairy

1910/2989

caterpillar (Euproctis fraterna) and beetles are also major pests of ber crops.

Table 2 Changes in Physicochemical Characteristics During R Days after Specific gravJuice Re harvest ity (g/ml) recovery TSS ( Acidity sug (%) Brix) (%) 0 1.100 39.4 12.4 0.23 2 1.092 39.4 12.6 0.23 4 1.090 42.5 13.2 0.20 6 1.087 41.2 17.2 0.18 8 0.997 30.1 18.0 0.16 Source: Ref. 9.

Among diseases, powdery mildew is often serious i leaves, flowers, and fruits. Infected tissue becomes detracting from the appearance of fruits. It can be c (250 g) in 100 liters of water in July, September, an (Isariopsis sp.), Cladosporium, and Alternaria leaf of ber crop. E. Harvesting and Postharvest Handling

1912/2989

The fruits are set in monsoon and are ready for harv vested when they turn light green or yellowish gree bit later. Specific gravity can be used as an index of (Table 2). Kadam et al. (9) suggested that ber fruits gravity of the fruit is 1.1. Trees in their fourteenth t kg of fruits per year. After harvesting, fruits are gra ing and/or the size of the fruit. They are packed in p bags before marketing. IV. Chemical Composition

Ber fruit is a good source of vitamins, and minerals protein, phosphorus, calcium, carotene, and vitamin C, vitamin A, and B complex. It also excels orange (1). The chemical composition of ber fruit is given have been reported to contain 212% sugar, 0.32.5% mg/100 g vitamin C (16). The concentration of vita the skin and more in upper part than in the
Table 3 Nutritional Composition of Ber Fruits Constituent Range Moisture (%) 7982 pH

Constit

1913/2989

Starch (%) TSS ( Brix) Total sugar (%) Reducing sugars (%) Nonreducing sugars (%)

0.721.15 1221 3.14.5 1.49.7 1.39.7

Acidity (%) Protein (%) Total ash (%) Ascorbic acid (mg

styler end (17). Mature fruits contain polyphenols a were detected in the fruits. Ber seed contains sapon ber fruit is believed to purify blood and help in dige V. Storage

Ber fruits stored at ambient temperature have a sho life of ber fruits (20). The weight loss of ber fruits w fruits stored at 4C for 8 days. During storage of be cing sugars increased up to 6 days and decreased th ition of matured green fruits stored at ambient temp age life of the fruits can be improved by harvesting VI. Processing

Ber fruits can be processed into different products s (2131). The selection of ber varieties for commerci depends on various factors such as weight of seed, the fruit. A. Pulp and Juice

1915/2989

Juicy varieties are better suited for extraction of pul veloped a process for extraction of ber juice. The fu and Kadaka varieties were washed with clean water The juice was extracted in a juicer and was allowed at the surface of juice was removed using a stainles through four layers of muslin cloth. It was then filte ately, the juice, after removing scum, was centrifug was about 40% (on a fresh-weight basis). The comp The juice can be used to prepare beverage and wine B. Beverage

Ber juice can be used for preparation of ready-to-se The RTS was evaluated by a panel of semitrained j The results

Table 4 Changes in Physicochemical Characteristics During S Days after Specific gravity Juice TSS ( Acidity harvest (g/ml) recovery (%) Brix) (%) 0 1.100 39.4 12.4 0.23 2 1.092 39.4 12.6 0.23 4 1.090 42.5 13.2 0.20 6 1.087 41.2 17.2 0.18

1916/2989

8 SEM C.D. at 5%

0.997 0.002 0.006

30.1 0.06 0.18

18.0 0.14 0.44

0.16 0.008 0.025

Page 392 Table 5 Composition of Juice from Ber Fruits Cultivar Constituent Umran Kadaka Seed (%) 11 13 Juice recovery (%) 40 38 TSS (%) 16.0 10.4 Acidity (%) 0.24 0.36 Ascorbic acid (mg/100 ml) 102.8 94.1 Reducing sugars (%) 4.18 4.55 Source: Ref. 22

indicated that good-quality RTS can be prepared from ber juice at relatively low cost. However, the beverage has no appealing flavor. Whatever flavor exists in fresh juice does not remain after a few days. Khurdiya (26) reported that carbonated beverage of ber was highly acceptable and had excellent keeping quality C. Dried Ber and Powder.

1918/2989

Khurdiya and Singh (27) prepared dehydrated ber by treating fruits with sulfur dioxide at 3.510 g/kg for 3 h followed by drying in the sun for 710 days or in a cabinet drier at 60C for 2035 h, until the moisture content of the product was reduced to 15%. They recommended storage of dehydrated ber in 400-gauge polyethylene bags. The product can be consumed as such or can be reconstituted in a 10% sugar solution to be consumed as a liquid beverage. A process for drying of ber fruits has been developed by Chavan et al. (24). The dried fruits can also be soaked in syrup for 24 h and cooked for 10 min to prepare ber candy. Powder has been prepared successfully from ber fruits (24) D. Candy, Slices, and Tutti-Frutti

1919/2989

Ber fruits can be utilized for preparation of candy by a sugar syruping process (2931). Recently, a method of preparing ber candy has been standardized to obtain a product with an attractive golden yellow color and better storage life (22). The fruits were pricked and destoned with a cork borer. They were then blanched in boiling water for 23 min and subjected to sulfur treatment (2 g/kg for 2 h). Syrup containing 40% sugar and 1% citric acid was prepared, and the fruits were steeped in it for 24 h. The sugar content of the syrup was subsequently increased to 50% and 60%, and the fruits were steeped in these syrups for 24 h (Fig. 1). Subsequently, the fruits were kept in 70% syrup for 78 days. Then the fruits were dried at ambient temperature for 48 h or until the moisture content was reduced to 1618%. The resultant candy was packed in polythene bags and stored at room temperature. The composition of ber candy is given in Table 6. Ber candy was also prepared from dried ber

1920/2989

by steeping them in syrup for 24 h and cooking for 10 min E. Wine Like other fruit juices, ber juice can be used for preparation of wine. Kainsa et al. (23) reported the preparation of wine from ber pulp. The pulp was diluted with water in 1:1 proportion. Pectinase

Page 393

Fig. 1 Flowchart for preparation of ber tutti-frutti. Table 6 Chemical Composition of Candy Ber Cultivar Constituent Umran Kadaka Moisture (%) 18.7 17.1 Sugars:

1922/2989

Total (%) Reducing (%) Nonreducing (%) Acidity (%) Ascorbic acid (mg/100 g) Source: Ref. 22

76.1 30.0 45.7 0.72 25.9

71.4 29.3 40.9 0.66 35.2

Page 394

enzyme was added at the rate of 5 ml/liter. After 24 h incubation, juice was extracted through muslin cloth. Sugar was added to the juice to bring the Brix to 23. Inoculum of yeast (S. cerevisiae strain ellipsodeus) was added at a 10% level, and the juice was kept for fermentation. When the Brix reading reached 10, the pomace was removed and more sugar (10 g/100 ml) was added to the fermenting mash. After 8 days, the wine was racked and kept for cold stabilization at 5C for 10 days. It was racked again and clarified using agar:bentonite mixture (2:1) at the rate of 0.1 g/100 ml. Adsule et al. (28) also reported that good-quality wine can be prepared from ber juice. F. Jam and Jelly

1924/2989

Morton and Morton (25) reported that an excellent jelly could be prepared from unripe ber fruits by adding a proper amount of pectin and acid to this fruit or by mixing it with other fruits. The jam prepared from ber fruits was leathery due to the presence of mucilaginous compounds in the fruits. References 1. Pareek, O. P., The Ber, Indian Council of Agricultural Research, New Delhi, 1983, p. 5. 2. Rendle, A. B., The Classification of Flowering Plants, Vol. II, Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, 1959. 3. Nijjar, G. S., Ber cultivation, Punjab Hort. J. 15:3 (1975).

1925/2989

4. Munier, P., Le jujubier et sa culture (The jujube and its cultivation), Fruits 28(5):377 (1973). 5. Riley, J. M., The Chinese jujube, Calif. Fruit Growers Yearbook I:35 (1970). 6. Yamdagni, R., Ber, Fruits of India, Tropical and Subtropical (T.K. Bose, ed.), Naya Prokash, Calcutta, 1985. 7. Khoshoo, T. N., and N. Singh, Cytology of North-West Indian trees Zizyphus jujuba and Z. rotundifolia, Silvac Gen. 12:141 (1963). 8. Kuliev, A. A., and R. M. Akhundov, Changes in ascorbic acid and catechin contents in Zizyphus jujuba fruit during ripening, Uchenye Zap. Azreb Un. T. Ser. Biol. Nauk 3/4:54 (1975).

1926/2989

9. Kadam, S. S., P. M. Kotecha, and R. N. Adsule, Changes in physico-chemical characteristics and enzyme activities during ripening of ber (Zizyphus mauritiana Lamk) fruits, Indian Food Packer 43:5 (1993). 10. Caldeira, G. C. N., As modificacoes no contendo tanico de alguns fruits tropicais durante a maturacao (Modification in tannin contents of some tropical fruits during ripening), Rev. Estud Ger. Univ. Mocambique Ser II, Cienc Biol. Agron. 4:335 (1967). 11. Dhankhar, O. P., M. Makhiya, and R. S. Singh, Effect of salinity levels on germination of seeds and growth of transplanted seedlings of ber (Zizyphus rotundifolia), Int. Symp. Arid Zone Research and Development. Jodhopur, Feb. 1416, 1978.

1927/2989

12. Singh, P., J. C. Bakshi, and S. P. Jaiswal, Physico-chemical changes in relation to the dormancy in jujube, Indian J. Agr. Sci. 44:634 (1974). 13. Pareek, O. P., Quicker way to raise ber orchards, Indian Hort. 23:5 (1978). 14. Yamdagni, R., P. N. Bajpai, and R. S. Misra, Pollination, fruit set and fruit development studies in ber (Zizyphus mauritiana Lamk), Labdev J. Sci. Tech. 6 b(1):101 (1968). 15. Singh, J. P., and I. S. Singh, Some promising varieties of ber, Indian Hort. 18:3 (1973). 16. Tasmatov, L. T., Chinese dateA valuable fruit crop, Sedi Ogo rod 3:63 (1956).

1928/2989

17. Kriventsov, V. I., S. V. Karahanova, and G. G. Savina, Distribution of vitamin C in fruits of Zizyphus jujuba, Bull. Oos Nikitsk Bot. Sada 2:57 (1970). 18. Kriventsov, V. I., and S. V. Karakhanowa, The rutin content of jujube fruits, Byulleten Gosudars Hovennogo Nikitskogo Botani Cheskogo Sada 3:57 (1970).

Page 395

19. Kawai, K. I., T. Akiyama, Y. Oghava, and S. Shibata, A new sapogenin in saponins of Zizyphus jujuba, Hovenia dukis and Bacopa monniera, Phytochemistry 13:2829 (1974). 20. Kadam, S. S., P. M. Kotecha, B. A. Chougule, and A. J. Shivgaje, Storage behavior of ber: Effect of postharvest precooling and packaging treatment, J. Maharashtra Agr. Univ., in press. 21. Gharate, A. N., Studies on preparation of candy from ber, M.Sc. (Agr.) thesis, Mahatma Phule Krishi Vidyapeeth, Rahuri, India, 1984. 22. Kadam, S. S., U. D. Chavan, and V. A. Dhotre, Processing of ber. I. Preparation of ready-to-serve beverage and candy, Beverage and Food World 18(3):13 (1991).

1930/2989

23. Kainsa, R. L., and O. P. Gupta, Postharvest studies on ber fruits (Zizyphus mauritiana Lamk). II. Preparation of wine, Haryana Agr. Univ. Res. J. 9(3):260, (1979). 24. Chavan, U. D., R. N. Adsule, and S. S. Kadam, Processing of ber III. Preparation of ber powder and tutti-frutti, Beverage and Food World, 20(4):28, (1994). 25. Morton, K., and J. Morton, Fifty Tropical Fruits of Nassau, Text House, Coral Gables, FL, 1955. 26. Khurdiya, D. S., Carbonation in fruit beverages, Beverage and Food World 16(2):9 (1989). 27. Khurdiya, D. S., and R. N. Singh, Ber and its products, Indian Hort. 20:15 (1975).

1931/2989

28. Adsule, R. N., B. A. Chougule, P. M. Kotecha, and S. S. Kadam, Processing of ber II. Preparation of wine, Beverage and Food World 19(5):16 (1993). 29. Gupta, O. P., R. L. Kainsa, and K. S. Chauhan, Postharvest studies on ber fruitsPreparation of candy, Haryana Agr. Univ. J. Res. X(2):163 (1980). 30. Gupta, O. P., R. L. Kainsa, K. S. Chauhan, and S. S. Dhawan, Postharvest studies in ber fruit. Comparison of sugars for the preparation of candies, Haryana Agr. Univ. J. Res. XII(3):389 (1981). 31. Gupta, O. P., R. L. Kainsa, and S. S. Dhawan, Postharvest studies in ber fruits. Evaluation of cultivars for candy making, Haryana Agr. Univ. J. Res. XI(4):490 (1981).

Page 397

17 Cherry
Babasaheb B. Desai Mahatma Phule Agricultural University, Rahuri, Maharashtra, India D. K. Salunkhe Utah State University, Logan, Utah I. Introduction

1933/2989

Cherries are eaten either as dessert fruit or more conveniently in a brined, frozen, or canned state. DeCandolle (1) reported that the cherry first grew wild in northern Persia and the Russian provinces south of the Caucasus. From there, it spread rapidly because of its attractiveness to birds; hence the name Prunus avium L. or bird cherry. The sour or tart cherry, Prunus cerasus L., is characterized both by the taste of its fruit and by the spreading characteristics of the tree (2). The United States, the former Soviet Union, and Germany are large producers of both sweet and sour cherries (3). In some areas of northern Europe, sour cherries are the second most important fruit grown, after apples. Otherwise, within Europe, sour cherry production is concentrated in Eastern EuropeYugoslavia, Hungary, and Romaniawhile sweet cherry production is more common in Western EuropeItaly, Switzerland, France, and Spain. In the United States, sweet cherry production is mostly in the

1934/2989

West, primarily in Washington, but also in Oregon and California. Most U.S. sour cherry production occurs near the Great Lakes, primarily in Michigan, where 7075% of the U.S. crop is grown (4). II. Botany

1935/2989

The sweet cherry (Prunus avium) and the sour (red) cherry (P. cerasus) have their commercial origin in Europe. Sweet cherries were once known as bird cherries, as their name (avium) indicates. Duke cherries are probably hybrids between sweet and red tart cherries. The most common native cherry of the United States is the choke-cherry (P. virginiana), grown in eastern parts, and P. dimissa, cultivated largely in western regions of the United States. Sweet cherries can be divided into two major types based on fruit characteristics (4). Heart-type cherries are void or heart-shaped, with relatively soft flesh and often with early ripening (5). Most of the commercially important cultivars, however, are of the bigarreau type, with firmer, crisp-fleshed fruit and

Page 398

ripening mid to late season. Fruit flesh skin may be dark (red to nearly black) or light (yellow-red to yellow-white). A. Cultivars.

1937/2989

Sweet cherry cultivars grown throughout the world include Napoleon (Royal Ann), Black Tartarian, Eagle, Early Purple, Early Rivers, Elkhorn, Hedelfingen, Knight's Early Black, Lyon Schmidt, Windson, Van, Sam, Vista, Victor Sue, Vega, Summit, Stella, Chinook, Rainier, Bing, Lambert, Black Republican, Corum, Hoskins, Chapman, Burbank, Bush, Tartarian, Mona, Larian, Jubillee, Berryessa and Bada, Ulster, Hudson, and Angela (4). The most important sweet cherry cultivars in the western United States, where 80% of the U.S. crop is grown, are Bing (the leading cultivar in North America), Van, and Lambert, although others may be available because of their use as pollinizers. Bing is mainly a fresh market cultivar (5), and Lambert is used both for canning and fresh market. Black Republican and other very firm, dark cherries are good for freezing (4).

1938/2989

Sour cherry fruits are generally soft, juicy, and depressed globose in shape, but colors may range from Morello types, with red to dark red flesh and juice, to the Amarelle types, with nearly colorless juice and flesh. There are several sour cherry cultivars grown in North America, ranging from the light red, early Richmond, to the medium red-skinned Montmorency, to the late dark red English Morello. Montmorency is the standard (4). In Western Europe, Schattenmorelle and Sternsbaer are common, but many others are grown in Russia, Yugoslavia, Romania, and Hungary. Unlike sweet cherries, most are more or less self-fertile and generally do not require pollinizers. B. Fruit Development

1939/2989

In sweet cherry, flowering takes place in July, after the crop is harvested. Flowers are in clusters of two to four, usually borne laterally on short spurs on 2-year-old twigs or near the base of 1-year-old shoots. Flowers generally have a single pistil, but in very hot summers may form two pistils that result in undesirable double fruits. With few exceptionse.g., Stella and its progeny, commercial sweet cherry cultivars are self-sterile (self-incompatible) and therefore require another cultivar for pollination (6). There are, however, intrasterile groups, where none of the group will cross-pollinate any other member of the group. Bing, Lambert, and Napoleon are one such group.

1940/2989

Sour cherry flowers develop much like sweet cherry, with buds of two to four flowers on either spurs or lateral buds. Sour cherry cultivars range from compatible to self-incompatible. Montmorency, for example, is only partially compatible, but is always grown without a pollinator. Fruit set clearly limits yield of the fully incompatible cultivars, but overcropping may occur in other cultivars, with overflowering or excessive fruit set resulting in too few leaves or leaf buds to size the fruit properly. In both sweet and sour cherries, flower development and fruit set may frequently be harmed by late frosts, although sour cherry is hardier and generally blooms later than sweet cherry (6). III. Production A. Soil and Climate

1941/2989

Sour cherries are more adoptable to a wide range of climatic conditions, producing fruit even under cold, dry conditions if there is sufficient moisture in soil. The ideal soil and the one required

Page 399

by sweet cherries is well drained, deep loam with plenty of moisture supplied from below but no standing surplus water (7). B. Propagation Cherries are propagated by grafting. The common rootstocks Mazzard and Mahaleb only slightly affect tree size. Colt is similar, and may be somewhat drought and cold susceptible. Recently, however, dwarfing root stocks have been developed in several breeding programs, and these are being tested. For example, of 17 cherry rootstocks developed in Giessen, Germany, most produce relatively large trees, but two give trees about 25% of the standard, and several developed in Belgium also seem promising (8). C. Cultural Practices

1943/2989

Planting 1-year-old trees permits early training of the growth. Sweet cherry trees can be set out directly where they are to remain. Sour cherry trees, being smaller, are less apt to be injured if grown another year in rows a few feet apart before permanent planting (7). When planting varieties of sweet cherries, it is well to be sure that they are capable of self-pollination or that another good pollinizing variety is planted near them. A solitary sour cherry tree can set fruit, but often a sweet cherry tree cannot, unless there is another variety nearby to provide the necessary cross-pollination. Clean cultivation and cover cropping are practiced in cherry orchards. Sweet cherries often do well on a lawn; sour cherries, being shallow rooted, are more successful as lawn trees. Sour cherry trees bear fruits on 1-year twigs and the remainder on spurs on older wood. Pruning is very much like that for apple trees.

1944/2989

D. Disorders, Diseases, and Pests Sweet cherries are subject to cracking (swelling followed by rupture of epidermis) when the matured cherries are caught in rain for some time. This is due mainly to absorption of water directly through the skin of the fruit (4). Therefore, attempts are being made to develop crack-resistant types in sweet cherries. It is not yet clear if cracking may be reduced by some chemical or hormonal treatment or by auxin and gibberellin applications (4). The covering of trees with plastic film has been widely followed to avoid cracking in Norway. Pitting of sweet cherry is a condition in which areas near the surface of the fruit become sunken, forming dimples or pits (4). It may occur before or after harvest due to bruising during harvesting and handling, feeding by sucking insects, and perhaps from physiological injuries such as adverse low-temperature stress during postharvest cooling (4).

1945/2989

Gummosis (bacterial canker) is one of the most important diseases of sweet and sour cherries (9,10). It is caused by two different pathogens, Pseudomonas syringae and P. morsprunorum. Gummosis is characterized by oozing of gum at infection sites (4). Brown rot caused by Monilinia fructicola or M. laxa is a common disease of the cherry. It causes blossom and twig blight and also rotting of the fruit. Black rot frequently attacks sour cherries and is difficult to control (9).

1946/2989

Crown gall caused by Agrobacterium tumefaciens can affect sweet and sour cherry root stocks and is characterized by galls forming usually near infection sites caused by wounds. Cherry leaf spot (Blumeriella jaapii (Coccomyces hiemalis) is another serious disease affecting sour and most ground cherries. Infection occurs on leaves. Severely infected leaves become chlorotic and abscise, and if defoliation is severe, fruit may not ripen properly and tree vigor and hardiness are

Page 400

reduced. Cherry die-back is thought to be a complex of several disorders, one of which may be a mycoplasma. X-disease, leafhopper transmitted and often devastating, is also due to a mycoplasma (4). Several viruses cause poor vegetative growth, reduce yields, and may even result in tree death, but others are symptomless. Among the most severe is Prunus necrotic ringspot virus, which is pollen-transmitted and present in all cherrygrowing areas of the world. Little cherry (prune dwarf) disease is another pollen-transmitted virus and very destructive. Prunus stem-pitting disease is caused by the tomato ringspot virus and is spread by nematodes (4).

1948/2989

Bird damage can be very serious, and some areas may require protective netting to reduce predation. The cherry fruit fly passes the winter in the soil as a pupa. Adult flies emerge in late spring, and females feed on surfaces of leaves and fruit and lay eggs in the nearly ripe fruit. Upon hatching, the larvae (maggots) feed on the fruit flesh. The larvae are easily killed by holding fruit near 0C, but fumigation, often with methyl bromide, may be required to meet quarantine restrictions for shipping overseas. Other pests include black cherry aphid, plum curculio, European red mite, peach tree borer, and twospotted mite (4). E. Harvesting

1949/2989

Practically all of the red tart cherry which is canned or frozen is harvested mechanically. Limb shakers or trunk shakers mounted either on self-propelled catching frames or on tractors which move the frames are commonly employed for this purpose (10). Special care is needed to handle the fruit gently during and following harvest to avoid physical injury to the fruit. Cherries from the catching frames are transferred into pallet tanks containing cold water to avoid bruising. Internal darkening of bruised fruit can be minimized by prompt and continuous cooling of the fruit from tree to processing line. Except for a small proportion of cherries required for brining, sweet cherries are harvested after full maturity. For the fresh market they are rarely harvested mechanically. Wittenberger et al. (11) stated that chemical harvest aids such as ethylene-releasing compounds (Ethrel) in the mechanical harvesting of cherries are being developed in the United States.

1950/2989

The harvest maturity of red sweet cherries can be judged by a change in color from light red to black. The soluble solids content of sweet cherries varies from 15 to 22%. Maturity indices, such as color, specific gravity, flesh firmness, light reflectance of surface color, and soluble solids by refractometer or balling hydrometer, have been employed successfully to judge the picking maturity of cherries (9). Kaffka and Crabaffy (12) predicted the quality of sweet cherries, sour cherries, apricots, and plums at different stages of maturity by measuring the optical density (OD) values at two different characteristic wavelengths of the transmission spectra. The OD values measured at one of the wavelengths was greatly influenced by the anthocyanin content. For sour cherries (cultivar P 141), OD values at 585 and 700 nm could be used to predict dry-matter content, those at 588 and 717 nm could be used to predict acid content, and those at 585 and 610 nm could be used

1951/2989

to predict sugar content by refraction. The fruit moisture status influences the textural and mechanical properties of harvested sweet cherries (13). IV. Composition. Cherries are rich in sugars, which contribute 5060% of total dry matter in red tart cherries. Fructose is a major sugar in dessert cherries (Table 1). Sorbitol and mannitol have also been detected in cherry pulp. Maleic acid has been found to represent 7595% of total nonvolatile acid in red tart cherries. The presence of cyanidin-3 monoglucoside is reported in tart cherries.

Page 401 Table 1 Chemical Composition of Dessert Cherries Constituent Content Moisture (%) 83.7 Total sugars (%) 13.04 0.10 Sucrose (%) 4.70 Glucose (%) 7.24 Fructose (%) Proteins (%) 0.7 Ascorbic acid (mg/100g) 1356 Source: Ref. 2

Carotenoids are present in some cherries and range in concentration from 1.2 to 9.5 m/g tissue (9). The vitamin C content of cherries was found to range from 13 to 56 mg/100 g of edible fruit, depending on variety (9). Volatile compounds which have been reported in cherry include methanol, ethanol, butanol, pentanol, octanol, geraniol, ethyl acetate, and benzyldehyde (14)

1953/2989

V. Storage Prompt cooling of sweet cherries to 0C and holding at -0.61.1C and 9095% relative humidity have been recommended (10). However, the postharvest life of cherries, even under low-temperature conditions, is limited to about 23 weeks due to their highly perishable nature (15). Sweet cherries lose flavor and color if stored longer than 3 weeks (9). Cherry fruits stored at 0C were superior to fruits stored at 4.5C (15). Andre et al. (16) reported that red cherries can be stored for about 1 month if healthy but not too mature fruit is vacuum-precooled rather than water-cooled and stored at 1C in sealed bags in a controlled atmosphere (5% O2 and 20% CO2)

1954/2989

The fruit freshness and bright red color of cherries can be preserved for about 3 weeks if the fruits are sealed in polyethylene box liners, evidently due to high CO2 and lower O2 concentrations created in the packages (17). Salunkhe and Norton (18) demonstrated that a semipermeable polyethylene packaging material controlled secondary infection of strawberries and cherries and modified the atmosphere around the fruit. The increase in shelf life and retention of fruit quality were attributed to retarding effects of packaging material on respiration and transpiration. Singh et al. (19) found that the rate of CO2 evolution in controlled-atmosphere (CA)-stored Lambert sweet cherries was lower than that of conventionally stored fruit at 0C. Patchen and Schomer (20) also recommended enclosing packages of cherries in polyethylene bags to protect them during short-duration transit periods of about 4 days. Dry ice may be used in refrigerated cars and in paper wrappers to

1955/2989

produce an initial concentration of 20% CO2 and a corresponding reduction of O2, which helps to preserve the bright red color of cherries and the green color of the stems and also to control postharvest decay. The concentration of gas in the car, however, diminishes during transit to about zero within a few days. Newer, lighter equipment being developed can maintain the gas concentration for longer periods (21) Schomer and Olsen (22) reported that CA storage (10% CO2) was advantageous in prolonging the storage life of cherries. Their results, however, indicated that the benefits of CA storage were no better than those obtained in sealed polyethylene liners. CA storage did not retard moisture loss. Porritt and Mason (23) also found that CA storage (610% CO2 and 1.53.0% O2) of cherries did not prove advantageous in comparison with storage of fruit in sealed polyethylene

Page 402

bags. Sweet cherries (cultivar Bing) stored at 0.52.0% O2 and 0.03% CO2 maintained a higher percentage of very green stems, brighter fruit color, and a higher level of titratable acids (TA) than high-CO2 atmospheres which conserved fruit brightness and TA level but did not prevent stem discoloration. The fruit firmness increased slightly after storage due to lowering of temperature from 5.6 to 1.1C (24).

1957/2989

Salunkhe and Wu (25) reported that subatmospheric pressure (102 mm Hg) extended the storage life of sweet cherries up to 93 days, in comparison with 60 days of life of the control fruit. The subatmospheric pressure delayed the loss of chlorophyll for up to 60 days. The lower the subatmospheric pressure, the slower were the losses of sugars and acids (Fig. 1). There were no significant differences in the anthocyanins and sugar contents of the treated and control sweet cherries at the end of the storage. Subatmospheric pressure at 102 mg Hg significantly retarded the growth and sporulation of Pencillium expansum, Aspergillus niger, Botrytis alli, and Alternaria sp.

1958/2989

Salunkhe (26) reported the effects of varying doses of gamma irradiation (0, 2, 3, and 4 105 rad) on four cultivars of sweet cherries (Bing, Lambert, Napoleon, and Windsor). Irradiated cherries stored at 0C were evaluated for mold growth and taste quality every seventh day, starting 8 days after irradiation for 63 days. Salunkhe (26) found that with an increase in radiation, the fruit of all cultivars showed an increase in refrigeration life. Adjusted taste preference scores increased with higher radiation. As the storage period increased, nonirradiated cherries became progressively riper, but those irradiated at 2, 3, and 4 105 rad exhibited less ripening. They also noted that the adjusted taste preference scores for these varieties declined progressively as the storage period advanced, regardless of the radiation dose. The Bing cultivar appeared to be the best of all for preservation by radiation (26,27).

1959/2989

The treatment of sour cherries (cultivar Suda) with 0, 1, 3, and 5 105 rad at 4.4, 21.1, 37.8, and 54.4C and storage at 4.4C for 7 weeks showed no consistent changes in quality with increase in radiation temperature. The adjusted preference scores increased with advanced radiation dose, indicating progressive inhibition of mold as the dose levels became larger. The juice of fruit at the

1960/2989

Fig. 1 Effects of subatmospheric pressure storage on (A) anthocyanin and (B) total sugars of sweet cherries. (From Ref. 25.)

Page 403

higher (3 105 rad) doses of radiation was clearer and lighter than the juice of cherries at the lower (1 105 rad) dose (26).

1962/2989

Salunkhe and Norton (14) found that treatment of cherries and strawberries with antibiotics such as Candicidin, Myprozine, and Amphotericin B inhibited fungal growth. In addition to Captan, Dowicide A and DHA-S also showed significant fungicidal effects on strawberries and cherries and maintained the natural color of the fruit. The treatment of sweet cherries with dips, sprays, and wax formulations containing 100300 ppm benomyl or 10002000 ppm thiabendazole gave excellent control of brown rot (Monilinia sp.), but were not effective against Rhizopus rot or Alternaria rot (28,29). Rhizopus rot of sweet cherries can be controlled effectively by dipping the fruit immediately after harvest (30,31) in a suspension of 1000 ppm 2,6-dichloro-4-nitroaniline (DCNA). These workers (30,31) found that DCNA was comparatively less effective against postharvest decays of stone fruit caused by Monilinia fructicola (brown rot) and Penicillium sp. Both the pre-

1963/2989

and postharvest treatments which resulted in residues of 23 ppm DCNA or greater on the fruit provided adequate control of Rhizopus rot (32). The use of wax coating on cherry reduces moisture loss during ambient storage, enhances cuticular diffusive resistance, and retards the incidence of decay (15). VI. Processing

1964/2989

Cherries are processed into various canned, frozen, and dehydrated products (33,34). Red tart pitted cherries can be freeze-dehydrated and compressed. Maraschino cherries are prepared by bleaching with 2% sodium chloride solution containing about 0.5% each of sulfur dioxide and calcium carbonate. The washed fruit is packed in jars with about 1220% sugar solution and pasteurized at about 74C for 3 min. Alternately, cherries can also be preserved with 1520% sugar solution containing about 0.1% sodium benzoate or 0.5% potassium metabisulfite. Cherries can be frozen after soaking the fruit in water containing calcium chloride and packing in slip-cover cans with sugar in 3:1 (fruit:sugar) proportion.

1965/2989

Dehydrated cherries (raisins) are prepared by dipping for 4 min in 2% bisulfite-citric acid solution and drying in a dehydrator. Some cherries are subjected to sulfur fumigation and then dried in a dehydrator to about 20% moisture. Some cherries are soaked in sugar solution for 2 h before sulfuring and drying (35). To make pickled sweet cherries, cherries are graded, washed, and preserved in quart jars using a pickling solution containing vinegar, water, sugar, and sodium chloride or calcium chloride. The solution is heated to 71C before being poured over the cherries (35). The jars are sealed and stored at ambient temperature. VII. Future Research Needs

1966/2989

Considerable genetic diversity still exists in Eastern Europe and Russia. Exploiting that diversity should do much to overcome the growing, handling, and processing problems using the industry standardsthe sweet Bing and the sour Montmorency (4). Sweet cherry growers need dwarfing root stocks and spur types for growth control, and all growers need disease and pest resistance and cultivars with a range of maturities so that there are longer seasons for fresh markets (4). Sweet cherry growers also need rain-cracking resistance, and postharvest quality resistance to bruising. Sour cherry growers need new cultivars to diversify and strengthen marketing options (e.g., fresh and frozen juice products, dyes for cosmetics and the food processing industry) and dry stem scars and small freestone pits to facilitate handling and processing. A combination of new marketing strategies and products for sour cherries and advances in breeding of both sweet and sour

1967/2989

cherries would clearly benefit the economic potential of the entire cherry industry (4).

Page 404

References 1. DeCandolle, A., Origin of Cultivated Plants, Hafner, New York, 1959. 2. Romani, R. J., and W. G. Jennings, Stone fruits, The Biochemistry of Fruits and their Products (A. C. Hulme, ed.), Academic Press, London, 1971, p. 411. 3. Brown, S. K., A. F. Iezzoni, and H. W. Fogle, Cherries, Advances in Fruit Breeding (J. Janick and J. Moore, eds.), Academic Press, London, 1991. 4. Loescher, W., Cherries, Encyclopaedia of Food Science Food Technology and Nutrition (R. Macrae, R. K. Robinson, and M. J. Sadler, eds.), Academic Press, London, 1993, p. 856.

1969/2989

5. Iezzoni, A., H. Schmidt, and A. Albertini, Cherries (Prunus spp.), Genetic Resources of Temperate Fruits and Nut Crops (J. N. Moore and J. R. Ballington, eds.), International Society for Horticultural Science, Wageningen, 1990, p. 110. 6. Westwood, M. N., Temperate Zone Pomology, W. H. Freeman, San Francisco, 1978. 7. Wilkinson, A. E., Cherry, The Encyclopaedia of Fruits, Berries and NutsAnd How to Grow Them, Shri Publishing House, New Delhi, 1988, p. 40. 8. Perry, R., Cherry rootstocks, Rootstocks for Fruit Crops (R. C. Rom and R. F. Carlson, eds.), Wiley-Interscience, New York, 1987, p. 217.

1970/2989

9. Salunkhe, D. K., and B. B. Desai, Deciduous fruitsstone fruits, Postharvest Biotechnology of Fruits, Vol. 1, CRC Press, Boca Raton, FL, 1984, p. 141. 10. Ryall, A. L., and W. T. Pentzer, Handling, Transportation and Storage of Fruits and Vegetables, Vol. 2, Fruits and Tree Nuts, AVI, Westport, CT, 1974. 11. Whittenberger, R. T., J. H. Levin, and M. J. Bukovac, Use of Ethrel in mechanical harvesting of Schmidt sweet cherries, Green Lakes Fruit Grower 10(9):4 (1971). 12. Kaffka, K. J., and A. Crabaffy, The correlation between quality parameters and optical transmittance of some stone fruits determined with a near-infrared composition analyzer (in Hungarian), Acta Aliment 10(1):75 (1981).

1971/2989

13. Pattern, K. D., and M. E. Patterson, Fruit moisture status effects on texture and mechanical properties of sweet cherries, J. Am. Soc. Hort. Sci. 110:537 (1985). 14. Schmid, M., and W. Grosch, Quantitative analysis of the volatile flavour compounds having high aroma values from sour (Prunus cerasus L.) and sweet (Prunus avium L.) cherry juices and jams, Z. Leb. Unt. Forsch. 183:39 (1986). 15. Drake, S. R., E. M. Kupferman, and J. K. Fellman, Bing sweet cherry (Prunus avium) quality as influenced by wax coating and storage temperature, J. Food Sci. 53:124 (1988). 16. Andre, P., R. Black, M. Buret, Y. Chambroy, C. Flanzy, C. Pelisse, and P. Dauple, Storage trials of red cherries for fresh consumption, Rev. Hort. 226:35 (1982); Hort. Abstr. 52, 5274 (1982).

1972/2989

17. Gerbardt, F., H. A. Schomer, and T. R. Wright, Sealed film lug liner for packing Bing cherries, U.S. Dept. of Agriculture AMS 121, 1956. 18. Salunkhe, D. K., and R. A. Norton, Packaging treatments extend storage life of fruit, Utah Agr. Exp. Sta. Farm Home Econ. Sci. 21:18 (1960). 19. Singh, B., N. A. Littlefield, and D. K. Salunkhe, Effect of CA storage on amino acids, organic acids, sugars and rate of respiration of Lambert sweet cherry fruit, J. Am. Soc. Hort. Sci. 95:458 (1970). 20. Patchen, G. O., and H. W. Schomer, Cooling and shipping sweet gift packages, U.S. Dept. of Agriculture, Agriculture Research Service 52, 1971.

1973/2989

21. Micke, W. C., and F. A. Mitchell, Handling California sweet cherries for fresh market, Calif. Agr. Circular 560, 1972. 22. Schomer, H. A., and K. L. Olsen, Storage of sweet cherries in controlled atmosphere, U.S. Dept. of Agriculture AMS 529, 1964. 23. Porritt, S. W., and J. L. Mason, Controlled atmosphere storage of sweet cherries, Proc. Am. Soc. Hort. Sci. 87:128 (1965). 24. Chen, P. M., W. M. Mellenthin, S. B. Kelly, and T. J. Facteau, Effects of low oxygen and temperature on quality retention of Bing cherries during prolonged storage, J. Am. Soc. Hort. Sci. 106: 533 (1981). 25. Salunkhe, D. K., and M. T. Wu, Effects of subatmospheric pressure storage on ripening and associated changes of certain deciduous fruits, J. Am. Soc. Hort. Sci. 98:113 (1973).

1974/2989

Page 405

26. Salunkhe, D. K., Gamma radiation effects on fruits and vegetables, Econ. Bot. 15(1):28 (1961). 27. Mahony, O., S. Y. Wong, and N. Odbert, Initial sensory evaluation of bing cherries treated with low doses of gamma radiation, J. Food Sci. 50:1048 (1985). 28. Beattie, B. B., and N. L. Outhred, Benzimidazole derivatives as postharvest fungicide to control rolling of peas, cherries and apricot, Austral. J. Exp. Agr. Animal Husb. 10:]51 (1970). 29. Smith, W. L., Jr., R. W. Penny, and R. Grossman, Control of postharvest brown rot of sweet cherries and peaches with chemical and heat treatments, U.S. Dept. of Agriculture Market Research Report 979, 1972.

1976/2989

30. Ogawa, J. M., S. D. Lyda, and D. J. Weber, 26 dichloro-4-nitroaniline effective against Rhizopus fruit rot of sweet cherries, Plant Dis. Rep. 45:636 (1961). 31. Cappellini, R. A., and A. W. Stretch, Control of postharvest decays of peaches, Plant Dis. Rep. 46:31 (1962). 32. Visagie, T. R., and G. J. Eksteen, Picking maturity of stone fruits, Deciduous Fruit Growers 31(8):312 (1981). 33. Torreggiani, D., R. Giangiacoryo, G. Bertolo, and E. Abbos. Research on the osmotic dehydration of fruits Part I. suitability of cherry varieties, Industria Conserve 61:101 (1986). 34. Torreggiani, D., E. Forni, and A. Rizzolo. Osmotic dehydration of fruit, part II. Influence of the osmosis time on the stability of processed cherries. J. Food Proc. Preserv. 12:27 (1988).

1977/2989

35. Salunkhe, D. K., H. R. Bolin, and N. Suthivanit, Production and quality of cherry raisins and pickles, Utah Sci. 29:4 (1968).

Page 407

18 Fig
U. T. Desai and P. M. Kotecha Mahatma Phule Agricultural University, Rahuri, Maharashtra, India I. Introduction

1979/2989

Fig is one of the oldest cultivated fruits. It has a symbiotic relationship with insects for fruit setting. The fleshy fruit is consumed fresh or in processed form, the dried form being the most popular. It can also be canned or used for candy or jam making. It is delicious, wholesome, and nutritious fruit. Figs are a good source of carbohydrates, including fiber. The fruits are rich in calcium, iron, and vitamins A and C. Fresh or dried, they are valued for laxative properties. Medicinal uses such as applications against boils and other skin infections have also been attributed to this fruit (1,2). Fig helps to maintain the acid-alkali balance of the body by very effectively neutralizing excess acid (3,4). Steam distillate of the fruit contains benzaldehyde, which has shown considerable antitumor activity (5). Leaves contain fluro-cumarins of medicinal use (6), and leaf oil contains germarene-D, an insect attractant (7). Fig latex is also useful to coagulate milk (8). Figs are grown

1980/2989

commercially in most of the countries bordering the Mediterranean Sea. They are also grown in the United States, although Greece, Algeria, Morocco, and Syria have become the largest producers, with 110,000, 77,000, 74,000, and 56,000 metric tonnes production, respectively (9). II. Botany

1981/2989

Fig (Ficus carica L.) belongs to the family Moraceae and has chromosome number 2n = 26. The tree is deciduous, medium sized, and irregularly branched. The fruit is a syconium (multiple accessory fruit) typea round, fleshy, hollow, and edible receptacle which bears numerous tiny unisexual flowers on its inner surface. An individual flower matures into a drupelet. The syconium has an opening at the distal end, the ostiole or orifice (Fig. 1). Each of the many flowers borne inside the syconium has four-parted sepals, no petals, and simple, long-styled, pistillate flowers in the edible figs. The syconium of the Capri fig contains many small pistillate or female flowers but with short styles. In addition, the Capri fig produces a number of staminate flowers

Page 408

Fig. 1 Caprifig and edible fig fruits showing flowers and fig wasp (Blastophaga psenes).

1983/2989

which are located around the ostiolum on the inner surface of the syconium. The staminate flowers have four anthers, each with two oval pollen sacs. Thus all edible figs produce only long-styled pistillate or female flowers. Only the Capri fig produces both staminate and pistillate flowers in the same receptacle, and these pistillate flowers have only short styles. The cultivated figs (cultivars) differ in their mode of pollination and fruit setting and are classified into different pomological groups. Capri fig is thought to be the originator of other cultivated figs (10). A. Cultivars.

1984/2989

Capri fig, Smyrna fig, common or Adriatic fig, and San Pedro fig are the four pomological groups of fig cultivars. Capri figs are inedible because they harbor blastophaga insects. They produce short-styled pistillate flowers (gall flowers), adopted for oviposition by the blastophaga, and functional male flowers located at the ostiole end with abundant pollen. When the insect emerges through the ostiole of the syconium, after oviposition in gall flowers, it carries several pollen grains from staminate flowers located near the ostiole. In this group (Capri fig), there are

Page 409

subgroups: Profichi, Mammoni, and Mamme. Profichi is the best pollinizer. The second group, Smyrna, is the most important cultivated type. It produces only long-styled pistillate flowers. The syconium does not develop into mature fruit unless these flowers are pollinated by pollens carried by the blastophaga from Capri figs. The third typecommon or Adriatic figalso bears only pistillate flowers; however, it needs no pollination. Fruits (syconia) mature parthenocarpically. The San Pedro type is intermediate between Smyrna fig and common fig. The first crop (breba or spring crop) of San Pedro develops parthenocarpically, while the main crop (SeptemberOctober) needs pollination by pollen from Capri fig.

1986/2989

Calimyrna (Lob Injir), Kassaba, and Tameriout are from the Smyrna type; Kadota (Dottato), Mission, Adriatic, Brown Turkey (Turkey), Celeste, Ischia, Marseillies, and Conadria are from the common fig; San Pedro (white San Pedro), King, and Gentle are the important cultivars from the San Pedro group. In the United States, Kadota, Mission, Adriatic, and Calimyrna are the major cultivars. Kadota is small, seedless, and creamy amber when ripe. It has been the principal drying cultivar grown in Italy for centuries. It has wider soil and climatic adaptability and forms the basis of the canned fig industry of California. Black Mission (Mission) has blue-black color with conspicuous bloom when ripe and excellent quality (11). It is marketed both fresh and dried, and keeps well preserved when frozen, as does Kadota. Calimyrna (Smyrna) is greenish-yellow to light lemon yellow, has a glossy surface with delicate bloom, and is the principal drying cultivar of

1987/2989

California and the Mediterranean countries (11). It has excellent quality, contains numerous fertile seeds, and looks attractive when packed. It is not suitable for freezing, as also the Brown Turkey (large sized, pyriform, violet-brown to purplish-black with amber-colored flesh). Celeste (small to medium sized, oblong-pyriform, firm flesh), Magnolia (large sized, violetbrown with amber flesh), Conadria (light yellow, red flesh, fine flavor), and Marseilles are other cultivars of some importance in the main fig-growing countries. Kadota and bianco grosso are found in Uzbekistan (12). In India, cultivars of the Adriatic type are considered natural hybrids between introduced types and Indian wild fig (13). Poona fig and Daulatabad fig are traditionally grown in India, the former being the most important. Dinkar, a new clonal selection from Daulatabad fig, is a heavy yielder (14). B. Fruit Development

1988/2989

Though it is a nonstony fruit, fig has a doublesigmoid growth pattern with two peaks and three stages of growth. During the first and third stages, fruit increases in size and weight, while the second stage is a lag phase where the fruit gains no weight. The fruit growth peaks are associated with endogenous auxins. The type of auxin varies with different stages of fruit growth (15). Exogenous applications of growth regulators influence the fruit growth. Ethrel application at the first stage of fruit growth causes fruit abscission. When applied at the end of the second stage, it enhances fruit maturity and quality (16), promotes growth, hastens ripening, and increases synthesis of ribonucleic acid (RNA), ribosomes, and protein (17,18). Amin (19) recommended a spray of 5 ppm gibberellic acid (GA) or 250 ppm Alar or 500 ppm cycocel (CCC) at the end of the second stage of fruit growth and again after 15 days. Fig is also a climateric fruit and experiences a sudden upsurge in ethylene

1989/2989

production with onset of climacteric rise at the end of the third stage (20). Ethylene causes autoinhibition of its production at early stages of fruit growth but not at ripening stage (21). The sugar content of fig increases gradually during the early stages of fruit development and during later stages (22). The glucose content of fig is always more than the fructose, regardless of cultivar and harvesting time (23). As the fruits mature, there is a slight decrease in polysaccharides, crude fiber, and protein. Aminov (24) reported 66.879.6% water, 1925% sugars, and

Page 410

1991/2989

0.160.27% acid in fresh figs. The sugar distribution in dried figs is about 50% glucose, 35% fructose, and 10% sucrose (25). Hirai et al. (26) reported that the reducing sugars in mature figs could be increased if the fruits are treated with linolenic acid, which accelerates maturation. The major acid in immature figs is citric acid, which decreases by 50% during maturation (27). Immature Kadota figs contain about 13% protein on a dry-weight basis at about 2 months before harvest. The protein content then decreases slowly during development for about 6 weeks, and rapidly thereafter to 3.9% (23). Pisarnichii et al. (28) identified 2-ethyl-1,2-dihydrothiophene as the principal aromatic compound in fig, besides vanillin, acetone, aliphatic acids, terpene, alcohols, aliphatic and aromatic alcohols, and aldehydes. Puech et al. (29) reported chlorophyll a and b, b-carotene, leutin, violoxanthin, and neoxanthin in immature green and ripe blue-black fruits of Black Mission. These

1992/2989

workers later reported that application of Ethephon at stage II of fruit development caused ripening within a week (30). This was associated with a rapid reduction in the epidermal levels of chlorophyll a and b, b-carotene, leutin, and neozanthin, and an increase in the rate of anthocyanin biosynthesis and accumulation. This anthocyanin synthesis was also observed to be a function of light intensity and duration. III. Production A. Soil and Climate

1993/2989

Figs can be grown in a wide variety of soils, ranging from heavy clay to light sandy soils. They can tolerate poorly drained soil to some extent, but well-drained, fertile soils are better for growth. Figs can also be grown on shallow soils (6090 cm depth), although they prefer deep soils owing to their deep rooting system. Figs need a certain amount of chilling and can even tolerate frost down to -8C (31). They can be grown up to an altitude of 1200 m. Some dry months are essential during fruit ripening. Figs make good growth when temperatures are about 1620C. B. Propagation

1994/2989

Fig is propagated vegetatively by cuttings, which root easily and grow rapidly. The cuttings are planted in nursery rows about 60 cm apart, with 2030 cm space within the row, in a shady place, and irrigated regularly. The rooted plants are transplanted in the rainy season. Pregirdling the cane 30 days before taking cuttings gives early rooting and better root development. Oxyethylene docosanol (4%) applied to transplanted rooted cuttings is reported to increase survival from 44 to 75% (32). Figs can also be propagated by air layering. In vitro propagation using shoot tips on MS media supplied with 0.18 mg naphthene acetic acid (NAA) + 0.1 mg benzyladenine (BA) + 0.03 mg GA/liter has been successful, and for root induction 0.5 mg each of NAA and indole butyric acid (IBA) per liter was found best (33). For high shoot proliferation, 89 mg phloroglucinol/liter was found to be optimum (34).

1995/2989

C. Cultural Practices 1. Planting Planting is carried out mostly in a square system. Pits of 60 cm3 are dug and exposed to sun for a couple of months. The spacing varies from 3 to 6 m, but 5 to 6 m gives best results in welldrained, fertile soils. Sera Fimova (35) reported that closer spacing (6 4 m) reduced growing period and tree size, but increased plant resistance to cold. Yield per unit area was more and the fruits matured earlier.

Page 411

2. Manuring and Fertilization Figs should be manured regularly from the first year. Farmyard manure (FYM) should be supplemented with inorganic fertilizers. One-yearold trees should be supplied with 9 kg of farmyard manure (FYM) and 455 g of cake or 35 g of N in the form of urea (36). The addition of manures should be increased progressively at the rate of 7 kg FYM, 450 g cake, or 35 g N every year. A 5-year-old fig tree should receive about 40 kg of FYM, 2 kg of cake, and 150 g of N (36). In fig, nitrogen is essential for vegetative growth and reproductive development, phosphorus for fruit color and maturation, and potassium for fruit yield and quality (37,38). 3. Irrigation.

1997/2989

During early growth and development, the water requirement of fig is very high, but irrigation should be reduced during ripening, since it results in production of insipid fruits or cracking of fruits. The absence of adequate or regular irrigation may result in production of small and hard fruits. During summer, irrigation may be repeated every 810 days. The trees are watered with two to three light irrigations after the rest period in September at an interval of 34 days, followed by good irrigation every 812 days depending on the soil and climatic conditions. With a drip irrigation system, weekly application and factor K = 0.4 for class A pan evaporation were found optimum by Olitta et al. (39). 4. Pruning and Training

1998/2989

Pruning is necessary to stimulate production of new growth which bears fruits, and training is required to produce a mechanically strong tree capable of bearing heavy crop and to facilitate cultural operations as well as harvesting of the crop (40). Pruning increases yield and fruit weight, and extends ripening period. Early cultivars respond better than late cultivars (41). In Egypt, moderate pruning, and deheading back by one-half, were found to be best (42). To control excessive growth, terminal pinching was found useful (43). Ringing the shoot at the base between the second and third nodes in mid-June gave added advantage (44). 5. Notching

1999/2989

Notching was recommended earlier (40) for Poona fig, but the practice is rarely followed. It involves two slanting cuts (46 mm) in the bark a little above the dormant bud, using a sharp knife. The slanting cuts do not allow the milky sap to flow over the buds and coagulate on them, retarding their growth. The notch should be about 2.5 cm long. The notched buds begin to swell within 4 days of the operation and sprout after 8 days. These shoots stop growing in July and become leafless in AugustSeptember, but they start growing again vigorously in October and begin to bear fruits from the basal portion. 6. Oleification

2000/2989

Oleification is a very old practice that consists of putting oil drops in the fruit through orifice. Olive oil was generally used. The operation is performed in the evening, shortly before sunset, about 15 days before maturity. In a day or two, the oiled fig begins to increase in size, and it reaches full maturity and color within 8 days (11). There are different views on use of this practice. Saad et al. (45) found that the best stage for oleification was 10 days after the fruit flesh begins to acquire a red color. Hirai et al. (46) found vegetable oil to be better than animal or mineral oil. Fruits were ready for harvest within 6 days, and they were of uniform maturity. D. Diseases and Pests and Their Control

2001/2989

Fruits are affected by surface mold, smudge, and spot rot. Circular, small, brown-to-black spots appear scattered over the entire surface of the affected fruit as they approach maturity. The

Page 412

2003/2989

associated spot rot is shallow in depth. Each disease has been reported on Kadota fruits and is more severe following periods of high humidity. One or more species of Cladosporium and Alternaria fungi have been associated with surface mold. The rotting of fruit, including spot-rot syndrome, is attributed primarily to species of Alternaria, whereas Cladosporium generally predominates in smudge lesions. C. herbarum and A. tenuis are known to be the causal agents in these disorders. Endosepsis (internal rot, brown rot) of figs is caused by the fungus Fusarium moniliforme Sheldon. Smut and mold of fruits are of worldwide occurrence in both edible and Capri figs. Smut (Aspergillus niger Van Tiegh) appears as a black powdery mass of spores in the pulp of the fruit cavity, and mold (Botrytis, Hormodendron, Penicillium and Rhizopus sp.) appears as pulp discolored gray, greenish, or yellowish. Botrytis cinerea also causes storage rot of fruit (47). Fig rust caused

2004/2989

by Cerotolium fici is a serious disease of the tree, affecting foliage. Sulfur dusting or spraying of Zineb (0.150.20%) or Dithane M-45 (0.25%) gives affective control. Fig mosac virus, leaf spot (Cylindrocladium scoparium), and anthracnose (Sphacelomas ficicaricae) are other important diseases of fig. Stem borer (Batocera rufomaculata) scales (Aspidiotus lataniae) and fig flies (Lonchaea aristella) are important insect pests of fig. The tree is also susceptible to nematodes. E. Maturity, Harvesting, and Handling

2005/2989

Dried figs are harvested in the autumn by picking them from the ground, where they fall after they have become ripe and somewhat dry. In most countries this is a hand operation, but in the United States the harvesting is mechanized (22). Wind machines mounted on trailers are sometimes used to gently blow against the trees, causing only ripe fruits to drop. A sweeper then mechanically removes the figs from the ground and conveys them into bulk bins. Fresh figs are hand picked from the tree, sorted, carefully packed in small boxes, and refrigerated for shipment to retail markets. A good harvest is about 12 tons/ha fresh figs. These are soaked for a few hours in the sun and for 8 days under shade. The weight of figs in this process is reduced to a little over one-third of the fresh weight.

2006/2989

The harvest maturity of figs is based on color and firmness. Black Mission figs should be light to dark purple rather tan full black, and should yield to slight pressure rather than being soft ripe. Calimyrna white figs should be yellowishwhite to light yellow and yield to firm to slight pressure at the best harvest maturity (48). A sudden increase in final fruit size and opening of ostiole are the other indices of ripening. IV. Chemical Composition

2007/2989

Dried fig is a high-energy food. Glucose, fructose, and sucrose are the major sugars in fruit (23). The glucose content of the fruit is always more than that of fructose. With advancement of fruit maturity, there is a decrease in polysaccharides, crude fiber, and protein. Salem and Abdul Nour (49) reported that Iraqui figs contained (per 100 g dry weight) 31.2 g fructose, 34.3 g glucose, 7.82 g sucrose, 1.58 g arabinose, and 4.91 g galactose in 79.81% total carbohydrates. The reducing sugar in figs can be increased if the fruit is treated with linolenic acid, which accelerates maturation. The presence of melibiose and ketoheptose has also been reported in figs. (50).

2008/2989

The fruit contains 3.02% (dry-weight basis) total acids (51). Citric acid is the predominant acid in fig. Other acids present in small amounts are fumaric, succinic, malonic, oxalic, and malic. Figs contain most of the recognized vitamins and minerals (Table 1). Drying results in loss of thiamin, riboflavin, and niacin. The vitamin and mineral content varies with cultivar (22). Figs have a distinct flavor that varies considerably depending on the cultivar and/or processing method.

Page 413 Table 1 Nutrient Composition of Dried Figs Constituent Calimyrna Mission Protein (%) 3.00 2.82 Carbohydrate (%) 58.20 50.10 Fat (%) 1.90 0.90 Energy (cal) 253.00 212.00 Vitamin C (mg%) 3.60 3.60 Vitamin B1 (mg%) 0.079 0.061 Vitamin B2 (mg%) 0.083 0.078 Vitamin A (IU) 142.00 92.00 Niacin (mg%) 0.71 0.59 Calcium (mg%) 174.00 130.00 Iron (mg%) 2.50 2.40 Phosphorus (mg%) 70.00 57.00 Magnesium (mg%) 60.00 59.00 Copper (mg%) 0.34 0.32 Zinc (mg%) 0.48 0.43 Potassium (mg%) 682.00 575.00 Sodium (mg%) 10.00 10.00 Source: Ref. 22

2010/2989

Jenning (52) found that ethyl acetate was the major component of fig volatiles. The proteolytic enzyme ficin has been obtained from latex present in the vegetative tissue and in the outer layers of fruit (53). Other enzymes isolated from fig latex include peroxidase (54) and lysozyme (55). Fresh fig latex also contains a- and bgalactosidase, a-mannosidase, and b-N-acetyl hexosamine (56). The endo-b-N-acetyl glucosaminidases have also been isolated from fig (57,58). V. Storage A. Low-Temperature Storage.

2011/2989

For maximum life, the fruits should be precooled immediately after harvest to near 0C and placed at a temperature of -0.5 to 0C and relative humidity (RH) of 8590% (48). The recommended temperatures and relative humidity for cold storage are 01.7C at 8590% RH (59). Lutz and Hardenburg (60) reported that figs can be stored at -0.6 to 0C and 8590% RH for only 710 days. These authors recommended that the fruits be precooled to near 0C as quickly as possible and held at this temperature during transit. McDowell and Eaton (61) found 2.23.3C to be more realistic temperatures and recommended air shipment for transport. B. Controlled-Atmosphere Storage

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Several supplements to refrigeration of figs have been studied. Brook et al. (62) recommended 1000 lb of dry ice per cartload as an aid in controlling decay, as in generally used for cherries. Condit (11) reported that coating figs with paraffin or mineral oil prolonged their storage life. Claypool and Ozbek (63) found that preliminary treatment of figs with 100% CO2 was significantly effective in controlling the postharvest decay. These workers suggested that figs should be stored in a CO2-enriched atmosphere to extend their market life.

Page 414

C. Postharvest Diseases and Their Control Common market diseases of fig are Alternaria rot and Aspirgillus rot. Alternaria spotting may start while figs are on the tree and continue to develop in storage, especially at near 10C. Fresh fruits marketed as high-moisture (greater than 27%) figs are generally sprayed with potassium sorbate to reduce the chance of mold and yeast spoilage (22). Fruits so treated commonly contain about 200300 ppm of sorbic acid.

2014/2989

Surface mold or smudge can be effectively controlled by application of carbamate or copper sprays at intervals of 23 weeks or more. Spot rot is rather difficult to control by fungicidal applications, although Dithane Z-78 sprays or Zimate dust (5% dithane Z-78) has been reported to reduce losses in experimental studies. It is advisable that figs be harvested more frequently to prevent exposure of overmature fruits to infection.

2015/2989

Internal rot, brown rot, or soft rot (endosepsis) of fig can be controlled chemically by dipping fruits in 50% benomyl solution (11.4 g/25 gal of water) for 20 min. Stewart (64) reported that ripening of Black Mission figs was accelerated by sprays of 1025 ppm 2,4,5-T. Maxie and Crane (65) also found that 2,4,5-T accelerated ripening of figs indirectly by stimulation of ethylene synthesis. The stage of fruit maturity at the time of auxin application has a pronounced effect on the response of fig to the chemical treatment (66). Bewaji and English (67) found that chlorothalonil gave best control of Alternaria surface rot. VI. Processing

2016/2989

Since figs are very perishable and difficult to transport, and cannot be stored long even under refrigeration, they are most suitable for processing into canned, dried, or frozen products depending on the cultivar. Rodriguez et al. (68) reported that fruits of medium and uniform size and of good flavor and color are suitable for processing. Further, for canning and freezing they should have tender but firm flesh, thin skin, and a small seed cavity. A large white fruit or Smyrna is preferably grown for drying. Kadota is primarily a canning cultivar and is dried to a limited extent. The color, flavor, and texture of fully ripened Black Mission and Kadota figs are exceptionally well preserved when frozen either as slices packed with sugar or whole in light sugar syrup. In the United States, the bulk of the crop (8590%) is dried, with about 10% being canned and less than 3% marketed fresh (22). Approximately 2% of figs in the world are

2017/2989

dried, the rest being consumed either fresh or in processed form (22).

2018/2989

In recent years, the demand has been increasing for dried fruits with higher than usual levels (1520%) of moisture. Such fruits are softer in texture and more readily prepared for eating. For example, dried prunes and figs having a moisture content of 16% may be treated in boiling water or steam to raise their water content to 40%. Processing treatments applied to fruits before they are dried are usually necessary to ensure a reasonably short drying time and to limit induced deteriorative changes to a minimum. The consumer has come to accept dried fruits in certain forms, which have generally been dictated by technological necessity. Figs are dried as whole fruits. The Smyrna, which is a large white fig, as well as the Adriatic fig, which has pink flesh, are used for drying. The fruits are allowed to ripen on the tree and gathered when they drop. They are then sprayed thinly on the drying yard for 34 days for drying. After drying they are sorted and packed. According to Cruess

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(69), in California, Calimyrna figs are treated with lime and salt (1 kg each per 1000 liters of water) to remove the hairs from the skin and also to soften the flesh. They are then dried without sulfuring, until there is exudation of juice upon pressing the dried fig between the fingers. In another method, fruits are first dipped in boiling salt water for half a minute, then dried for a

Page 415

2021/2989

few hours in sun and for 8 days under shade. At the end of the process, the weight is reduced to a little over one-third of the fresh weight (31). Daulatabad fig fruits were dipped in 5000 ppm Ethrel solution for 3 min and then were sun dried (70). Fruits placed in dry sugars and subjected to 58 0.5C (oven treatment) contained the highest total soluble solids (TSS). Similarly, pricked and nonpricked fruits dipped in sugar solution and subjected to oven treatment contained greater TSS. A minimum drying period was required in pricked and nonpricked fruits placed in sugar solution and subjected to oven treatment. The organoleptic evaluation of fruits treated with different treatments indicated that fruits in dry sugar and subjected to oven treatment followed by pricked fruits and nonpricked fruits dipped in sugar solution and placed in the oven gave quality dry fig fruits, which were nearly comparable to excellent-grade dry fig fruits from markets (70).

2022/2989

Dried fruits are subjected to insect attack in storage. To avoid this, dried fruits are dipped in boiling water or in a dilute solution of sodium chloride or sodium bicarbonate, and then redried at 5465C to destroy all insects, including their formative stages. Dried fruits stored for a long time, even at moderate temperatures, develop off-flavor which render them unacceptable. Dried fruits stored for long periods often exhibited crystallization of sugar, either as granules within the tissue or as white incrustations on the surface. Such defects occur more in fig since they are dried whole. Once crystallization has occurred, it is difficult to reverse the process without damaging the dried fruit. References 1. Polornin O., and A. Huxley, Flowers of the Mediterranean, Chatto & Wincus, London, 1965.

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2. Font Quer, P., Plantas Medicinales El Dioscorides, Removadol Editorial Labor, Barcelona, 1973. 3. Cruess, W. V., The dietary value of fruits and fruit products, Fruit Prod. J. 19:230 (1940). 4. Tofu, M., and O. L. Tofu, Anticancer substance from fig, Japanese Patent 69,12,747 (1969). 5. Takeuchi, S., M. Kochi, K. Sakaguchi, K. Nakagawa, and T. Mizutani, Benzaldehyde is a carcinostatic principle in figs, Agr. Biol. Chem. 42:1449 (1978). 6. Yarosh, E. A., and E. Nikonor, Fig leaves for prolonging psoralene and bergaptene, Rastitel'nye Resursy 7:402 (1971).

2024/2989

7. Buttery, R. G., R. A. Flath, T. R. Mon, and L. C. Ling, Identification of germacrene-D in walnut and fig leaf volatiles, J. Agr. Food Chem. 34:820 (1986). 8. Morsli, A., M. Bellal, and A. Ammouche, A study of milk coagulating power of some local plants, Ann. Inst. Natl. Agron. 9:63 (1985). 9. FAO, Production Year Book, Food and Agriculture Organization, Rome, 1988. 10. Schroeder, C. A., Fig, Encyclopaedia of Food Science, Food Technology and Nutrition (R. Macrae, R. K. Robinson, and M. J. Sadler, eds.), Academic Press, London, 1993, p. 1817. 11. Condit, I. J., The Fig, Chronica Botanica Co., Waltham, MA, 1947.

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12. Musina, A. S., Result of varietal trial of fig in southern Uzbekistan, Sadovodstvo Vinogradarstavi Vinodeliva Imeni R.R. Shredera 47:103 (1985). 13. Singh, R., Fruits, National Book Trust, New Delhi, 1967. 14. Research report, Department of Horticulture. Marathwada Agricultural University, Parbhani, India, 1991. 15. Lodhi, A. F., M. V. Bradly, and J. C. Crane, Auxin and gibberellin like substances in parthenocarpic and non-parthenocarpic syconia of Ficus carica, Plant Physiol. 44:555 (1969). 16. Crane, J. C., N. Marei, and M. M. Nelson, Growth and maturation of fig fruit stimulated by 2-chloroethyl phosphonic acid, J. Am. Soc. Hort. Sci. 95:367 (1970).

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17. Marei, N., and R. Romani, Enhancement of ribosomal RNA and protein synthesis in fig fruit by ethylene, Plant Physiol. 47:15 (1971). 18. Marei, N., and A. Gadallah, Ethepon effect on protein synthesis in fig fruits, Phytochemistry 11(9):2735 (1972).

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19. Amen, K. I. A., Effect of planting density and application of certain growth substances on fruit quality and storage ability of sultan fig cultivar. I: Fruit quality, Assuit. J. Agr. Sci. 18:155 (1987). 20. Marei, N., and J. C. Crane, Growth and respiratory response of fig (Ficus carica L. cv. Mission) fruit to ethylene, Plant Physiol. 48:249 (1971). 21. Zeroni, M., J. Galit, and S. Ben-Yehoshua, Autoinhibition of ethylene formation in nonripening stages of the fruit of sycomere fig (Ficus carica L), Plant Physiol. 57:647 (1976). 22. Bolin, H. R., and A. D. King, Figs, Tropical and Subtropical Fruits: Composition, Properties and uses, (S. Nagy and P. E. Shaw, eds.), AVI, Westport, CT, 1980, pp. 492505.

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23. Mohamed, M. S., and E. M. Mrzk, Relation of variety and stage of development to composition of fig, Food Res. 7:495 (1942). 24. Aminov, H. L., Figs in Taskent oasis, Subtrop. Kul'tury 3:74 (1963). 25. Eheart, J. F., and B. S. Mason, Sugar and acid in the edible portion of the fruits, J. Am. Diet. Assoc. 50:130 (1967). 26. Hirai, J., N. Hirata, and S. Horiuchi, Effect of oleification on hastening the maturity of fig fruit. IV. Respiration and changes in concentration of metabolic substances in the treated fruits with fatty acid or glycerol, Engel Gakkai Zasshi 36:268 (1967). 27. Vasudevan, V., and Y. Coic, The acids of the fruit of the fig (Ficus carica), Compt. Rend. 251:774 (1960).

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28. Pasarnichii, A. F., I. A. Egoror, T. G. Kortava, and A. D. Lashkhi, Aroma forming compounds of fig fruit, Prikladnava Biokhimiva i. Mikrobiologiya 22:281 (1986). 29. Puech, A. A., C. A. Rebeiz, and J. C. Crane, The effect of 2-chloroethyl phosphonic acid on pigment changes in Mission fig fruit, Plant Physiol. 47:15 (1977). 30. Puech, A. A., C. A. Rebeiz, and J. C. Crane, Characterization of major plastid pigments in skin of Mission fig fruits, J. Am. Soc. Hort. Sci. 101:392 (1976). 31. Samson, J. A., Tropical Fruits, Tropical Agriculture Series, Longman, London and New York, 1980.

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32. Castro, D. R. C., V. R. Swampaio, and C. G. B. Demetrio, Application of chemicals to fig transplants, Anais da Escola Superior de Agricultura Luiz de Queiroz 38:167 (1981). 33. Muriithi, D. M., T. S. Rangan, and B. H. Inaite, In vitro propagation of figs through shoot tip culture, HortScience 17:86 (1982). 34. Pontikis, C., and P. Melas, Micropropagation of Ficus carica, HortScience 21:153 (1986). 35. Sera Fimova, R., The effect of close spacing on yield and cold resistance of fig, Grad. Lozar. Nauka 2:705 (1965). 36. Singh, S., S. Krishnamurthi, and S. L. Katyal, Fruit Culture in India, Indian Council of Agricultural Research (ICAR), New Delhi, 1963.

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37. Harai, T., Studies on nutrition of fig tree. I: Effect of N, P and K on growth, yield and quality of the fruit, J. Jpn. Soc. Hort. Sci. 33:273 (1964). 38. Haggag, M. N., and H. A. EL-Shawy, Response of fig and pomegranate fruit trees to N, P and K fertilization, Alexandria J. Agr. Res. 33:19 (1987). 39. Olitta, A. F., U. R. Sampaio, and D. Barbin, Studies on water depth and frequency of drip irrigation on fig crop, Solo 71:9 (1979). 40. Nagpal, R. L., Fig cultivation in India, Farm Bulletin 42, Indian Council of Agricultural Research (ICAR), New Delhi, India, 1966. 41. Kazas, A. N., Effect of pruning on growth and cropping of fig cultivars, Subtropicheskie Kil'tur. 4:78 (1979).

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42. Khalil, F. A., M. E. EL-Said, V. F. EL-Said, V. F. Noaman, and A. H. EL-Sherif, Effect of degree of pruning on growth and yield of Sultana fig, Agr. Res. Rev. 60:23 (1982). 43. EL-Kassas, S. E., A. M. EL-Sese, S. Z. ELAgomy, and E. A. Mohammed, Response of Sultana fig trees to certain practices of summer pruning and fruit thinning, Assuit. J. Agr. Sci. 19:355 (1988). 44. EL-Kassas, S. E., A. M. EL-Sese, S. Z. ELAgomy, and E. A. Mohammed, Physiological studies on girdling of Sultana fig trees, Assuit. J. Agr. Sci. 19:339 (1988). 45. Saad, F. A., J. C. Crane, and E. C. Maxie, Timing of olive oil application and its role in fig maturation, J. Am. Soc. Hort. Sci. 94:335 (1969).

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46. Hirai, J., N. Hirata, and H. Tada, Effect of oleification on advancing maturity in fig fruit. I: The effect of time of application and different oils, J. Jpn. Soc. Hort. Sci. 35:354 (1966). 47. Ricci, P., Studies on the rotting of fresh figs after harvest, Ann. Phytopathol. 4:107 (1972). 48. Ryall, A. L., and W. T. Pentzer, Handling, Transportation and Storage of Fruits and Vegetables, Vol. 2, Fruits and Tree Nuts, AVI, Westport, CT, 1974. 49. Salem, S. A., and B. A. Abdul-Nour, Sugars and amino acids in dried Iraqui figs, J. Sci. Food Agr. 30:620 (1979). 50. Williams, K. T., E. F. Potter, and A. Bevenue, A study by paper chromatography of the occurrence of nonfermentable sugars in plant materials, J. Assoc. Off. Agr. Chem. 35:483 (1952).

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51. Kucharski, S., Composition of fig tree cultivated in the Azerkaijani SSR farm, Polska 20:581 (1964). 52. Jennings, W. G., Volatile components of figs, Food Chem. 2:185 (1977). 53. Walti, A., Crystalline ficin, J. Am. Chem. Soc. 60:493 (1938). 54. El-Fekih, M., and Z. I. Kertesz, Fig latex peroxidase. I: Purification and properties, Bull. Soc. Chim. Biol. 50:547 (1968). 55. Glazer, A. N., A. O. Barel, J. B. Howard, and D. M. Brown, Isolation and characterization of fig lysozyme, J. Biol. Chem. 244:3583 (1969).

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56. Li, Y., and S. Li, Alpha-galactosidase from figs, Methods in Enzymology, Vol. XXVII, Complex Carbohydrates, Part B (V. Ginsberg, ed.), Academic Press, New York, 1972. 57. Chien, S., R. Weinburg, S. Li, and Y. Li, Endo-beta-N-acetylglucosaminidase from fig latex, Biochem. Biophys. Res. Commun. 76:317 (1977). 58. Ogata-Arakawa, M., T. Muramatsu, and A. Kobata, Partial purification and characterization of endobeta-N-acetylglucosaminidase from fig extract, J. Biochem. (Tokyo) 82:611 (1977). 59. Pantastico, Er. B., T. K. Chattopadhyay, and H. Subramanyam, Storage and commercial storage operations, Postharvest Physiology Handling and Utilization of Tropical and Subtropical Fruits and Vegetables (Er. B. Pantastic, ed.), AVI, Westport, CT, 1975, p. 314.

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60. Lutz, J. M., and R. E. Hardenburg, The commercial storage of fruits and vegetables and florist and nursery stocks, U.S. Dept. of Agriculture Handbook 66 (rev.), 1968. 61. McDowell, A. M., and V. W. Eaton, Air shipment of fresh fruits and vegetable in 1971, U.S. Dept. of Agriculture, California Dept. of Agriculture, Federal-State Market News Service, San Francisco, California, 1972. 62. Brook, C., C. O. Bratley, and L. P. McColloch, Transit and storage of fruits and vegetables as affected by initial carbon dioxide treatments, U.S. Dept. of Agriculture Technical Bulletin 519, 1936. 63. Claypool, L. L., and S. Ozbek, Some influence of temperature and CO2 on respiration and storage life of Mission fig. Proc. Am. Soc. Hort. Sci. 60:226 (1952).

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64. Stewart, W. S., Maturity and ripening as influenced by application of plant regulators, Plant Regulators in Agriculture (H. B. Turkey, ed.), John Wiley, New York, 1956, p. 132. 65. Maxie, E. C., and J. C. Crane, 2,45-Trichlorophenoxyacetic acid: Effect on ethylene production by fruits and leaves of fig tree, Science 155:1548 (1967). 66. Salunkhe, D. K., J. Y. Do, Er. B. Pantastico, and K. Chachin, Regulation of ripening and senescence: Chemical modifications, Postharvest Physiology, Handling and Utilization of Tropical and Subtropical Fruits and Vegetables (Er. B. Pantastico, ed.), AVI, Westport, CT, 1975, p. 148. 67. Bewaji, O., and H. English, Control of Altrnaria surface rot of Kadota figs, Proc. Am. Phytopathol. Soc. 3:278 (1976).

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68. Rodriguez, R., B. L. Raina, Er. B. Pantastico, and M-B. Bhatti, Distribution and utilization: Quality of raw materials for processing, Postharvest Physiology, Handling and Utilization of Tropical and Subtropical Fruits and Vegetables (Er. B. Pantastico, ed.), AVI, Westport, CT, 1975, p. 467. 69. Cruess, W. V., Commercial Fruit and Vegetable Products, McGraw-Hill, New York, 1948, p. 344. 70. Thonta, G. T., and V. K. Patil, Studies on drying of fig fruits, Indian Food Packer 42:94 (1988).

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19 Guava
R. N. Adsule and S. S. Kadam Mahatma Phule Agricultural University, Rahuri, Maharashtra, India I. Introduction

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Guava (Psidium guajava L.) is an important tropical fruit and claims superiority over other fruits by virtue of its commercial and nutritional values. It is particularly rich in vitamin C (1). Guava is considered a common man's fruit and is rightly called the apple of the tropics. It is consumed mostly as a fresh fruit. It is also processed into a variety of products such as jam, jelly, cheese, toffee, juice, squash, wine, dried fruit, and canned dices.

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Guava is cultivated or grown wild throughout the tropical and subtropical regions of the world. It is considered to be a native of tropical America (2). The distribution of guava to other parts of the world is reported to be due to the Spaniards. India leads the world in guava production, with an estimated annual production of 165,000 metric tonnes (MT) of fresh fruit (3). The other major producers of guava are Mexico (127,000 MT), Pakistan (105,000 MT), Colombia (29,000 MT), Egypt (28,000 MT), Brazil (27,000 MT), and South Africa (16,000 MT). Venezuela, the Dominican Republic, Puerto Rico, Jamaica, Kenya, Australia, and Hawaii also produce significant quantities of guava. World production of guava was estimated at about 500,000 MT (3). II. Botany

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Guava (Psidium guajava L.) is a member of the dicotyledon family Myrtaceae. The genus Psidium includes five species, Psidium guianense, P. cattleianum, P. chinense, P. friedrichsthalianum, and P. guajava. The commercially cultivated guava belongs to the guajava species. Several varieties of guava are under cultivation. These are named mostly after the location in which they are cultivated. Guava is a small tree or shrub, 28 m in height, with wide-spreading branches. The trunk is often mottled in appearance, with reddish-brown outer scale bark. The leaves of the guava plant

Page 420

are oval or oblong, 715 cm in length, prominently veined, and commonly hairy underneath. The flowers are perfect, with an irregularly split bell-shaped green calyx. The flowers contain six white petals and numerous stamens with yellow anthers. The ovary is inferior.

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Guava fruit is a berry. The fruit consists of a fleshy pericarp and seed cavity with fleshy pulp and numerous small seeds. The seeds are hard and kidney shaped. The seedless varieties contain very few seeds. The calyx is persistent on mature fruit. Guava fruits are mostly round in shape. Some varieties are ovate or pear shaped. Fully mature fruits are 410 cm in length and 48 cm in diameter (4). The average weight of fruit varies from 50 to 500 g. The skin color of mature fruit is commonly yellow. The flesh color is normally white or cream. In some varieties it is pink. Numerous stone cells (scleroids) occur in the fleshy part of the fruit. These stone cells impart a gritty texture to the flesh. The flavor of mature guava fruit has been described as sweet, musky, and highly aromatic (5).

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Guava fruit takes about 110150 days from the date of flowering to reach maturity. More time is required during the rainy season than in winter season. Several physicochemical changes take place during development of guava fruit (6,7). The fruit weight and volume increases moderately up to the first 50 days, rapidly up to 100 days, and very slowly thereafter (8,9). The color of the fruit remains green up to maturity. It starts becoming yellow due to loss of chlorophyll just before it reaches maturity. The softening of guava fruit progresses after about 115 days from anthesis. The fruit detachment force and fruit deformation force decline during maturation (10).

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Sugar content of guava fruit increases during development. Among the sugars, fructose increases rapidly, while glucose content increases slowly. Pectin content of guava increases during ripening and declines rapidly in overripe fruit (11). Acidity decreases while ascorbic acid content increases during development of guava fruit (12,13). III. Production. A. Soil and Climate Guava grows well in most climates in the tropics and subtropics. Being a hardy plant, guava is not much affected by cold waves or extremes of temperatures. It does not, however, tolerate frost. The optimum temperature for growth ranges from 23 to 28C (14). It adopts to a wide range of soil types. However, well-drained, light soils are most suited for guava cultivation.

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B. Cultural Practices Guava is mostly propagated through seeds. For uniform quality and production, guava should be produced by vegetative methods such as cutting, grafting, budding, or air layering. Seeds normally germinate in 23 weeks under favorable conditions. Presowing treatment, such as boiling in water for 5 min, soaking in water for 2 weeks, or brief treatment with strong sulfuric acid reduce the time required for germination. Seeds are sown in raised beds at a spacing of 1015 cm between the lines. When seedlings are 57.5 cm tall, they are reestablished into another nursery giving larger spacing. They are transplanted into the orchard when they are about 1 year old. The spacing between plants is about 68 m depending on the variety. Pits of 1 1 1 m are dug and filled with a 1:1 mixture of soil and farmyard manure or compost. After planting, the young plants are watered regularly.

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During the first year, 1525 kg of farmyard manure and 2530 g of nitrogen are applied to each plant. The quantity of fertilizers is doubled every year from the second year to the fifth year. The guava plant establishes well within 56 years and does not require heavy fertilization thereafter.

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Guava plants are irrigated at 10-day intervals for the first 34 years. Thereafter irrigation is given only during the bearing season. Guava fruits are produced on the new growth. New growth can be induced by rainfall, irrigation, fertilization, pruning, or defoliation. This artificial induction of blossoming is called bahar treatment. Bahar treatment can be given at any time of the year. Thus, guava fruits can be produced throughout the year by adjusting the bahar treatment in different parts of the same orchard. However, three flowering seasons are recognized in guava. These are JuneJuly, OctoberNovember, and JanuaryFebruary. Of these, JuneJuly flowering is commonly followed, as it reduces the number of irrigations to be given to the plant due to the rainy season. C. Diseases and Pests

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Guava is a hardy plant and is not much affected by insects or pests. Birds such as parrots, mynahs, and crows and fruit-eating bats eat semiripe fruits on the trees and cause serious damage to guava.

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The diseases of guava include fruit rots, fruit spots, anthracnose, and fruit canker. Fusarium wilt affects the entire tree. It causes yellowing, dying, and abscission of the leaves, starting at the top of the tree. The affected branches die successively, and ultimately the whole tree dies. Mucor rot (Mucor hiemalis) appears in mature fruit and develops rapidly to cover the entire fruit. Rhizopus rot (Rhizopus stolonifer) is similar in appearance to mucor rot. This rot may be caused by bruising. Fruit spots appears as grayblack circular masses on the ripening fruit. Anthracnose (Colletotricum psidii) is a serious disease in India, particularly in the rainy season. It is characterized by the appearance of brown, round, decayed spots. The fruits then turn brown and shrivel. In canker (Physalospora psidii), the green fruits are affected superficially, showing brown, elevated, necrotic areas.

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The insects and mites infesting guava include guava scale (Pulvinaria psidii), palm scale (Hemiberlesia lataniae), green scale (Coccus viridis), Oriental fruit fly (Dacus dorsalis), spiraling white fly (Aleurodicus dispersus), Mediterranean fruit fly (Ceratitis capitata), Natal fruit fly (Ceratitis rosa), a red-banded thrips (Selenothrips rubrocinctus), coconut mealy bug (Nipaecoccus nipae), striped mealy bug (Ferrisia virgata), transparent winged plant bug (Hyalopeptus pellucidus), long tailed mealy bug (Pseudococcus longispinnus), coconut bug (Pseudotheraptus wayi), false codling moth (Cryptophlebia leucotetra), guava moth (Anua indiscriminata), Fuller's rose beetle (Pantomonus cervinus), Chinese rose beetle (Adoretus sinicus), and red and black flat mite (Brevipalpus phoenicis) (1,15). The nature and extent of damage caused by the pests depends on the location and other environmental conditions.

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D. Harvesting and Postharvest Handling Guava fruits are most commonly harvested by hands. Firm, yellow to half-yellow, mature fruits should be harvested. Fruits for export are harvested mature green (16). Overripe fruits are easily damaged in transport and handling. Fruits that are immature green when harvested do not develop into quality ripe fruits.

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Guava fruits are harvested in field containers and put into boxes or bamboo baskets before transportation to the market or processing plant. The use of shallow wooden boxes (crates) or corrugated cartons protects the fruits from external hazards. Hessian bags are not sufficient even for short-distance transport. For long-distance shipment, cushioning materials such as dry grass, paddy straw, dry crushed leaves, etc., should be used. Good ventilation is important to prevent buildup of heat and microbial spoilage. For long-distance or long-duration transport, it is better to harvest firm, slightly underripe fruits so that they do not become overripe before reaching their destination. Low temperature is preferred during transportation of guava.

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IV. Chemical Composition Guava fruit consists of about 20% peel, 50% fleshy portion, and 30% seed core. Some of the physicochemical characteristics of guava fruit are presented in Table 1. The physicochemical characteristics of guava fruit change significantly with maturity (1719). Guavas contain 7487% moisture, 1326% dry matter, 0.81.5% protein, 0.40.7% fat, and 0.51.0% ash (5). The chemical composition of guava fruits is given in Table 2. The composition of guava varies significantly with variety, stage of maturity, and season (4,1719,23).

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Carbohydrates are the principal constituents of guava. Sugars constitute about 611% of the fresh weight of guava (24). Chan and Kwok (25) reported that fructose, glucose, and sucrose are present in proportions of 59%, 36%, and 5%, respectively (26). The fruits are an excellent source of vitamin C (26). They also contain appreciable quantities of niacin, thiamin, riboflavin, carotene, calcium, iron, and phosphorus (Table 3). Guavas are a fair source of vitamin A. A wide variation in ascorbic acid content of guava fruits has been reported depending on the variety, season, location, maturity, and horticultural practices (4,28,29).

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Sachan and Ram (30) reported 371000 mg of ascorbic acid per 100 guava fruits in different varieties. Red-fleshed guavas contained more ascorbic acid than white-fleshed ones (19). Guava fruits ripened during the winter season (NovemberDecember) contained more ascorbic acid (325 mg/100 g) than those ripened during the rainy season (JulyAugust) (140 mg/100 g) (4,29,31). Ascorbic acid content reaches a maximum in green mature fruit and starts to decline as the fruit ripens (12,13). Within each fruit, the ascorbic acid content is highest in the skin and decreases toward the central portion (32). Ahire (22) reported 286 and 122 mg of ascorbic acid per 100 g in flesh and seed core, respectively. Dried guava fruits and guava powder are rich in ascorbic acid (about 4%) (3335).

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Guava fruits are a rich source of pectin. The total pectin content of guava fruit is in the range 0.51.8%. The pectin content is influenced by factors such as variety (36,37), maturity (38), and cropping season (31,39). The quality of pectin is measured by its ability to form a gel and is measured in terms of jelly units. Dingra et al. (40) observed that winter-season guava fruits contained higher amounts of pectin with more jelly units than rainy-season guava fruits. Similar observations were made by Sachan et al. (31) and Gangawar (9). Half-ripe fruits yield more jelly units than unripe ones. Among the varieties studied by Dhingra et al. (40), the fruits of Sardar
Table 1 Physicochemical Characteristics of Guava Fruit (1,4,2022) Characteristic Content Length of fruit (cm) 3.99.8 Diameter or breadth of fruit (cm) 4.28.3 Weight of fruit (g) 50500

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Volume of fruit (ml) Specific gravity (g/ml) Thickness of peel (cm) No. of seeds per fruit Weight of seeds per fruit (g) TSS ( Brix) Acidity (%, citric) TSS/acidity ratio pH

210300 0.941.11 1.33.5 4570 0.44.4 8.019.4 0.082.20 6.253.9 4.15.4

Page 423 Table 2 Chemical Composition of Guava Fruits (4,5,22) Constituent Range Average value Moisture (%) 77.986.9 83.3 Dry matter (%) 12.326.3 16.7 Ash (%) 0.511.02 0.66 Crude fat (%) 0.100.70 0.36 Crude protein (%) 0.821.45 1.06 Crude fiber (%) 2.07.2 3.8 Sugars: 2.16.1 4.0 Reducing (%) 1.04.5 2.8 Nonreducing (%) 4.211.1 6.8 Total (%)

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variety yielded high-grade pectin with higher jelly units than the fruits from other varieties. The methoxyl content of purified guava pectin is relatively low (55%). The setting time of guava pectin gel is, however, shorter than what might be expected from the degree of methylation. Hydrolyzed guava pectin contained 72% D-galacturonic acid, 12% D-galactose, and 4% L-arabinose (38). The fruits contain citric, malic, glycolic, tartaric, and lactic acids. Of these, the first two are the predominant ones. Significant varietal differences in the content of organic acids has been reported in guava (41).

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The flavor is the most distinguishing characteristic of guava fruits. The flavor of guava has been attributed to the presence of several volatile constituents. These include hydrocarbons, alcohols, and carbonyls. Steven et al. (42) identified 22 compounds, of which methyl benzoate, hexanol, p-phenyl ethyl acetate, methyl cinnamate, and cinnamyl acetate were believed to play predominant roles in the flavor and odor of guava fruit. Wilson and Shaw (43) noted that cinnamyl acetate has the most guavalike aroma. Guava fruits contain significant amount of polyphenols (44). The concentration of polyphenols decreases with the maturity of guava fruit. The decrease in astringency with ripening of guava is associated with increased polymerization of leucoanthocyanidins.

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The pigments in guava fruit include chlorophyll, carotene, xanthophyll, and lycopene. The pink flesh color found in some varieties of guava has been attributed to the presence of lycopene.
Table 3 Vitamin and Mineral Contents (mg/100 g) of Guava Fruits (4,5,27) Vitamin/mineral Range Mean Vitamin A (IU/100 g) 250 Ascorbic acid 111160 337 Thiamine 0.030.07 0.05 Riboflavin 0.020.04 0.03 Niacin 0.202.32 1.18 Calcium 10.0030.0 17.00 Phosphorus 22.5040.0 28.40 Iron 0.601.39 1.82

Page 424

Nakasone et al. (45) reported 4.86.9 mg/100 g lycopene in guava fruits. The chlorophyll content of guava fruit is in the range of 0.21.6 mg/ 100 g, while carotene and xanthophyll contents vary from 0.1 to 0.9 and from 0.01 to 0.17 mg/ 100 g, respectively (3,4,20,21,46). V. Storage Guava is a climacteric fruit (16,47). Its shelf life at room temperature is only a few days (48). The peak in CO2 and ethylene production occurs about 56 days after harvest. Storage at low temperature extends the shelf life of guava. Green ripe guavas can be stored for 25 days at 810C and at 8595% relative humidity (49). Storage at 0C causes chilling injury to the pulp. A temperature of 5C is considered to be the optimum storage temperature for guava.

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The use of polyethylene bags has been studied for storage of guava at ambient temperature (50). Guava fruits packed in 300-gauge polypacks can be stored at room temperature for 10 days (51). Singh et al. (52) reported that prepackaging of guava in 200-gauge polyethylene bags with 0.250.50% ventilation proved better than wax coating. The storage life was 10, 8, and 5 days, respectively, for polyethylene bags, wax coating, and control treatments. Varietal differences in shelf life of guava fruits have been reported (24). The shelf-life of guava fruits stored at 18 2C and 8085% relative humidity ranged from 6 days in Allahabad Safeda to 9 days in Chittidar and Sardar cultivars. Adsule and Tandon (53) reported that guava fruits stored in 600-gauge low-density polyethylene (LDPE) bags at ambient temperature (1823C) exhibited better organoleptic score and marketability up to 10 days than those stored in open atmosphere. Dhoot et al. (54) reported that the

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shelf life of Sardar guava was prolonged up to 12 days when treated with 150 ppm naphthalene acetic acid (NAA) and stored in polyethylene bags having 0.05% vents. Dipping fruits in a solution containing 1000 or 1500 ppm each of 2,4,5-T and maleic hydrazide (MH40) was found to extend the storage life of guava up to 12 days (55). Garg et al. (56) reported that fruits of guava cultivar Allahabad Safeda, when dipped in 50 or 500 ppm indolebutyric acid solution for 30 min could be held at room temperature for 9 days with minimum loss in weight and spoilage. Singh et al. (57) observed that guava fruits dipped in 1% calcium nitrate solution maintained their edible quality for more than 6 days, as against 3 days for untreated fruits.

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Preharvest spray of 1% calcium nitrate + 100 ppm NAA was found to maintain guava fruits in marketable conditions for 6 days, as opposed to 3 days for untreated fruits (58). Amen (59) observed that guava fruits of cultivar Baladi dipped in 2% calcium chloride solution with or without 2.5% corn flour could be stored in polyethylene bags at ambient temperature for up to 12 days. Preharvest application of 2.5 ppm or postharvest application of 2.55.0 ppm morphactin (a chlorflurenol methyl ester) reduced the postharvest weight loss, retained chlorophyll, increased soluble sugars, and extended the shelf life of guava fruits (60).

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Mudahar and Bhatia (61) blanched guava fruits in boiling water for 4 min and filled into glass jars. The fruits were covered with steeping syrup containing 30% sugar, 0.4% acidity, and 400 ppm SO2 in 1:1 proportion. The fruits were found to be acceptable after 4 months of storage at room temperature.

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Several physicochemical changes occur during storage of guava fruits. These include changes in weight, color, total soluble solids (TSS), acidity, moisture, texture, and ascorbic acid. Wills et al. (62) reported decrease in firmness of Australian guava fruits during storage. The physiological loss in weight increased at a faster rate in thin-skinned guava cultivars (Allahabad Safeda and Tehsildar) than in others (63). Srivastava and Narasimhan (64) observed that acidity of freshly harvested guava fruits increased slightly on the third day of storage and decreased upon prolonged storage. A decrease in vitamin C upon prolonged storage of guava has been reported by Wills et al. (62). Adsule and Tandon (53) observed significant increase in soluble solids and

Page 425

acidity and decrease in vitamin C, moisture, and texture (firmness) of guava fruits stored in open atmosphere at ambient temperature (1723C). Improper storage of guava favors the development of diseases and disorders. Anthracnose, canker, and rots are the most common postharvest diseases of guava (6267). The rots of stored guava include those caused by Phomopsis destructum Rao, Agrawal, Saxena, Guignardia psidii Ullasa and Rawal, Phytophthora citricola, P. nicotianae var. parasitica, Rhizopus stolonifer, Botryodiplodia theobromae, Curvularia tuberculata, Cylindrocladium scoparium Morgan, Fusarium solani, Macrophoma allahabadensis Kapoor and Tandon, Mucor hiematis and Carticium rolfsii (63,66,6872). The nature and extent of losses due to these diseases depend on the location and storage conditions.

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VI. Processing Guava fruits are mainly consumed fresh. They are also processed and preserved in the form of a variety of products such as pulp, puree, jam, cheese, toffee, ketchup, juice, beverage, squash, syrup, nectar, concentrate, jelly, wine, dehydrated, and canned products. The selection of guava varieties for processing depends on several factors such as content of pulp, seeds, sugars, acids, pectin, and tannins in the fruit. A. Canned Guava.

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Guava can be preserved by canning as halves or quarters, with or without seed core (shells). Fully ripe fruits are peeled with a knife and cut into halves or quarters. For canning of shells, the seed core is scooped with a spoon-shaped knife. The halves, quarters, or shells are immersed in 12% brine solution for about 5 min. They are then removed, drained, and canned in a syrup of 40 Brix containing 0.25% citric acid. The cans are exhausted at 82100C for 710 min or until the temperature in the center of the can reaches at least 74C. The cans are then sealed, sterilized in boiling water for 2025 min, and then cooled to room temperature (73). Siddappa (74) reported that Allahabad seedless white guavas were more suitable for canning as halves. B. Dehydrated Guava

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Guava pieces or slices (halves or quarters) are dehydrated by air drying, osmotic dehydration, or osmovac dehydration (75). In air-drying methods, guava slices are blanched in boiling water for 4 min, sulfured in a sulfur box for 20 min, and dried at 150F (71C) for about 15 h or until the final moisture content is reduced to 67%. Air drying may be done in a flow dehydrator, in a solar hut, or in the sun. Chemical blanching with 0.1% KMS + 2.0% CaCl2 at 100C for 3 min or sulfiting with 1% KMS for 5 min or fumigation with sulfur at 2 g/kg fruit pieces for 4 h avoids browning of slices. Khurdiya and Roy (76) dried guava quarters in a cabinet drier at 60 5C for 18 h or until the final moisture content was less than 3%. Osmotic dehydration is used to prepare glazed guava slices. The guava slices are heated in an equal weight of 70 Brix syrup containing 0.1% KMS at 90C for 3 min. After cooling, they are allowed to soak overnight. The slices are drained,

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spread out on glycerine-coated drying trays, and dried at 80C for 1 h and then at 6570C for 78 h (3). In osmovac dehydration, the guava slices are submerged in 70 Brix syrup for 56 h. They are then dried under vacuum until a final moisture content of 2% is attained. C. Powder Dehydrated guava slices are pulverized to obtain guava fruit powder. Guavas are quartered and seed core is removed. The shells are blanched for 2 min and air dried at 130F (54C) for 1012 h.

Page 426

The dried guavas are then powdered and packed (77). Khurdiya and Roy (76) reported preparation of guava powder by drying guava slices at 60 5C in a cross-flow cabinet drier. The storage of guava powder for 6 months resulted in significant decrease in ascorbic acid and SO2 levels, with a slight increase in moisture content. Guava fruit powder can be used for preparation of guava juice, ready-to-serve guava beverage, milk shake or shrikhand. A milk shake was prepared by mixing 1.5 g of guava powder and 16 g of sugar with 100 ml of milk (22). The product was found to have good color, aroma, and taste. Shrikhand is a milk product prepared by mixing strained curd with sugar and flavoring. Guava powder was mixed with shrikhand at a 10% level to obtain guava shrikhand (Perukhand). The produce was found to have good acceptability (22).

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D. Intermediate-Moisture Fruit Guava can be preserved as an intermediatemoisture fruit (IMF). Pretreatments such as blanching in plain water improved the acceptability of IMF (22). Addition of 1.5% citric acid in steeping water was found to give proper sugaracid taste to the final product. The storage of IMF in 200-gauge polyethylene bags did not produce any deteriorative changes in flavor or acceptability up to 3 months. Jayaraman et al. (78) prepared an intermediate-moisture guava by an immersion-equilibration procedure using a soak solution containing glycerol, sucrose, water, and potassium sorbate. The product was acceptable up to 4 months at 0C and up to 3 months at room temperature. E. Pulp

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Guava pulp is extracted by using a pulper, juicer, or cloth press. The chemical composition of guava pulp is similar to that of whole guava fruit (Table 4). The pulp can be stored in good condition under refrigeration up to 23 months in glass or PVC containers with added SO2 (5001000 ppm) (81,82). Lower concentrations of SO2 (500 ppm) are required for storage of guava pulp at room temperature for short periods (up to 60 days) (83). During storage of guava pulp in PVC containers at room temperature, there was increase in sugars, and decrease in vitamin C, tannins, and free SO2 levels (83). Guava pulp is further processed and utilized in the form of puree, jam, cheese, toffee, juice, and other products (84). Nila et al. (85) prepared fruit yoghurt by blending plain yoghurt with guava pulp.

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Guava syrup is prepared by using 1.5 kg of sugar, 500 ml of water, 17.5 g of citric acid, and 2 g of potassium metabisulfite per kilogram of guava pulp. The syrup can be diluted to make readyTable 4 Chemical Composition of Guava Pulp and Juice (79,80) Constituent Pulp Juice TSS ( Brix) 11 11 Total sugars (%) 6.15 6.64 Reducing sugars (%) 5.50 6.02 Nonreducing sugars (%) 0.65 0.61 Acidity (% citric acid) 0.70 0.76 pH 4.10 3.85 Ascorbic acid (mg/100 g) 253 243 Pectin (%) 2.15 1.02

Page 427

to-serve guava beverage (86). The guava beverage can be preserved for 27 months using 50 ppm sorbic acid as a preservative (87). F. Puree Guava puree is a liquid product prepared by pulping whole guava. Puree is most commonly used for the preparation of nectars, beverages, syrup, ice cream topping, jams, and jellies. For preparation of guava puree, fully mature, washed fruits are cut or sliced and fed into a pulper. The pulper removes seeds and fibrous material and forces the remainder of the product through a perforated stainless steel screen (77).

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Guava puree is preserved by (a) freezing to -20F (-29C) and storing at 0F (-18C) (frozen guava puree); (b) canning (canned guava puree); (c) aseptic packaging; or (d) dehydration. The deaeration of aseptically packaged guava puree helped in retention of ascorbic acid during storage up to 6 months (88). Guava puree is dried by foam mat drying to obtain guava puree powder. Foaming agents such as egg albumen, glycerol monostearate, guar gum, or carboxymethyl cellulose are mixed with a small quantity of water, blended with guava puree, and foamed in a mixer with a wire whip. The foam is extruded onto drying trays and dried in a cabinet drier. The dried powder is scraped off the trays and put into airtight containers. G. Jam

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Guava jam is made by combining 45 parts of guava puree or pulp with 55 parts sugar. Dry pectin or pectin solution may be added to the pulp if needed and the mixture is thoroughly mixed while heating. Sugar is added while stirring. The mixture is heated until the Brix reaches 65. The jam is filled, capped, and cooled as in the case of jelly (89,90). H. Cheese

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Guava cheese is prepared from firm ripe guava fruits. The fruits are washed, cut into thin slices, and boiled with an equal quantity of water to soften the pulp. The softened pulp is screened through net cloth to separate the skin and seeds. To every kilogram of pulp are added 1.251.50 kg of sugar, 2.23.3 g of citric acid, and 56 g of butter. The mixture is cooked to a thick paste. Small quantities of permitted red color and common salt may be added toward the end to improve the appearance of the final product. The hot cheese is allowed to set by spreading on a greasy tray. After cooling, it is cut into small pieces of suitable size. The pieces are wrapped in moisture-proof paper or polyethylene sheets (73). Guava cheese can be prepared from the pulp left after extracting the juice while jelly making or from the outer peel or seed core discarded during canning of guava. However, best results are obtained when cheese is prepared from fruit pulp. The cheese can be stored at 4C

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up to 120 days without loss of organoleptic properties (91). Guava cheese prepared from Allahabad Safeda. Banarasi Surkha, and Lucknow-49 contained 1.241.55% pectin and 14.641.5 mg/100 g ascorbic acid (91). The contents of pectin and ascorbic acid decreased during storage. This decrease was less during storage at low temperature than at room temperature. I. Toffee. Guava toffee is prepared by concentrating the pulp to about one-third of its original volume and mixing with sugar, fat, and acid. To every kilogram of guava pulp, 1.5 kg of sugar and 125 g of butter or ghee are added and the mixture is heated to obtain a thick mass. To this, 2 g of citric acid, a teaspoonful salt, and edible color are added. The product is spread in fat-smeared trays to about

Page 428

0.6 cm thickness. After cooling, it is cut into small pieces of attractive shapes and sizes. The pieces are wrapped in butter paper and stored in clean, dry glass containers (92). Guava toffee has good organoleptic properties and is comparable to chocolate. J. Nectar

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Guava nectar is prepared by blending guava pulp or puree and 1415 Brix syrup and is preserved by freezing at 0F (-18C) or by canning. Kalra and Tandon (93) prepared guava nectar containing 15% pulp, 14% soluble solids, and 0.25% acidity. The nectar was fortified with 100 mg/100 g vitamin C and stored in glass bottles. During storage, the soluble solids and vitamin C decreased and titratable acidity increased. Guava nectar may be diluted to prepare readyto-serve beverage. Jain and Borkar (94) prepared good-quality ready-to-serve bottled beverages by dilution of guava nectar with four times its volume of water. The beverage can also be prepared from fresh or preserved pulp using 1 kg of sugar, 6 liters of water, and 20 g of citric acid per kilogram of pulp. K. Juice

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Guava juice is obtained either from fresh fruits or from pulp. For extraction of juice, fruits are cut into small pieces, cooked by adding 250 ml of water and 0.2 g of citric acid per kilogram of fruit pieces, and stirred constantly. The cooked mass is strained through muslin cloth and the juice is collected. The recovery of juice may be increased to 70% by treatment with pectic enzyme (77). The chemical composition of guava juice is more or less the same as that of guava pulp (Table 4). Guava juice is further processed and utilized in the form of concentrate, beverage, jelly, powder, and other products. Gagrani et al. (95) prepared a whey beverage using 25% guava fruit juice. The beverage had good flavor and contained 0.5% acidity and 20% TSS. Storage stability of guava juice has been studied by several workers (9598). There is significant loss of vitamin C during storage of guava juice. L. Juice Concentrate

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Guava juice can be concentrated to four to five times its original TSS content at 5055C under vacuum (99). During juice concentration, there is increase in TSS, acidity, sugars, pectin, and ascorbic acid, due to loss of water. The color of the juice changes to brown due to browning reaction (79). Guava juice concentrate has been found to be suitable for drying into guava juice powder and ready-to-serve beverage. M. Jelly

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Fresh, slightly underripe guavas with plenty of pulp and fewer seeds are used for preparation of jelly. The juice is extracted and allowed to settle overnight in a tall vessel. The clear juice is siphoned off and tested for pectin content. The juice is mixed with sugar (0.75 kg/kg of pectinrich juice or 0.5 kg/kg of low-pectin juice) and boiled in a shallow vessel. Boiling is continued until the temperature reaches 105C or until it gives a sheeting test. The hot jelly is poured into sterilized bottles or glass jars. These bottles are sealed and stored in a cool dry place (73). Guava jelly has an attractive purplish-red color, pleasant taste, and aroma. It can be prepared from guava pulp by dilution with water or whey in 1:1.5 proportion (100). The peel and seed core, discarded during canning of guava, can also be used for preparation of guava jelly.

Page 429 Table 5 Characteristics of Guava Seed Oil (103105) Characteristic Value Specific gravity (25C) 0.89020.9135 Refractive index (25C) 1.4712 Saponification value 154198 Acid value 3.47.0 R-M number 0.080.35 Iodine number 96141 Polenske number 0.080.10 Acetyl number 74 Unsaponifiable matter (%) 0.53.5 Total saturated fatty acids (%) 10.116.0 Total unsaturated fatty acids (%) 84.089.9

N. Wine

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Two types of wines can be prepared from guava fruit:guava juice wine (GJW) and guava pulp wine (GPW). The treatment of pulp with pectinase increases the final yield of wine (101). Guava pulp wine is prepared in the same way as guava juice wine. When the Brix reading reaches 10, the pomace is removed and more sugar is added (10%) to the fermenting materials and the mixture is allowed to ferment further (101). O. Pectin

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Guava fruits are an important source of foodgrade or natural pectin. Pectin is used in food products as an inexpensive source of natural food thickener and gelling agent. Pectin is extracted from guava fruits by boiling and concentrated by vacuum evaporation. The use of sodium hexametaphosphate at 0.250.75% concentration or 1:1 mixture of ammonium oxalate and oxalic acid at 0.250.75% concentration during extraction gave higher yields of pectin with high jelly grade and higher number of jelly units from winter guava (102). P. Seed Oil

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Guava seeds are usually discarded during processing of juice and pulp. The seeds contain about 513% oil, but guava seed oil is rich in essential fatty acids. Oleic (54%) and linoleic (29%) are the major fatty acids found in guava seed oil. The characteristics of guava seed oil are given in Table 5. The oil can be readily used in salad dressing. References. 1. Menzel, C. M., Guava: An exotic fruit with potential in Queensland, Queensland Agr. J. 111:93 (1985). 2. Chopra, S. K., and R. S. Singh, Studies on floral biology of guava (Psidium guajava L.). I. A review, Punjab Hort. J. 11:204 (1971). 3. Jagtiani, J., H. T. Chan, Jr., and W. S. Sakai, Tropical Fruit Processing, Academic Press, New York, 1988, p. 9.

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Page 430

4. Singh, M., Performance of some cultivars of guava (Psidium guajava) with special reference to their commercial significance in the central Gangetic plains, Panjab Hort. J. 28:50 (1988). 5. Wilson, W. C., Guava, Tropical and Subtropical Fruits (S. Nagy and P. E. Shaw, eds.), AVI, Westport, CT, 1980, p. 279. 6. Gulhane, A. R., and P. K. Gupta, Physicochemical changes in the developing Lucknow-49 guava (Psidium guajava L.) fruits, Haryana J. Hort. Sci. 3:134 (1974). 7. Yusof, S., and S. Mohamed, Physico-chemical changes in guava (Psidium guajava L.) during development and maturation, J. Sci. Food Agr. 38:31 (1987).

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8. Rodriguez, R., P. C. Agarwal, and N. K. Saha, Effect of maturity of Safeda guavas on preference, Indian Food Packer 25:13 (1971). 9. Gangawar, B. M., Biochemical studies on growth and ripening of guava, Indian Food Packer 26:13 (1972). 10. Paul, R. E., and T. Goo, Relationship of guava fruit detachment force to the stage of fruit development and chemical composition, HortScience 18:65 (1983). 11. Luh, B. S., Tropical fruit beverages, Fruit and Vegetable Juice Processing Technology (D. K. Tressler, ed.), AVI, Westport, CT, 1967. 12. Agnihotri, B. N., K. L. Kapoor, and R. Goel, Ascorbic acid content of guava fruits during growth and maturity, Sci. Cult. 28:435 (1962).

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13. El-Zorkani, A. S., A preliminary report on vitamin C, sugar, pectin and acid contents of guava, Agr. Res. Rev. 46:107 (1968). 14. Samson, J. A., Tropical Fruits, Longman, London and New York, 1980. 15. Butani, D. K., Insects and Fruits, Periodical Expert Book Agency, Delhi, 1979, p. 55. 16. Brown, B. I., and R. B. H. Wills, Post-harvest changes in guava fruit of different maturity, Sci. Hort. 19:237 (1983). 17. Mukherjee, S. K., and M. N. Datta, Physicochemical changes in Indian guava during fruit development, Curr. Sci. 36:674 (1967). 18. Teotia, S. S., R. S. Tripathi, and S. Bhan, Evaluation of indices for determination of maturity of guava (Psidiuim guajava L.), Hort. Adv. 7:99 (1970).

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19. Kumar, R., and M. N. Hoda, Fixation of maturity standards for guava (Psidium guajava L.), Indian J. Hort. 31:140 (1974). 20. Shankar, G., Physico-chemical studies of five guava varieties of Uttar Pradesh, Hort. Abstra. 38:563 (1968). 21. Sehgal, O. P., and R. Singh, The classification and description of some important varieties of guava, Indian J. Hort. 21:26 (1965). 22. Ahire, A. A., Studies on the development of preserved products from guava (Psidium guajava L.), M.Sc. thesis, Mahatma Phule Agricultural University, Rahuri, Maharashtra, India, 1989. 23. Phadnis, N. A., Improvement of guava (Psidium guajava L.) by selection in Maharashtra, Indian J. Hort. 27:99 (1970).

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24. Singh, B. P., S. K. Kalra, and D. K. Tandon, Behaviour of guava cultivars during ripening and storage, Haryana J. Hort. Sci. 19:1 (1990). 25. Chan, H. T., and S. C. M. Kwok, Identification and determination of sugars in some tropical fruit products, J. Food Sci. 40:419 (1975). 26. Dhillon, B. S., S. N. Singh, G. S. Kundal, and P. P. S. Minhas, Studies on the developmental physiology of guava fruit. II. Biochemical characters, Punjab Hort. J. 27:212 (1987). 27. Swaminathan, M., Handbook of Food and Nutrition, Ganesh and Co., Madras, India, 1977. 28. Palaniswamy, K. P., and K. G. Shanmugavelu, Physico-chemical characters of some guava varieties, South Indian Hort. 22:8 (1974).

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29. Mitra, K., S. K. Ghosh, and R. S. Dhua, Ascorbic acid content in different varieties of guava grown in West Bengal, Sci. Cult. 50:235 (1984). 30. Sachan, B. P., and K. Ram, Ascorbic acid content of different varieties of guava (Psidium guajava L.) in Allahabad region, Indian Food Packer 24:6 (1970).

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31. Sachan, B. P., D. Pandey, and G. Shankar, Influence of weather on chemical composition of guava fruits (Psidium guajava L.) var. Allahabad Safeda, Punjab Hort. J. 9:119 (1969). 32. Webber, H. J., The vitamin C content of guavas, Proc. Am. Soc. Hort. Sci. 45:87 (1944). 33. Waddingten, G., and F. M. Cist, The vitamin C content of Psidium guajava, Proc. Fla. State Hort. Soc. 55:110 (1942). 34. Foda, Y. H., M. G. C. Hamed, and M. A. Abd-Allah, Preservation of orange and guava juices by freeze drying, Food Technol. 24:74 (1976). 35. Moy, J. H., Vacuum freeze drying of tropical fruit juices, J. Food Sci. 36:906 (1971).

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36. Verma, A. R., and J. C. Srivastava, Pectin in guava during growth and maturity, Indian J. Hort. 22:318 (1965). 37. Pal, D. K., and Y. Selvaraj, Changes in pectin and PE activity in developing guava fruits, J. Food Sci. Technol. 16:115 (1979). 38. Pruthi, J. S., K. K. Mookherji, and Giridhari Lal, A study of factors affecting the recovery and quality of pectin from guava, Indian Food Packer 14:7 (1960). 39. Rathore, D. S., Effects of season on the growth and chemical composition of guava fruits, J. Hort. Sci. 51:41 (1976). 40. Dhingra, M. K., O. P. Gupta, and B. S. Chundawant, Studies on pectin yield and quality of some guava cultivars in relation to cropping season and fruit maturity, J. Food Sci. Technol. 20:10 (1983).

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41. Chang, H. T., J. E. Brekke and T. Chang, Non-volatile organic acid in guava, J. Food Sci. 36:237 (1971). 42. Steven, K. L., J. E. Brekke and D. J. Stern, Volatile constituents in guava, J. Agr. Food Chem. 18:598 (1970). 43. Wilson, C. W., and P. E. Shaw, Terpene hydrocarbons from Psidium guajava, Phytochemistry 17:1435 (1978). 44. Misra, K., and T. R. Sheshadri, Chemical components of the fruits of Psidium guajava, Phytochemistry 7:641 (1968). 45. Nakasone, H. Y., R. A. Hamilton, and P. Ito, Evaluation of introduced cultivars of guava, Hawaii Farm Sci. 16:4 (1967).

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46. French, R. B., and D. D. Abbott, Levels of carotene and ascorbic acid in Florida-grown foods, Univ. Fla. Agr. Exp. Sta. Bull. 444, 1948. 47. Akamine, E. G., and T. Goo, Respiration and ethylene production in fruits of species and cultivars of Psidium and species of Eugenia, J. Am. Soc. Hort. Sci. 104:631 (1979). 48. Tandon, D. K., B. K. Singh, and S. K. Kalra, Storage behaviour of specific-gravity graded guava fruits, Sci. Hort. 41:35 (1989). 49. Vazquez-ochoa, R. I., and M. T. ColinasLeon, Changes in guavas of three maturity stages in response to temperature and relative humidity, Hort. Sci. 25:86 (1990). 50. Singh, U. R., I. C. Pande, B. M. Tripathi, and B. Shukla, Effect of different packing materials, containers, and transportation of guava fruit, Punjab Hort. J. 16:149 (1976).

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51. Khedkar, D. M., K. W. Ansarwadkar, R. S. Dabhade, and A. L. Ballal, Extension of storage life of guava variety L-49, Indian Food Packer 36:49 (1982). 52. Singh, R. V., M. C. Joshi, H. B. Ram, and N. S. Bisht, Effect of wax coating and prepackaging on the storage behaviour of guava cv. Allahabad Safeda, Indian Food Packer 38:85 (1984). 53. Adsule, P. G., and D. K. Tandon, The assessment of LDP bags for enhancing shelf-life of guava, Indian Food Packer 37:82 (1983). 54. Dhoot, L. R., U. T. Desai, and D. A. Rane, Studies on the shelf life of guava fruits with polyethylene packaging and chemical treatments, J. Maharashtra Agr. Univ. 9:185 (1984).

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55. Garg, R. C., and H. B. Ram, A note on the effect of postharveest treatment with growth regulators on ripening and storage behaviour of guava (Psidium guajava L.), Prog. Hort. 6:53 (1974). 56. Garg, R. C., H. B. Ram, and S. C. Singh, A note on the effect of postharvest treatment with indole butyric acid and wax emulsion on the storage behaviour of guava (Psidium guajava L.), Prog. Hort. 8:85 (1976).

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57. Singh, B. P., H. K. Singh, and K. S. Chauhan, Effect of postharvest calcium treatment on storage life of guava fruits. Indian J. Agr. Sci. 51:44 (1981). 58. Singh, G., Effect of calcium nitrate and plant growth regulators on the storage of Allahabad Safeda guava, Indian J. Hort 45:45 (1988). 59. Amen, K. I. A., Effect of post-harvest calcium treatment on the storage life of guava fruits, Asian J. Agr. Sci. 18:127 (1987). 60. Gupta, V. K., and D. Mukherjee, Effect of morphactin on the storage behaviour of guava fruits, J. Am. Soc. Hort. Sci. 105:115 (1980). 61. Mudahar, G. S., and B. S. Bhatia, Steeping preservation of fruits, J. Food Sci. Technol. 20:77 (1983).

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62. Wills, R. B. H., E. E. Mutholland, and B. I. Brown, Storage of new cultivars of guava fruit for processing, Trop. Agr. 60:175 (1983). 63. Gupta, O. P., B. P. Singh, and A. K. Gupta, Studies on the shelf-life of different guava cultivars, Haryana Agr. Univ. Res. J. 9:247 (1979). 64. Srivastava, H. C., and Narasimhan, P., Physiological studies during growth and development of different guava varieties, Prog. Hort. 15:42 (1967). 65. Ramaswamy, G. R., H. S. Sohi, and H. C. Govinda, Studies on spore germination in Pestalotia psidii, the causal organism of guava canker, Indian J. Mycol. Plant Pathol. 14:289 (1984). 66. Adisa, V. A., Fruit rot diseases of guava (Psidium guajava L.) in Nigeria, Indian Phytopathol. 38:42 (1985).

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67. Snowdon, A. L., Postharvest Diseases and Disorders of Fruits and Vegetables, Vol. I, CRC Press, Boca Raton, FL, 1990, p. 123. 68. Rao, D. P. C., S. C. Agrawal, and S. B. Saxena, Phomopsis destructum on Psidium guajava fruits in India, Mycologia 68:1132 (1976). 69. Ito, P. J., R. Kunimoto, and W. H. Ko, Transmission of mucor rot of guava fruits by three species of fruit flies, Trop. Agr. 56:49 (1979). 70. Kapoor, J. J., Pathological and biochemical studies on Curvularia rot of guava, Z. Pflanzenkrankheiten Pflanzenschutz 90:591 (1983). 71. Ullasa, B. A., and R. D. Rawal, A new fruit rot of guava caused by Sclerotium rolfsii, Curr. Sci. 54:470 (1985).

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72. Lim, T. K., and A. R. Razau, Studies on a Phomopsis rot of bagged guava fruits in Malaysia, Fitopatologia Brasileira 11:227 (1986). 73. Lal, G., G. S. Siddappa, and G. L. Tandon, Preservation of Fruits and Vegetables, Indian Council of Agricultural Research, New Delhi, 1986. 74. Siddappa, G. S., Status of fruit and vegetable preservation industry in India and future prospects, Indian Food Ind. 1:73 (1982). 75. Campbell, B. A., and C. W. Campbell, Preservation of tropical fruits by drying, Proc. Fla. State Hort. Soc. 96:229 (1983). 76. Khurdiya, D. S., and S. K. Roy, Studies on guava powder by cabinet drying, Indian Food Packer 28:5 (1974).

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77. CFTRI, Guava in India, Central Food Technological Research Institute, Mysore, India, 1990. 78. Jayaraman, K. S., M. N. Ramanuja, B. S. Bhatia, and H. Nath, Some studies on the preparation of intermediate moisture guava, J. Food Technol. 11:162 (1974). 79. Sandhu, K. S., and B. S. Bhatia, Physicochemical changes during preparation of fruit juice concentrate, J. Food Sci. Technol. 22:202 (1985). 80. Hayati, R., and S. S. Dhawan, Utilization of preserved guava pulp for ready to serve beverage, Beverage Food World 19:56 (1992). 81. Kalra, S. K., and G. Revathi, Storage studies on guava (Psidium guajava L.) pulp, Indian Food Packer 35:29 (1981).

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82. Tandon, D. K., and S. K. Kalra, Chemical evaluation of stored guava pulp in polyethylene pouches, Indian Food Packer 38:57 (1984). 83. Tandon, D. K., S. K. Kalra, J. K. Kulkarni, and K. L. Chadha, Chemical and microbiological evaluation of stored guava pulp in PVC containers, J. Food Sci. Technol. 20:118 (1983).

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84. Hoang, T. N., R. K. Pal, and S. K. Roy, Studies on extraction of pulp and development of beverages, Indian Food Packer 43:27 (1989). 85. Nila, D. V., S. D. Rathi, and U. M. Ingle, Studies on qualities of fruit yoghurt, Indian Food Packer 40:49 (1987). 86. Ambadan, Some new fruit beverages, Indian Hort 18:5 (1973). 87. Kalra, S. K., D. K. Tandon, and H. C. Lohani, Prevention of discoloration in guava beverage during storage, Indian Food Packer 41:21 (1987). 88. Chan, H. T., Jr., and C. G. Cavaletto, Effects of deaeration and storage temperature on quality of aseptically packaged guava puree, J. Food Sci. 51:165 (1986).

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89. Cheema, G. S., S. S. Bhat, and K. C. Naik, Commercial Fruits of India, MacMillan, Bombay, 1954, 245. 90. Boyle, F. P., H. Seagrave-Smith, S. Sakata, and G. D. Sherman, Commercial guava processing in Hawaii, Hawaii Agr. Exp. Sta. Bull. 111:5 (1957). 91. Singh, R., A. C. Kapoor, and O. P. Gupta, Effect of cultivars, seasons and storage on the nutritive value and keeping quality of guava cheese, Indian Food Packer 37:71 (1983). 92. Parpia, H. A. B., Homescale Processing and Preservation of Fruits and Vegetables, Central Food Technological Research Institute, Mysore, India, 1967, p. 72.

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93. Kalra, S. K., and D. K. Tandon, Guava nectars from sulphited pulp and their blends with mango nectar, Indian Food Packer 38:74 (1984). 94. Jain, N. L., and D. H. Borkar, Preparing beverage from guava, Indian Hort. 11:5 (1966). 95. Gagrani, R. L., S. D. Rathi, and U. M. Ingle, Preparation of fruit flavoured beverage from whey, J. Food Sci. Technol. 24:93 (1987). 96. Orr, K. J., and C. D. Miller, The loss of vitamin C in frozen guava juice, Hawaii Agr. Exp. Sta. Prog. Notes, 98 (1954). 97. Fitting, K. O., and C. D. Miller, The stability of ascorbic acid in frozen and bottled acerola juice alone and combined with other juices, Univ. Hawaii Agr. Exp. Sta. Tech. Bull., 443 (1959).

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98. Shah, W. H., N. A. Sufi, and S. I. Zafar, Studies on the storage stability of guava fruit juice, Pakistan J. Sci. Res. 18:179 (1975). 99. Aurora, S. H., H. T. Chan, Jr., G. C. Catherine, and O. P. Conrad, Physical-chemical characteristics of partially clarified guava juice and concentrate, J. Food Sci. 55:1757 (1990). 100. Joshi, P. S., P. S. Waghmare, P. N. Zanjad, and D. M. Khedkar, Utilization of curd and whey for preparation of fruit jelly, Indian Food Packer 39:38 (1985). 101. Bardiya, M. C., B. S. Kundy, and P. Tauro, Studies on fruit winesGuava wine, Haryana J. Hort. Sci. 3:140 (1974). 102. Dhingra, M. K., and O. P. Gupta, Evaluation of chemicals for pectin extraction from guava (Psidium guajava L.) fruits, J. Food Sci. Technol. 21:173 (1984).

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103. Varma, P. S., N. V. Godbole, and P. D. Srivastava, The seed oil of Psidium guajava pyuberum of India, Fettchem. Umsch. 43:8 (1936). 104. Subramanyam, V. V. R., and K. T. Achaya, Lesser-known Indian vegetable fats 1. Oleicrich fats. J. Sci. Food Agr. 8:657 (1957). 105. Landgraph, H. Guava seed oil, Rev. Agr. Piracicaba 35:179 (1960).

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20 Lychee
S. S. Kadam Mahatma Phule Agricultural University, Rahuri, Maharashtra, India S. S. Deshpande Idetek, Inc., Sunnyvale, California I. Introduction

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The origin of lychee or litchi is believed to be China's Kwantung Province (1), where it has been grown for as long as 40 centuries (2). Lychee is consumed fresh and in preserved forms. The edible portion of the fruit is a white- to cream-colored translucent pulp surrounding a glossy brown seed. The pulp is grapelike in texture, very succulent and aromatic, and is characterized by a sweet and acid taste (3). Lychee was introduced to the tropical and subtropical world from China at the end of the seventeenth century and is now found situated within 1530 latitude in most countries (4). The most important production areas today are China, Taiwan, India, Pakistan, Thailand, Vietnam, Indonesia, Madagascar, South Africa, and Australia (Table 1). II. Botany

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Lychee (Litchi chinensis Sonn) is a subtropical evergreen tree belonging to the family Sapindaceae. The Litchi genus contains two other subspecies which have not been commercialized. L. chinensis subspecies philippinensis, which developed in the Philippines and PapuaNew Guinea at high elevations, and L. chinensis subspecies javensis, which has been recorded in the Malay Peninsula and Indonesia. Philippines lychee has long, oval-shaped fruit with long thornlike protuberances. Fruits split in the middle when ripe; the aril only partly covers the seed and is not edible. L. chinensis subsp. javensis has fruit similar to cultivated lychee, but the aril is thinner. It is reported to flower and fruit well under wet tropical conditions. Many of the Malayan specimens of Litchi belong to subsp. chinensis and not subsp. javensis (4).

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The fruit is borne in bunches on trees that may reach 912 m in height. The pericarp of mature fruit is thin, hard, and somewhat warty in texture. Depending on cultivar, the pericarp may be pale green, bright red, or rose colored. Round to oval in shape, the individual fruit measures about 2.54 cm. Skin color is bright red, dull red, purple-red, or pinkish red, depending on the cultivar. Some

Page 43 Table 1 Production of Lychee Fruits in Various Countries in 1990 Production (1000 Production (1000 Country tonnes) Country tonnes) Taiwan 131.0 Madagascar 35.00 India 91.86 Thailand 8.40 China 61.82 South 6.27 Africa Source: Ref. 4.

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cultivars also have distinctive yellow botches on th skin (4). The fleshy edible portion of the fruit is called an aril and is an outgrowth of the seed stalk. It grows as the fruit develops until it completely covers the seed, although in a few cultivars the aril may not completely envelop the seed, especially during periods of moisture stress. The aril is white and translucent, but cultivars vary greatly with respect to texture, aroma, and flavor (4). Each fruit normally contains one brown to dark brown chestnut. In some cultivars, a high proportion of seeds may be abortive. The abortive seeds are small and shriveled and are known as chicken tongue seeds. Fruits with abortive seeds are preferred, and often attract a higher price, for although they are somewhat smaller than fruits with normal seeds, they usually contain a higher proportion of flesh. The proportion of small or shriveled seeds is an important characteristic of a cultivar, and varies from season to season and orchard to orchard (4).

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A. Cultivars

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Lychee cultivars vary in their fruit color, size, shape, flavor, and seed size. Huang (5) and Yee (6) documented and described the important cultivars of lychee. No Mi Ts Z or No Mai T sz (glutinous rice) are names for one superior cultivar in Taiwan as described by Huang (5). Gross (7) reported Kua Lu or Kwa Luk (hanging green) as the most famous cultivar of the time. Kuei Wei or Kwai Mi (cinnamon flavor) is found both in China and Taiwan (5) and in Hawaii (6). Hsiong Li or Heung Lai (fragran lychee) is noted for its small seed, a desirable characteristic. The famous cultivar in China is Chen Purple, also known as Chen Family Purple, Chen Tsz, or Chen Tze; in the United States, this cultivar is known as Brewster, for Rev. W. N. Brewster, who obtained it from Hengwha in the Province of Fukien (8). Groff cultivar, developed in Hawaii, is late-bearing cultivar characterized by shriveled seeds (9). Dehra Dun, Early Large Red, Kalkattia, and rose scented are the important cultivars of lychee grown in Saharanpur and Dehra Dun in India.

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Mauritius is the only lychee cultivar grown in South Africa on a commercial scale (10). B. Fruit Development and Ripening

Two types of flowers are produced in terminal panicles of new shots in lychee, staminate and hermaphrodite. Staminate flowers open first, followed by hermaphrodites. Only a small percentage of flowers set fruit. In the fruit, growth of lychee seeds occurs initially at a high rate, followed by membraneous mesocarp and aril, which grow very fast toward the later stages of fruit development. Lychee ripens when the atmospheric temperature is high. The fruits usually do not improve in quality after harvest. Hence, fruits are allowed to ripen on the tree. The development of red pigments of lychee fruits was found to be associated with four anthocyanin pigments (11).

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III. Production A. Soil and Climate

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Lychee can be grown in a variety of soil conditions. However, it does best when grown on deep loamy soil or on sandy loam. One of the important considerations in site selection for this crop is the lime content in the soil. It has been said that the lime content of the soil in the best lychee region in India is around 30%. It is apparent that regions with lower soil lime content than optimum need addition of lime before planting. Acid soils are ideal for lychee production. In pot culture experiments, mycorhizal growth on roots was also shown to be favored by acidic soil pH rather than neutral soil pH (11). The type of soil greatly influences the quality of fruits. Lychee can be grown on both acidic and calcareous soils. However, high organic matter and soils with poor drainage are not ideal for this crop, as these conditions do not favor the growth of mycorhizal fungi. An ideal climate for lychee must be free from frost during winter and hot, dry winds during summer.

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The ideal lychee-growing regions in the world have moist summers and cool winters without freezing temperatures. The lowest limit of freezing temperature a lychee tree can tolerate depends largely on age, variety, and condition of the plant. Young plants are relatively more susceptible to frost and hence need protection during their initial years. Trees in dormant condition are more resistant to frost or cool temperatures than those which are actively growing. Seasonal fluctuations in temperature during fruiting are beneficial for successful production of delicious fruit. Dry heat during fruit ripening, especially when combined with wind, is disastrous for successful culture. The fruits have been shown to crack prematurely under desiccating conditions (11). Under conditions of low humidity, frequent irrigations are necessary to maintain the desired (6984%) humidity levels. In its native climate, it is grown in places with relatively high rainfall (150 cm or more).

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Lychee can be grown up to an altitude of about 10001100 m. In the plains of southern India, fluctuation in seasonal temperature limits its production on a large scale. The temperature in ideal areas during the flowering to fruiting period ranges from 21.1 to 37.8C. B. Propagation. Although lychee can be propagated from seeds, the seedling plants take a long time (up to 20 years) to come into bearing. Lychee seeds lose their viability within a few days (45 days) after extraction from the fruit. If the seeds are left in the fruits, or stored in distilled water or between two layers of moist sphagnum moss with moisture-proof wrapping, they remain viable for 28 weeks. The seeds are sown 5 cm deep in sand. In certain cases, seed germination of up to 30% has been reported (12). Therefore, propagation through seed is seldom followed in lychee.

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Among vegetative propagation methods, air layering is the most common method of propagation, and is considered satisfactory, but does not seem to develop a very good root system (11). The layerings which started in June are removed in August and planted in the field in the month of September. Singh (12) suggested the use of 45- to 60-cm-long terminal branches, preferably with a fork near the top. A ring of bark measuring 2.5 cm in width is removed, and all the combial remainings are removed by scrapping. The cut end should be treated with rooting hormone (200 ppm of a-naphthalene acetic acid) for better success in root formation. The cut portion is covered with wet sphagnum peat moss and wrapped in plastic paper. Generally it takes about 68 weeks for complete root formation, after which the wrappings are removed. Other materials, such as a mud ball containing rooted plant material or mud plaster, may be used in place of sphagnum peat moss. The time of

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layering varies from place to place (13). Other methods, such as in-arch grafting, budding, and cuttings (softwood and hardwood) can also be employed but are not

Page 438

commercially practicable. In China, in-arching and top-working are used for a few varieties. In some parts of India up to 80% success has been reported with in-arching on root stock of Nephelium longana. The bearing in grafted trees was uncertain in some cases. Top-working has been used extensively in Hawaii to rejuvenate old trees. Chip and shield budding have been used with some success in Florida, Hawaii, and the Philippines. Tongue or ring layering has also been tried in lychee with 100% success.

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Soft- and hardwood cuttings have also been tried with satisfactory results. With bottom heat and controlled conditions, softwood can be made to root and grow satisfactorily. However, Singh (12) has suggested the use of 23-year-old cuttings. Growth regulator and fine mist can be used to improve the rate of success. Sen (15) recommended treatment of the bottom end of cuttings with 50100 ppm indole butyric acid for 24 h before planting. Higher concentrations or extended treatment have been shown to be harmful. Cuttings taken from younger plants give better results than those from older plants. Softwood cuttings have been successfully rooted, but the buds in such cuttings die in early stages (13). Cuttings taken during April and May rooted much better than those taken in November onward (2). C. Cultural Practices

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1. Planting Young lychee plants are susceptible to excessive drying, strong winds, and too high or too low temperatures. Further, mycorhizal growth in the soil is affected at low soil moisture. The soil for lychee must be prepared well through repeated plowing and harrowing. Since lychee is a shallow-rooted crop, deep tillage is not necessary and can be dangerous. The time of planting varies from region to region, with the best time ranging from spring through monsoon until October. Prior to planting, sufficient manure and, if possible, silt must be added to the pit. In general, about 28 kg of farmyard manure (FYM) together with 2 kg of bonemeal per pit are recommended (4). It is also necessary to provide adequate drainage.

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Planting spacing depends largely on the prevailing soil type, and spacing is at 912 m under favorable growing conditions (4). In drier regions where it is desirable to go for higher plant density in order to protect the trees from dry, hot winds, the spacing may be reduced to 8 m; under highly fertile soils it can be increased to 15 m. Young plants need protection from frost and from dry, hot winds, and require frequent watering during summer months. A basin system of irrigation is suitable in young orchards, but the size of the basins will have to be increased with age of the trees. Although deep plowing is dangerous, light harrowing to keep the weed population down is necessary in most locations. 2. Irrigation

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Irrigation is absolutely necessary, especially in areas of low rainfall. The cultivation practices followed for lychee in India are similar to those for mango (4). However, in China the cultivation practices are reduced to a minimum. Flood irrigation is most common in older plantations. Drainage is an important consideration in deciding the frequency of irrigation. In general, irrigation is required starting from January-February until the onset of monsoon. 3. Manuring and Fertilization

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Lychee requires sufficient nutrients for successful production. Depending on the age of the plants, 50125 kg of farmyard manure has been recommended per tree (4). Five-year-old trees receiving 50 g N + 50 g P2O5 and 25 g K2O per plant gave highest yield (26.33 kg/tree) (14). The deficiency of any macro- or micronutrient in the soil can be corrected through foliar or soil application.

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4. Training and Pruning Except for proper training in the initial stages to build up frame, lychee does not require any elaborate training or pruning schedule. However, as the fruits are borne only on new shoots, snipping of old branches is beneficial. Since fruits are harvested along with a small portion of shoot, harvesting meets the requirements for pruning. Some of the branches are removed when the plant gets crowded. Both root and shoot pruning is practiced to rejuvenate the tree and to improve fruit size. However, it is important to note that yield is reduced with heavy pruning. D. Pests and Diseases

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Mites (Aceria litchi) and bark-eating caterpillars (Inderbela tetraonis) are some of the minor pests. Lychee is almost free from fungus diseases. However, fruit cracking is a serious problem in almost all lychee-growing areas in India, particularly under dry conditions. This has been attributed to high temperature and relatively low humidity. E. Harvesting and Packaging

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The exact stage of harvest depends on the distance from market. For local market, lychee are harvested when fully ripe. The ripe fruits can easily be identified by their bright red skin, which turns brownish as they age. Fruits for long-distance shipping are packed when they are just beginning to turn red. Maturity is judged by the shape of the fruit, skin color, skin texture, and flavor. A maturity index based on a minimum Brix:acid ratio of 35 has been developed in Australia (4). Red fruits turn brown within a few days after harvest unless moisture loss is prevented. To prevent browning and rooting, fruits are dipped in benomyl suspension (0.5 g/liter) at 50C for 2 min. This treatment is particularly important for fruits that are not refrigerated on the farm. Cool storage to 5 C extends postharvest life for up to 2 weeks with minimal loss of quality in some cultivars, but storage for longer periods (34 weeks) must be done at 7C to avoid skin browning.

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Lychee shipped to long-distance markets are normally treated with sulfur to prevent browning. The fruits are placed in a closed container and 50150 g of sulfur per cubic meter of air is burnt in the closed space for 2030 min. The SO2 bleaches the fruit to a pinkish-cream color. Immediately after SO2 treatment, fruits are bright yellow, and progressively turn orange-red. This treatment has been shown to extend storage life, inhibit browning, and limit the need for specialized packaging and handling. The SO2-fumigated fruits can be made full-red-color fruits by treating with dilute hydrochloric acid (pH 5.0). When treated this way, the red skin color is stable and fruits are no longer prone to skin browning due to moisture loss (4). IV. Composition.

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The composition of lychee varies greatly. The moisture content ranges from 77 to 83%. Wenkam and Miller (16) reported 81% and 77.6% moisture for Brewster and Kwai Mi, respectively. Mathew and Pushpa (9) reported 8387% moisture in six Indian varieties. Most analyses showed that the protein content of lychee may vary from about 0.8 to 1.5% (17). The fat content of the fruit is also negligible, less than about 1% (Table 2). The sugar content of lychee varies considerably, 11.8% in Hak Ip to 20.6% in Kwai Mi (18). Most Indian varieties range in sugar content from 10 to 13%. Higgins (19) reported that the total sugar content of lychee was 15.3%, consisting of 81.7% reducing sugars and 18.3% sucrose. Mathew and Pushpa (9) observed that total sugars in six Indian varieties ranged from 55.92 to 61.37% of the fruit on a dry basis, reducing sugars

Page 440 Table 2 Nutritional Composition of Lychee Fruits Constituent Content Protein (%) 0.9 Fat (%) 0.1 Carbohydrates (%) 13.1 Fiber 0.1 Minerals (mg/100 g) 7.0 Calcium 41.0 Phosphorus 1.3 Iron Vitamins (mg/100 g) 0.11 Thiamin 0.04 Riboflavin 0.3 Niacin 167.0 Ascorbic acid Source: Ref. 4.

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accounting for 41.5243.45%. Thus, slightly more than 70% of the sugars were found to be reducing sugars. Chan et al. (20) demonstrated the presence of invertase. These workers postulated that if this enzyme is not inactivated when the fruit is macerated prior to analysis, it may catalyze inversion of sucrose, giving higher proportions of reducing sugars in the analyses. The lychee invertase has a pH optimum of 2.6, lower than the pH of the fruit pulp (pH 4.6); the optimum temperature for the enzyme is 55C (20).

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Fruit acidity ranged from 0.20 to 0.64% for 12 Indian cultivars (9). Acidity values as high as 1.1% were reported in juice extracted from an unidentified variety in South Africa (21). Acidity decreases during fruit ripening (22,23), and following the harvest, acidity again decreases during storage (5). The predominant nonvolatile acid in lychee is malic acid, accounting for about 80% of the total nonvolatile acids (24). Other acids include citric, succinic, levulinic, phosphonic, glutaric, malonic, and lactic acids (Table 3).

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Lychee is an excellent source of ascorbic acid, but its content varies considerably (3). Wenkam and Miller (16) found 40.2 mg/100 g of ascorbic acid in Kwai Mi and 80.8 mg/100 g in Brewster. Chadha and Rajpoot (25) reported 44 mg ascorbic acid per 100 g in Culcutta Late. Thompson (26) found 90 mg/100 g of ascorbic acid in an unspecified variety. The ascorbic acid content decreased as the temperature and storage time increased (26). Lychee is not a significant source of thiamin, riboflavin, calcium, phosphorus, or iron (3). V. Storage

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The fresh flavor of lychee can be best preserved by freezing, and the simplest method is to freeze the fruit without peeling. The fruit may also be peeled, seeded or left unseeded, and frozen in syrup. Peeling is usually done by hand or by hot-lye dip and mechanically (27). Lychees are sometimes fermented for Chinese medicine or used for making wines (5). The shelf-life of fresh unpackaged lychee at room temperature is less than 72 h (28). Desiccation occurs during transport, with accompanying loss of red shell color and development of browning, most probably due to aerobic oxidation by a polyphenolase system (29). The

Page 4

Table 3 Quantitative Determination of Organic Acids in Lych Fruitsa Organic Based on methyl ester data Based on TMSb da acid (meq/100 g) (meq/100 g) Malic 4.16 3.57 Citric 0.52 0.04 Succinic 0.04 0.25 Levulinic 0.01 trace Phosphoric 0.2 Glutaric 0.04 Malonic 0.02 Lactic 0.02 Ascorbicc 0.28 0.28 Volatile 0.13 0.13 acidsd Total 5.18 4.51 Titratable 4.60 4.60 acidsd aEach value is the mean of 7 or more replicates. bSeparation of organic acids as derivatives of trimethylsylil. cValues obtained colorimetrically. dValues obtained titrimetrically. Source: Ref. 24.

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pericarp did not darken when lychees were placed u der high vacuum or in ascorbic acid solution. Darke ing also failed to occur when heated pericarp was e posed to air. Browning of lychee was reduced cons erably by refrigerated storage in polyethylene bags (28,29). Storage for up to 5 weeks was possible at 2C with a relative humidity of 8085%. Symptoms chilling injury appeared after 30 days in fruits held 0 or 5C (30). Moreuil (31) noted that freshly harve ted fruits, when rapidly cooled and kept at -25C, re mained in excellent conditions for 12 months. Macf (28) reported that a chlorine sanitizing treatment, fo lowed by packaging in polyethylene film and storag at 10C, controlled decay of lychees during storage extending the shelf life of fruits. Postharvest brown ing precludes widespread commercial marketing of lychee (32). Blanching of fruit in water between 56 and 100C inhibits browning onset but bleaches anthocyanin (33). Postharvest treatment with hot 0.05 benomyl dip at 52C for 1 min with overwrap in polyethylene bags (33) or polyvinyl chloride (33)

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minimizes browning and improves shelf life of lychee (3436). VI. Processing

Lychee can be eaten directly after harvesting or coo stored, dried, or quick frozen. Thawed fruit can be used in the same way as freshly picked fruit, but wi some loss of color and flavor. The fruit can be peel pitted, and canned in sugar syrup. Fresh or processe fruit can be used alone or with other fruits in tropic fruit salads.

There are substantial canning industries in China, Hong Kong, and Taiwan, and smaller industries in Thailand and India (4). Wai Chee is the main cultiv canned in China, while Haak Yip dominates in Taiwan. Canned lychees lose some of their flavor a are not as acceptable as canned longan (4). There is particular problem with Haak Yip, which develops off-flavor with heat sterilization.

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A large proportion of the crop was traditionally dried in China, and often given as presents. Dried lychees are known as lychee nuts, and during drying, the pericarp or outer skin becomes brown and brittle, but retains its shape. The aril or flesh which shrivels around the seed is very pleasant. The fruit can be made into jelly (37) or sherbet and ice cream (38). A highly flavored squash can also be prepared from lychee fruits (39,40). Various other products such as pickles, preserve, and wine are also made from lychee in China. References 1. Tao, R., The superior lychee, Proc. Fla. Lychee Growers Assoc. 2:73 (1955).

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2. Ochse, J. J., M. T. Soule, Jr., M. J. Dijman, and C. Wehlburg, Other fruit crops, Tropical and Subtropical Agriculture, Vol. I, Macmillan, New York, 1961. 3. Cavaletto, C. G., Lychee, Tropical and Subtropical Fruits (S. Nagy and P. E. Shaw, eds.), AVI, Westport, CT, 1980, p. 469. 4. Menzel, C. M., and D. R. Simpson, Fruits of tropical climateFruits of Sapindaceae, Encyclopaedia of Food Science, Food Technology and Nutrition (R. Macrae, R. K. Robinson, and M. J. Sadler, eds.), Academic Press, London, 1993, p. 2108. 5. Haung, P. C., Lychee: Constituent and utilization, Tropical Fruit Trees, Vol. 2, Lychee (in Chinese), 1966 (quoted in Ref. 3). 6. Yee, W., The lychee in Hawaii, Univ. Hawaii Coop. Ext. Serv. Circ. 366, 1972.

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7. Groff, G. W., Varieties of the lychee, The Lychee and Longan, Orange Judd Co., New York, 1921. 8. Cobin, M., The lychee in Florida, Univ. Fla. Agr. Exp. Sta. Bull. 546, 1954. 9. Mathew, A. B., and M. C. Pushpa, Organic acids and carbohydrates of litchi, J. Food Sci. Technol. (Mysore) 1:71 (1964). 10. Knight, R., Jr., Origin and world importance of tropical and subtropical fruit crops, Tropical and Subtropical Fruits (S. Nagy and P. E. Shaw, eds.), AVI, Westport, CT, 1980, p. 1. 11. Maiti, S. C., Litchi, Fruits of India: Tropical and Subtropical (T. K. Bose, ed.), Naya Prokash, Culcutta, 1985, p. 388. 12. Singh, L. B., Air layering of litchi without soil or water, Curr. Sci. 20:102 (1951).

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13. Roy, R. S., A consolidated report of Fruit Research Scheme Bihar, India, Government Printing Press, 1952. 14. Sharma, K. K., K. S. Bains, and B. Singh, Effect of different levels of NPK on growth and yield and quality of litchi (Litchi chinensis Cv. Deharadun.), Haryana J. Hort. Sci. 19:241 (1990). 15. Sen, H. D., Effect of indole butyric acid and three other acids for the rooting of litchee cuttings, Proc. 28th Ind. Sci. Cong., 262 (1941). 16. Wenkam, N. S., and C. D. Miller, Composition of Hawaii fruits, Hawaii Agr. Exp. Sta. Bull. 135, 1965. 17. National Science Development Board, Food Consumption: Table Recommended for Use in the Philippines, Manila, 1964.

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18. Miller, C. D., K. Bezore, and M. Bartow, Lychee, Fruits of Hawaii, Univ. of Hawaii Press, Honolulu, 1957. 19. Higgins, J. E., The litchi in Hawaii, Hawaii Agr. Exp. Sta. Bull. 44, 1917. 20. Chan, H. T., Jr., S. C. M. Kwok, and C. W. Q. Lee, Sugar composition and invertase activity in lychee, J. Food Sci. 40:772 (1975). 21. Stahl, A. L., The composition of numerous tropical and subtropical fruits, Proc. Fla. State Hort. Soc. 48:159 (1935). 22. Joubert, A. J., The Litchi, Citrus Sub-trop. Fruit Res. Inst. Bull. 389 (South Africa) (1970) (quoted in Ref. 3). 23. Akahoshi, N. A., and P. J. Ito, Unpublished data, Univ. of Hawaii, 1978 (quoted in Ref. 3).

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24. Chan, H. T., Jr., and S. C. M. Kwok, Nonvolatile acids in Lychee, J. Food Sci. 39:792 (1974). 25. Chadha, K. L., and M. S. Rajpoot, Studies on floral biology, fruit set and its retention and quality of some litchi varieties, Indian J. Hort. 26:124 (1969).

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26. Thompson, B. D., A progress report on handling and storage of fresh lychees, Proc. Fla. Lychee Growers Assoc. 2:27 (1955). 27. Chan, H. T., Jr., and C. G. Caveletto, Lye peeling of lychee, Hawaii Agr. Exp. Sta. Res. Rep. 215, 1973. 28. Macfie, G. B., Jr., Packaging and storage of lychee fruits, preliminary experiments, Proc. Fla. Lychee Growers Assoc. 1:44 (1954). 29. Akamine, E. K. Preventing the darkening of fresh lychee prepared for export, Hawaii Agr. Exp. Sta. Tech. Prog. Rep. 127, 1960. 30. Tongdee, S. C., K. J. Scott, and W. B. McGlasson, Packaging and cool storage of litchi fruit, CSIRO Food Res. Quart. 42:25 (1982). 31. Moreuil, C., Storage of litchi, Fruits 28:637 (1973).

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32. Huang, S., H. Hart, H. Lee, and L. Wicker, Enzymatic and colour changes during postharvest storage of Lychee fruit, J. Food Sci. 55:1762 (1990). 33. Scott, K. J., B. T. Brown, G. R. Chaplin, M. E. Wilcox, and J. M. Bain, The control of rotting and browning of Litchi fruit by hot benomyl and plastic film, Sci. Hort. 16:253 (1982). 34. Huang, P. Y., and K. J. Scott, Control of rotting and browning of litchi fruit after harvest at ambient temperatures in China, Trop. Agr. (Trinidad) 62:2 (1985). 35. Sharma, S. B., and P. K. Ray, Studies on extending postharvest life of lychee (Litchi cinensis Sonn.), Indian Food Packer 41:17 (1987).

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36. Bhullar, J. S., B. S. Dhillon, and J. S. Randhawa, Extending the postharvest life of litchi cultivars, Seedless Late, J. Res. Punjab Agr. Univ. 20:467 (1983). 37. Kuhn, G. D., Some factors influencing the properties of lychee jelly, Proc. Fla. State Hort. Soc. 75:408 (1962). 38. Shaw, T. N., S. Sakata, F. P. Boyle, and G. D. Sherman, Hawaii tropical fruit flavours in sherbets and ice creams, Hawaii Agr. Exp. Sta. Circ. 49, 1955. 39. Sethi, V., A simple and low cost preservation of litchi juice, Indian Food Packer 39(4):42 (1985). 40. Jain, S. P., V. K. Tripathi, H. B. Ram, and S. Singh, Varietal suitability of litchi for squash making, Indian Food Packer 42:29 (1988).

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21 Passion Fruit
U. D. Chavan and S. S. Kadam Mahatma Phule Agricultural University, Rahuri, Maharashtra, India I. Introduction

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Passion fruit (Passiflora) is one of the important fruit crops grown in Hawaii, Australia, New Zealand, Kenya, South Africa, Fiji, Peru, and Sri Lanka. The juice has excellent flavor and is commonly used for preparation of beverages. Passion fruit is native to tropical America. It is grown in practically every country with a suitable climate. There are two types, yellow and purple. The yellow fruit has several names: Ceibey in Cuba, Maracuja Peroba in Brazil, Parchita Maracuya or Parchita in Venezuela, Percha in Puerto Rico, yellow Granadilla in South Africa, Greenadille or Couzou in French-speaking countries, yellow Lilikoi in Hawaii, and Golden Passion fruit in Australia (1). It has been an important commercial crop in all these areas. II. Botany

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Passion fruit (Passiflora) is a member of the dicotyledon family Passifloraceae. There are more than 500 species of passiflora, and more than 50 of these species are edible. Only the purple passion fruit, Passiflora edulis Sims, f. edulis, and yellow passion fruit, P. edulis Sims, f. flavicarpa Degener, are grown commercially (Table 1). Hybrids have been made between the purple and yellow forms. Other edible passion fruits include Sweet Granadilla, P. ligularis; giant Granadilla, P. quadrangularis; Bell apple, P. laurifolia; and Sweet Calabash, P. maliformis (1). The passion fruits are woody perennial vines with alternate leathery, shiny-toothed, three-lobed leaves. The flower has five white sepals, five white petals, and a corona of two rows of thread-like rays (2). The fruit is globose or oval with a hard and thick shell. Fruits of both forms are roundish, about 46 cm in diameter, with a brittle pericarp; the aril is yellowish in both forms (35). Many feel that the purple

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passion fruit has the better flavor, but the yellow form has been preferred for its larger fruits, larger yields, and resistance to Fusarium fungi. The yellow form carries a dominant gene for resistance to wilting diseases, to which the purple form is susceptible (5). The purple passion fruit grows well in cooler climates, where the flowers open in early

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Page 447

morning and close in the afternoon. By contrast, the yellow passion fruit is more often cultivated at lower altitudes or in warmer climates, where the flowers open at midday and close in the evening (5). A. Cultivars In Hawaii and Fiji, the yellow passion fruit (cultivar Flavicarp) is the basis of the entire passion fruit industry. In Australia, Ceylon, Africa, and India, the purple passion fruit or Purple Granadilla is most exploited. Sweet Granadilla (P. edulis Juss) is cultivated extensively on the mountains of Mexico and Central America. Banana passion fruit or Tacsonia (P. mollissima) is grown in the Andes (3). Giant Granadilla (P. quadrangularis L.), a melonlike fruit, is widely distributed throughout the tropics (2).

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The Redlands Triangular (Selection 3-1) and Selection E-23 are hybrid cultivars between purple and yellow passion fruit grown in Queensland (3). Noel's Special, a cultivar with a large fruited yellow passion fruit, has been introduced by the University of Hawaii. This cultivar has unusually bright orange-colored juice and is tolerant to Alternaria brown spot (4). B. Fruit Development.

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Pruthi (6) reviewed information on physiological and chemical changes during ontogency of the purple passion fruits. Immature fruits of yellowish-green stage have low juice, sugars, ascorbic acid, and carotene. These fruits are more acidic and inferior in flavor to the partially and fully mature fruits. The physicochemical characteristics of the partially and fully mature fruits do not vary markedly with the exception that fully mature fruits possess better aroma. As the immature fruits developed into fully mature fruits, the carotenoids and anthocyanins increased; the ascorbic acid content of the rind decreased from 111.6 to 88.6 mg% but increased in the fruit juice from 15.3 to 33.5 mg% (2). There was a decrease in the total protein content of the juice from 1.03 to 0.7% (2). Upon ripening, passion fruits fall from the vine. Ethephon hastens maturity of passion fruit in a temperate zone (7).

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III. Production A. Soil and Climate Passion fruit grows well in soils having adequate moisture-holding capacity, humus, and lime; very heavy and poorly drained soils of low fertility are not suitable. The fruit requires a mild climate free from extremes of heat and cold. Fruiting is very poor in regions with very warm summers. Similarly, extreme cold and frost conditions may damage vines permanently. The climate of subtropical and temperate regions in foothills and low hills favors the growth of this crop. It is grown successfully in subtropical and tropical areas with an annual rainfall varying from 50 to 100 cm, and relative humidity from 50 to 80%. B. Propagation

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Passion fruit is commonly propagated by seeds (8). It is also easy to make cuttings, but these can carry virus diseases. Passion fruit vines may be planted either in the form of an exclusive plantation or as a mixed crop with other latebearing fruit trees. Vines are required to be trained on trellises. The crop is usually planted in spring, i.e., in February-March, or in the monsoon season, from July to September, in pits dug at a distance of 34 m between plants and rows.

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C. Cultural Practices 1. Manuring and Fertilization Passion fruit responds well to manuring and fertilization. A dose of 9 kg of farmyard manure per vine, supplemented with a N, P, K (10:6:10) dose of about 1/2 kg as mixed fertilizer, is recommended (9). The manuring and fertilization should be carried out preferably in the spring and before the break of summer monsoon. Three applications of 14 kg of 10-520 fertilizer per vine between February and September and one application between September and February are recommended in Hawaii (9). 2. Irrigation

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The vines should be irrigated immediately after planting, followed by regular irrigation at suitable intervals based on season and plant needs. In the rainy season, it may be possible to dispense with artificial irrigation. 3. Pollination

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The bees reported to be most important in pollination of yellow and purple passion fruit in Brazil, Colombia, and Hawaii are species of carpenter bees in genus Xylocopa (5). The flower opens for a short time during the day. Rain showers cause a lowering of fruit production. Hand pollination is practiced on some Colombian plantations. Large bees of two genera (Eulaema and Xylocopa) were more efficient pollinators than honey bees. Flowers of plants in subgenus Tacsonia, unlike the granadilla and yellow and purple passion fruits, are open continuously during 23 days (5). Their pendent orientation also protects the stigmas from rain. None of the species of this group has been shown to be self-incompatible, but fruit was seldom set by pollinator intervention. 4. Training and Pruning.

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Vines are trained to grow directly on wire supports, and any laterals produced before reaching this height are removed. The vine may be allowed to grow in one direction with the laterals allowed to hang down from the trellis, or the vine may be topped and two or more laterals can then be trained in two directions or along additional wires. Fruit occurs only on the current year's growth. Hence, selective pruning of laterals after fruiting is beneficial. Pruning of laterals is made to a newly developed lateral that is close to the main leader on the wire supports or up to about 30 cm from the main leader (9). D. Diseases and Pests

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Apart from woodiness of passion fruit caused by virus, no other serious diseases of the fruit have been reported. Root rot caused by Phythium splendens, collar rot caused by Phytophthora parasitica and P. cinnamoni, brown spot caused by Alternaria passiflorae, passion fruit mosaic viral disease (woodiness disease)thought to be caused by cucumber mosaic virusand Fusarium wilt caused by Fusarium oxysporum are important diseases of passion fruit. Other diseases that have been reported include fruit rot caused by Cylindrosporium sp., stem rot caused by Macrophomina sp., and oil spot disease caused by Xanthomonas passiflorae (10).

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The oriental fruit fly Dacus dorsalis, melon fly Dacus cucurbitae, Mediterranean fruit fly Ceratitis capitata, spider mites Brevipalpus phoenicis and Tetranychus telarius, and broad mite Hemitarsonemus latus are reported as major pests in Hawaii (9). In South Africa, the major pests are thrips, mealy bugs, and pumpkin fly (Dacus vertebratus), white peach scale (Pseudaulacaspis pentagona), red scale (Aonidiella aurantii), circular purple scale (Chrysomphalus aonidum), granadilla soft scale (Parasaissetia nigra), soft brown scale, (Coccus hesperidum), green vegetable bug (Nezara viridula), brown stinbug (Boerias maculata), small black twig wilter (Lepto-

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glossus membranaceus), large black twig wilter (Anoplocnemis curvipes), cotton aphid (Aphis gossypii), green peach aphid (Myzus persicae), and root-node nematodes (Meliodogyne sp.). E. Harvesting, Handling, and Maturity The fruit is generally not picked, but left on the vine until it falls for full development of the flavor; because of this, no cover crop can be grown between the rows. The fallen fruits are gathered every morning (7). The picking of matured fallen fruit from the ground at an interval of 27 days is the common method of harvesting. The fruits are transported from the field in 10-kg lug boxes, and if not processed immediately, they are placed into cold storage (9). In general, yields of purple passion fruits are less than those of yellow passion fruits. In Australia, yields of 45 to 10 tonnes/ha/year are reported for the hybrid passion fruit.

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Passion fruits take 1824 months to reach full production from seed. The long time from planting to full production and the high costs of constructing the system of trellises and fertilizing and spraying the plants make cultivation an initially costly enterprise. Yearly pruning is also a labor-intensive activity, raising the cost of producing these fruits. The productive life of the vines varies according to climate and cultural practices, but 1015 years is reported by some growers. IV. Composition

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The composition of purple and yellow passion fruit based on reviews (1,6,11,12) is presented in Table 2. Water is a major constituent of the fruit. Carbohydrate is the second largest constituent in passion fruit juice. Sugar makes up most of the carbohydrates, varying from 14.4 to 21.9% with an average of 17.3% (6). The purple variety is generally regarded as sweeter than yellow variety (2). The concentrations of fructose, glucose, and sucrose were 33.5, 371.1, and 29.4%, and 29.4, 38.1, and 32.4%, respectively, in purple and yellow passion fruits (13). Traces of mannoheptulose and sedoheptulose were reported in passion fruits (14). The starch contents in fruit ranges from 1.0 to 3.7% (6).

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Chillie and Jobert (15) reported that passion fruit starches were mainly amylopectin, with amylose content ranging from 5.8 to 8.7%. Kwok et al. (16) observed that the gelation temperatures (58.567.0C) were almost identical for the starches of both varieties of passion fruit. Chan et al. (17) compared purple and yellow passion fruits for nonvolatile (citric, malic, lactic, malonic, succinic, and ascorbic acids) and total volatile and titratable acids determined by employing thin-layer and gas chromatographic techniques. Yellow passion fruit predominates in most nonvolatile organic acids, especially citric (about 83% of the acids) and malic (about 16%) (Table 3). The passion fruits contains catalase (18) and pectinmethylesterase (19). These enzymes can be inactivated by heating at 79 and 80C for 75 and 60 s, respectively. The volatile constituents of yellow passion fruit consist of ethyl butyrate, ethyl hexanoate, hexyl butyrate, and hexyl hexanoate. These four easters

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make up 95% of the volatile oils, with hexanoate as the predominant constituent (20). Murray et al. (21) identified 73 volatile constituents using a coupled gas chromatograph-mass spectrometer system. Winter and Kloeti (22) identified 165 compounds in volatiles of yellow passion fruit juice. The degradation of products of carotenoids, sulfur-containing components, and unusual aliphatic esters plays an important role in the unique delicate flavor of passion fruit. Casmir et al. (23) compounded a synthetic passion fruit flavor which reproduced the natural flavor. Heinz Engel and Tressel (24) revealed that linalool, nerol, geraniol, and a-terpineol are not present in fruits in free form but rather occur in the bound glycosidic form and become liberated upon treatment with heat in the presence of natural fruit acids. Winterhalter et al. (25) identified a wide range of terpenoids in the juice of purple passion fruit. In addition to

Table 2 Nutritive Composition of Passion Fruits (constituents P. edulis P. edulis f. edulis f. flavicarpa P. mollissima Constituents (11) (11) (11) Water (%) 85.6 84.9 92.0 Energy (Cal) 51.0 53 25 Protein (g) 0.4 0.7 0.6 Fat (g) 0.1 0.2 0.1 Carbohydrates 13.6 13.7 6.3 Total (g) 0 0.2 0.3 Fiber (g) Ash (g) 0.3 0.5 0.7 Calcium (mg) 3.6 3.8 4.0 Phosphorus (mg) 12.5 24.6 20.0 Iron (mg) 0.2 0.4 0.4 Sodium (mg) Potassium (mg) Vitamin A (I.U.) 717 2410 1700 Thiamin (mg) Trace Trace 0 Riboflavin (mg) 0.1 0.1 Niacin (mg) 1.5 2.2 2.5 Ascorbic acid 30 20 70 (mg)

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Table 3 Quantitative Determination of Organic Acids in Yellow (P. edulis f. flavicarpa) and Purple (P. edulis f. edulis) Passion Fruit P. edulis P. edulis f. flavicarpa f. edulis Acids (meq/100 g) (meq/100 g) Nonvolatile acids 55.00 13.10 Citric 10.55 3.86 Malic 0.58 7.49 Lactic 0.13 4.95 Malonic Trace 2.42 Succinic 0.06 0.05 Ascorbic Volatile acids 0.11 0.12 Total 66.43 31.99 Titratable acids 65.83 32.01 Source: Ref. 17.

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the main component, linalool and other monoterpenoids and several C13 nonterpenoids were identified. A few fruits have been reported to be poisonous when immature (presumably due to the presence of cyanogenic glycosides), but the ripe fruits are free of these toxic substances. V. Storage

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The whole passion fruit cannot be stored longer than 1 or 2 weeks under normal conditions. Fruits can be held for 45 weeks at 4.410C (7C optimum). However, much of the flavor is lost during this storage period (26). Temperatures below 4.4C lead to low-temperature breakdown. Pruthi (6) recommended a storage temperature of 6.5C with a relative humidity (RH) of 8590%; under these conditions, passion fruits can be stored for 45 weeks. Temperature below 6.5C causes chilling injury, and with temperatures higher than 6.5C, the fruit suffers more losses due to moldiness. Pantastico et al. (27) also recommended temperatures of 5.67.2C and 8590% RH for purple passion fruit; however, under such conditions, the fruit can be stored only up to 3 weeks. Dipping in hot paraffin wax apparently sterilizes the surface of the fruits and prevents drying out and shriveling of the fruit. These fruits remain in good conditions for up to 23 months, but there is a loss of flavor attributed

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to the evaporation of volatile components through the wax film (26). VI. Processing A. Juice Processed passion fruit products are of two main types: those preserved by heat processing and those frozen and held in cold storage until consumed. Typical examples are frozen sherbet, canned passion fruit nectar, and canned nectar combinations with citrus, pineapple, and other juices. Because of its strong acidic, aromatic, and flavor characteristics, passion fruit juice is generally diluted (1:6) when consumed as a nectar by itself or is used as a minor constituent when combined with other fruit juices. The purees or juices of orange, banana, papaya, and guava have been successfully blended with passion fruit juice into tropical fruit drinks, punches, or syrups (28).

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Passion fruit is achieving increasing importance as a source of juice in the world market. Because of its unique intense flavor and high acidity, it has been described as a natural concentrate. Passion fruit juice is a highly palatable beverage when sweetened and diluted, and its flavor blends very well with other fruit juices (29).

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In Hawaii, the process of extracting juice from passion fruit is well mechanized. Chan (2) has described the process. In this process, ripe fruits are delivered to the processing plant in boxes or bins and dumped by lift truck into an agitated wash tank. The fruits are conveyed on a wiremesh belt and washed with strong sprays of water to remove soil and dirt. They are next sorted on a slow-moving conveyor to remove rotten and other unfit fruit. The rinds are sliced open by a gang of serrated, rotating, circular knives. The sliced fruit is fed into a continuous basket centrifuge with sloping walls. Juice, pulp, and seeds are forced by centrifugal action through holes in the centrifuge into the waste conveyor. A pulper fitted with a screen separates the seeds from the pulp and juice. The pulpy juice is then passed through a finisher fitted with a screen to remove seed and fiber particles.

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In Australia, passion fruit juice is extracted in several ways. In one method, the juice is expressed by rotating rollers; in another, a modified apricot-pitting machine and plunger are used. In New Zealand, the halved fruits are passed over a suction device which removes the pulp and

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seeds (29). A centrifugal separator developed by Kinch (30) has greatly improved the processing efficiency. The centrifugal separator consists essentially of a basket having 16 inclined perforated walls punched with 0.6-cm holes with 1.6-cm spacing. The use of pectinolytic enzymes increases juice extraction yields by 35%. Apart from its consistency, which is higher, the chemical and physical properties of the enzymetreated juice are similar to untreated juice (31).

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Chan (2) stated that two characteristics of passion fruit exert an important influence on processing methods. First, the flavor is extremely sensitive to heat; and heat pasteurization inevitably leads to some loss of fresh fruit flavor. Second, the high starch content causes accumulation of gelatious deposits on the heating surface of tubular and plate heat exchangers and a drop in efficiency of the heat exchanger, with deterioration in juice flavor. The heat sensitivity of passion fruit makes it difficult to heat-process the juice without markedly changing its flavor (32). The successful method of heat processing the juice utilizes a spin cooker designed by L. J. Lynch of the Commonwealth Science and Industrial Research Organization, Australia (33). The spin cooker is an inexpensive, easily constructed unit utilizing rapid can rotation to transfer heat quickly. The can is spun in an inclined chamber, with steam sprays impinging on the can surface. Pasteurization to 88C (center

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temperature) is achieved in about 1 min. The color and flavor retention with this method are far superior to those in any alternative method of heat preservation (34). Apart from the unique flavor, the comparatively high acid content of passion fruit juice is its most distinctive characteristic and is important in processing and formulation of products containing this fruit (35,36). Carbonated beverages based on passion fruit juice have a very distinctive and attractive flavor (34). B. Concentrate and Powder

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Passion fruit concentrates have been prepared in Hawaii, Brazil, Australia, and Italy. They are prepared by using a falling-film evaporator (29), a centrifugal evaporator (23), or a process of reverse osmosis. Concentrates are preserved through freezing or through the addition of chemical preservatives such as sodium benzoate and potassium sorbate. Dehydrated passion fruit powders can be prepared by freeze-drying or vacuum-puff freeze-drying. C. By-products.

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In extraction of juice from passion fruit, about two-thirds of the bulk is refuse, of which 90% is rind and about 10% is seeds (6). The rinds are high in carbohydrates, low in ether extractable material, and moderate in crude protein. On a fresh-weight basis, rind contains 1.78% pectin, which has good jelly properties, with a methoxyl content of 8.99.2%. Passion fruit seed oil is similar to groundnut oil with respect to growthpromoting value and digestibility coefficient when fed at 5% level in a synthetic diet (6). References 1. Martin, F. W., and H. Y. Nakasone, The edible species of Passiflora, Econ. Bot. 24:333 (1970).

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2. Chan, H. T., Jr., Passion fruit, Tropical and Subtropical Fruits: Composition, Properties and Uses (S. Nagy and P. E. Shaw, eds.), AVI, Westport, CT, 1980, p. 300. 3. Purseglove, J. W., Tropical Crops: Dicotyledons, John Wiley, New York, 1968. 4. Ito, P. J., Noel's Special passion fruit, HortScience 13:197 (1978). 5. Escobar, L. K., Passion fruits, Encyclopaedia of Food Science and Food Technology and Nutrition (R. MaCrae, R. K. Robinson, and M. J. Sadler, eds.), Academic Press, London, 1993, p. 2626.

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6. Pruthi, J. S., Physiology, chemistry and technology of passion fruit, Advances in Food Research, Vol. 12 (C. O. Chichester, E. M. Mrak, and G. F. Steward, eds.), Academic Press, New York, 1963. 7. Dozier, W. A., Jr., R. Rodriguez-Kabana, A. W. Caylor, D. G. Himetrick, N. R. Daniel, and J. A. McGuire, Ethephon hastens maturity of passion fruit grown as an annual in a temperate zone, HortScience 26:146 (1991). 8. Knight, R. J., Jr., The potential for Florida hybrids between the purple and yellow passion fruit, Proc. Fla. State Hort. Soc. 85:288 (1972). 9. Akamine, E. K., Passion fruit culture in Hawaii, Coll. Tropical Agr. Univ. Hawaii Coop. Ext. Circ. 345 (rev.), 1974.

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10. Cook, A. A., Diseases of Tropical and Subtropical Fruits and Nuts, Hafner, New York and London, 1975. 11. Wenkam, N. S., and C. D. Miller, Composition of Hawaiian passion fruits, Hawaii Agr. Exp. Sta. Bull. 135, 1965. 12. Leung, W. T. W., R. R. Butrum, and F. H. Chang, Food composition table for use in East Asia. Research Project co-sponsored by U.S. Dept. of Health, Education and Welfare and Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations, 1972. 13. Chan, H. T., Jr., and S. C. M. Kwok, Identification and determination of sugars in some tropical fruit products, J. Food Sci. 40:419 (1975).

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14. Otagaki, K. K., and H. Matsumoto, Nutritive value and utility of passion fruit by-products, J. Agr. Food Chem. 6:54 (1958). 15. Cillie, G. G., and F. J. Joubert, Occurrence of an amylopectin in the fruit of the granadilla (Passiflora edulis), J. Sci. Food Agr. 1:355 (1950). 16. Kwok, S. C. M., H. T. Chan, Jr., T. O. M. Nakayama, and J. T. Brekke, Passion fruit starch and effect on juice viscosity, J. Food Sci. 39:431 (1974). 17. Chan, H. T., Jr., T. S. K. Chang, and E. Chenchin, Nonvolatile acids of passion fruit juice, J. Agr. Food Chem. 20:110 (1972). 18. Rose, E., and A. T. Chang, Hydrogen peroxide-induced oxidation of ascorbic acid in passion fruit juice, J. Agr. Food Chem. 6:610 (1958).

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19. Pruthi, J. S., and S. R. Srinivas, Studies on the thermal inactivation of pectinmethylesterase and peroxidase in passion fruit, Sci. Cult. 29:252 (1963). 20. Hiu, D. N., and P. J. Scheuer, The volatile constituents of passion fruit juice, J. Food Sci. 26:557 (1961). 21. Murray, I. E., J. Shipton, and F. B. Whitfield, The flavour of purple passion fruit, Food Technol. (Australia) 25:446 (1972). 22. Winter, M., and R. Kloeti, The aroma of yellow passion fruit (P. edulis), Helv. Chim. Acta 55:1916 (1972). 23. Casmir, D. J., J. F. Kefford, and F. B. Whitefield, Concentrates of passion fruit, Adv. Food Res. 27:243 (1981).

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24. Heinz Engel, K., and R. Tressel, Formation of aroma components from non-volatile precursors in passion fruit, J. Agr. Food Chem. 31:998 (1983). 25. Winterhalter, P., Bound terpenoids in the juice of passion fruit (Passiflora edulis Sims), J. Agr. Food Chem. 38:452 (1990). 26. Mollenhauer, H. P., The passion fruit, Food Manuf. April, p. 149 (1954). 27. Pantastico, Er. B., T. K. Chattopadhyay, and H. Subramanyam, Harvest and handling: Storage and commercial storage operations, Postharvest, Physiology, Handling and Utilization of Tropical and Sub-tropical Fruits and Vegetables (Er. B. Pantastico, ed.), AVI, Westport, CT, 1975, p. 314.

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28. Brekke, J. E., Tropical fruit beverage bases, Hawaii Agr. Exp. Sta. Univ. Hawaii Res. Rep. 198, 1972. 29. Seale, P. E., and G. E. Sherman, Commercial passion fruit processing in Hawaii, Hawaii Agr. Exp. Sta. Circ. 58, 1960. 30. Kinch, D. M., A continuous process centrifuge, Trans. Am. Soc. Agr. Eng. 2:52 (1959). 31. Lipitoa, S., and G. L. Robertson, The enzymatic extraction of juice from yellow passion fruit pulp, Trop. Sci. 19:105 (1977).

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32. Pollard, A., and F. Timberlake, Fruit juices, The Biochemistry of Fruits and Their Products, Vol. 2, (A. C. Hulme, ed.), Academic Press, London and New York, 1971, p. 573. 33. Wang, J. K., and E. Rose, Spin processing for tropical fruit juices, Agr. Eng. 46:154 (1965). 34. Rodriguez, R., B. L. Raina, Er. B. Pantastico, and M. B. Bhatti, Distribution and Utilization: Quality of raw materials for processing, Postharvest Physiology, Handling and Utilization of Tropical and Sub-tropical Fruits and Vegetables (Er. B. Pantastico, ed.), AVI, Westport, CT, 1975, p. 467. 35. Lee, Y. H., J. S. Chen, and C. C. Chen, Quality improvement of passion fruit juice, Research Report, Food Industry Research and Development Institute No. E-95, 1983, p. 8.

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36. Vargas, O. M., and R. A. Martinez, Preservation of tropical fruit pulps in sterilizable flexible packages (retort pouches), Technologia 25:37 (1984).

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22 Pomegranate
R. N. Adsule Mahatma Phule Agricultural University, Rahuri, Maharashtra, India N. B. Patil Government of Maharashtra, Mantralaya, Bombay, India I. Introduction

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Pomegranate (Punica granatum L.) is a favorite fruit of tropical and subtropical regions. It has enjoyed a reputation for its healthy dietetic and medicinal properties. In recent years, the area under this crop has increased substantially, mainly because of the versatility, adaptability, drought resistance, low maintenance costs, and steady and high yields of the crop. The pomegranate fruit has therapeutic value, good keeping quality and export potential. Pomegranate is grown mainly for table purpose. This fruit crop is known to have been cultivated in the Middle East more than 5000 years ago. Wild pomegranate still exists in the north of Syria and on Mount Carmel (1). It is found in various regions from the Caucasus to Afghanistan. The wild types in Central Asia show a wide range of variation in size of fruit, sweetness, time of ripening, juiciness, and proportion of seeds to flesh. Pomegranate is grown as a commercial crop in India and Iran, and is

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cultivated extensively in Spain, Morocco, Egypt, Afghanistan, and Baluchistan. It is also grown to some extent in Burma, China, Japan, and parts of the United States. II. Botany A. Varieties/Types The genus Punica has two species, Punica protopunica and Punica granatum. Punica protopunica is found wild in Socotra Island, and Punica granatum is cultivated in tropical and subtropical areas of the world. Punica granatum has been classified into two subspecies, chlorocarpa and porphyrocarpa. Several types of pomegranate, distinguished by the shape of the fruit, the color and thickness of the skin, and the taste and color of the seeds, are grown throughout the world. Alandi, Dholka, Kabul, Kandhari, Muskat Red, Paper Shell, and Ganesh are the commercially grown varieties of pomegranate in India.

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Page 456

B. Fruit Development

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In evergreen pomegranate varieties, flower buds of the spring flush are borne on mature wood of the previous season's growth, whereas flowers which appear during July-August are borne on the current season's growth. In deciduous varieties, flowers are borne on the current season's growth between July and August. In Japanese dwarf varieties, vegetative growth and flower initiation take place simultaneously (2). The flowers are found mostly in clusters, either terminally or in axils of the leaves. Nath and Randhawa (3) reported that stigma attained maturity 1 day before anthesis and receptivity remained at peak on the same and second day after anthesis. It then gradually went down until the third day, after which it abruptly sank into nonreceptivity. Both self-and cross-pollinations have been recorded in pomegranate. The style and stigmatic head remain above the staminal column in pomegranate flowers.

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Josan et al. (4) studied fruit set, development, and cracking in 21 cultivars of pomegranate. After open pollination, fruit set was highest in Dholka (63.8%), followed by Bedana (63.0%), and Kali Shirin (62.7%). The fruit set was considerably lower after self-pollination. Josan et al. (4) determined fruit development at fortnightly intervals. Cultivars such as Kazkai, Shirin Anar, and Achikadana had the largest fruit, with 6.50-, 6.32-, and 6.26-cm diameters, respectively. Fruit cracking was lowest in cultivars Kazkai, Guleshah, and Bedana. When the physiological disorder known as internal breakdown occurs in pomegranate, the pulp-bearing seeds (arils) do not develop the typical red color and are somewhat flattened rather than plump (5). Flavor of the arils is abnormal, and many have a streaked appearance due to fine white lines radiating from the seed. There are no external symptoms. The cause of the disorder is

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not known; it originates during growth in some seasons, usually only in limited areas. III. Production A. Soil and Climate.

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Pomegranate can be grown on diverse types of soils. The tree gives very good yields in deep loamy or alluvial soils, although it thrives on comparatively poor soils where other fruits fail to flourish. It can tolerate soils which are limy and slightly alkaline, even though it can also be grown in medium or light black soils of at least 60 cm depth (2). Pomegranate grows well in semiarid climates, where cool winters and hot summers prevail. The tree requires a hot and dry climate during the period of fruit development and ripening. It is a hardy plant and can thrive even under desert conditions. It is drought resistant and does well under desert conditions, but it does not bear well without irrigation. On the other hand, it flourishes on land too wet for many other fruit crops (6). B. Propagation

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Pomegranate is propagated vegetatively to preserve characters of selected types. The common method of propagation is rooting hardwood cuttings. Phadnis (7) reported that cutting treated with 200 ppm IAA helped to induce rooting. The pomegranate may also be propagated by airlayering. Treatment with IBA at 10,000 ppm in lanolin as carrier was found to be best with regard to number of roots produced per layer (2). C. Cultural Practices The seedlings are planted in pits with spacing of 5 2 m, 5 3 m, or 5 4 m, depending on the soil type. The plants are allowed to grow in bush form in the form of a single stem with a number of

Page 457

well-distributed scaffold limbs. The main stem is pinched at a height of about 1 m and up to 2530 cm below the cut surface, four or five branches well distributed on all sides are allowed to grow to form main limbs on the tree. The shape is formed within 23 years. Pomegranate does not require pruning except for removing the suckers (water sprouts) and giving shape to the tree. Pomegranate responds well to irrigation. Regular irrigation is essential during the fruiting season. Irregular moisture results in cracking of fruits.

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Application of organic manure (FYM) at the rate of 20 kg per tree while planting is recommended. To secure rapid vegetative growth during the first year, each plant should be given 1015 g N at monthly intervals. During the second year, each plant should be fertilized with 100 g N, 200 g P2O5, and 100 g K2O before flowering, followed by 100 g N after 4 months (2). D. Use of Chemicals Alar (succinic acid 2,2-dimethyl hydrazide), when applied at 5003000 ppm to pomegranate trees 15 days after full bloom and again 2 weeks later, decreased vegetative growth and fruit diameter and reduced flower and fruit drop (2). E. Pests and Diseases

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Pomegranate butterfly (Virachola isocrates) is the most important pest of pomegranate. Other pests include bark-eating caterpillars (Inderbela tetraonis), stem borers, sap-sucking insects, leafeating caterpillars, and bagworms. Among the diseases, fungal fruit spot, fruit rot (Phomopsis sp.), and leaf spot are important diseases of pomegranate. F. Harvesting and Yield The fruits are ready for harvest 135165 days after appearance of blossoms. The fruits are harvested when the skin turns slightly yellow and the fruit gives a metallic sound when tapped. Each tree bears about 100 fruits and continues to produce an economic crop for up to 1012 years.

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Cracking of fruits is one of the serious problems in pomegranate. Cracking reduces the market value of the fruits considerably (8). Cracking has been attributed to a rise in air temperature in the case of Ganesh variety of pomegranate (8). The cracking of fruits amounted to 63% in the spring (January-June) crop, 34% in the winter (October-March) crop, and 9.5% in the rainyseason crop. Trapaitze and Abuladze (9) studied pomegranate cultivars that are resistant to cracking and found that of 15 cultivars, Shirvan, Burachni, Apsheronskil Krasnyl, Sulu-nar, KyrmyzKabukh, and Francis were resistant to cracking. IV. Chemical Composition

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Pomegranate fruits vary in color from pale yellow to red. The juicy pulp in the arils (seeds) varies from almost colorless to blood red. The seeds in some pomegranate varieties are very soft, while in others they are large and hard. Pomegranate fruit consists of about 6067% seeds and 3340% peel (10). Whole pomegranate fruits contain 4561% juice, while arils yield 7685% juice (8). The seed pulp in superior-quality pomegranate fruits is thick, fleshy, and very juicy. The pulp taste varies from sweet and aromatic to sour and insipid. The seed coat varies in hardness, the softer-seeded varieties being known as seedless. Lack of lignification of the testa is the main cause of seedlessness in pomegranate (1). Pomegranates are a good source of carbohydrates and minerals such as Ca, Fe, and S, and a moderate source of pectin. The chemical composition and vitamin and mineral contents of

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Table 1 Chemical Composition of Pomegranate Fruit (edible Content Constituent Jagtap et al. (10) Soo Moisture (%) 78 Protein (%) 1.6 Fat (%) 0.1 Carbohydrates (%) 14.6 Ash (%) 0.7 Crude fiber (%) 5.1 Pectin (%) 0.27 Total sugars (%) Reducing sugars (%) Nonreducing sugars (%) Oxalic acid (mg/100 g) 14.0 Energy value (Kcal/100 g) 65.0 aVariation in three varieties.

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pomegranate are given in Tables 1 and 2, respective Pomegranate is a poor source of vitamin C (9). Citr the predominant organic acid in pomegranate, amou about 730 mEq/100 g fresh weight (1214). Other ac malic, oxalic, succinic, and tartaric acids. Glucose a are the main sugars in pomegranate (14). Pomegran juice contains 5.46% glucose, 6.14% fructose, and sucrose. However, Siddappa and Bhatia (15) report 8.9% reducing sugars and 0.1% sucrose.

Table 2 Vitamin and Mineral Content of Pomegranate (edible portion) Content (mg/100 g) Vitamin/mineral Jagtap et al. (10) Sood et al. (11)a Vitamins 0.06 Thiamine 0.1 Riboflavin 0.3 Niacin 16.0 5.37.7 Vitamin C Minerals 10.0 24145 Calcium 70.0 3344 Phosphorus 0.30 0.620.69 Iron

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Magnesium Copper Sodium Potassium Sulfur aVariation in three varieties.

12.0 0.17 4.0 17.1 2528

Page 459

A number of anthocyanin pigments have been identified in pomegranates. The common anthocyanin in pomegranate juice is delphinidin-3,5-diglucoside (16). Du et al. (17) found that pelargonidin-3-glucoside and pelargonidin-3,5-diglucoside, which were present in minor amounts in the seed coats, were present in much higher amounts in the peel. Delphinidin-3-glucoside and delphinidin-3,5-diglucoside were not detected in the peel, while cyanidin-3-glucoside and cyanidin-3,5-diglucoside were present in appreciable amounts.

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A number of polyphenols, such as chlorogenic acid, neochlorogenic acid, and n-coumaric acid, have been identified in pomegranate by paper chromatography (1). The phenolic compounds are present mainly in the peel. Botrus et al. (18) reported that pomegranate juice contained 20179 mg/100 g catechin, while peel contained 3201420 mg/100 g catechin. The rind of pomegranate fruit is rich in tannin, which is used in leather tanning and pharmaceutical industries (19). V. Storage

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Pomegranate fruits have a low rate of respiration and ethylene production. They are susceptible to moisture loss and need to be stored at high humidity. After harvest, the fruits are graded according to size, wrapped in paper, and packed in bamboo baskets or corrugated boxes. In bulk storage, fruits are packed in layers in wooden crates, each containing about 1618 kg of fruits. Dry grass, rice straw, or paper are used as cushioning material (20,21).

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Pomegranate fruit has better keeping quality than other tropical fruits such as mango, grape, and banana. The storage life of pomegranate is comparable to that of apple (22). It can be stored for some months in a cool dry place, and up to 6 months under cold storage. The fruits, however, may be spoiled during transit or before marketing due to rotting or development of black color in the fruits. The development of black color is thought to be due to postharvest biochemical changes.

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Pomegranate can be best stored at low temperature and high humidity. Fruits stored at 4.5C and 8085% relative humidity did not undergo any shrinkage or spoilage in a few months (22). Pentastico et al. (23) recommended relative humidity of 8590% for storing Kandhar pomegranates. Storage at lower temperature results in chilling injury, characterized by discoloration and pitting of the rind, internal browning of the pith, paleness of the flesh, and increased susceptibility to decay (24). Storage at 10C is satisfactory if a postharvest fungicide is used (24). Kanwar and Thakur (25) treated packing straw with 5% ammonium bicarbonate, ammonium chloride, diphenylamine, sodium thiosulfate, and potassium meta-bisulfite or sulfur for packing pomegranates. The treatment of packing material with sulfur compounds was found to give 50% more fruit protection.

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The control of relative humidity is critical in storage of pomegranate fruits. At low humidities, the skin desiccates readily and dark, hard rinds are formed. The fruits become less attractive and have reduced marketability (26). Storage of pomegranate fruits at 5C or lower resulted in chilling injury to the fruits. The severity of the symptoms increased with time and temperature below 5C (24). Segal (27) has reported that the peel of Wonderful pomegranate fruit undergoes browning during storage below 14C. Three major diseases of pomegranate caused by microorganisms are gray mold rot, heart rot, and Penicillium rot. Gray mold rot is caused by Botrytis cinerea. Decay usually starts at the calyx. As it progresses, the skin becomes light brown, tough, and leathery. The pulp-bearing seeds disintegrate into a dark mass in advanced infections. Under moist conditions, typical gray mycelium appears on the affected surface (5).

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Heart rot is caused by Aspergillus niger and Alternaria sp. Affected fruits show a slightly abnormal skin color but internally a mass of blackened arils. Usually, there is a black line of decay

Page 460

extending from the calyx into the fruit interior. The disease develops while the fruit is on the tree. Affected fruits can usually be detected by sorters and eliminated from the commercial pack. Penicillium rot, caused by P. expansum and other Penicillium sp., produces watery areas at the infection site followed by masses of blue or green spores. Infections invariably occur at skin breaks caused by cracking, mechanical injuries, or insect punctures. Other fungi may infect the same injured area and eventually overgrow the Penicillium. Other causes of decay in pomegranate fruit includes species of Botrytis, Cladosporium, Phoma, Phomopsis, Rhizopus sp., and Sphaceloma punicae (28). VI. Processing.

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Sound pomegranate fruits fetch a fairly good price in the market and are not much used for processing purposes. Hence limited information is available on the utilization of pomegranate fruits for processed products (9). During seasonal glut, the prices of fruits are fairly low. Cracking of pomegranate fruits hampers their market quality. Such fruits can be utilized for processing. Pomegranate fruits with large juicy grains which can give an attractive colored (purplish red) juice with mild acid sweet taste and low tannin content (less than 0.25%) are the desirable characteristics for processing of pomegranates. A. Juice

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Pomegranate juice makes a delicious drink (6). The juice may be extracted from whole fruits or from grains. On a whole-fruit basis, the yield of juice is about 42%, while from grains the yield is about 70% (19). For extraction of juice, the fruits are cut into quarters and pressed under moderate pressure in a rack-and-cloth hydraulic press to recover 3641% juice (1). Siddappa (19) cut pomegranate fruits into four or eight parts and extracted juice using a muslin-and-basket press. The yield of juice from whole fruits was 42%. The juice can also be extracted using a spiral-type screw press without crushing the seeds. Pomegranate juice is also extracted from the seeds by pressing in a basket press. The juice obtained by pressing grains contains less tannins (0.12%) than that obtained from whole fruits (0.175%) (19). The excess tannins in the juice are precipitated by gelatin.

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The juice is clarified by heating in a flash pasteurizer at 7982C, cooling, settling for 24 h, racking up, and filtering or decanting (9). The clear juice can be preserved by heat treatment or by using chemical preservatives. The clarified juice is heated to 80C and filled into bottles while hot. The bottles are crown corked and pasteurized at 80C for 30 min (1). The juice may be preserved by addition of 600 ppm sodium benzoate (19). The use of SO2 or potassium metabisulfite is not recommended for pomegranate because of loss if its natural color due to the bleaching action of SO2.

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The chemical composition of pomegranate juice has been reported by several workers (8,15,19,2931). The juice has been reported to contain 1617% total solids (TSS) (8), and 0.811.23% acidity as citric acid (19). Dhumal (30) reported 16.2% TSS and 0.35% acidity in pomegranate juice. Siddappa and Bhatia (15) reported 8.93% reducing sugars and 0.18% sucrose in pomegranate juice. Dhumal (30) reported 12.93% total sugars, 12.65% reducing sugars, 0.28% nonreducing sugars, and 9.23 mg/ 100 g ascorbic acid in pomegranate juice. B. Concentrate Fruit juice concentrates, singly or in blended form, are products with great potential on account of their wide applicability in fruit-based beverages.

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C. Beverage A technology for obtaining canned pomegranate beverage is described by Gabuniya et al. (31). The use of bentonite at 1.01.5 g/liter and gelatin at 0.05 g/liter as clarifying agents gave better results than milk, charcoal, or casein. D. Wine

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A commercial pomegranate wine made in California contained 11.9% alcohol, 0.85 g/100 g total acidity (as citric acid), 0.07 g/100 ml volatile acidity, and 11.5 Brix (9). For preparation of wine, the whole pomegranate fruits are pressed without crushing. Sugar is added to the juice to bring it to 2223 Brix. Potassium metabisulfite is added to the juice to prevent the growth of undesirable microorganisms. The juice is fermented with starter wine yeast. The wine is aged and finished in the same manner as red grape wine. If a sweet table wine is desired, sugar is added to 810 Brix after aging. The wine is flash pasteurized at 140F (60C), bottled hot, and sealed. The bottles are cooled in sprays of cold water. A portlike wine can be made by fortifying the sweetened wine to about 20% alcohol (9). A good-quality wine has been prepared from Ganesh variety of pomegranate (32). E. Jelly

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An attractive jelly can be prepared from pomegranate juice. Phadnis (6) reported preparation of jelly on a small scale from sour-sweet pomegranates. F. Syrup A syrup of about 60 Brix with an added acidity of 1.5% as citric acid had a bright purplish-red color and a delightful taste and flavor. It was preserved by pasteurization or by addition of sodium benzoate (9). G. Anar-Rub (Pomegranate Jam) A product known as anar-rub with fairly good keeping quality can be made by concentrating pomegranate juice, adding sugar, and heating the mixture on a slow fire for a long period. The finished product has a thick consistency and contains 7075% total solids (19).

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H. Anardana (Dried Pomegranate Arils).

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Pomegranate seeds, particularly of sour types, can be dried and sold as anardana. This is used as an acidulant in place of tamarind or dried green mango for cooking purposes in North India, in Indian-style curries, chutney, and other culinary preparations (19). Forty samples of anardana collected from market were analyzed by Pruthi and Saxena (33). They contained 5.414.7% moisture, 7.815.4% acidity, 2.04.0% total ash, 0.72.0% acid-insoluble ash, 22.030.0% crude fiber, and 4.76.3 pectin. Pruthi and Saxena (33) recommended the use of cross-flow driers to obtain a uniform, hygienic, good-quality anardana. The use of a solar drier for dehydration of anardana has been reported (34). Mahajan et al. (35) studied the effect of thermal treatments and drying modes on quality of wild pomegranate processed for anardana and showed that the conventional hot-air drier took about 4 h to dry the seed to a moisture level of 1618%, compared to 15 h in a solar drier and

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open sun drying. The drying ratio for all three drying modes was uniform. The quality of dried product was observed to be best with the solar drier, followed by open sun drying, while it was quite inferior in the product dried in a conventional hot-air drier.

Fig. 1 Preparation of pomegranate rind

Table 3 Chemical and Mineral Composition of Pomegranate F Edible fruit Constituent Fresh Dry-weight ba Moisture (%) 78.0 Protein (%) 1.6 7.27 Total sugars (%) 14.6 66.36 Ascorbic acid (mg/100 g) 16.0 72.73 b-Carotene (ppm)

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Ash (%) Polyphenols (%) Acidity (%) Calcium (mg/100 g) Phosphorus (mg/100 g) Magnesium (mg/100 g) Potassium (mg/100 g) Sodium (mg/100 g) Iron (mg/100 g) Zinc (mg/100 g) Manganese (mg/100 g) Copper (mg/100 g) Source: Ref. 36.

0.7 0.58 10 70 44 133 0.90 1.79 0.82 0.77 0.34

3.18 2.64 45 318 200 604 4.09 8.14 3.73 3.50 1.55

Page 463

I. By-products Pomegranate rind powder has been prepared (Fig. 1). The recovery of rind powder was found to be 15.5% on a whole-fruit basis and 34% on a rind-weight basis (Table 3) (36). Pomegranate rind powder has potential for use in medicines, leather, and dying industries, and in tooth powder. References 1. Saxena, A. K., J. K. Menah, and S. K. Berry, Pomegranate post-harvest technology: Chemistry and processing, Indian Food Packer 41(7/ 8):43 (1987). 2. Patil, A. V., and A. R. Karale, Pomegranate, Fruits of India: Tropical and Sub-tropical (T. K. Bose, ed.), Naya Prokash, Calcutta, 1985, p. 537.

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3. Nath, N., and G. S. Randhawa, Studies on floral biology in the pomegranate (Punica granatum L.) II. Anthesis, dehiscence, pollen studies and receptibility of stigma, Indian J. Hort. 16:121 (1959). 4. Josan, J. S., J. S. Jawanda, and D. K. Uppal, Studies on the floral biology of pomegranate. III. Mode of pollination, fruit development and fruit cracking, Punjab Hort. J. 19:18 (1979). 5. Ryall, A. L., and W. T. Pentzer, Handling, Transportation and Storage of Fruits and Vegetables, Vol. 2, Fruits and Tree Nuts, AVI, Westport, CT, 1974. 6. Hayes, W. B., Fruit Growing in India, 3rd rev. ed., Kitabistan, Allahabad, India, 1953. 7. Phadnis, N. A., Pomegranate for dessert and juice, Indian Hort. 19(3):9 (1974).

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8. Patil, A. V., and K. U. Sanghavi, Performance of different varieties of pomegranate (Punica granatum L.) in dry regions of Western Maharashtra, Ann. Arid Zone 19:485 (1980). 9. Trapaidze, T. G., and L. S. H. Abuladze, Pomegranate cultivars resistant to cracking, Subtropicheskie Kultury (2):95 (1989). 10. Jagtap, D. B., U. T. Desai, and P. N. Kale, Chemical composition of some indigenous and exotic cultivars of pomegranate, Maharashtra J. Hort. 6(1):1012 (1992). 11. Sood, D. R., K. S. Dhindsa, and D. S. Wagle, Studies on the nutritive value of pomegranate (Punica granatum L.), Haryana J. Hort. Sci. 11(34):175 (1982).

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12. Malhotra, N. K., H. N. Khajuria, and J. S. Jawanda, Studies on physicochemical characters of pomegranate cultivars II. Chemical characters, Punjab Hort. J. 23:158 (1983). 13. Ulrich, R., Organic acids, Biochemistry of Fruits and Their Products (A. C., Hulme, ed.), Academic Press, New York, 1970, p. 89. 14. Lee, S. W., K. S. Kim, and S. D. Kim, Studies on changes in composition of pomegranate fruit during maturation. 1. Changes in sugars, organic acids, amino acids and the respiration rate, J. Korean Soc. Hort. Sci. 15:57 (1974). 15. Siddappa, G. S., and B. S. Bhatia, The identification of sugars in fruits by chromatography, Indian J. Hort. 11:19 (1954). 16. Harborne, J. B., Comparative Biochemistry of the Flavonoids, Academic Press, London and New York, 1967.

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17. Du, C. T., P. L. Wang, and F. J. Francis, Anthocyanins of pomegranate, Punica granatum, J. Food Sci. 40:417 (1975). 18. Botrus, D., T. F. Zykina, L. T. Kostinskaya, and G. A. Golovchenko, Polyphenol compounds in pomegranate, Pishchevaya Tekhnologiya 3:117 (1984). 19. Siddappa, G. S., Pomegranate juice, Indian Farming 4:196 (1943). 20. CSIR, Wealth of IndiaRaw Materials, Vol. VIII, Council of Scientific and Industrial Research, New Delhi, 1989, p. 321. 21. Bose, T. K., Fruits in IndiaTropical and Subtropical, Naya Prokash, Calcutta, 1985, p. 538. 22. Mukherjee, P. K., Storage of pomegranates (Punica granatum), Sci. Cult. 24:94 (1958).

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23. Pantastico, E. B., T. K. Chattopadhyay, and H. Subramanyam, Harvest, handling, storage and commercial storage operations, Postharvest Physiology, Handling and Utilization of Tropical and Subtropical Fruits and Vegetables, (E. B. Pantastico, ed.), AVI, Westport, CT, 1975, p. 314.

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24. Elyatem, S. M., and A. A. Kader, Post-harvest physiology and storage behaviour of pomegranate fruits, Sci. Hort. 24(3/4):287 (1984). 25. Kanwar, Z., and D. P. Thakur, Controlling post-harvest soft rot of pomegranate fruits by treatment of packing straw, Sci. Cult. 38(10):450 (1972). 26. Lutz, J. M., and R. E. Hardenburg, The commercial storage of fruits, vegetables and florist and nursery stocks, USDA Agriculture Handbook 66:94 (1968). 27. Segal, N., Peel browning, a physiological disorder of stored pomegranate, M.Sc. thesis, Faculty of Agriculture, Hebrew University of Jerusalem, Jerusalem, 1981, p. 60.

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28. Sonawane, C. S., P. G. Utikar, and P. A. Shinde, Post-harvest fungal flora of pomegranate, J. Maharashtra Agr. Univ. 11:107 (1986). 29. Giridhari, Lal, G. S. Siddappa, and G. L. Tandon, Preservation of Fruits and Vegetables, Indian Council of Agricultural Research, New Delhi, 1986. 30. Dhumal, J., Studies to prolong the shelf-life of pomegranate fruits, M.Sc. (Agr.) thesis, Mahatma Phule Agricultural University, Rahuri, India, 1984. 31. Gabuniya, N. E., I. D. Landkipanidze, and M. V. Magerammov, Technology of obtaining a beverage from pomegranates, Konsernayai Oveschesushilnaya Promyshlennost 7:27 (1984).

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32. Adsule, R. N., P. M. Kotecha, and S. S. Kadam, Preparation of wine from pomegranate, Beverage and Food World 19(4):13 (1992). 33. Pruthi, J. S., and A. K. Saxena, Studies on anaradana (dried pomegranate seeds), J. Food Sci. Technol. 21(5):296 (1984). 34. Regional Research Laboratory, Annual Report, Jammu, India, 1979, p. 29. 35. Mahajan, B. V. C., S. K. Chopra, and R. C. Sharma, Processing of wild pomegranate for anardana. Effect of thermal treatments and drying modes on quality, J. Food Sci. Technol. 29(5):327328 (1992). 36. Chavan, U. D., R. N. Adsule, and S. S. Kadam, Physico-chemical properties of pomegranate rind powder, Beverage and Food World 22(1):36 (1995).

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23 Olive
B. L. Raina Regional Research Laboratory, Jammu, India I. Introduction

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Olive (Olea europaea L., family Oleaceae) is a perennial evergreen tree. It grows well in temperature climates with warm, dry summers. The other names of olive are aceituna, oliva, and olivier. The fruit is used for edible purposes and for production of olive oil. The tree is believed to have originated in the Syro-Iranian region of Asia Minor (1). Olive plays a dominant role in the economy of the Mediterranean countries. Spain and Italy are the major producers of olive fruits and olive oil in the world (Table 1). Greece, Turkey, and Tunisia also produce significant amounts of olive oil (2). The world production of olives was 10,267,000 metric tonnes, while that of olive oil was 1,965,000 metric tonnes during 1987 (3). Spain and Italy together contributed about 63% and 65% of the world olive and olive oil, respectively (1). Spain is the largest exporter and Italy imports nearly half of the entire quantity traded in the international market (3). The crop is extremely labor-

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intensive, providing employment to millions, and accounts for a major share of agriculture income in many countries (4). The olive products, which have been consumed by Mediterranean peoples for generations, are increasingly becoming a luxury in countries with high standards of living (5). II. Botany The cultivated olive (Olea europaea var. Communis) appears to have originated in Asia Minor, where it has long been grown. Many European varieties have been tried in California, but the varieties suitable for pickling are most popular in California. The growers prefer varieties of large size, which are also used as a source of oil. Thus the most perfect fruit can be used for pickles; the rest are used for making oil. Olive fruit is a globular, oblong, or sometimes crescent-shaped drupe.

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Table 1 Major Production of Olives and Olive Oil Fruit Oil Production Percent of Production Country (1000 MT) world total (1000 MT) Italy 2215 25.1 440 Spain 2146 25.0 437 Greece 1485 17.3 259 Turkey 900 10.6 167 Tunisia 530 6.2 132 Morocco 312 3.7 41 Portugal 257 3.0 45 Syria 170 2.0 27 Argentina 108 1.3 15 All others 469 5.7 61 World 8527 1624 Source: Ref. 2.

The pericarp is composed of epicarp or skin, mesoc and endocarp or stone (pit), which contains the seed A. Cultivars

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The principal cultivars cultivated for oil have mediu fruits and are harvested when ripe. Some important these are Arauco, Bouquetier, Corfolia, Danfolia, F oneiki, Lechin, Mazanillo, Morcal, Nevadillo, Picu Rougette, Smertolia, Taggiaca, Tsounati, and Zorza cultivars preferred for table olive production, with l oil, include Ascolano, Calamata, Chalkidikis, Cons Gordal, Hojiblanca, Manzanillo, Megariticci, Missi lano, Throumbolia, Verdale, and Volou (4). B. Fruit Development

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The olive fruit requires 68 months after blossoming maximum weight (6). This is followed by color cha straw to pink and red and finally purplish-black at f ity. With advancement of maturity, there is an incre oil content, a brief rise in reducing sugar content, fo decline until maturity (7). The ripe fruit weighs from g. The pit with its hard shell makes up 1330% of th weight, and the skin, 1.53.5%. The seed does not ex of the weight of the fruit (4). At full maturity, the m contains 610% soluble solids and 1540% or even m pericarp contains 9698% of the total amount of oil, remaining 24% of the oil is in the kernel. Oleuropei glycoside, is more concentrated close to the peel (4

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During maturation of the fruit, the size of oil drople the olive increases, raising extractability of oil from in early stage to about 90% in fully mature fruit (4) changes occur in the oil during ripening of fruit. Th carotene content and its provitamin A value diminis ripeness (6). The gradual loss of firmness and anhy turonic acid content of the pectin chain is associated creasing polygalacturonase activity (4).

Page 467

III. Production. A. Soil and Climate Olive is generally grown in warm temperate and subtropical climates between latitudes 30 and 45N and 30 and 45S (8). It can be grown at an altitude of about 10001220 m above sea level. The fruits require a relatively hot growing season for development of fruit (4). A clear and dry atmosphere is necessary for maximum fruit. Olive can be grown on moderately saline soils or on calcareous soil. It requires deep and welldrained soil so that the roots penetrate deeply to take advantage of underground moisture even in dry areas (8). B. Propagation

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Olive is propagated by hardwood cuttings or rooted softwood cuttings. Propagation by seeds is also common. This provides a stronger root system and more fruitful trees. The seedlings produced by using seeds require grafting. The variable nature of rootstock may bring about variability in the growth and size of the trees (4). C. Cultural Practices 1. Planting Seedlings are planted 812 m apart in irrigated orchards and 1222 m apart in unirrigated groves (4). 2. Fertilization

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Nitrogen fertilization is done for rapid development of plants. The olive tree can obtain the required amount of potassium and phosphorus from the soil. In California, growers apply 450 g of nitrogen per tree per year under irrigated conditions, just before the winter season. In shallow soils, trees respond well to potassium and boron. In Greece, a fertilizer mixture containing nitrogen, phosphorus, and potassium is used. 3. Irrigation

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In the Mediterranean region, olives are grown largely without irrigation. Under rain-fed conditions, olive required 4050 years to reach full productivity. In California, olive trees are grown under irrigated conditions (4). To ensure adequate tree growth and profitable yield, trees should have adequate soil moisture throughout the year, especially before blossoming time in later winter and early spring and during the summer, when fruit growth takes place and new fruiting wood develops. 4. Pruning and Thinning

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A moderate annual pruning involving removal of injured, dead, or ill-placed branches is all that is necessary to spread the fruiting surface uniformly (8). This facilitates exposure of the fruiting surface to light and air. Heavy pruning under irrigated conditions results in reduction of yields owing to the removal of potential fruit-bearing branches in alternate years. In some countries, thinning of fruits is achieved by spraying the young fruits with 150 ppm NAA (4). D. Diseases and Pests. The major diseases of olive trees include olive knot, caused by Bacterium savastanoi Slevens, peacock spot, caused by Cycloconium oleaginum, and verticillum rot, caused by Verticillium

Page 468

alboatrum. Olive fruit fly Dacus oleae Gmel.), olive kernel borer (Prays oleae Bern.), olive scale (Parlatoria oleae Colvee), oleander or ivy scale (Aspidiotus hederae Vallot), greedy scale (A. camelliae Signoret), California red scale (Aonidiella aurantii, Maske 11), and black scale (Saissetia oleae Bern) are the important pests of olive trees. The incidence of beetles and Noemia semirufa has been also reported. E. Harvesting

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Harvesting is an expensive operation, accounting for 5070% of the total cost of olive production (4). Olives are harvested by hand into a receptacle in the autumn or early winter at appropriate green-yellow stage. Hand-harvested fruits are usually picked from the trees using ladders. Mechanical harvesting is used for oil olives. Harvesting is done after fruit has turned black. In California, some oil olives are harvested by placing canvas on the ground and then knocking the fruit from the trees by beating the limbs with poles. However, this method sometimes injures fruiting branches and spreads the bacterial disease, olive knot (Bacterium savastanoi). Tree shakes and catching frames designed for use with deciduous tree fruits have been used to a certain extent in California. IV. Composition

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Olive fruit is an edible fleshy elliptical drupe that contains a hard, oval-shaped stone (9). The flesh is intensely bitter and comprises 7080% of the fruit (10). The pulp is rich in oil and contains up to 75% oil on a dry-weight basis (11). The kernels contain 1228% oil on a dry-weight basis (12). The term olive oil usually refers to the oil obtained from the mesocarp or pulp of the olive fruit. The seeds of olive fruit have a different composition than the flesh (Table 2). The major monosaccharides in fruit pulp are glucose, mannose, xylose, galactose, and arabinose, accompanied by mannitol and rhamnose in certain cultivars (4). The pulp is rich in potassium. Small amounts of organic acids such as citric, malic, oxalic, malonic, fumaric, tartaric, lactic, acetic, and tricarboxylic are present. On a fresh-weight basis, olive fruit contains about 6074% moisture, 625% oil, and 1.251.50% proteins. The chemical composition of olive fruit varies considerably among varieties (Table 3), and even

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within a variety, depending on the stage of development and maturity (6,12).

Table 2 Chemical Composition of Different Parts of the Olive (% by weight) Constituent Flesh Stone Seed Water 5060 9.3 30.0 Oil 1530 0.7 27.3 N matter 25 3.4 10.2 Sugars 375 41.0 26.6 Cellulose 36 38.0 1.9 Ash 12 4.1 1.5 Polyphenols 2.2.5 0.1 0.51.0 Intermediate 3.4 2.4 Source: Ref. 6.

Table 3 Composition of Olive Constituent Water (%) Calorie value (cal) Protein (%) Fat (%) Total carbohydrate (%) Fiber (%) Ash (%) Minerals (mg/100 g) Calcium Phosphorus Iron Sodium Potassium Source: Ref. 4. Green olive 78.2 116 1.4 12.7 1.3 1.3 6.4 61 17 1.6 2400 55 Ascolano 80.0 129 1.1 13.8 2.6 1.4 2.5 84 16 .6 813 34

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A variety of phenolic compounds are found in olive the simpler of them. The major orthodiphenolic com which is responsible for the bitter taste of immature and other phenolics impart the black color to the fru between diphenol oxidase and oleuropein. Anthocy in and peonidin, are responsible for the purple-andconcentration of anthocyanin pigments has been ob plex mixture of flavonoids in the mesocarp, and der endocarp (4).

Olive fruit contains various lipid fractions such as f alcohols, and hydrocarbons. The presence of 4-met dialcohols, linear saturated alcohols, and phytol has

Olive oil may be almost colorless or yellow or som fruits is characteristically fragrant and slightly bitte 0.914-0.913 (13). The solidifying point (22C) of th the vegetable oils (14). The smoke, flash, and fire p 321, and 361C, respectively (15). The iodine and 185212, respectively (16). Olive oil has a refractive 0.61.2% unsaponifiable matter and 0.61.4% free fat

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Refined olive oil is expected to have an iodine valu 184186, unsaponifiable matter not more than 1.5%, oxide value 20 mEq (max.). The tocopherol conten contains a large proportion of oleic acid (6383%). O palmitic acid (7.518%), stearic acid (0.53.0%), and oil also contains minute quantities of myristic, arac (19,20). The large variation in fatty acid compositio and location. The high oleic acid content plus some olive oil exceptional stability

Table 4 Fatty Acid Composition of Virgin Olive Oil Fatty acid Content (%) Fatty acid Content (% Oleic 63.083.0 Stearic 0.53.0 Linoleic 3.520.0 Linolenic 0.10.6 Palmitic 7.518.0 Arachidonic 0.10.8 Palmitoleic 0.53.0 Behenic Traces-0.

even in deep frying. The aroma of olive oil is comp many volatile compounds (Table 5). A good-quality oil has a bland taste.

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Good-quality olive oil is used mainly for edible pur such as cooking, in salads, and in the preservation o The rest of the oil is used for industrial purposes, su soap, textiles, toilet preparations, cosmetics, and ph ceuticals (21). The green olive fruits have bitter tast are consumed after canning or pickling. The bitter t due to the presence of the glycosidic compound ole Drusas et al. (22) observed that pretreatment of oliv 1.8% sodium hydroxide, used to remove the bitter c ent, has an added advantage of increasing the salt d ity in green olives.

The use of olive oil, whether in medicine or as a so nutrition, has its roots in ancient history. During the few decades, renewed interest has been generated in tritional and health aspects of the olive.

Besides its physiological advantage of being rapidly completely digested, olive oil also has antiulcer act is effective in lowering plasma cholesterol (4).
Table 5 Volatile Components of Olive Oil

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Hydrocarbons n-Hexane n-Octane Ethyl benzene Triterpenic alcohols b-Amyrin Cycloartenol 2,4-Methyl cycloartenol Cyclostadienol Ketones 2-Pentanone 4-Methyl-3-penten-3-one Alcohols Ethanol 1-Penten-1-ol 1-Methylbutane-1-ol 1-Pentanol 1-Hexanol cis-r-Hexen-1-ol trans-2-Hexen-1-ol 1-Dodecanol 1-Eicosanol Source: Ref. 5

Alcohols (cont.) 1-Dodecaeicosanol 1-Tetraeicosanol 1-Hexaeicosanol 1-Octaeicosanol Phytol Aldehydes Acetaldehyde 2-Methyl-butanal Pentanal Hexenal cis-2-Pentanal trans-2-Hexenal Octanal Nonanal Benzaldehyde Esters Ethyl acetate Isobutyl acetate 3-Methyl-1-butyl ac Hexyl acetate cis-3-Hexenyl aceta

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Page 471

V. Storage A. Fruits Storage of olive fruits at ambient temperature leads to deterioration of the oil due to lipolysis, lipid oxidation, and other undesirable metabolic reactions (25). Olives are better stored under water in tanks containing mild preservatives such as 3% salt or 0.03% citric acid and 3% salt or 2% metabisulfite (4). Anaerobic storage with a low concentration of acetic acid gives stable color and texture even after 3 months.

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Fresh olives can be stored at 510C for 46 weeks. At temperatures above 10C, olives ripen and shrivel; and at temperatures below 5C, they are susceptible to chilling injury (23). In chilling injury, the flesh of green olives becomes brown, beginning around the seed and at the stem end. Ripe flesh olives develop more browning than green ones. Olives for processing have been successfully stored for 3 months at about 5C (24). B. Oil

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Olive oil undergoes deterioration during storage. It is important to store the oil extracted from olives of different varieties separately. The storage drums and tanks should be of inert material, impermeable to oil, and lined with epoxy resins, enameled tiles, or glass, and the oil should be stored at a constant temperature of about 15C. Olive oil is packed in several types of retail containers, including bottles made of glass or polyethylene, tin-plated cans, and tetra-packs. The containers should provide protection of the oil from light, and leave a minimum volume of headspace. Packing of oil under vacuum and inert gas is also recommended. VI. Processing and Utilization A. Oil

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For extraction of oil, olive fruits are cleaned, peeled, and the flesh is separated from the stone. The flesh is reduced to pulp and the oil is extracted by low mechanical pressing (5). After a few days, the oil is separated by decantation, centrifugation, or filtration. The oil thus obtained, without admixture of any other oil, is called virgin olive oil. A second pressing with greater pressure is generally done to exhaust the cake. The oil from the first and second extractions has a high content of free fatty acids. This oil is refined by neutralization, bleaching, and deodorization. A mixture of virgin oil and refined oil is called pure olive oil. The cakes from the processing of olive are extracted with solvents and the oil so obtained is called orujo oil or sulfur oil (7). The oil must be extracted immediately (within 3 days) after harvest. Delayed extraction or storage of fruits results in a change in flavor and an increase in free fatty acid content of the oil.

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The UN conference on olive oil held in Geneva in 1961 classified olive oil into four groups according to the method of preparation (4). 1. Virgin olive oil: Oil extracted by pressing and free of admixtures is called extra when the oleic acid does not exceed 1 g/100 g and fine when the acid content does not exceed 1.5 g/100 g, provided the flavor is perfect. Ordinary olive oil may contain acid up to 3.0 g/100 g and have a slight off-flavor. If the oil has a definite off-flavor, it is classified as lampante. 2. Refined olive oil: This oil may be called pure when it is refined from virgin oil, and secondary quality when it is refined from solvent-extracted oil. 3. Blended olive oil: Blended oil can be called pure when it consists of a blend of virgin

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and refined oil, and blended when it contains a blend of virgin and second-quality refined oil. 4. Industrial oils: These oils are obtained by extraction of olive residue with solvents. B. Green Fermented Olives. A Spanish method converts light green, firm olive fruit into olive-green fermented fruits (4). The fruits are placed in a large container, covered with 1.8% lye solution, and kept at 28C for 48 h. They are subsequently washed with water for 2436 h and again covered with brine in a fermentation tank (4). The product upon attaining equilibrium contains 68% NaCl. Spices are added to fermented olives. These fruits are graded according to shape, size, and color. The principal varieties processed in Spain are Sevillano and Manzanillo (4).

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C. Canned Ripe Olives Ascolano, Manzanillo, Mission, and Sevillano are the principal varieties used for canning. The fruits are placed in 5.8% brine for 6 weeks or longer in large wooden or concentrate tanks; the brine concentration is gradually raised to 10%. The fruit is then transferred into shallow vats and heated 48 times with gradually decreasing strengths of lye ranging from 3.0 to 0.5% NaOH. Each treatment is followed by exposure to air for 15 days, either with frequent turning in the presence of air or by bubbling air through the immersed fruit (4). The olives are then leached by frequent changes of water for 57 days until all traces of NaOH have been removed. The washed olives are pasteurized, cured in 23% NaCl for 26 days, graded, packed into enameled cans covered with 2.53.5% NaCl solution, sealed, and sterilized at 116C for 1 h (4).

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D. Black (Naturally Ripe) Olives In the Greek method of preservation of olives, fully matured, dark purple fruits of Calamata, Conservolea, and Magaritici varieties are used (4). The fruits are covered with brine and the brine concentration is gradually increased to prevent shriveling. The covering brine concentration is kept at 10% NaCl during winter and increased to 1516% during summer to prevent spoilage. The bitterness is lost within 36 months, and lactic acid formed does not exceed 0.5%. The dark purple anthocyanins of olives turn light red during fermentation. The olives thus prepared are exposed to air until dark color is regained. The fruits are carefully stored, graded, and repacked in fresh brine containing about 8% NaCl and 0.50.75% acetic acid (4). E. By-products 1. Cake

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The press residue can be used as fuel, manure, animal feed, soil conditioner, fiber, or for production of single-cell proteins (4). 2. Olive Stone The olive stone can be used in plastics and furfural manufacture. Activated carbon produced from olive stones has a high adsorption capacity against lead (4). References 1. Brousse, G., Olive, Oil Crops of the World (G. Robbelen, R. K. Downey and A. Ashri, eds.), McGrawHill, New York, 1989, p. 462.

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2. FAO, Production Year Book, Food and Agriculture Organization, Rome, 1979. 3. FAO, Production Year Book, Food and Agriculture Organization, Rome, 1987. 4. Raina, B. L. Olive, Encyclopedia of Food Science, Food Technology and Nutrition (R. MaCrae, R. K. Robinson, and M. J. Sadler, eds.), Academic Press, London, 1993, p. 3353. 5. Kritsakis A., and P. Markakis, Olive oil: A review, Adv. Food Res. 31:453 (1987). 6. Maestro Duran, R., Relationship between the composition and ripening of the olive and quality of the oil, Acta Hort. (286):441 (1990). 7. Fernandez Diez, M. J., The Olive, The Biochemistry of Fruits and Their Products, Vol. 2 (A. C. Hulme, ed.), Academic Press, London, 1971, p. 255.

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8. Wilkinson, A. E., The Encyclopaedia of Fruits, Berries and Nuts and How to Grow Them, Shree Publishing House, New Delhi, 1987, p. 100. 9. Nostivega, M., R. Castro-Ramos, and R. deVanzquez Ladron, Composition and nutritive value of Spanish varieties of table olives. I. Changes due to processing, Grasasy Aceites 35:11 (1984). 10. Gutierrez, F. M., D. Albi, R. Palma, J. J. Rios, and J. M. Olias, Bitter taste of virgin olive oil: Correlation of sensory evaluation and instrumental HPLC analysis, J. Food Sci. 54:68 (1989). 11. Vaughan, J. G., The Structure and Utilization of Oil Seeds, Chapman & Hall, London, 1970.

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12. Godin, V. J., and P. C. Spensley, Oils and Oilseeds, Tropical Products Institute, London, 1971. 13. Lange, N.A., Handbook of Chemistry, Handbook Publishers, Sandusky, OH, 1944. 14. Bhatia, S. C., Vegetable and Animal Oils, Shree Publishing House, New Delhi, India, 1983. 15. Detwiler, S. B., K. S. Markley, Smoke, flash and fire points of soybean and other vegetable oils, Oils Soap 17:39 (1940). 16. Bernardini, E., Oilseeds, Oils and Fats, Vol. II, Vegetable Oil and Fats Processing, B. E. Oil Publishing House, Rome, 1985.

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17. Raina, B. L., A. K. Bhatia, S. K. Katiyar, and A. K. Gupta, Quality characteristics of promising Himachal olive varieties, J. Food Sci. Technol. 23:237 (1986). 18. Kumar, S., A. K. Goswami, and T. R. Sharma, Evaluation of oil from olives grown in Himachal Pradesh, J. Food Sci. Technol. 23:239 (1986). 19. Iverson, J. L., J. Eisher, and D. Firestone, Fatty acid composition of olive oil by urea fractionation and gasliquid chromatography, J. Assoc. Office Ag. Chem. 48:1191 (1965). 20. Weiss, E. A., Oilseed Crops, Longman Group, Essex, U.K., 1983. 21. Christakis, G., M. K. Fordyce, and C. S. Kurtz, The biological and medicinal aspects of olive oil, Proc. 3rd Int. Congress on Biological Value of Olive Oil, Greece, 1980.

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22. Drusas, A., G. K. Vaganas, and G. D. Saravacos, Diffusion of sodium chloride in green olives, J. Food Eng. 7:211 (1988). 23. Hardenburg, R. E., A. E. Watada, and C. Y. Wang, The commercial storage of fruits, vegetables and florist and nursery stocks, USDA, Agriculture Handbook No. 66, 1986, p. 44. 24. Maxie, E. C., Experiments on cold storage and controlled atmosphere, Calif. Oliv. Assoc. Ann. Tech. Rept. 43:1215 (1964). 25. Sciancalepore, V., Enzymatic browning in five olive oil varieties, J. Food Sci. 50:1194 (1985).

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24 Sapota (Sapodilla)
L. S. Kute and M. B. Shete Mahatma Phule Agricultural University, Rahuri, Maharashtra, India I. Introduction.

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Sapota or sapodilla is a native of tropical America, having originated in Mexico of Central America. It is a delicious fruit also known as chiku, dilly, nispero, zapotte, sapota plum, sapodilla, or prickly pear. Fully ripe fruit is eaten as dessert. The pulp along with the skin can also be eaten, as the latter is rich in nutritive value (1). A decoction is given in diarrhea and in paludism (2). India is the largest producer of sapota, followed by Mexico, Guatemala, and Venezuela. The present area under sapota plantation in India accounts for more than 20,000 ha (3,4). Although sapota is cultivated in India primarily for its edible fruit, it is cultivated in Mexico, Guatemala, and Venezuela mainly for the extraction of chickle gum, a resinous latex derived from the bark. II. Botany

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Sapota (Manilkara zapota L. van Royen syn. Arachas zapota L.), belonging to family Sapotaceae, is an evergreen tree that usually grows to a height of up to 10 m. The Sapotaceae family contains very few species that are grown for edible fruits (5). The unripe fruits and bark yield a milky white latex which solidifies upon exposure to air. This forms the base for making chickle. The fruit is a fresh berry with round, oval, or conical shape and resembles a smooth potato in appearance (Fig. 1). The mature flesh is honey brown, soft, and mellow, and is very sweet. It crumbles with a sandy or granular texture. The fruit generally weighs about 70200 g (7). The fruit has a rusty brown skin and a yellowish-brown or red pulp with a pleasant, mild aroma and an excellent taste. The seeds are endospermic and vary in number from 0 to 12 depending on the season. Each seed weighs 0.61.0 g and is hard, black, and stony, embedded in pulp around a central axis. The seeds separate

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easily from the pulp. There are two principal seasons of production, the first being FebruaryApril and the second during October-December (5).

Page 476

Fig. 1 Sapota fruit.

A. Cultivars

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There are several cultivars of sapodilla grown in different parts of the world. Fruit size, shape, weight, pulp color, taste, seed number, periodicity, and flavor have been used to characterize the cultivars (8). Panderosa Chico is a wellknown cultivar in the Philippines (9). Brown sugar, Modello, and Russel are cultivated on a large scale in Florida (10). In India, Badam, Cricket Ball, Calcutta, Baramasi, Bangalora, Dwarpudi, Pala, Oval, Long Oval, Co-1, Co-2, Dacca, and Kirtabarti are grown in southern areas, while Bhuri, Kallipatti, Pillipatti, Dhola, and Diwani are grown in western areas (11). There is no agreement among horticulturists regarding the classification of sapota cultivars, as they are highly heterogenous (7). B. Fruit Maturation

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Since the tree bears flowers all year round, fruits of all stages of maturity can be found on the tree at the same time. The pulp-to-peel ratio of fruit increases during maturation as water and latex seep from the peel to the pulp (11). The time taken from flower bud initiation to harvest depends on climatic and other conditions and ranges from 4 months to more than 10 months (4). The shininess of the fruit surface, development of fruit, and the extent of scurfiness are good indicators of maturity. A fruit with a smooth surface, shining potato color and rounded stylar end is

Page 477

considered mature. Latex almost stops oozing out when the fruit is scratched with a fingernail (5). The changes in total sugars, reducing sugars, and nonreducing sugars of sapota during fruit development are shown in Fig. 2. The unripe fruits are highly astringent and contain large amounts of leucoanthocyanidins. Polyphenol content gradually decreases toward maturity (12). At immature stage, sapota contains large amounts of chlorogenic and gallic acids. The astringency of the fruit is caused by flavans. All polyphenolic components increase (Table 1) as the fruit mature, possibly offering greater resistance to fungal diseases (13). C. Fruit Ripening

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Sapota is a climacteric fruit which ripens in about 57 days (after harvest) at room temperature. After proper ripening, mature fruit acquires eating and processing qualities, whereas immature fruits develop poorly and remain astringent in taste and very sticky in texture. Ripe fruit has a pleasant, mellow aroma and is sweet without any astringency (5). The use of growth regulators such as ethephon (Ethrel at 10003000 ppm concentration) reduces the ripening period to 24 days and gives uniform ripening (14,15). During ripening, there is a decrease in polyphenols (16) with a concurrent increase in sugar (17). There is also a decline in the levels of tannin (Table 1), latex, sapotin, aldehydes, and acidity (18).

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The hemicellulose content of sapota decreases during ripening. Part of the hemicellulose is converted to oligosaccharides, which in turn enter into carbohydrate metabolism as ripening progresses. During this period, the sucrose content increases significantly, followed by glucose and fructose. However, sucrose is inverted to glucose and fructose during overripe stage (11,12,19). Venkataraman and Reithel (20) studied the carbohydrate metabolism of the sapota fruit at various stages of ripening. They reported that glucose and fructose were present in all stages.

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Fig. 2 Changes in the sugar content of sapota fruit: , total sugar; , reducing sugars; , nonreducing sugars. After 8 months, the changes in sugars during ripening are shown by the dashed line. (From Ref. 7.)

Table 1 Changes in Polyphenol Content of Sapota (g/fruit) wi Stage of maturity Moisture Dry Tannin To (months) (%) weight content phe 2 77.66 0.09 0.91 0. 4 74.27 2.02 0.38 0. 6 74.56 9.29 0.64 2. 8 72.19 20.27 1.01 4. Source: Ref. 13.

They also identified three types of oligosaccharides fructose and lactose upon hydrolysis; the third type fructose, and galactose (20). III. Production A. Soil and Climate

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Sapota grows best in well-drained alluvial loams, c medium black soils of the Deccan plateau, and deep getic plains. Sapota being a shallow-rooted tree, soi cm also produce good yields. Sapota is a fruit crop rainfall varying from about 125 to 250 cm. Althoug coast, it yields fairly well all over under a variety o regions. High summer temperatures, over 43C, ma B. Propagation

Seed propagation in sapota is not common except in seedlings grow slowly, take a long time to come int produce true-to-type plants. Sapota is propagated v ering or gooty layering) and in-arch grafting. A fork easy and efficient method of propagation in coastal moist. Seedling Chiku, Khirni (Mimusops hexandra flora) are used as rootstocks.

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Plants raised from gooties or grafts differ in their re matic conditions. Gooty grows on its own roots, wh of a root system of stocks. The performance of graf compatibility and characteristics of the root system a harmonious graft union in which both stocks and results in unproductive or less productive plants. It each rootstock used for grafting will have different root growth, and also requires different soil and clim growth. They also differ in their capacity to utilize trients as well as the way in which they influence th portion, which in turn influences the size and qualit tree, tolerance to heat, cold, and drought, and lifesp deep loamy soils, both grafts and gooties perform e and fruit heavily in light sandy loams (21). In gener rootstocks are more suitable for deep soils, while in ic soils, sapota seedlings and Khirni rootstocks wer not desirable as it grows faster

Page 479

than the scion (21). The success of grafting during May to July was nearly 100% and declined afterward, being 7278% during August-December (22). C. Cultural Practices. 1. Planting

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It is always advisable to ascertain that the material chosen for planting is of excellent quality and suits the requirement of the grower. Gooties should be hardened for at least 6 months in the nursery and until they are at least 2 ft in height. The grafts selected for planting should mostly have both scion and stock of similar thickness. Straight-growing, healthy scion forms a strong graft union, which is made at least 15 cm above the root collar without any injuries to the union caused by tape or string, and the rootstock portion above the graft union is removed. The scion should be true to the variety and reliable.

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Land preparation before planting involves repeated deep plowing, harrowing, and leveling. Pits measuring 60 cm3 are dug and filled with good garden soil and farmyard manure (FYM) (1:1 v/v). The recommended spacing for sapota in rich soil and heavy-rainfall areas is 10 m, while in dry areas spacing can be reduced to 7.5 m. The soil in the pit should be moist at the time of planting. When grafts are used, it is necessary to make sure that the graft union is kept well above the soil surface and that all the growth from rootstock is removed. The plants should be watered immediately after planting. The young trees may be given support with bamboo sticks. In addition, young trees require regular watering, protection from frost, manuring, weeding, and hand digging. 2. Manuring and Fertilization

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During the first year, each tree requires about 10 kg of farmyard manure and 1 kg of ammonium sulfate. Eight-year-old trees need to be supplied with 70 kg of farmyard manure and 56 kg of ammonium sulfate, applied in two equal doses. According to Gandhi (21), 1-year-old trees should be supplied with 20 kg of farmyard manure. A full-grown 10-year-old tree should be supplied with 50 kg of farmyard manure, 3 kg of nitrogen, 2 kg of phosphorus, and 2 kg of potash. 3. Irrigation It is adequate to irrigate sapota trees after 1012 days during the winter, but in summer this interval should be reduced to 58 days. Care should be taken to ensure proper drainage. During flowering and fruit development, there should not be irregularity in irrigation. 4. Intercrops

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During the initial stages the trees, being small, do not cover all the ground surface. Therefore, during the first 10 years, intercrops such as papaya, pomegranate, or vegetables can be planted to increase profit until the trees come to bearing stage. Green manuring crops can also be used as intercrops. 5. Training and Pruning

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Sapota plants generally develop attractive form by nature, without resorting to regular training practice. Generally, no pruning is needed in sapota, except for removing unwanted growth below the graft union. Hard pruning can drastically affect the normal growth and productivity of plants. At later stages of growth, however, lower branches often bend down due to overweight and finally become unfruitful due to excessive shading and lack of aeration. They can also create a favorable microclimate for the growth of pathogens and may harbor insect pests. Such branches may be removed to improve the productivity of the trees. However, it is not desirable to remove too many branches, as this makes the top heavy and vulnerable to wind damage.

Page 480

D. Pests and Diseases Sapota fruit is remarkably free of insect pests and diseases. However, a few insects such as mealy bugs, leaf miners, red ants, and borers have been known to attack fruits. A high incidence of fruit fly is also reported (23). The peak population is observed during March-July, which coincides with the fruiting period of sapota. A Phytophthora sp. and a black yeast cause fruit rot. Phytophthora palmivora, the causal fungus of fruit rot, is found in all parts of infected fruits, including the seeds, from which pure cultures are obtained. Both immature and ripe fruits are susceptible (24). E. Harvesting and Postharvest Handling

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It is difficult to determine the optimum maturity date for harvesting sapota fruits because of the erratic flowering habit of the crop (7). Due to this erratic habit, fruit at all stages of maturity can be found on the tree at any one time. Fruit harvested earlier than physiological maturity take too long to soften, are low in sweetness, and are highly astringent, with pockets of coagulated latex hindering edible quality. On the other hand, fruit harvested too late soften within 23 days and are extremely difficult to handle and transport. Thus, considerable experience is required to deter-

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Fig. 3 Bamboo basket used for transportation of sapodilla.

mine the correct harvest maturity of the fruit. Fruit physiological maturity, however, shed off the brow ternal material and become practically smooth with tinge, intermixed with a corky brown color. Laksm suggested that this change could be utilized as a ph or of harvest time. Fruit ready to harvest, when scra fingernail, shows practically no green tissue or latex al. (25) reported that fruit size, scurf content, color scratching, and external color of fruit can be used to optimum harvesting stage in the field. The average ranges from 2500 to 3500 fruits weighing approxim kg.

Fruits are cleaned by hand rubbing and are graded a um, or small depending on size. They are packed im after harvest in bamboo baskets (Fig. 3) padded wit grass, or dried banana leaves for distant markets (8) has been rated superior to paper cuttings and sawdu Another common container is a ventilated corrugate capacity of 10 kg of fruits that has holes in all six si

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IV. Chemical Composition.

The chemical composition of sapota fruit is given in the nutritive composition in Table 3. Indian sapota higher in carbohydrate content than Mexican fruit ( ter, however has higher vitamin C content. The prin stituents of mature fruit are tannins and carbohydra carbohydrates, free sugars such as glucose, fructose

Table 2 Chemical Composition of Mature and Ripe Fruits of tivars: Cricket Ball (A) and Oblong (B) Mature (at harvest) R Composition A B Average fruit wt (g) 107.16 20.04 1 Starch (%) 0.90 0.37 Sucrose (%) 4.28 5.13 Glucose (%) 2.81 4.53 Fructose (%) 5.53 3.92 Crude protein (T) 0.68 1.02 True protein (%) 0.51 0.81 Soluble amino acid (mg %) 25 114 Total acidity (%) 0.15 0.61 Nonvolatile acidity (%) 0.07 0.46 Malic acid (mg %) 18.95 128.50

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Vitamin A (IU) Vitamin C (mg%) Dry matter (%) Potassium (%) Phosphorus (mg%) Calcium (mg%) Iron (mg%) Tannins (%) Source: Ref. 17

1603 10 21.9 0.21 8.0 10.8 0.42 0.27

1219 5 26.5 0.17 10.9 20.9 0.61 0.81

Table 3 Nutritive Compositions of Ripe Sapota Fruits Constituents Gopalan et al. (1) Edible portion (%) 83 Moisture (%) 73.7 Fiber (%) 2.6 Carbohydrates (%) 21.4 Fat (%) 1.1 Protein (%) 0.7 Mineral (%) 0.5 Energy (Cal/100 g fresh weight) 98 97 Carotene (mg %) Vitamin C (mg%) 6 Thiamin (mg%) 0.02 Riboflavin (mg%) 0.03 Niacin (mg%) 0.2 Calcium (mg%) 28 Phosphorus (mg%) 27 Iron (mg%) 2.0

2317/2989

galactose form a major portion, whereas starch is fo quantities or absent. The presence of fairly large qu imparts an astringent flavor, but this astringency is sugars. The fruit also contains 1.13% sapotin, the b Ascorbic acid content decreases with ripening of fr also has appreciable amounts of protein, fat, fiber, a seed kernels (50% of total seed weight) contain 20% V. Storage

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At the peak period, when the market demand is less tension of storage life. The storage period can be ex the ripening process through various chemicals, gro wax coating, and storage in modified atmosphere o ure. The use of gibberellic acid (330 ppm) and kine tended shelf life by 67 days (28). Low temperature by reducing oxidative metabolism and release of et term (less than 10 h) holding of fruit at 4C before tends storage life up to 24 days with satisfactory qu However, too long exposure to 4C results in chillin fail to ripen normally afterward. The recommended and ripening temperature is 20C. At this temperatu ripening after 10 days. The optimum relative humid

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Ripening is delayed when oxygen and ethylene are storage atmosphere. The storage life of sapota at 12 perature was increased with 6% wax emulsion and 200-gauge polythene covers containing ethylene an absorbents. This treatment delayed ripening by 10 d shelf life of 45 days (29). Removal of ethylene prod delayed ripening by 23 days (3). Storage at tempera and 10C causes irreversible damage to the ripening fruits under refrigeration do not keep well, and such taste and flavor (13). Foliar sprays of isopropyl-n-p (IPC) reduced the rate of respiration, ripening, and fruit

Page 483

during storage (30). Such fruits showed better retention of ascorbic acid after ripening. Shanmugavelu et al. (31) reported that postharvest treatment of sapota with Ethrel in a closed chamber accelerated fruit ripening. Total phenolic and pectin contents were reduced markedly due to this treatment, causing the fruit to become edible ripe in a shorter time than the control fruits. The Ethrel treatment also decreased the total soluble solids, sugars, and vitamin C contents of the fruit. The feasibility of using gamma radiation to delay the ripening of sapota has been reported (7). Sapotas irradiated at 10 krad showed an extension in storage life of 35 days at 26.7C and 15 days at 10C. Irradiation caused no loss of ascorbic acid content of the fruits (7). VI. Processing

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Sapota is consumed mainly in a fresh state as a table fruit in most of the producing countries (32). The pulp of fresh fruits is made into sherbets and halwas. The pulp imparts a characteristic pleasant flavor to milk and is therefore utilized in many milk-based products such as ice cream and milkshakes (5,33). Mature fruits are used for making jams, and they provide a valuable source of raw material for industrial manufacture of glucose, pectin, and natural fruit jellies. They are also canned as slices (8). The preparation of mixed jam, canning of slices, and dehydration in the sun or driers are not acceptable, as these products do not retain flavor and quality for long (3). The bark of the tree contains latex which consists of 2025% of chickle gum. The latex is slightly aromatic, nearly tasteless, and contains mainly resins (raw rubber) and carbohydrates (13). References

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1. Gopalan, C., B. V. R. Sastry, and S. C. Balsubramanyam, Nutritive Value of Indian Foods, National Institute of Nutrition, Indian Council of Medical Research, Hyderabad, 1977. 2. Kirthikar, K. R., and B. D. Basu, Indian Medicinal Plants, Bishen Singh Mehendra Pal Singh, Dehra Dun, 1975. 3. Chundawat, B. S., Postharvest handling and marketing of sapota fruits, Natl. Seminar on Optimization of Productivity and Utilization of Sapota, October 8, 1991, Navsari, Gujarat, India. 4. Purseglove, J. W., Tropical crops: Dicotyledons, Longman Group, London, 1968, p. 647. 5. Vaghani, S. N., and B. S. Chundawat, Fruits of the Sapotaceae, Encyclopaedia of Food Science, Food Technology and Nutrition, Vol. 3 (R. MaCrae, R. K. Robinson, and M. J. Sadler, eds.), Academic Press, London, 1993, p. 2120.

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6. Chadha, K. L., Strategy for optimization of productivity and utilization of sapota in India, Natl. Seminar on Optimization of Productivity and Utilization of Sapota, October 8, 1991, Navsari, Gujarat, India. 7. Laxminarayan, S., Sapodilla and prickly pear, Tropical and Subtropical Fruits (S. Nagy and P. E. Shaw, eds.), AVI, Westport, CT, 1980, p. 415. 8. Sulladmath, U. V., and M. M. Reddy, Sapota, Fruits of India: Tropical and Subtropical (T. K. Bose, ed.), Naya Prokash, Calcutta, 1985, p. 439. 9. Gonzalez, L. G., and P. A. Feliciano, Jr., The blooming and fruiting habits of Ponderosa chico, Philippine Agr. 37:384 (1953).

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10. Campbell, C. W., S. E. Malo, and S. Goldwebar, The sapodilla, Fruit crops fact sheet no. 1, Agr. Ext. Serv. Univ. Fla., Gainesville, 1967. 11. Pathak, S., and J. V. Bhat, The carbohydrate metabolism of Achras zapota fruits, J. Univ. Bombay 21:11 (1953). 12. Laxminararyana, S., and H. Subramanyam, Physical chemical and physicological changes in sapota fruits during development and ripening, J. Food Sci. Technol. 3:151 (1966). 13. Salunkhe, D. K., and B. B. Desai, Sapota, Postharvest Biotechnology of Fruits, Vol. II, CRC Press, Boca Raton, FL, 1984, p. 59.

Page 484

14. Das, R. C., and S. K. Mahapatra, Effect of growth substances and fungicidal wax emulsion on ripening of sapota, Prog. Hort. 8:75 (1977). 15. Ingle, G. S., D. M. Khedkar, and R. S. Dabhade, Effect of growth regulators on ripening of sapota fruit, Indian Food Packer 37:72 (1982). 16. Ingle, G. S., D. M. Kedkar, and R. S. Dabhade, Ripening studies in sapota fruit, Indian Food Packer 36:42 (1981). 17. Rao, D. V. R., and B. S. Chundawat, Ripening changes in sapota cv. Kalipatti at ambient temperature, Indian J. Plant Physiol. 31:205 (1988).

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18. Selvaraj, Y., and D. K. Pal, Changes in chemical composition and enzyme activity of two sapodilla cultivars during development and ripening, J. Hort. Sci. 59:275 (1984). 19. Siddappa, G. S., and B. S. Bhatia, The identification of sugars in fruits by paper chromatography, Indian J. Hort. 11:19 (1954). 20. Venkataraman, R., and F. J. Reithel, Carbohydrates of the Sapotaceae. The origin of lactose in Achras sapota L., Arch. Biochem. Biophys. 75:443 (1958). 21. Rao, V. S., K. K. Desai, and S. Kulkarni, A new phytophthora rot of Achras zapota from India, Plant Dis. Rep. 46:381 (1962).

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22. Vasant, K. R., V. Nache Gowda, and N. Vijaykumar, Studies on soft wood grafting in sapota, Golden Jubilee Symposium of Horticultural Research, May 2428, 1993, Bangalore, India. 23. Gandhi, S. R., The Chiku in India, Farm Bulletin No. 21, Indian Council of Agricultural Research, New Delhi, 1956, p. 30. 24. Cook, A. A., Diseases of Tropical, Subtropical Fruits and Vegetables, Hafner, New York, 1975. 25. Kariyana, S., K. M. Bojappa, and T. V. Reddy, Studies on harvest indices of sapota fruits, Golden Jubilee Symposium of Horticultural Research, May 2428, 1993, Bangalore, India.

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26. Hernandez, M., A. Chavez, H. Bourges, and E. Mendoza, Nutritive Value of Foods (in Spanish), National Institute of Nutrition, Mexico, 1974, p. 57. 27. Broughten, W. J., and H. C. Wong, Storage conditions and ripening of chicku fruits, Sci. Hort. 10:337 (1979). 28. Gautam, S. K., and B. S. Chundawat, Postharvest changes in sapota cv. Kalipatti: II. Effect of various postharvest treatments on physicochemical attributes, Indian J. Hort. 47:264 (1990). 29. Rama Krishna M., and M. Rama Rao, Postharvest changes in sapota under different storage treatments, Andhra Agr. J. 36:166 (1989).

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30. Laxminarayana, S., and H. Subramanyam, Effect of preharvest spray of maleic hydrazide and isopropyl-n-phenyl carbamate on sapota, J. Food Sci. 4:70 (1967). 31. Shanmugavelu, K., G. Srinivasan, and V. N. M. Rao, Influence of ethrel on ripening of sapota, Hort. Adv. 8:33 (1971). 32. Sixteenth Report of Research Sub-Committee for Agro-Economics, Statistics and Extension, NM College of Agriculture, Navsari, Gujrat, India, 1987. 33. Singh, S., S. Krishnamurthi, and S. L. Katyal, Fruit Culture in India, Indian Council of Agricultural Research, New Delhi, 1963, p. 192.

Page 485

25 Coconut
J. K. Chavan Mahatma Phule Agriculture University, Rahuri, Maharashtra, India S. J. Jadhav Alberta Agriculture, Leduc, Alberta, Canada I. Introduction

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Coconut palm, often described as a tree of life, is one of the most useful trees in the world. A large segment of the population of humid tropical regions is almost entirely dependent on coconut as a source of food, fuel, and shelter (1). Almost the entire plant of coconut, including fruit, inflorescence, leaves, and stem, is useful to mankind in one or another form. In old Sanskrit literature, it is referred to as Kalp Vriksha or a Tree of Heaven. The palm supplies not only food, water, and oil for cooking, but also offers leaves for thatch roofs, fiber for ropes and mats, shells for utensils and ornaments, and the sweet sap of the inflorescence from which sugar, alcohol, and beverages are made. The stem can be used as wood for furniture and for house construction.

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A significant proportion of coconuts are processed traditionally and consumed at the domestic level in the coconut-producing regions. Domestic consumption has always had priority over the surplus sold in the market. It is therefore difficult to assess definite figures of acreage, production, consumption, and trade of coconut. Statistics are often based on estimates, and usually all end uses are converted into one unit, either copra or oil. Table 1 summarizes the trends in coconut and copra production in different parts of the world during 19751990. The world production of both coconut and copra increased significantly during 19751980, and remained more or less stagnant subsequently. The increase in the world coconut production during 19751980 was due mainly to an increase in production in Southeast Asia and Oceania. About 84% of the world coconut production is concentrated in Asia. The major coconut-growing nations include Indonesia, the Philippines, India,

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Sri Lanka, Malaysia, and Thailand in the Asiatic region. Indonesia and Philippines contribute about 60% of the world's coconut produce. The remaining 16% is distributed fairly equally among the other coconut-producing regions of Oceania, Africa, and Latin America. The main coconut-producing countries in these regions are Mexico, Jamaica, the Dominican Republic, El Salvador, Brazil, and Venezuela in Latin America, Papua and New

Table 1 World Production of Coconut and Copra (million me Coconut Region 1975 1980 1985 World 30.90 35.44 34.66 Africa 1.55 1.60 1.57 North Central America 1.45 1.39 1.20 South America 0.51 0.57 0.69 Asia 25.19 29.48 28.75 4.33 4.50 4.55 India 6.94 10.90 10.75 Indonesia 9.90 9.58 7.79 Philippines 1.97 1.55 2.10 Sri Lanka Oceania 2.19 2.49 2.45 Source: Ref. 2.

Guinea, Fiji, and the Pacific islands in Oceania, and Tanzania in Africa. II. Botany

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Coconut (Cocos nucifera L.) is a member of the Pa the most important families of monocotyledons. It i Cocoideae, comprised of about 20 genera. Formerly from Central and South America, were included in nucifera is the sole cultivated coconut species throu genus Cocos is regarded as monotypic, containing o considerable genetic variability among the plants. A. Cultivars

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The dwarf varieties of the coconut palm may be cle usual tall palms; dwarfs show a degree of self-polli stable populations. Tall palms are predominantly cr height, color, size, shade, and other properties of th etc.) have been used as the principal characteristics the attempts made have not been very successful (3 thembill varieties probably correspond to those kno as well as to the Tamisan of the Philippines. The D the Indian Thairuthengai and the Philippine Makap no water and the cavity is completely filled with a g palatable. The pink-husk variety, known in the Phil Ceylon's Gon-Thembill. The King coconut is a sem and probably termed Ragia by Rumphius and Miqu generally of economic interest. In America, the onl San Blas from Panama, which has nuts of high qual dwarf varieties occur in nature, and have also been lination (3). The tall dwarf

Page 487

hybrid palms are vegetatively vigorous, with broad stems and a large number of leaves; about 63% of the progeny flower in less than 4 years and develop nuts that are large and heavy, giving copra of good quality. B. Fruit Development.

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The coconut palm is monoecious, i.e., both the male and female flowers are present on the same plant but on different inflorescences. The latter, which are called spadix, develop within two stout sheaths or spathes, of which the inner continues growing after the outer has ceased and therefore splits it and emerges from it. A new spadix is formed every 2025 days (about 16 per year). Of the 1520 female flowers produced on each spadix, only 45 set (commonly called buttons) and grow rapidly to become pointed cornlike nutlets. Each spadix bears 250300 male flowers, small in comparison with the females, and within about 2 weeks these fall off, 36 days before the female flowers on the same spadix become receptive to pollen. The receptive period lasts for 46 days. Thus cross pollination from a spadix opening later is ensured.

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After fruit set, one of the ovules develops into a fruit. First, the husk and shell grow mainly in size, not in thickness, and the cavity of the embryo sac enlarges. After about 4 months, the husk and the shell become thicker. About 6 months after fruit set, the solid endosperm begins to form against the inner wall of the cavity, first at the apex and gradually extending toward the stalk end. This first layer is thin and gelatinous. The nut at this stage is a delicacy. The coconut water at this stage of nut development is very much more appreciated for taste than the water from the ripe nut. A large proportion of potential coconut harvest is traditionally consumed locally at this stage as a delicious drink. After drinking the water through a straw, the nut is split open, and the endosperm is scooped out and consumed.

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About 8 months after fruit set, the soft white endosperm or shell starts hardening and turning dark brown. Toward ripening, the endosperm turns hard and white, covered on the outside by a brown testa adhering firmly to it. The endosperm is firmly attached to the shell (endocarp). The loss of weight during the process of ripening is due mainly to the drying out of the husk. The liquid in the cavity also decreases in volume toward ripening. The fruit ripens in about 1113 months, depending on the variety and the climatic conditions.

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The fruit is a drupe, with a thin epicarp overlying a thick, fibrous mesocarp. The fibers of mesocarp, which are the commercial product called coir, are used to make rope, matting, baskets, etc. Inside the mesocarp is the hard shelllike endocarp, which in turn encloses the endosperm. As the fruit ripens, this provides the white meat or copra, rich in oil, and the watery milk of the central cavity. About 500 coconuts yield 1 ton of copra, and a single ripe nut weights 2.53 kg and attains a length of about 25 cm. The fruit is fully grown in 6 months but requires 37 months more to become mature. The coconut palm begins to bear fruit in about the sixth year and comes into full bearing in about the twelfth year, producing 80150 nuts per year on particularly well-managed plantations. The embryo which develops within the nut fills the central cavity and emerges through one of the three pores (eyes) in the shell; the leaves and roots penetrate the outer layers of the fruit in

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opposite directions. The cotyledon, unlike a mature leaf, is undivided (4). III. Production A. Soil and Climate Although coconut is grown on a wide variety of soils, ranging from sandy to heavy clay soil, for best growth it needs a rich, loose, well-drained soil having good water-holding capacity. An ideal

Page 488

soil is at least 1 m deep and has a water table within 3 m of the surface. In heavy-rainfall areas, adequate drainage is a must; it is not so critical in areas with low rainfall. Although rich soils are ideal for its growth, peat soils with more than 65% organic matter are unsuitable for its cultivation. In Indonesia, it is grown in soils ranging from loose volcanic ashes to stiff clays. In Sri Lanka, growers prefer red clay loams and sandy loams, whereas in the Philippines coconuts are planted on volcanic or alluvial soils. In India, it is grown in soils such as laterite, alluvial, red sandy loams, and medium clay soils. Sandy or clayey soils are not suitable for commercial coconut growing. However, these soils can be reclaimed and used. Soil pH ranging from 5.2 to 8.0 is acceptable for coconut, but soils with pH near neutrality are the best.

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The coconut is a typical tropical crop requiring a warm humid climate for best growth. It prefers an equable climate and cannot tolerate extremes of temperatures. For vigorous growth and good yield, a mean annual average temperature of 27C is best. Temperatures below 21C or fluctuating temperatures drastically affect growth and yield potential of the tree. However, it can tolerate short spells of hot weather without any appreciable damage. In general, extended hot weather combined with low humidity, hot dry winds, and inadequate soil moisture is most detrimental to its growth. It comes up very well within a latitude of 23 from the equator and up to an altitude of 600 m from sea level.

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Heavy and uniformly spread rainfall ranging from 100 to 300 cm is required for normal growth and fruiting in coconut. The drainage status of the soil, the distribution of rainfall, and water-retention capacity of the soil are more important than the actual amount of rainfall. Extended periods of drought are always harmful, particularly when supplementary irrigation is not available. The yield in coconut has been shown to be affected by the seasonal rains received two years prior to the harvest, because flower (inflorescence) primordia are initiated 15 months before opening of the spathe (5). The flowers require another 1012 months to reach full maturity. Occurrence of drought at this stage results in spadix abortion.

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Although hot, humid weather is good for the growth of palm, very high humidity interferes with normal nutrient and water uptake by the tree and increases the occurrence of pests and diseases. Dry, windy weather has been shown to be favorable if soil moisture is not a limiting factor. B. Propagation Coconut plants are propagated commercially through seeds. Like other perennial crops, coconut palms also exhibit lot of genetic variation, and selection of planting material having higher intrinsic value is of great importance.

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The seed nuts must be fully ripe (1112 months old). The best-quality seed nuts can be obtained from March to June. Nuts with a husk thickness of 2.9 cm or less have been shown to be of better quality as seed nuts than those which have husk thicknesses of 3.0 cm or more (5). Similarly, heavier nuts (1.852.45 kg) germinated better and produced more roots and leaves than lighter (1.35 kg and less) nuts (5). Nuts from first bunches with short axis diameter (17.5 cm) were also found to be better than those with long axis diameter.

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In the nursery, the nuts are planted vertically, with the stalk end up. However, some growers plant seed nuts horizontally. The best season for sowing seed nuts is the beginning of the rainy season. Seed nuts selected for planting must be healthy and have water in them. Several presowing treatments have been recommended. Common practice involves soaking seed nuts in water for 2 weeks prior to sowing. Dipping nuts in 0.2% BHC or DDT prevents termite problems. Seed nuts are usually sown 0.5 m apart in such a way as to expose only the husk above the ground. For best results, the nursery requires regular watering, weeding, mulching, and control of pests

Page 489

and diseases. The application of fertilizers, particularly NaCl and KCl, has been found to be effective in increasing the height and girth of seedlings. C. Cultural Practices 1. Planting The area proposed for establishing a coconut orchard should be prepared thoroughly by repeated plowing, harrowing, and leveling.

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The planting distance depends greatly on the variety, planting system, and location. The spacing between trees in a pure stand is different from that in a mixed cropping system. In monoculture (pure stand) the spacing should be such that the fronds of adjacent palms do not overlap when fully grown. The palms grow tall and lanky when overcrowded, and resulting yields may be reduced considerably. In contrast, when multiple cropping is followed, the spacing should be enough to provide adequate space for all component crops. Different planting patterns used in coconut plantations are square, triangle, or hedge planting. According to general recommendations for pure stands of tall crops in India, they are planted at 7.5-m to 9.1-m spacing in a square or triangle planting pattern. On the other hand, a spacing of 6.57.0 m in a square pattern is recommended for dwarf varieties (5). The spacing should be adjusted according to prevailing soil conditions. A square planting pattern

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has been found to be very suitable for mixed cropping. Hedge-row planting consists of adopting wider interrow spacing and closer intrarow spacing. This method is ideal for a heterogenous planting consisting of some low-yielding progenies. Undesired plants, as judged based on rate of growth and leaf production and other yield-contributing characters, are removed at different stages of growth to give a crop stand of only high-yielding palms. A spacing of 9 m 5 m has been recommended for optimum growth. Some growers use double hedge planting with 5 m 5 m in rows and 9 m between two paired rows.

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The planting holes are prepared in advance. The size of the hole depends on the soil type and water table. In India, pit measuring 11.3 m3 are prepared for coconut planting. Shallower pits are recommended in light soil with water tables very near ground level. In hard, laterite soil, 13 kg of salt (NaCl) is added per pit to soften the soil. It has been observed that at 79 months, the seedlings have 50% of food material and as such can withstand transplantation shock better. Therefore, it has been recommended to use seedlings of 69 months of age (5). The seedlings must be transplanted preferably within 10 days after taking out from the nursery. The ideal depth of planting recommended in India, except in waterlogging areas, is 0.751 m. The best time for planting is the beginning of the rainy season or October-November. 2. Maintenance of Young Plants

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The care the young plants receive during the initial stages (from planting to the third or fourth year) determines the vigor of the plant, the time required for first bearing, and the yield. During this time, proper attention should be given to watering, fertilizer application, prevention of waterlogging, plant protection, and erosion of soil around the plant. The seedlings should be protected from frost, strong winds, and hot, dry weather. The irrigation basin must be widened with the age of the plant. Intercrops such as pineapple, tapioca, banana, paddy, and pulses can be used to augment income in the early years. 3. Manuring

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Coconut plants respond very well to manures and fertilizers. There is a wide variation in the manuring schedule followed in different coconut-growing regions of the world. In general, coconut palms need ample quantities of potash, particularly in bearing stage. Growers in West Africa apply 50 kg each of farmyard manure and coconut husks, 150 g each of potassium chloride

Page 490

and dicalcium phosphate, and 100 g of ammonium sulfate per pit before planting (5). The hybrid cultivars have been shown to require higher doses of fertilizers.

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Experiments conducted at the Coconut Research Station (Kerala, India) revealed the importance of fertilization of young trees. The results indicated that nitrogen and phosphorus application produced visible improvement in vegetative character and in yields, but potassium was found to be essential for initiation of flowering. In coconut palms, adverse effects of nutrient deficiencies were found to take a long time to correct. Although several fertilizer programs are currently available for different conditions, a dose consisting of 0.69 kg N, 0.46 kg P2O5, and 0.9 kg K2O was found to be optimum for tall varieties under rain-fed conditions. For hybrid varieties, the recommended doses are 0.5 kg N, 0.34 kg P2O5, and 1.2 kg K2O per tree per year. In addition, 3570 kg of farmyard manure must be applied per tree per year. 4. Irrigation.

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Coconut palms are massive and thick, perennial in nature, and require large quantities of water for normal growth and functioning. Irrigation improves bunch production and copra yield. The palms irrigated once in 10 days gave 53.5% more yield, while those irrigated at 15-day intervals gave only 15.4% increase over the unirrigated plantation (5). 5. Intercultivation Intercultivation is important for maintaining a profitable and flourishing orchard. Intercultivation combined with proper manuring increases the yield of palms more than two times. Growing green manuring or cover crops and turning them in at proper stage has also been found beneficial in improving the productivity of palms. Intercrops are also recommended for irrigated areas. D. Pests and Diseases

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The monograph of Lepesme (6) mentions about 750 species of insects associated with the coconut palm and indicates that over one-fifth of these are specific to it. Thampan (5) has given a detailed account of various pests of coconut palms in the field. They include rhinoceros beetle (Oryctes rhinoceros), red palm weevil (Rhynchophorus ferrugineus F.), leaf beetle (Promecotheca cumingi Baly), black-headed caterpillar (Nephantis serinopa Meyr.), and slug caterpillar (Parasa lepido). In addition, there are insects and noninsect pests that attack copra in storage. Cadra cautella Walker (widely known as Ephestia cautella) is a well-known pest of oily vegetable products such as cocoa beans, cotton seeds, nuts and copra, as well as dried fruits, especially figs.

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The coconut palm is affected by number of diseases, including bud rot caused by Phytophthora palmivora; leaf spot caused by Bipolaris halodes, Gloeosporium sp., and Gliocladium roseum; leaf blight caused by Pestalotia palmarum; fruit rot caused by Phytophthora sp.; stem bleeding caused by Thielaviopsis paradoxa; and root wilt. E. Harvesting and Postharvest To obtain a maximum quantity of good-quality copra, nuts must be harvested fully ripe. For ball copra, it is even desirable to allow the nuts to fall naturally and thus ensure complete maturity (7). Ripe nuts are also essential for desiccated coconut manufacture.

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In South India, the stage of ripeness at which nuts are harvested is also modified by the requirements of coir manufacture. Green husks are used, and the nuts are picked about a month short of full maturity, i.e., at about 11 months from setting of the female flowers. The income from green husks from coir offsets the shortfall in the amount and quality of copra produced. Child (3) recommends that nuts should be picked only after 11 months of maturity.

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Coconuts are picked by human climbers or cut by the use of knives attached to the end of long bamboo poles. One species of monkey, Macaca nemestrina L. (the pig-tailed monkey), is said to have been trained to climb trees and to throw nuts down in Sarawak and Indonesia (3). It is also common in the Pacific Islands to allow the nuts to fall naturally and collect them from the ground. Trials conducted in Sri Lanka showed that fallen nuts give a slightly better out-turn of copra, with only a slightly higher proportion of off-grade copra. In countries where the coconut industry is less commercially developed, the nuts are cut in half with an axe or knife, through husk and shell, and the meat is separated, either by taking it out wet or, more easily, after partial sun drying. The shell plus husk may be burned.

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It is always desirable to separate husk (even if not sold for coir manufacture). The nuts are split easily by a sharp crack with a machete applied at their equator. The copras are then cured, sun dried, or kiln dried to reduce moisture content. IV. Chemical Composition A. Copra Approximate composition of mature coconut endosperm (kernel) and dried endosperm (copra) is summarized in Table 2. The higher levels of nutrients in copra are due to the loss moisture during drying. The coconut is a good source of proteins, sugars, fiber, and ash, besides being rich in oil.

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Oil is the principal chemical constituent in coconut endosperm or copra. The oil content ranges from 34 to 45% in ripe endosperm and from 60 to 70% in copra. The oil content is influenced by the water content, stage of maturity, and coconut variety (1). The highest oil content can be found near the testa, with decreasing levels toward the inner cavity. The oil has a characteristic odor, a white or slightly yellowish color, and is liquid at 2627C. Saturated fatty acids constitute more than 90%, while unsaturated fatty acids, mainly oleic and linoleic, make up about 10% of the fatty acids. Among the saturated fatty acids, lauric acid is a major component, making up about 4050%, followed by myristic acid (1319%) and palmitic acid (413%). Hence it is considered as lauric oil. It also contains an appreciable proportion of C6 to C10 saturated fatty acids not commonly found in other vegetable oils. Coconut oil exhibits good shelf life owing to its higher content of saturated

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fatty acids. It shows consistency and stability toward oxidation, which makes it especially useful in the preparation of confectionery products and in some frying operations (12). The physicochemical characteristics of coconut oil are presented in Table 3. The physicochemical properties (8,10,1315) and quality standards (12) for coconut oil have been reported.
Table 2 Approximate Composition of Mature Coconut Kernel and Copra Constituent (%) Kernel Copra Water 35.052.50 2.56.0 Proteins (N 6.25) 2.695.5 4.57.5 Oil 34.7044.1 66.074.0 Carbohydrates 9.011.29 17.020.0 Crude fiber 2.13.39 4.57.2 Ash 0.771.3 2.33.5 Source: Ref. 3.

Page 492 Table 3 Physical and Chemical Properties of Coconut Oil Characteristic Range Melting point (C) 2226 Density (60C) 0.8900.895 Specific gravity (40C/water at 20C) 0.9080.921 Titer (C) 2024 Refractive index (40) 1.4481.450 Saponification value 248265 Iodine value 611 Acid value: 4 max Virgin oil 0.6 max Nonvirgin oil Peroxide value 10 max Reichert-Meissel value 68.5 Polenske value 1318 Unsaponifiables 15 g/kg max Source: Ref. 3.

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It has a higher melting point and saponification value, and a lower iodine value than the most common vegetable oils (16). It contains the lowest levels of essential fatty acids such as oleic, linoleic, and linolenic acids. Thus, the nutritional quality of coconut oil is inferior to that of most common vegetable oils. The cultivar, the season, and the method of oil extraction and refining influence the physicochemical properties of coconut oil. The protein content of kernel and copra is about 45% and 4.57.5%, respectively (9).

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The low-molecular-weight (LMW) proteins (24,000 Da), constituting about 14% of the total proteins, were quite soluble in NaCl at pH 7.0 and were heat stable. The high-molecular-weight (HMW) globulins (150,000 Da) were found to be the major storage proteins (84% of the total) of coconut endosperm. These proteins were not homogenous; only about 53% are soluble in 0.1 M NaCl at pH 7.0, and they coagulate at neutral pH and at low salt concentration. The pH corresponding to minimum solubility is near 5.0. The amino acid compositions of LMW and HMW fractions differ markedly. The LMW proteins are relatively higher in lysine, tryptophan, arginine, glutamic acid, and cystine, whereas the HMW globulins contain higher levels of histidine, aspartic acid, threonine, serine, proline, glycine, alanine, valine, methionine, isoleucine, leucine, and phenylalanine (17).

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Fiber-free coconut protein extract obtained by an enzymic chemical process contained a greater proportion of LMW proteins (18). Proteins with a MW of 5000 Da constituted 66%, while only 41% of the proteins were nondialyzable (MW 12,000 Da). The nondialyzable fraction was electrophoretically homogeneous, heat-coagulable, and showed an isoelectric pH of 7.0. Flavier et al. (19) autoclaved the defatted meal in 5% H2SO4 for 1 h to acid-extract the coconut proteins. The treatment could solubilize only 41.7% of the total proteins, which exhibited overlapping peaks corresponding to molecular weights of 15,000 and 23,000 Da. On polyacrylamide gel electrophoresis, one major fast-moving and two minor bands were observed. With ammonium sulfate precipitation, three bands of similar intensity were detected. H2SO4 catalyzed the cleavage of protein molecules during the extraction, thus producing smaller proteins with reduced molecular weights.

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Coconut proteins have been shown to have a relatively favorable amino acid profile (20,21). The essential amino acid composition of coconut proteins from different preparations including meal, skim milk, cream-layer proteins, processed fiber-free proteins extract, and protein isolates prepared by isoelectric precipitation at pH 4.0 are summarized in Table 4. Coconut proteins contain fairly good amounts of sulfur-containing amino acids and tryptophan, but are deficient in lysine. Considerable variations are observed in the levels of various amino acids in different samples. These can be attributed to genetic differences among the varieties used for analysis, the nature of the product, and methods of sample preparation. The levels of amino acids are generally higher in skim-milk proteins and cream-layer proteins than in copra meal, fiberfree protein extract, or protein isolates. The decreased levels, particularly of lysine, in copra meal is due mainly to the heat damage to

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proteins during drying of coconuts at elevated temperatures. Hence, the drying process needs to be properly controlled to avoid heat destruction of essential amino acids. The matured fresh coconut kernel contains about 6.5% total sugars, with sucrose as the predominant component, and about 3% fiber (10). The defatted copra meal contains about 12% fiber and 4856.8% nitrogen-free extracts. Among total carbohydrates, sucrose (14.3%), cellulose (15.4%), pentosans (2.2%), fructose (1.2%), glucose (1.2%), and starch (0.9%) are important constituents in coconut kernel (24).

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The total mineral content in fresh coconut kernel ranges from 0.8 to 1.3%, while that in desiccated copra varies from 1.6 to 3.5%. Defatted flour contains 26% ash (25,26). The contents of various minerals in defatted coconut meal were (mg/100 g): phosphorus, 193; calcium, 24; magnesium, 164; and iron, 7.8. The other trace elements included (mg/100 g): zinc, 50; manganese, 62.4; copper, 10; and molybdenum, 0.21 (26). Coconut meal is a good source of dietary phosphorus, calcium, magnesium, and iron. Among the nine cultivars of coconut analyzed, significant genetic variations were observed in the contents of calcium, copper, and molybdenum. Gopalan et al. (27) summarized the vitamin content in fresh coconut kernel and copra. The fresh kernel contained 0.05 mg thiamine, 0.10 mg riboflavin, 0.8 mg niacin, and 7 mg vitamin C per 100 g. Among the tocopherols, a-tocopherol (20 mg/kg oil) constitutes about 90% of the total content (28).

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B. Coconut Water Coconut water is the liquid endosperm that fills the central cavity enclosed by a solid endosperm. Tender coconut water is a delicious and nutritious drink. In its natural state it is sterile, and it is used as an oral rehydration medium for children suffering from gastroenteritis. It has been used as a bacterial and plant tissue culture medium. Vinegar and nata decoco, a fermented drink popular in the Philippines, are prepared using coconut water as a base.

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Changes in content and chemical composition of coconut water during maturation have been reported (3,2932). The concentration of total solids in the earliest stage is about 2.5 g/100 ml, which increases up to 6 g/100 ml in about 7 months. Sugars are the most important constituents. The volume of water per unit varies between 95 and 280 ml. In its tender stage, a large nut may contain about 600 ml of water with 30 g of sugars and 2 g of potassium. Towards the end of maturation, the volume of water decreases considerably. Jayalekshmy et al. (32) observed a drastic reduction in the content of water, total solids, sugars, ash, and mineral constituents, with a marked increase in fat and protein contents toward the maturity of coconut when expressed on per-unit basis. There was a decrease in the amount of water from 250 ml to 55 ml/nut, acidity (as citric acid) from 112 to 64 mg, total solids from 5.82 to 5.4, total sugars

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from 4.8 to 2.0, and reducing sugars from 4.0 to 0.2 g/100 g water.

Table 4 Essential Amino Acid Composition of Coconut Prote Coconut s Copra meal proteins prot Ref. Ref. Ref. Amino acid (g/16 N) 22 23 19 Refill Ref. 22 Isoleucine 3.7 2.5 4.6 4.0 5.2 Leucine 6.9 4.8 8.4 7.0 9.7 Lysine 4.6 2.7 1.4a 3.8 5.7 Methionine + cystine 3.2 1.5b 1.5b 4.2 2.7 Phenylalanine + 7.3 4.6 6.3 7.7 12.2 tyrosine Threonine 3.4 2.3 3.5 3.1 4.2 Valine 5.5 3.8 7.4 5.5 8.0 Tryptophan 0.9 0.7 1.3 1.4 aLow lysine value due to heat damage during drying. bOnly methionine.

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Among the sugars, reducing sugars constituted about 83% of the total sugars in immature kernel water. However, in mature kernel water, the nonreducing sugars contributed about 90% of the total sugars. The protein content increased from 11.3 to 76.6 mg/100 g of water, and the fat content increased from 11.3 to 45.7 mg/100 g of water. Linolenic, arachidic, oleic, and lauric acids were the major fatty acids in the early stages, while at maturity lauric acid constituted about 46.9%, followed by 18.7% myristic acid as the predominant fatty acids in coconut water. The ash content was highest (580 mg/100 g water) in the earliest stages, which decreased to 540 mg/100 g water in maturity. The pleasant taste of coconut water is attributed mainly to the sugar and mineral matter. Water from ripe nut is bland in taste and flavor, and therefore a waste product in the desiccated coconut and coconut oil industry.

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V. Storage Coconuts are stored mostly in the form of dried copra. The copra is susceptible to quantitative and qualitative losses during storage. The major causes of losses are infestation by insect pests before and after harvesting, and microbial spoilage during storage and transport. The traditional drying practices usually involve sun drying and combining sun drying with mechanical drying. Delay in drying after harvesting, incomplete or intermittent drying, overloading of dryers, mixing of freshly cut copra with partially dried copra, unnecessary delay in transport from farm to mill, unsanitary storage conditions, and delay in processing all contribute to quality deterioration to copra (33).

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Cadra cautella Walker (Ephestica cautella) is a well-known pest of copra. The insect is strongly attracted to the molds which thrive on poorquality copra. The caterpillars are commonly found in the crowns of the trees, feeding on the ripe fruits. Necrobia rufipes de Geer is a common beetle, appearing especially in the wet season in copra stores. The pest is popularly known as copra bug in Southeast Asia and the Pacific countries. It is a serious pest of badly prepared, moldy copra (4). Bacterial infection occurs on coconut meal containing 20% or more moisture. It usually occurs between the splitting of the nuts and the commencement of sun drying or heating in kilns. The bacterial species observed on coconut shell include: Acinetobactar, Enterobacterium, Flavobacterium, Mycobacterium, and Micrococcus (34). The bacteria (viz. Bacillus subtilis, Enterobacter aerogenes, Pseudomonas fluorescens, and Sarcina lutea

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have been reported to deteriorate copra during storage (35).

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Several fungal species are known to infect copra during storage. The nature of fungal species that predominate on stored copra is influenced by moisture content. Copra with low moisture contents (7% or below) is usually infected by green mold that may include Penicillium glaucum Link, green Aspergillus glaucus, and other Aspergillus species. The brown and yellow molds (Aspergillus of several groups) prefer an intermediate moisture content in copra (812%), and the black Aspergillus (A. niger) occurs when the moisture content of copra is above 12%. These fungi produce black spore bodies, giving the mold and copra a black color. A white mold (Rhizopus sp.) occurs only on wet copra, forming masses of white mycelium of the fungus (3). The other species of fungi found to infect and deteriorate copra include Rhizopus nigricans, Aspergillus niger, A. flavus, Penicillium spp., Botryodiploidia theobromae, Cladosporium spp., Chrysosporium farinicola, and

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Arthropsis spp. (3638). Copra samples obtained from various oil mills were found to be infested with Rhizopus stolonifer, R. oryzae, Mucor hiemalis, Penicillium citrinum, Curpularia senegalensis, Cochliobolus funatus, Paecilomyces lilacinous, Aspergillus oryzae, and A. fumugatus (35). The xerophilic group of fungi, Eurotium amstelodami Mangin (Aspergillus amstelodami Thom and Church), E. chevalieri Mangin (A. chevalieri Thom and Church), E. herbariorum (Wiggers), Link Gray (A. ruber Thom and Church and Penicillium citrinum Thom) are reported to cause rancidity, while Chrysosporium farnicola Z. has been found to cause cheesy

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butyric spoilage in desiccated coconuts during storage (37,39). Thus, a large group of fungi infect copra during storage and reduce its quality. Incomplete or improper drying and storage of copra results in higher contents of free fatty acids and water, poor color, bad odor, high amount of burnt copra, mold, and dirt incorporation, resulting in a poor-grade or rejectable copra. The oil extracted from such copra is of poor quality and has higher refining losses (40).

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Good copra has a moisture content of not more than 6%, a free fatty acids content of less than 1%, and a white color. The drying of copra continues during storage, under clean, dry conditions. Storage under humid conditions may favor reabsorption of water. Copra dried at too high a temperature turns brown, which leads to case-hardening. Aten (41) described various grades of copra as prefect super grade (smooth, hard, clean, snow-white, free from all extraneous matter), high grade (smooth, hard, clean, pale gray to dull white with no discolored or bad pieces), fair merchantable, sun dried (commercially white, with 510% of somewhat smokey discolored pieces), mixed ordinary, smoke-dried (underdried copra of uncertain and irregular quality), fair merchantable (a blend of dry mixed and dry low-grade copra with no hard white pieces but much soft and rubbery copra), and low-grade (underdried, entirely burned,

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discolored, oversmoked, putrid, insect-ridden, rubbery, and glutinuous pieces). In very humid climates, copra should be stored in proper warehouses with a water vapor-proof concrete floor, reflective metal-proof shaded walls, and a good ventilation system. Wet copra should not be stored mixed with dry copra. It is often stored in gunny bags. Second-hand bags should be fumigated. Sweepings should be destroyed. Insects often attack copra during storage. A good-quality copra, when properly handled and stored for short periods of time, is rarely affected. In cases where mold and insect infection has already commenced, fumigation is essential.

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Fumigation with SO2 is generally practiced on ships carrying copra in bulk. A mixture of 99% CO2 and 1% ethylene oxide has been found to be effective against several pests of copra (40). Lever (4) recommended regular chemical treatment of the floor and walls for disinfecting storage sheds to ensure an insect population at a low and harmless level. A malathion spray can also be used as an alternative at 450 g of 25% malathion dispersible powder in 5 liters of water per 100 m2 of floor and walls in the storehouse. Glacial acetic acid applied as a thin coat on the exposed surface of coconut kernel prevented fungus growth for 3638 h; when the relative humidity was more than 90%, the treatment had to be repeated three times after every 5 days to obtain fungus-free copra (42). The dipping of sacks in a Cartap and malathion solution effectively protected copra from infestation by several insects for 5 months (43).

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VI. Processing and Utilization. Coconuts are processed into coconut oil, desiccated coconuts, coconut milk and cream, skim milk, coconut protein, and copra press cake and meal, and they are utilized in a variety of bakery and confectionery products. The husk is processed into coir fiber, while the shell is made into shell flour, charcoal, utensils, and art products. The processing and utilization of coconut leaves, palm hearts, and stems have been described (1). A. Drying of Copra

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Drying of wet copra is the most critical step in storage and subsequent processing of coconuts. The splitting of the nut using appropriate techniques, followed by drying without delay, is useful in avoiding both quantitative and qualitative losses. Drying makes the nut most suitable for milling, reduces volume for easy transportation, facilitates separation from the shell, stabilizes quality, and develops a resistance to insects and molds.

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Five different methods are used for drying coconuts; sun drying, smoke drying, direct kiln drying, indirect kiln drying, and forced-air drying, depending on the availability of equipment and fuel, the cost involved, the quantity of material to be dried, and the atmospheric conditions (40,4447). Sun drying and smoke drying are traditional methods that are still widely used in the developing countries. With open-air sun drying, the drying is often incomplete, can be interrupted by rain, and requires 56 days. This results in dark, rancid, and moldy copra of inferior quality. Open-air sun drying has been modified by providing a cover to the drying rack made of black-painted mats that reduce the drying time by 12 days and offer protection against dirt and rain (48). A device developed by Bulder (49), which consists of a wooden or bamboo framework covered with flexible, transparent plastic, may be useful in making better use of sun and wind for the purpose of drying copra in

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small quantities. Simple and economical devices of this type would be useful for small-scale producers in the developing countries, for drying nuts in small quantities.

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The drying of nuts in direct or indirect kilns is essential when atmospheric conditions are humid, cloudy, or rainy. The essential principles of a good kiln dryer include reduction of the initial moisture content to 35% within the first 24 h, to 20% by the next 24 h, and to 6% by the third or fourth day (50). Traditional kilns that are heated directly involve essentially smoke drying. The fire is maintained in a pit under a wooden grill carrying coconut halves in four to six layers. The heating is uneven, and often one part of the copra is charred whereas another part is insufficiently dried. The copra produced by this method is of very low quality, brownish in color, has a smoky smell, and is not suitable for international trade, and the cake obtained after oil extraction is unsuitable even for animal feeding. Such losses can be eliminated by abandoning the use of traditional kilns for nut drying.

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Various types of indirect heating kilns have been described (41,51). In such dryers, the copra is dried without smoke by using special fuels and a proper ventilation system. The hot air passing through the copra above the fire allows for quick drying. If handled with care, goodquality copra may be produced by this method. The drying temperature is maintained at about 70C in the first hour, and then drying is completed at 60C. Usually, the coconut halves are dried with the shell for 12 days, after which the halves are taken out and the copra is removed and placed in the dryer for another 23 days for complete drying. A dryer developed at the University the Philippines at Los Banos (UPLB dryer) is low cost, easy to us, and made of locally available material, utilizing coconut waste products as fuel. It can be mounted on a vehicle to make it mobile and therefore available to numerous small farmers, and it may thus be a very useful and convenient device for drying copra in

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the developing countries. Clean, white, goodquality copra can be obtained with this dryer with a minimum of time and cost. The production and consumption of ball copra is very popular in the Asian coconut-producing countries. The whole coconut is dried in the shell on a platform or rack over a slow fire or by smoke from husk and leaves, until the whole coconut water dries out and the kernel becomes detached from the shell (one can easily detect this point by shaking the dried nuts). It may take 612 months for complete drying. The resulting copra is perfect, untouched by hand and prepared under sterile conditions. Ball copra is a delicacy used mostly for food purposes. B. Extraction of Oil

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The extraction of oil from copra is one of the oldest seed-crushing industries in the world (52). The processes employed to obtain oil from copra include traditional milling, improved wet milling, and dry milling. 1. Traditional Milling Traditional milling is essentially a wet process. However, the recovery and quality of oil is low, and the by-product is not useful for any food application. Traditional milling is practiced only at

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the domestic level. Fresh coconuts are grated and mixed with hot water, and the mixture is hand kneaded into a white emulsion. The emulsion is poured into clay or wooden containers with a plugged opening at the bottom. The grated coconut is pressed repeatedly and the emulsion is collected. The combined emulsion in the container is allowed to settle for a few hours to allow separation of a creamy layer at the top and a watery layer at the bottom. The watery layer is removed through the bottom hole and the creamy layer is boiled to separate the oil from water, which is then cooled and filtered through cloth. The residue on the cloth contains about 16% oil, 50% proteins, and 12% carbohydrates (52). Oil recovery by the traditional extraction process is only about 60%. The residue of this process is either fed to animals or wasted. 2. Wet Milling

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The wet milling of coconut endosperm has been described by several investigators (5362). The advantage of this process is the utilization of byproducts for food applications, besides the extraction of oil. Hagenmaier (63) reported a new concept for industrial processing of fresh coconut with 95% recovery of oil containing a very low content of free fatty acids. The production of high-quality natural oil, coconut skim milk powder, dried coconut milk protein, pressed meal, and coconut flour has been described (58).

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The steps employed by Hagenmaier et al. (57) in wet milling of coconut are outlined in Fig. 1. The technology has not been adopted for largescale processing, mainly because of technical difficulties in obtaining a high oil percentage and the high cost involved in installation of the plant. The problem lies in extraction of the emulsion from the fresh endosperm and breaking the emulsion to separate oil. The percentage of cell rupture influences the recovery of oil and proteins. A particle size of 40% mesh obtained by grinding the meal in a colloidal mill, slurrying the mixture for 15 min at a water-to-meal ratio of 0.2:1, coupled with two pressings in a Hander expeller extracted about 55% oil and 78% proteins (60,61). However, the conditions to extract over 90% of oil and proteins need to be standardized. 3. Dry Milling

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Dry milling is a process for extracting oil from copra. It is a conventional method of industrial coconut oil extraction on a commercial scale. The processing system is similar to that for other oil seeds. Copra is dried, if necessary, cleaned of stones, fiber, and other foreign materials, and crushed to a coarse and then into a fine powder. This facilitates the extraction of oil and improves the efficiency of the process. The fine powder is heated to about 160C using a traditional process, or up to 120C using modern processes (52). The optimum moisture content of copra to be treated in expellers is about 23%. This moisture level is regulated during cooking, either by continued drying of copra or by the addition of water. Hydraulic presses require more moisture than expellers. The efficiency of oil extraction is generally low and depends on the nature of the expeller. The best expellers extract 94%, lesser ones extract 90%, and rural mills extract even less oil from copra. The cake is

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generally fed to animals. If it is available in relatively larger quantities, it can be subjected to a solvent extraction process. C. Desiccated Coconut Desiccated coconut is the disintegrated and dried endosperm of the coconut. It is produced from fresh endosperm. The nuts are husked in the field and transported to the factory. They are then shelled with a small hatchet or special knife to obtain a complete, undamaged ball. The outer brown testa around the ball, called paring, is removed with the help of a special knife. About 1215% of the kernel is thus removed as paring. The pared kernels are then cut and the coconut water is discarded. The pieces of endosperm are washed with plenty of fresh water to remove

Page 499

Fig. 1 Flow diagram for wet milling of coconut. (From Ref. 57.)

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adhering particles of shell, fiber, and other materials, and the last of the coconut water. The pieces are then sterilized, shredded, and dried in a system of steam-heated dryers to about 2530% moisture, cooled, graded by size, and packed (64). D. Coconut Milk and Coconut Cream

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The process of coconut milk and cream production is essentially a wet-milling process. However, the testa of the fresh, clean endosperm is removed before milling. The kernel is washed, sterilized, and scrapped into a fine meal. The meal is then squeezed in a special continuous process to press out the milk. The milk is filtered and spray-dried under high vacuum (65). It is a white emulsion and has poor stability. Better stability is generally observed in the pH range 3.56.0 (66). The milk is highly perishable because of its susceptibility to oxidation and microbial attack. Even in a refrigerator at 25C, it cannot be kept for more than about 5 h without signs of spoilage (67). Hence, it is often spray-dried to a more stable product which can be reconstituted with water.

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Coconut cream is obtained by centrifuging the coconut milk. Bottled or canned coconut milk and cream are manufactured on a large scale in many countries. The ground endosperm is mixed

Page 500

with water and passed through an expeller once or twice. The composition of the product depends on the proportion of water used. Coconut cream is a useful product for the confectionery industry. Addition of coconut cream at a 9% level in soya milk produced an acceptable tofu with improved hardness, cohesiveness, gumminess, and caloric value (68). The separation of cream from whole coconut milk yields skim milk as a by-product. This can be dehydrated into skim milk powder (69,70). To improve its quality, partially hydrolyzed starch may be mixed with it before spray drying. Skim milk powder with 25% starch contains 24% protein, 5% moisture, and 6% oil. It is a white powder that may be mixed with water to make a beverage (63). E. Protein Products.

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Coconut proteins can be recovered from the fresh endosperm in the form of isolates, protein extracts, or protein powder. The proteins in the cake produced during traditional or dry milling are often wasted due to discoloration and denaturation by the high temperature applied during extraction of the oil from copra, rendering them less suitable for human consumption.

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Coconut protein isolates have been prepared by extracting the fresh endosperm in dilute acid, alkali, or 1 M sodium chloride solution at pH 7.0, followed by precipitating the proteins at pH 23.9. Over 50% of the total proteins can be recovered by this process (71). A good-quality coconut protein can be obtained by ultrafiltration of coconut skim milk. This is a white spraydried powder which is readily soluble in water. On a dry basis, it contains 59% protein. It has a well-balanced amino acid composition. It may be added to several products such as biscuits, cakes, and breads, or it may be mixed with milk (1). Hagenmaier (72) described a coconut protein product called cocopro, prepared by spraydrying coconut skim milk. The product contained 32% protein, 4% water, 9% ash, 8% oil, and 0.2% crude fiber. F. Copra Press Cake, Meal, and Flour

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Copra press cake is an important by-product of copra dry milling. The quality of the cake with respect to color, odor, and chemical composition is influenced by the initial quality of the copra used for milling. Cake is obtained from hydraulic pressing of copra, while meal is obtained in expeller pressing. Removal of water during the drying of coconut into copra, and the subsequent extraction of oil, improves the protein content in the cake or meal from 44.5% to about 20%. The protein content in the cake or meal is influenced by the extraction method and the efficiency of oil extraction. The cake or meal is rich in fiber (1015%) and carbohydrates (3545%).

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Good-quality cakes and meals are almost white in color, with a reddish-brown tint due to the presence of testa particles. Overheating of copra during expeller or hydraulic pressing produces a dark-colored product which is less appreciated in animal feed because of its low digestibility (52). Rancid copra produces rancid cake with poor palatability. When stored in a dry warehouse, copra cake may be kept for a period of 6 months without much deterioration. Both cake and meal obtained during dry milling are utilized as animal feed.

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Coconut flour is the name commonly applied to the food-grade product made from coconut endosperm by drying to make a good-quality desiccated coconut, followed by removal of the oil using pressing and/or solvent extraction to yield coconut meal. The meal is finally milled into flour. Often, the brown testa is pared off to give a white coconut meal before the endosperm is dried. The dried white meal is then expellerpressed/solvent-extracted to obtain a white meal which is further milled to food-grade flour. Hagenmaier et al. (25) described the technology and cost of manufacture of coconut flour. Desiccated nuts are prepressed, flaked, and hexaneextracted to remove the oil. The white coconut flour contained 25% protein and 0.5% oil. Food

Page 501

preparations containing coconut flour have been developed by the National Institute of Science and Technology in Manila, the Philippines. These foods include noodles, snacks, weaning foods, and some native recipes. Coconut flour has been used at a 35% level in large-scale preparation of Nutribun, a breadlike product. The production of coconut flour is viewed as an alternative to copra manufacture which results in a protein product, copra meal, that is dirty, unhygienic, scorched, and, in general, unfit for human consumption. The potential world production of coconut flour, without testa, at 5% moisture, is estimated to be more than 2 million tonnes. G. Other Processed Products

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Numerous traditional and new processed foods containing coconut products are being prepared and tested for their acceptability, quality, and potential for commercial manufacture. These include the popular cheese-pineapple roll cake and orange chiffon cake containing 1040% coconut flour (73); coconut candy (74); tokua, soya curd containing 50% coconut milk and 50% soy milk, with increased caloric value (75); traditional Indonesian intermediate-moisture beef products containing coconut sugars, with improved palatability and acceptability (76); soya tofu containing coconut cream (68); sweetened coconut flakes that are coated with an aqueous solution comprised of finely ground coconut humectants and finally coated with sugars for use in bakery and confectionery products (77); protein hydrolysates based on defatted coconut and soya meal, for use in making sauces (78); golden syrup from coconut sap (79); coconutflavor liquor (80); coco spread containing two

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parts coconut milk, one part brown sugar, 1% citric acid, and 2.55% legume flours (81); tahu, a favorite Philippine snack food based on coconut and soy milk (82); coated coconut with insoluble calcium alginate especially suitable for incorporation into ready-to-spread frostings (83); wine, vinegar, and sweet dessert from coconut water (84); and snack foods fortified with coconut sepal, desiccated coconut fines, and soya flour (85). The copra meal can be saccharified with hydrochloric acid to obtain reducing sugars. Borohydride reduction of these reducing sugars yielded sugar alcohols containing 66% mannitol, 24% sorbitol, and 5% galactitol (86). Thus, a tremendous scope exists in the utilization of coconut in a variety of food preparations. H. By-Products 1. Coconut Toddy

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Toddy is an alcoholic beverage obtained by the natural fermentation of coconut palm sap. The coconut inflorescence sap is traditionally collected in clay pots, sterilized by inverting over a flame for 5 min, and allowed to ferment in open pots for up to 2 days (87) during collection of sap. During this period, microorganisms from the atmosphere enter the clay pots and multiply in the palm sap, which contains 1518% sucrose, transforming the sugar into ethanol and other products. The resulting liquid, containing about 7% ethanol, is known as toddy, and is consumed as a liquid beveragelike soft drinks and beerin coconut-producing countries. The sap obtained from the unopened inflorescence of coconut palm is also used as a base for toddy alcoholic beverages. Quality and yield problems are caused by uncontrolled spontaneous fermentation of sap during collection.

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Natural fermentation of coconut sap is brought about by a succession of heterogenous microorganisms consisting of yeast and bacteria (88). Some of them transform sugars in the coconut sap into ethanol, while others may merely survive or bring about other biochemical changes in the sap. Fresh toddy has an average alcohol content of 7.9% (v/v), titratable acidity of 14.36 mM HCI per 100 ml, and pH of 3.7. The toddy is generally stored at ambient temperatures and is sold in vending shops. The storage temperature markedly influences the composition with

Page 502

respect to ethanol, titratable acidity, pH, and microbial count (89). In toddy stored at ambient temperature (27C), the alcohol content increased on the first day of storage, titratable acidity increased up to 7 days, while microbial count decreased on the first and second days of storage. In toddy stored at 17C, the pH remained constant, but it dropped considerably when the toddy was stored at 37C. Microbial count increased up to the third day at 17C, but decreased drastically on the first day at 37C. Farnandez et al. (90) investigated the changes in tuba (a popular fermented coconut sap in Philippines) during 1 week storage at various temperatures. It is recommended that tuba not be sold more than 2 days after collecting to maintain the high alcohol content and low titratable acidity.

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The alcohol content in toddy can be increased if the growth of nonfermenting organisms is inhibited during fermentation. Atputharajah et al. (88) characterized 144 yeast isolates in toddy fermentation. These isolates were grouped as maximum ethanol producers (75 isolates, 9% ethanol), medium ethanol producers (17 isolates, 46% ethanol), and trace or no-ethanol producers (52 isolates). Among the maximum ethanol producers were Saccharomyces chevalier; Schizosaccharomyces pombe; Pichia ohmeri, and Kloeckera javanica; all produced about 9% ethanol on the fifth day of fermentation. It was suggested that the low ethanol concentrations of 67% observed in the coconut sap fermentation industry could probably be increased to 9% if the low- and medium-ethanol-producing yeasts are suppressed. Addition of 0.08% of NH4+ ions in the form of ammonium sulfate in fermenting toddy has been reported to inhibit the formation of hydrogen sulfide and improve ethanol production by 12.5% (91). Samarajeewa et al. (92)

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inhibited the growth of non-ethanol-producing organisms by mixing sodium metabisulfite in sterilized coconut sap before the onset of fermentation by pure-culture Saccharomyces cerevisiae. The sterilization of sap before fermentation, use of chemicals to inhibit nonfermenting yeasts, and use of pure culture yeasts may help to improve the ethanol level and quality of coconut toddy. 2. Coconut Husk The husk is a useful material as fuel. It is rich in calcium and potassium. Hence, the ash of coconut husk is a valuable fertilizer. The ash of coconut husk may contain 2030% potash and 2% phosphorus. The husk can also be used as mulch in fruit orchards. The husk removed from unsplit coconut is, however, used largely for the manufacture of coir fiber. 3. Coir

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Coir fiber is obtained from the mesocarp of the fruit. It is one of the structurally hard fibers. For the production of white fiber, the green husks of 10-month-old nuts are used; while for brown mattress and bristle fiber, the husks of mature nuts are used. The fiber is obtained by two processes, retting and mechanical extraction. The fibers obtained in the retting process are useful for spinning purposes, while those produced by mechanical extraction are useful for the manufacture of mattresses.

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Retting is a technical term for the word rotting and designates the process of decomposition of the tissues surrounding the vegetable fibers. Some of the gums and pectins cementing the fiber strands together are dissolved in the process so that they are partly freed from each other. The tannin content also decreases, so the fiber becomes lighter in color (93). The process is essentially microbiological, and a series of certain groups of bacteria are the active agents. In principle, the retting process is based on the relative differences that exist in the susceptibility of different constituents of the husk to microbiological decay. The process is usually anaerobic, but it can also be carried out under aerobic conditions. The coir processed by the latter method is generally colored due to the oxidative nature of the phenolic constituents of the husk. The process of coir fiber production has been described by several investigators (9396).

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The green husks are submerged within 3 days after removal from the nuts, in slow-running or

Page 503

stagnant water, and left for 610 months. For retting, blackish water is desirable, so the coir fiber industry has developed mainly along the coastal area of India and Sri Lanka. Retting may also be performed in dug pits or in concrete soaking tanks in modern mills. In the first stage of soaking, the husks absorb water, the tissues swell, and substances such as carbohydrates, glucosides, tannins, etc., are leached out. In the second stage, the microorganisms developed on the leached nutrients decompose the binding material of the tissues.

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The soaked and washed husks are cleaned to remove the short fiber next to the inner hard shell and the tough exocarp. The long yarn or mat fiber is then beaten out of the remaining fibrous mass with the help of a wooden club on a wooden block until the entire pith is removed. The beaten fiber is shaken, washed, and spread out by hand to remove any clogged pithy matter still adhering. Lastly, it is dried and passed through a winnowing machine and spun into yarn. Mechanical crushing of the husks before retting helps to reduce the soaking period from 10 months to only 3 months without any influence on fiber quality (93).

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For the production of brown mattress and bristle fiber, the husk is soaked in water for about 2 weeks. Crushing the husks before soaking can reduce the soaking time to only 35 days. After soaking, the fibers are extracted by processing through a fiber mill. This wet milling process removes the exocarp-adhering particles of the pith. The mattress fiber is further cleaned, washed, and dried in the sun. In a mechanical decortication process, the husk segments are disintegrated by metal bars revolving at high speed, followed by the use of sifters to separate the nonfibrous matter from the fiber. This fiber is very suitable for twisting.

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Compared to other fibers, coir is relatively short. Its individual fiber cell measures about 1 mm in length, and staple length is only 1535 cm (51). However, it can be stretched beyond its elastic limit without rupturing, and it has the power to take up a permanent load. It exhibits properties such as buoyancy and resistance to decay in water, bacterial action, and salt water. White fiber is used for ropes, twines, mats, carpets, certain types of marine cordage, and a number of minor applications. Bristle is used to make brushes, brooms, and rubberized coir pads. Mattress fiber is used chiefly as a filling for innerspring mattresses. 4. Coconut Shell and Its Products

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The coconut shell contains about 36% lignin, 53% cellulose, 0.6% mineral matter, and 69% moisture (97). It is used mainly as a domestic fuel for copra making and for kitchen fires. Commercially, it can be processed in charcoal kilns into charcoal (98). The weight of charcoal obtained is about 30% of the original shell weight. The thick, heavy shells yield good-quality charcoal. The shell can also be processed into shell flour. This is prepared by grinding clean, mature coconut shells to a fine powder. Shell flour can be used as a filler for synthetic resin glues and phenolic molding powders. It provides molded articles with a smooth and lustrous finish and improves their resistance to moisture and heat (99). As a mild abrasive, it is used as a soft blast to clean piston engines and as a grinding agent. Coconut shell is commonly used to prepare utensils such as buttons, bowls, pots, spoons, ashtrays, and lamps in the coconut-growing regions. Very decorative and

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attractive fine pieces of art are also prepared from the shell. However, the commercial production of all such articles from coconut shell has not become possible, due to the nonavailability of shells in large quantities. Other domestic articles from coconut plants include braiding mats, baskets, bags, hats, brooms, and roofing material, prepared from coconut leaves and midribs (100). The whitish central cylinder comprising the differentiating tissue of leaf bases and flowers and the tender tissue of the firmly packed youngest leaves can be consumed as a vegetable in both raw and cooked form. Thus, the entire coconut plant can be processed for a variety of food and nonfood uses. Development of commercially feasible and economically viable wet milling processes for

Page 504

coconut, and development of new food items based on coconut milk, cream, and flour, protein products, and desiccated coconuts are areas of current interest in the coconut-processing industries. References. 1. FAO, Coconut: Tree of Life, Food and Agriculture Organization, Rome, 1984. 2. FAO, Production Year Book. Food and Agriculture Organization, Rome, 1977, 1980, 1985, 1990. 3. Child, R., Coconuts, 2nd ed., Logman & Green, London, 1974. 4. Lever, R. J. A. W., Pests of the Coconut Palm, FAO Agricultural Series No. 77, 1969.

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5. Thampan, P. K. The Coconut Palm and Its Products, Government of India, Cochin, Kerala, Green Villa, 1981, p 314. 6. Lepesme, P., Les insects des palmiers, Lechvalier, Paris, 1947 (quoted in Ref. 4). 7. Subramanyan, V., and D. Swaminathan, Coconut as a food, Coconut Bull. 13:153 (1959). 8. Bernardini, E., Vegetable Oils and Fats Processing, Vol. II, Via. L. Lilio, B.E. Oil Publishing House, Rome, 1985. 9. Sarangamath, P. A., P. B. Shantappa, and D. S. Kulkarni, Varietal differences in nut and copra characters, Coconut Research and Development (N. M. Nayar, ed.), Wiley Eastern, New Delhi, 1983, p. 181.

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10. Balachandran, C., C. Arumughan, and A. G. Mathew, Distribution of major chemical constituents and fatty acids in different regions of coconut endosperm, J. Am. Oil Chem. Soc. 62:1583 (1985). 11. Chakraborty, P., Functional properties of coconut protein isolate obtained by ultrafiltration, J. Food Sci. Technol. 22:248 (1985). 12. Young, F. V. K., Palm kernels and coconut oils: Analytical characteristics, process technology and uses, J. Am. Oil Chem. Soc. 60:374 (1983). 13. Prichard, J. R., Oilseed quality requirements for processing, J. Am Oil Chem. Soc. 60:322 (1983). 14. Weiss, E. A., Oilseed crops, Tropical Agriculture Series, Longman, London (1983).

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15. Gopalakrishnan, C. S., C. S. Narayanan, A. G. Mathew, and C. Arumughan, Lipid composition of coconut cake oil, J. Am. Oil Chem. Soc. 64:539 (1987). 16. Itoh, T., T. Tamura, and T. Matsumoto, Sterol composition of 19 vegetable oils, J. Am. Oil Chem. Soc. 50L:122 (1973). 17. Hagenmaier, R. D., C. M. Cater, and K. F. Mattil, A characterization of two chromatographically separated fractions of coconut protein, J. Food Sci. 37:4 (1972). 18. Molina, M. R. M., P. A. Lachance, and R. Bressani, Some chemical and functional characteristics of a fibre-free coconut protein extract obtained by the enzymic chemical process, J. Agr. Food Chem. 24:614 (1976).

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19. Flavier, M. E., M. O. Bondad, and E. J. Rosario, Characteristics of acid-extracted proteins from copra meal, Philippines J. Coconut Studies 5:21 (1990). 20. Tasker, P. K., K. Indira, M. Narayana Rao, K. Indiramma, M. Swaminathan, A. Sreenivasan, and V. Subramanyan, Supplementary value of the proteins of coconut to Bengal gram proteins and groundnut proteins, Ann. Biochem. Exp. Med. 22:181 (1962). 21. Srinivasan, K. S., K. Indira, and M. R. Chandrasekhara, Amino acid composition and electrophoretic behaviour of coconut proteins, Indian J. Biochem. 1:146 (1964). 22. Gunetileke, K. G., and S. F. Laurentius, Conditions for the separation of oil and protein from coconut milk emulsion, J. Food Sci. 39:230 (1974).

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23. Lachance, P. A., and M. R. Molina, Nutritive value of a fibre-free coconut protein extract obtained by an enzymic chemical method, J. Food Sci. 34:581 (1974). 24. Cegla, G. F., and K. R. Bell, High pressure liquid chromatography for the analyses of soluble carbohydrates in defatted oilseed flours, J. Am. Oil Chem. Soc. 54:105 (1977). 25. Hagenmaier, R. D., P. H. Quinitio, and S. P. Clark, Coconut flour, technology and cost of manufacture, J. Am. Oil Chem. Soc. 52:439 (1975).

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26. Deosthale, Y. G., Trace element composition of common oilseeds, J. Am. Oil Chem. Soc. 58:988 (1981). 27. Gopalan, C., B. V. Ramasastri, and S. C. Balasubramanian, Nutritive Value of Indian Foods, National Institute of Nutrition, Hyderabad, India, 1982. 28. Muller-Mulot, W., Rapid method for the quantitative determinations of individual tocopherols in oils and fats, J. Am. Oil Chem. Soc. 53:732 (1976). 29. Louis, I. H., Genetic variability in coconut palm (Cocos nucifera L), Madras Agr. J. 68:588 (1977). 30. Nathanael, W. R. N., Utilization of coconut products, Ceylon Coconut Planters' Rev. 4:39 (1966).

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31. Tulecke, W., L. H. Weinstein, A. Rutner, and H. I. Laurengot, Jr., The biochemical composition of coconut water as related to its use in plant tissue culture, Contrib. Boyce Thompson Inst. 2:114 (1961). 32. Jayalekshmy, A., C. Arumughan, C. S. Narayanan, and A. G. Mathew, Changes in the chemical composition of coconut water during maturation, J. Food Sci. Technol. 23:203 (1986). 33. Singh, A., S. R. Singh, S. P. Singh, and J. L. Tuivoavoa, Quality of copra and its deterioration, Fiji Agr. J. 42:27 (1980). 34. Kajs, T. M., R. Hagenmaier, C. Vanolerzant, and K. F. Mattil, Microbiological evaluation of coconut and coconut products, J. Food Sci. 41:352 (1976).

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35. Susamma, P., and M. R. Menon, Microorganisms associated with the deterioration of copra, Madras Agr. J. 68:686 (1981). 36. Palaniswami, A., T. Villiappan, and S. Neelakantan, Effect of fungal contamination of copra on the quality of coconut oil, Indian Coconut J. 19:10 (1989). 37. Kinderlerer, J. L. Spoilage in desiccated coconut resulting from growth of xerophillic fungi. Food Microbiol. 1:23 (1984). 38. Kinderlerer, J. L., Fungi in desiccated coconut, Food Microbiol. 1:205 (1984). 39. Kinderlerer, J. L., and B. Kellard, Ketonic rancidity in coconut due to xerophilic fungi, Phytochemistry 23:2847 (1984).

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40. Malabrigo, P., Drying, storage and preparation of copra for extraction of oil, J. Am. Oil Chem. Soc. 54:485-A (1977). 41. Aten, A., Copra processing in rural industries, FAO Agricultural Development Paper 63, 1958. 42. Nathan, H. S., S. Krishnan Kutty, K. M. Tainamma, C. Krishnaswamy, A. G. Mathew, and V. Subramanyam, Control of spoilage during sun-drying of coconut, Indian Coconut J. 11:4 (1980).

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43. Pacumbaba, E. P., Evaluation of five insecticides for the control of storage pests of copra, Proc. 6th Annual Convention, 1975, Pest Control Council of the Philippines, Cebu City, Abstract Bibliography of Researchers in Agriculture, Forestry and Fisheries, in the Philippines, 197277, Vol. I, Scientific Literature Service, Philippines Council for Agriculture and Resources Research, Los Banos, Laguna, 1979. 44. Coconut processing technology information document, 1. Coconut harvesting and copra production, Asian and Pacific Coconut Community, United Nations Industrial Development Organization No. ICD377, 1980. 45. Escudero, C. A., and C. P. Scaffner, Coconut method and product, U. S. Patent 4,307,120 (1981).

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46. Leonard, E., Sri Lankan inventor who makes life easier for his countrymen, Cocomunity APCC/ GS/45/ 83:33 (1983). 47. Patil, R. T., A smallholder copra dryer using agricultural waste as a source of energy, Cocomunity APCC/GS/46:13 (1984). 48. Patil, R. T., and C. K. B. Nambiar, Copra drying with solar energy, Coconis Newsl. 9:6 (1982). 49. Bulder, J. M., Simple guidelines for the improvement of smallholders copra drying, Third Session, FAO Technical Working Party on Coconut Production, Protection and Processing, Jogjakarta, 1968. 50. Salz, A. G., Advantages of controlled forced hot-air drying of copra, Cocoa and Coconuts in Malaysia, Incorporated Society of Planters, Malaysia, Kuala Lampur, 1972, p. 302.

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51. Grimwood, B. E., Coconut palm products, FAO Agricultural Development Paper, Food and Agriculture Organization, Rome, 90, 1975. 52. Thieme, J. G., Coconut oil processing, FAO Agricultural Development Paper 80, Food and Agriculture Organization, Rome, 1968.

Page 506

53. Edmonds, M. J., An economic evaluation of the wet coconut process developed at the Tropical Products Institute, TPI Report G-79, 1973. 54. Cater, C. M., K. C. Rhee, R. D. Hagenmaier, and K. F. Mattil, Aqueous extractionAn alternate oilseed milling process, J. Am. Oil Chem. Soc. 51:137 (1974). 55. Dendy, D. A. V., and W. H. Timmins, Development of process to extract protein and oil from fresh coconut; the work of the Tropical Products Institute, II, Oleagineux 29:37 (1974). 56. Hagenmaier, R. D., C. M. Cater, and K. F. Mattil, Critical unit operation of the aqueous processing of fresh coconuts, J. Am. Oil Chem. Soc, 49:178 (1972).

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57. Hagenmaier, R. D., C. M. Cater, and K. F. Mattil, Aqueous processing of coconuts. Economic analysis, J. Am. Oil Chem. Soc. 52:5 (1975). 58. Hagenmaier, R. D., Aqueous processing of coconuts, Oleagineux 36:145 (1981). 59. Nuevo, C. R., M. P. Santos, A. L. Gonzales, and D. M. Birosel, Rendered quality water white coconut oil, J. Am. Oil Chem. Soc. 54:325 (1977). 60. Gonzales, A. L., E. F. Buccat, and G. C. Manalac, Combined effect of size reduction equipmentScrew type on extractability of oil and protein on wet processing of coconut, Philippine J. Sci. 110:55 (1981).

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61. Gonzales, A. L., T. R. Clandio, E. F. Buccat, and G. Manalac, Effect of particle size on the extraction of oil and protein from fresh coconut meat, Philippine J. Sci. 11:23 (1982). 62. Gabriel, V. D., Extracting oil, protein and flour from fresh coconut meal, U.K. Patent Application GB2 094,334. 63. Hagenmaier, R. D., Aqueous processing of coconuts, Fifth Session, FAO Technical Working Party, Coconut Production, Protection and Processing, Manila, 1979. 64. Mechanized dehusking machine, Cocomunity 12:5 (1982).

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65. Nambiar, T. V. P., Maximizing the utility of coconuts by an integrated process for large-scale production of proteins, flour, coconut honey, and oil from fresh coconut kernel and byproducts such as fibre, carbon, and chemicals from husk and shell chemicals, cooking gas etc from shell, Coconut Research and Development (N. R. Nayar, ed.), Wiley Eastern, New Delhi, 1983, p. 245. 66. Monera, O. O., and E. J. del Rosario, Physico-chemical evaluation of the natural stability of coconut milk emulsion, Ann. Trop. Res. 4:47 (1982). 67. Som, M. N. M., Processing of canned coconut milk and coconut butter, Proc. Int. Conf. on Cocoa and Coconut, Kuala Lumpur, 1980.

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68. Escueta, E. E., M. C. Bourne, and L. F. Hood, Effect of coconut cream addition to soy milk on the composition, texture and sensory properties of tofu, J. Food Sci. 50:887 (1985). 69. Hagenmaier, R. D., K. F. Mattil, and C. M. Cater, Dehydrated coconut skim milk as a food product: Composition and functionality, J. Food Sci. 39:196 (1974). 70. Hagenmaier, R. D., Dried coconut milk and other new foods from wet processing, Cocomunity APCC/GS/45/83:36 (1983). 71. Samson, A. S., R. N. Khaund, C. M. Cater, and K. F. Mattil, Extractability of coconut proteins, J. Food Sci. 36:725 (1971). 72. Hagenmaier, R. D., Experimental coconut protein products, J. Am. Oil Chem. Soc. 56:448 (1979).

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73. Rapadas, P. A., Acceptability of popular cakes fortified with coconut flour, Nutrisyon 6:61 (1981). 74. Coconut in candy making. General Foods Corporation, Confectionery Prod. 49:301 (1983). 75. Escueta, E. E., High energy tokua from qatu and soy milk, Nutrisyon 6:42 (1981). 76. Purnomo, H., R. A. Buckle, and R. A. Edwards, A preliminary study on traditional intermediate moisture beef products, J. Food Sci. Technol. 20:177 (1983). 77. Coker, G. C., Processing for making a coconut product, U.S. Patent 4,363,825 (1982).

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78. Pham, C. B., and R. R. del Rosario, The preparation of protein hydrolysate from defatted coconut and soybean meal II. Quality and sensory evaluation of product, J. Food Technol. 13:163 (1983). 79. Samarajeewa, U., and M. C. P. Wijeratne, Methods for determining the suitability of coconut sap for preparation of jaggery, sugar, and golden syrup, Cocomunity APCC/OS/39:27 (1981). 80. Zieearelli, S. F., R. C. Ramos, and R. M. Brown, Coconut powder, U.S. Patent 4,296,136 (1981).

Page 507

81. Mabesa, L. B., Protein enrichment of coco spread with legume flour, Philippine J. Coconut Stud. 4:45 (1979). 82. New food uses for coconuts, Cocomunity Newsl. 11:6 (1981). 83. Richter, G. W., Coated coconut, method for preparation and icing therefrom, U.S. Patent 4,386,108 (1983). 84. Montenegro, H. M., Coconut oil and its byproducts, J. Am. Oil Chem. Soc. 62:259 (1985). 85. Gonzales, O. N., R. H. Tanchuco, N. G. Baquiran, M. A. F. Holazo, and E. J. Punzalan, Calorie/protein supplementation of local snack foods with coconut byproducts and soy flour, First Symp. on the NSDB-ASEAN Protein Project, 1983.

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86. Saittagaroon, S., S. Kawakishi, and M. Namiki, Generation of mannitol from copra meals, J. Food Sci. 50:757 (1985). 87. Nathanael, W. R. N., Toddy yields from coconut palms in Ceylon, Ceylon Coconut Quart. 6:9 (1955). 88. Atputharajah, J. D., U. Samarajeewa, and S. Vidanapathirana, Efficiency of ethanol production by coconut toddy yeasts, J. Food Sci. Technol. 23:5 (1986). 89. Fernandez, W. L., N. P. Aliac, G. O. Caliboso, L. S. Creencia, and P. R. Gopalan, The alcohol content, total titratable acidity, pH and microbial count of coconut toddy stored at four temperatures for one week, Philippine Agr. 63:309 (1980).

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90. Fernandez, W. L., C. K. Alagad, Jr., R. R. Casilang, C. G. Magpanty, and R. Sapin, The alcohol content, total titratable acidity, pH and microbial count of tuba stored at four temperatures for one week, Philippine Agr. 63:303 (1980). 91. Liyanage, A. W., D. J. Abeyratne, M. R. Hettiarachchi, K. D. Gunatilake, G. G. Weerawansa, and P. M. Jayatissa, Control of hydrogen sulphide formation and enhancement of the ethanol yield in coconut toddy-field trials, J. Natl. Sci. Coconut (Sri Lanka) 11:1 (1983). 92. Samarajeewa, U., D. T. Mathew, M. C. P. Wijeratne, and T. Warnakula, Effect of sodium metabisulphite on ethanol production in coconut inflorescence sap, Food Microbiol. 2:11 (1985).

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93. Satyanarayana, K. G., K. A. Ravikumar, K. Sukumaran, and S. G. K. Pillai, Evaluation of strength properties of coir fibres obtained from different sources, Indian Coconut J. 19:3 (1989). 94. Bhat, J. V., and A. M. D. Nambudiri, The uniquity of coir retting, J. Sci. Ind. Res. 30:720 (1971). 95. Jarman, C. G., and D. S. Jayasundera, The extraction and processing of coconut fiber, Tropical Products Institute Rep. G-94, 1975, p. 25. 96. Meenatchisunderam, R. I., Retting of coirA review, Ceylon Coconut Planters' Rev. 7:20 (1980). 97. Nathanael, W. R. N., Coconut shells as industrial raw material, Coconut Bull. 19:163 (1964).

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98. Paddon, A. R., and A. P. Harker, The production of charcoal in a portable metal kiln, Tropical Products Institute Rep. G-119, 1979. 99. Nathanael, W. R. N., Non-conventional uses and processing techniques for coconut products, Ceylon Coconut Quart. 21:99 (1970). 100. Davis, T. A., Commercial importance of coconut leaflet midrib, Indian Coconut J. 19:3 (1989).

Page 509

26 Cashew
R. T. Gunjate Fruit Research Station, Vengurla, Maharashtra, India M. V. Patwardhan Central Food Technological Research Institute, Mysore, Karnataka, India I. Introduction

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Cashew (Anacardium occidentale L.) is one of the important nut crops, ranking third in the international trade after hardnuts (29%) and almonds (21%). The cashew tree is believed to be a native of Brazil, from where it is dispersed to many of the tropical areas (1). At present the major cashew-producing countries are Brazil, Mozambique, India, Indonesia, and Tanzania (Table 1). As many as 20 species of Anacardium are known to exist within Central and South America. However, A. occidentale is the only species reported to have been introduced outside the New World. World consumption of cashew kernels has been increasing at an average annual rate of 10.9% (2). Hence, there is tremendous scope to increase cashew production by extending cashew cultivation to newer areas as well as increasing the productivity of existing plantations. The world production of cashew nuts decreased from 519,464 tonnes in 19691971 to 478,832 tonnes in 1990. Production in the

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African countries has decreased significantly during the last decade (3). II. Botany

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Cashew (Anacardium occidentale L.) belongs to the family Anacardiaceae, which includes many economically important tropical and subtropical trees and shrubs. Mango and pistachio are the two most important other members of the family. Anacardium is a small genus of eight species. The chromosome number of A. occidentale is 2n = 42 (4). The cashew tree is a polygamoandromonocious plant, bearing staminate and hermaphrodite flowers. The inflorescence is a terminal, many-flowered panicle borne on the current season's growth. The percentage of hermaphrodite flowers varies from 0.5 to 36% in different types. Flowering in cashew is staggered and continues for about 90 days. Though a large number of flowers are produced, only 46% reach maturity, the remaining being shed away at various stages of development (1). Pollination of cashew is carried out mostly by flies, bees, and ants, as well as by wind.

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Page 5

Table 1 Major Producers of Cashew in the World Production Production Country (1000 MT) Country (1000 MT) World 478 Tanzania 20 Brazil 168 Malaysia 14.0 India 130 Kenya 12.0 Mozambique 49 Sri Lanka 10.4 Indonesia 30

A. Cultivars

Due to cross pollination, heterozygosity, and seed propagation, no distinct cashew variety was availab until recently. The existing cashew trees produce on average 1.52.0 kg nuts per tree per year. Two variet ies based on apple colors, red and yellow, have bee identified in many cashew-growing countries. Recently, four varieties based on apple color, yield po tential, and size of kernel have been identified as Vengurla 1, Vengurla 2, Vengurla 3, and Vengurla in India.

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B. Fruit Development

After fertilization, the ovary grows considerably, whereas the ovule enlarges slowly at the beginning with the result that the kernel does not fill the locul The early growth of the ovule consists largely of ex tension and curving upward of the chalzal end. Cha topadhaya et al. (5) reported that nuts grow much faster than apples, but at later stages, apples increas in size more rapidly and soon outgrow the nuts. Pro tein and sugar content of the kernel increase steadil up to 40 days after fruit set and remain high until harvesting stage (1). Reducing and nonreducing sug ars also increase up to 40 days, but decline sharply harvest (1). The nut is gray, kidney shaped, and con tains a single kidney-shaped seed with membranous adhercut testa, semilunar cotyledons, and a short hooked radicle. The fleshy peduncle, the cashew apple, is juicy sweet when ripe and is a rich source vitamin C and sugar. The nut consists of an epicarp mesocarp, endocarp, testa, and kernel (Fig. 1 ).

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III. Production A. Soil and Climate

Cashew is grown on a variety of soils, preferably on loams or sandy loams. Lateritic soils on hill slopes are also suitable for cashew growth. Soils for cashe must be free from waterlogging and from extreme s linity or alkalinity conditions. Heavier soils, becaus of poor drainage, are also not suitable. Cashew is generally grown on soils which are either too poor too stony for most other crops. This is one of the im portant factors for the poor yield of existing cashew trees. Though it grows on marginal soils, for higher yield it must be grown on better soils.

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Cashew grows luxuriantly in the warm and humid climate of the seacoasts. However, it is seen growin satisfactorily in areas away from the coasts which a free from frost. Cashew trees are susceptible to pro longed periods of extreme cold and frost. Commercial cultivation is restricted to altitudes below 700 m Cashew is a sun-loving tree and does not tolerate ex cessive shade. The cashew tree is considered to be hardy and drought resistant. It requires a minimum 50 cm of

Page 511

Fig. 1 Cross section of cashew nut.

rainfall per year, though it can stand extremes of rainfall ranging from 30 cm to 400 cm. A dry spell during flowering and fruit setting ensures a better harvest. B. Propagation.

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Cashew can be propagated either from seedlings or from clonal material, and vegetative propagation provides the most reliable progeny because cashew is highly cross-pollinated. Hence, trueto-type seedlings can be raised by vegetative methods (5). Vegetatively propagated trees yield better than trees raised from seeds (5). In cashew, various methods of clonal propagation have been practiced with considerable success. Seasonal factors and management practices play an important role in the success of multiplication. Layering, budding, and grafting are important methods of vegetative propagation in cashew (6). C. Cultural Practices 1. Planting

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Cashew orchards are raised from seedlings or from clonal material. Pits of 50 50 50 cm are dug at the desired spacing (7 7 m or 8 8 m), well before the onset of monsoon, and are refilled with good soil. Two to three selected seeds are sown in each pit with the onset of monsoon. The seeds may either be planted directly, or seedlings may be raised and then transplanted to the field after they attain 1520 cm height. If the seeds are sown directly, the germinating seedlings may be damaged by birds, rats, rodents, reptiles, and monkeys. Hence, it is better to raise seedlings in polythene bags in the nursery and then transplant into permanent pits. This ensures a uniform stand and better growth. If clonally raised plants are used, they are also planted with the beginning of monsoon so that by the end of the season the plants are well established.

Page 512

2. Intercultural Operations Cashew trees respond very well to management. Hence it is necessary to care for cashew trees from the very beginning. The orchard has to be kept free of weeds and wild growth. Weeding under the canopy of trees is necessary. In India, field crops are not grown in cashew plantations as intercrops because of poor soils. However, fodder trees such as subabhul sesbania may be grown in the initial years. It is also possible to grow improved grasses such as stylo in the cashew orchards during the first few years. 3. Nutrition and Irrigation

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In most countries, cashew is grown as a rain-fed crop. Even the seedlings are seldom watered. If vegetatively raised plants are used, it is necessary to water them in winter and summer during the first 1 or 2 years. As cashew flowers and bears on current-season growth, it may be possible to induce profuse vegetative growth and fruiting by judicious application of irrigation Cashew yield can be increased substantially by manuring. With the advent of high-yielding varieties, it may be necessary to manure the trees adequately to explore their genetic potential. The present recommendations followed in India are 250 g N, 125 g P2O5, and 125 g K2O per tree per year (7). However, for the highyielding varieties and hybrids, double this dose of NPK is applied. The fertilizers are applied in trenches under the canopy of trees. Manures are applied only once, at the end of heavy monsoon.

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D. Diseases and Pests Various pests are known to damage the cashew tree (8,9). Tea mosquito (Helopeltis antonii), stem and rot borers (Plocaederus ferrugineus), leaf miners (Acrocercops syngramma), and two species of leaf and shoot webbing caterpillars (Lamida moncusalis and Orthaga exvinacea) are major pests of cashew. Other pests, such as defoliating caterpillars (Crucula trifenestrata and Metanastria hyrtaca), shoot-tip caterpillars [Hypatina (Chelaria) haligrama and Anarsia epotias], leaf and flower thrips (Selenothrips rubrocinctus and Rhipiphorothrips cruentatus), leaf beetles and weevils (Monolepta longitavsus and Apoderus tranquebaricus) also appear sporadically at times. Most of these can be controlled by spraying Endosulfan 0.05% applied as a high-volume spray or 0.1% as a low-volume spray.

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The cashew tree is attacked by a number of diseases. Among these, the most important ones are inflorescence blight caused by Gloeosporium mangiferae and Phomopsis anacardii in association with tea mosquito, dieback caused by Corticium salmonicolor, damping-off of seedlings caused by various fungi (Fusarium, Pythium, Phytophthora), and anthracnose caused by Colletotrichum gleosporioides. Other diseases affecting cashew tree are decline caused by Phythium spinosum and leaf spots caused by Pestalotia microspora, Phylosticta sp., Colletotrichum gloeosporioides, Phomatospora, anacardicola Phomopsis anacardii, and Cephaleuros mycoides. All these diseases can be controlled by spraying with 1% Bordeaux mixture, copper oxide (0.3%), or Benlate (0.3%). The shoot rot and leaf fall caused by Phytophthora nicotianae var. Nicotianae, powdery mildew on the blossom caused by the fungus Odium sp., leaf rot disease caused by Cylindrocladium

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quinquiseptatum, gummosis caused by Pellicularia salmonicolor, and a few minor diseases of apples and nuts have been reported in cashew. E. Harvesting and Yield The cashew apple is ripe when the basic color of the outer skin turns yellow or yellowish red. The greenish color of immature nuts turn to graybrown when they mature. Harvesting is done by picking the fruits from the trees or collecting the fallen fruits from the ground. Where cashew

Page 513

apple is used for fenni making, great care has to be exercised in collecting the apple at the right stage. Harvesting extends for 812 weeks. The nuts are dried in the sun for about a week before storing. Though cashew trees may bear a few fruits even in the second or third year, commercial harvest starts from the fifth or sixth year. The economic life of a cashew trees extends up to about 40 years, depending on the management. A vast variation in the yield of seedling cashew trees, ranging from 0.5 to 2.0 kg, has been reported (1). However, with the improved high-yielding varieties and hybrids, the average yield of nuts may be as high as 2030 kg/tree. The yield of cashew apple is about 58 times that of the nut. IV. Composition A. Cashew Nuts.

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The cashew nut has an outer shell (epicarp) with a greenish to pink-brown color, depending on the extent to which it is dried. It is leathery in the moist condition, and an impression can be made. When it is dry it is difficult to make an impression on it. The honeycomb structure (mesocarp) within the shell (Fig. 1) is full of cashew nut shell liquid (CNSL) (endocarp), which is hard and brittle. This protects the kernel from the corrosive CNSL. The whole structure is known as pericarp. There is a covering of thin membrane on the kernel, known as testa. The testa is pink in color and protects the kernel. The kernel is the main product of the cashew industry, and the art of processing lies in extracting the kernel from the nut without affecting the kernel in any way.

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Cashew nuts are rich in protein (21.0%), calcium (0.55%), phosphorus (0.45%), unsaturated fats (47.0%), vitamins such as B1, B2, D, and E, and low in carbohydrates (22%) and saturated fats (10). Hence, they are of high nutritive value. Cashew proteins are complete, with all essential and nonessential amino acids, and can be considered equal to peanut and soybean proteins. The kernel supplies about 6000 cal of energy per kilogram, as compared to 3600 cal for cereals, 1800 cal for meat, and 650 cal for fresh fruit. The testa is a rich source of tannin. The peels can be used in the paint, chemical, and wood industries. Cashew apple, which is practically wasted at present, is highly nutritious. It could be utilized for the production of alcoholic beverages, juice, syrups, and jam.

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The approximate chemical composition, amino acid composition of cashew nut protein (kernel globulins), and physicochemical characteristics of the kernel fat are given in Table 2. The husk of the cashew nut has about 2426% tannins, 5257% fiber, and 35% oil (10). B. Cashew Nut Shell Liquid

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Cashew nut shell liquid is an important byproduct of the cashew nut processing industry. It is separated from the shell during roasting of cashew nuts in the oil-bath process. It is also produced by the solvent-extraction process. Commercial CNSL consists chiefly of two highly reactive phenolic compounds, anacardic acid (90%) and cardol (10%). Cardol is a resorcinol derivative having a long unsaturated hydrocarbon chain. It also contains metallic impurities and traces of sulfur compounds, which have to be eliminated before it is utilized for the preparation of resins. This is usually done by filtration and decarboxylation by heat. V. Storage Cashew nuts are less perishable than most fruits and vegetables, but refrigerated storage is used rather extensively to maintain optimum quality for extended periods. Cashew nuts are subject to

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Table 2 Chemical Composition of Cashew Kernel Constituent Content Constituent Moisture (%) 5.9 Fats (%) Carbohydrates (%) 22.0 Fatty acids (% Proteins (%) 21.0 Saturat a Amino acids (g/100 g proteins ) Unsatu 10.3 Arginine Oleic a 1.8 Histidine Linolei 3.3 Lysine Stearic 3.2 Tyrosine Palmiti 4.4 Minerals Phenylalanine 1.3 Methonine Calcium 2.8 Threonine Phosph 4.5 Valine Iron (m Sources: Refs. 8 and 10

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various forms of deterioration, such as loss of textu ment of staleness, and rancidity. The storage of cas temperatures retards or prevents all these types of d imate storage life of various kinds of nuts at severa Table 3. Cashew nuts are stored at temperatures of midity of 6075% (11). The shelf life of shelled nuts cuum packaging or storage in nitrogen. Treatments tend the shelf life of shelled nuts packaged in transp VI. Processing A. Cashew Nuts

Processing of cashew nuts involves recovery of the kernel, from nuts by manual/mechanical means and ture conditioning, roasting, shelling, drying, peeling tioning, and packaging.

Table 3 Appropriate Storage Life of Cashews and Other Nuts Months, in shell, atMonths, without shell, at Nut 0C 10C 21C 0C 10C 21C Year Cashews 12 Almonds 1520 612 6 612 6 6

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Chestnuts 46 Macadamias 1224 1224 Source: Ref. 11.

12 1520

36

13

Page 515

1. Cleaning Cashew nuts carry with them foreign matter such as sand, stones, dried cashew apples, etc., and hence cleaning is essential. Raw nuts are sieved by hand on 0.95-cm mesh sieves to remove dust and dirt. Vibratory sieves are also employed for the removal of foreign matter. 2. Moisture Conditioning Moisture conditioning involves sprinkling water on dried nuts to bring the moisture level to 15.25%. 3. Roasting Roasting makes the shell brittle. This is done either by drum roasting or by oil-bath roasting and mild roasting.

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Drum Roasting. In drum roasting, the nuts (without conditioning) are fed into a rotating drum which is heated until it becomes red hot and the shell is ignited. Once ignition starts, the drum maintains its temperature because of the burning of the oil oozing out of the nuts. The drum is rotated by hand for about 34 min. The roasted nuts, which are still burning, are removed from the discharge end. The nuts are covered with wood ash to absorb the oil on the surface. In this method of roasting, the shell becomes brittle. The rate of shelling and the outturn of whole kernels are reported to be very high. The main disadvantage of drum roasting is the total loss of cashew nut shell liquid, which has good commercial value. Further, during roasting, workers are exposed to heat and acid fumes. Only 1520% of factories are known to follow this method of roasting.

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Oil-Bath Roasting. In the oil-bath process, conditioned nuts are passed for 12 min through a bath of heated cashew nut shell oil maintained at a temperature of 350400F. The roaster consists of a rectangular vessel with or without a semicircular bottom. A screw or a belt conveyer operates inside the hot CNSL. The vessel is embedded in brickwork and heated by a furnace, which uses spent shells as fuel. The roasting time can be adjusted by varying the speed of the conveyer. As the shell is heated, the cell walls rupture, releasing the oil into the bath. About 8090% of the oil is released into the bath. The roasted nuts are then conveyed into a centrifuge. The residual oil adhering to the surface of the nuts is removed by centrifugation. The roasted nuts are then mixed with wood ash and sent for shelling. The oil flowing out the roaster and cooled oil from the centrifuge are conveyed to a tank to be filled into the drums. The techniques of oil-bath roasting followed in different

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factories vary to some extent with regard to temperature and time of roasting. Mild Roasting. Mild roasting is used in only a few factories. The nuts, after conditioning, are given a mild roasting. Nuts are roasted at low temperatures for 2025 minutes to remove surface water. This process loosens the kernel inside and renders the shell easy to cut. After roasting, the nuts are spread on the floor as a thin layer for cooling, and later they are sent for shelling. 4. Shelling or Decortication. Decortication is the process by which the nuts are cracked to separate the kernels from the shells. This is a skilled operation. If it is not done very carefully, the yield of whole kernels will be poor. Shelling is done mainly by manual labor.

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Hand- and foot-operated shelling machines are used in some factories. After mild roasting of the nuts in pans, they are subjected to shelling. The nuts are fed one by one between blades shaped to fit the contour of the nut. This can be achieved by the help of a foot pedal. The nut is cut to such a depth that it can be held in position between the blades. A hand lever is pressed which opens the shell into two parts. At this stage both hand and foot operations are released simultaneously. The

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pressure exerted should be regulated so as to cut the shell and not the kernel. This skill is acquired by experience. The nut, with the kernel sticking to one side, falls into a chute. The nut is picked up by another worker, who separates the kernel from the shell. About 2030 kg of nuts are estimated to be shelled in an 8-h shift. Since the nuts are subjected to mild roasting, the shell oil is intact. During cutting and shelling, the released oil comes in direct contact with the skin of the workers as well as kernels. There is no scope for applying ash or any other material to reduce the corrosive action of the liquid. Workers dip their hands in castor oil periodically to minimize the corrosive action.

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A machine in East Africa is based on the principle of using a miniature circular saw to cut the periphery of the nut and later for removal of the shell. One worker can shell, on average, 15 kg in an hour. However, this machine suffers from the disadvantage of corrosive action of the CNSL to the machine operator. 5. Drying of Cashew Kernels After the kernels are removed from the shells, they have to be dried in order to reduce the moisture and loosen the adhering testa. The drier commonly used in the industry is known as a Borma drier (11,12). The period of drying of the kernel varies from 57 hours. After drying, the kernels are heaped in baskets and kept there for 24 h. Later, they are sent for peeling. 6. Peeling, Grading, Conditioning, and Packing of Kernels

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Peeling. The kernels after Borma drying and storage have loose skins, which are easy to peel off. This is done by hand; usually 200300 women work in each factory. Sharp bamboo sticks are used to remove the red skin adhering to the kernels. One efficient woman can peel 45 kg kernels in 8 h. Grading of Kernels. After peeling, the kernels are stored according to size as wholes or splits and on the basis of color and other characteristics. The quality-control scheme for cashew kernels specified by the Cashew Export Promotion Council has recommended 24 different grades of cashew kernels. Grading operations are done manually.

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Kernel Conditioning. During the summer months, kernels become very dry during processing. If they are packed in tins this way, they break during transportation. Hence care is taken to condition the kernels to a uniform moisture level of not more than 5% by exposing them to a humid atmosphere. Packing. Graded kernels are packed in square tins of 25 lb capacity. The tins are filled by means of a chute, which keeps them shaking to pack uniformly. After filling and weighing, the tins are evacuated (65-cm vacuum) and filled with carbon dioxide with the help of gas packing equipment. Immediately after packing, the lids are put on top of the tins, which are soldered. For export purposes, the tins are carefully tested for leaks after a day's storage. Then they are packed in cartons (Fig. 2).

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7. Mechanized Plants for Processing Cashew Nuts During the last 10 years, highly mechanized plants for cashew processing have been established in East Africa. Traditional steps of processing are retained, to obtain maximum yield of whole kernels and cashew nut shell liquid. Braibanti and Co., Italy, installed their first plant in Mozambique with a capacity of 2500 tonnes of nuts per year in a single shift each day. The plant consists of equipment for cleaning the raw material, grading machines, washing machines, humidifying tins, cardol extractors, cleaners, breaking devices for separating the kernels from the shells, a suction-type pneumatic system for separating the shells from the kernels, five tiered driers with loading and unloading devices, a

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Fig. 2 Cartoning of cashew nuts.

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decuticling device fitted with oscillating rubber brushes, a pneumatic separator for skins and kernels, a roller-type grading device, and vacuum-packing equipment. This plant is known to produce only 5055% wholes. Thus it appears to be uneconomical when compared with hand shelling. The capacity of the plant is 10001200 kg of nuts per day.

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Another plant was installed in Tanzania as a joint venture between the Government of Tanzania and Oltremare SPA Bolonga, an Italian firm (13). The plant is known to produce 9000 tonnes of kernels per year in a two-shift operation, but details are not available. The Oltremare (14) plant installed by the Italians in collaboration with the Tanzanian Government had improved performance. The machine gives 6570% wholes. The product obtained is completely free from contamination by CNSL, the yield and quantity being comparable to the manual process in India. Sturtevant Engineering Company, England, has reported successful working of the Sturtevant system. The system essentially follows the oil-bath roasting process and is mechanized for continuous operation. B. Cashew Shell Liquid

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Cashew nut shell liquid (CNSL) lends itself to polymerization, and various physical methods such as heat, pressure, radiation, and electrical charges are used. CNSL resins are used as the starting material for anticorrosive paints and varnishes. CNSL varnishes are used for producing electrical insulators, waterproofing paper, and cardboard finishing agents. CNSL reacts with formaldehyde to form a rubbery gel which can be used as a cement. Cation polymers are produced

from CNSL. The liquid is used as a waterproofing a painting of boats, fishing nets, and light woodwork C. Cashew Apple

Cashew apple is an important by-product of cashew nut produced, roughly 5 tonnes of cashew apples ar fruits are wasted at present. Cashew apples contain which produce an unpleasant biting sensation on th as such. The fruits are highly susceptible to injury a tion. These factors, together with the difficulties ex fruits, have deterred commercial utilization of this n been found possible to remove the astringent princi utilize these fruits for conversion into several produ clude clarified and cloudy cashew apple juice, blen apple juice concentrate, cashew apple preserve and mixed-fruit jam, pickles, chutney, and canned prod 1. Characteristics of Cashew Apple

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Cashew apple is not a true fruit but a swollen pedun attached (18). It is a soft but fibrous juicy fruit. It p teristics. Based on external color of the fruit, cashew fied into two varieties, red and yellow.

Data on the physicochemical composition of the jui yellow varieties of cashew apples grown in India in Table 4. The astringent and acrid taste of the fruit h and an oily substance present in the fruit (19), altho stance has not been identified. Leucodelphinidin ha polyphenol constituent of cashew apple juice (20). phenol content are the two important factors from t cashew apples. 2. Removal of Astringent and Acrid Principles

Various methods have been tried to remove the astr cashew apples. Of these, three methods have been f preparation of different products

Table 4 Physicochemical Properties of Cashew Apples (Juice Kerala region Characteristic Red fruits Yellow

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Juice yield (%) pH Total soluble solids (%) Acidity (as malic acid) (%) True ascorbic acid (mg/100 g) Total sugars (%) Total tannins (%) Source: Ref. 18

71.2 3.9 12.6 0.19 117 8.7 0.34

72. 4.0 11. 0.2 126 8.3 0.3

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(19). These include (a) steaming the fruit for 5 min under a steam pressure of 5 psi and subsequently washing the fruit with cold water; (b) cooking the fruit for 5 min in a boiling solution of common salt (2%); and (c) adding a specific quantity of gelatin solution to the juice expressed from the fresh fruit (10) 3. Cashew Apple Beverages.

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Clarified Cashew Apple Juice. Cashew apple is highly perishable and requires prompt handling. Only good and sound fruits should be used for juice extraction. The juice can be extracted from cut fruits in a screw-type juice extractor or by pressing in a basket press, preferably by a combination of the two operations. The astringent and acrid principles are removed by gelatin treatment (concentration of gelatin in the juice to be about 0.5%). After settling and filtration, the Brix of the juice is raised to 15 and acidity to 0.4% by addition of sugar and citric acid. The juice thus prepared is then bottled (19)

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Cloudy Juice. Cashew apples steamed at 24 kg pressure for 510 min or boiled for 45 min in 2% salt solution followed by cooling and washing in water are used for juice extraction. The juice expressed is further treated with 0.45% gelatin. The precipitate is separated and juice formulated and preserved like clear juice (19). It is reported that clear and cloudy juice is produced and marketed in Brazil (23) Blended Juice. It is possible to blend cashew apple, grape, and apple juice (19,21). Cashew apple juice can be blended better only with pineapple and lime juices (22). Other blended juices, although found to be a good product to begin with, develop an off-flavor during storage. Beverages prepared based on cashew apple and pineapple juice blends were found to be the most acceptable drink in different regions of India (22)

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Cashew Apple Juice Concentrate. Studies on the concentration of clarified cashew apple juice in a forced-circulation evaporator with added SO2 showed that a good-quality concentrate could be prepared by this technique (22,23). It has been found to be not advantageous to concentrate the juice beyond 60 Brix. The beverage prepared from the concentrate appears to be more acceptable due to mellowing of the flavor (22). Cashew Apple Vinegar. The possibility of preparing vinegar from cashew apple juice after raising the Brix to 12 has been reported (21). Addition of 0.05% ammonium phosphate was found to help fermentation. Vinegar fermentation was done by both slow and fast processes. The cashew vinegar thus prepared had more than 5.3% acidity and compared well with commercial vinegar. D. Cashew Apple Candy and Jam

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A method of preparing candy from cashew apples after curing the ripe fruit in brine solution, starting with 2% concentration and increasing it up to 10% (in 5 or 6 days) and steaming at 24 kg pressure for 1015 min, has been described (19). The actual candying process is then carried out as usual starting with a 30 Brix syrup containing 0.05% citric acid. The preparation of cashew apple and mixed jam, after curing the fruit as described above, has also been reported (19). Sugar equal to the weight of fresh fruit can be used and 0.3% citric acid added toward the end of the cooking process. Mixed-fruit jam made by mixing cashew apple pulp with an equal quantity of banana pulp or pineapple pulp can also be prepared (22). E. Canned Cashew Apple

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To prepare canned cashew apples, firm, ripe fruits are selected, and lye peeling by cooking in boiling 0.5% sodium hydroxide solution for 34 min is followed by washing and further cooking in a boiling 0.2 N solution of H2SO4 for a minute. After washing, the fruits are steamed for 4 min

Page 5

at 2-kg steam pressure, followed by cooling in wate The fruits are then cut into halves (lengthwise), fille into cans covered with 40 Brix syrup, exhausted, a processed for 30 min at 4-kg steam pressure before cooling in water. Canned curried vegetables from ra green fruit in combination with potatoes (1:1) or potatoes and tomatoes (2:1) have also been reported (19). F. Cashew Apple Chutney and Pickles

Cashew apple chutney (19) can be prepared from fruits treated in 2% brine as for jam, followed by washing and steaming at 4-kg steam pressure for 57 min. Raw green fruit is steamed as recommended earlier, washed, and kept in 10% brine for 3 weeks. is then pickled (19) in the usual way as half-fruits after trimming off undesirable end portions. G. Alcoholic Beverage

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Alcoholic beverages are prepared by fermentation o cashew apple juice. In India, in the Goa region, a so of brandy called Fenni is made by fermenting the juice and then by distillation through an old and crude method (23). The method of preparation and other details regarding cashew fenni have been described (24). Juice is first extracted and collected in vats, where it is acted upon by microorganisms present in the apple that cause fermentation. The fe mented juice is distilled in pot stills to give arrack, which, on further distillation, produces fenni (Table 5). It is further matured in wooden barrels to give fi ness to the product.

Good-quality wine and brandy from cashew apple has been developed at CFTRI, Mysore, India (24). Distillation is carried out using column stills to obta brandy. One ton of fruit is reported to yield on aver age about 580 liters of wine or about 74 liters of brandy (24).

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In Tanzania a product called konioi, akin to gin, is made (16). In Brazil, cashew apple wine is prepared and marketed on a commercial scale, although its s is declining. But another fascinating product is sold to tourists in Brazil (23). This is bottled cashew app in sugarcane brandy. While the peduncle is still small, the nut is removed and the peduncle is introduced into the bottle and allowed to grow. When fully matured, the apple is separated from the main branch and the bottle is filled with sugarcane brand H. Cashew Apple Residue

Cashew apple residue, left after juice extraction, ac counts for 3040% of the whole fruit. The residue co tains on a dry-weight basis about 9% protein, 4% fa 8% crude fiber, and 1.0% pectin and is also rich in ascorbic acid and minerals (18). The residue has be suggested to be utilized
Table 5 Some Characteristics of Fenni Particulars Cashew fenni

Permitted limi

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Alcohol (%) Total acids (g) Volatile acids (g) Esters (g) Higher alcohols (g) Aldehydes (g) Furfural (g) Copper (ppm)

52.13 69.21 1.15 64.31 168.7 18.20 2.62 2.85

42.25 min. 100 max. 100 max. 10 min. 300 max. 90 max. 5 max. 10 max.

Page 521

for the recovery of low-methoxyl pectin (LMP), as its jelly grade has been found to be poor, or as cattle feed after drying. The peduncle is reported to be dried and used as a bait for catching crustaceans in Brazil and as animal feed in Mozambique (23). References 1. Nambiar, M. C., and P. K. T. Pillai, Cashew, Fruits of India: Tropical and Sub-tropical (T. K. Bose, ed.), Naya Prokash, Calcutta, 1985, p. 409. 2. Mathew, A. G., and M. K. Unnikrshnan, Harvesting and processing, Cashew (M. K. Nair, ed.), CPCRI, Kasaragod, India, 1979, p. 82. 3. FAO, Production Year Book, Food and Agriculture Organization, Rome, 1990.

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4. Purseglove, J. W., Tropical Crops: Dicotyledons, Longman, London, 1968. 5. Gunjate, R. T., V. P. Limaye, S. Nagabhushanam, M. K. Nair, and K. K. Vidyadharan, Crop Improvement, Cashew (M. K. Nair, ed.), CPCRI, Kasaragod, India, 1979, p. 27. 6. Phadnis, N. A., K. G. Choudhari, and D. G. Bandekar, Studies in the raising of cashew (Anacardium occidentale L.) clonal material in situ, Indian Cashew J. 8(2):7 (1971). 7. Ghosh, S. N., Effect of nitrogen, phosphorus, and potassium on flowering duration, yield, and shelling percentage of cashew, Indian Cashew J. 19:19 (1989). 8. Samiayyan, K. M., Ganeshkumar, and H. A. Shah, Efficacy of insecticides for control of teamosquito bug (Helopeltis antonii s.) on cashew, South Indian Hort. 37:346 (1989).

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9. Pan, X. L., and L. P. S. Geest, Insect pests of cashew in China and their control, Van Der J. Appl. Ento. 110:370 (1990). 10. Kuppuswamy, S., M. Sreenivasan, and V. Subramanyan, Special Report Series No. 33, ICMR, New Delhi, 1958. 11. Hardenburg, R. E., A. E. Watada, and C. Y. Wang, The Commercial Storage of Fruits, Vegetables and Florist and Nursery Stock, U.S. Dept. of Agriculture Handbook 66, 1986, p. 74. 12. Russel, D. C., Cashewnut Processing, Agr. Serv. Bull. No. 6, Food and Agriculture Organization, Rome, 1969, p. 86. 13. Haull, F. J., and L. Banks, Cashew Nut Processing, Part I, J. Trop. Sci. 7(1):12 (1965). 14. Datta, M. F., The CashewThe Nut of Africa, M/s Oltremare, S.P.A. Bolonga, Italy, 1965.

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15. Cashewnut Shell Liquid Patents, U.K., India, Japan, The Cashew Export Promotion Council, I and II, 1964. 16. Cashew products, Cashew ICAR Monographs on Plantation Crops. I, Central Plantation Crop Research Institute, Kasaragod, Kerala, India, 1979, p. 90. 17. Nanjudaswamy, A. M., G. R. Shetty, and M. V. Patwardhan, Utilization of Cashew apples for the Development of Processed Products, Int. Cashew Symp. Cochin, Kerala, India, March 1215 1979. 18. Morales, R., and M. Landires, Biotechnology in cashew (Anacardium occidentale L.) processing, Ciencia Agropecuaria 5:51 (1988). 19. Jain, N. L., D. P. Das, and G. Lal, Proc. Symp. on Fruit and Vegetable Industry in India, CFTRI, Mysore, India, 1954.

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20. Sastry, L. V. L., L. N. Setty, V. K. Satyavati, J. S. Pruthi, and G. S. Siddappa, Cashew processing, Indian J. Appl. Chem. 25:4 (1962). 21. Satyavati, V. K., K. K. Mookerji, and G. G. Bandopadhyaya, Annual Report, CFTRI, Mysore, India, 1962, p. 433. 22. Nanjudaswamy, A. M., G. R. Shetty, K. C. Chikkappaji, D. Rajalakshmi, and M. V. Patwardhan, Unpublished data, CFTRI, Mysore, India, 1980. 23. Johnson, D., Cashew apple products in Brazil, Indian Cashew J. 12:11 (1977). 24. Naronha, C., Raw materials for fenni, Symp. on Alcoholic Beverage Industries in India, AFST and CFTRI, Mysore, India, 1972, p. 21.

Page 523

27 Other Nuts
S. S. Deshpande Idetek, Inc., Sunnyvale, California S. K. Sathe Florida State University, Tallahassee, Florida S. S. Kadam Mahatma Phule Agricultural University, Rahuri, Maharashtra, India I. Almond.

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The sweet almond (Amygdalus communis) originated in the Mediterranean basin and has been cultivated from ancient times. One race of the almond, which produces bitter nuts, is grown in some parts of Europe, largely for the manufacture of flavoring extracts. The soft-shelled cultivars are commercially more important than the hard-shelled ones. The principal commercial producers during 1990 were the United States, Italy, Iran, Tunisia, and Turkey (Table 1). A. Production 1. Soil and Climate

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Almond is a heavy feeder of plant nutrients. Best crops are produced in deep, fertile, welldrained, light, loamy soils. Heavy soil must be avoided for its production. Almond grows successfully up to an altitude of 2450 m, but the optimum elevation is up to 750 m. It requires a warm, clear spring and summer for best growth and fruiting. Although it can grow in a wide variety of climates, bestquality fruits are produced only in areas having dry atmospheric conditions (2). 2. Propagation

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Seed propagation is the most common method of propagation. Only graded, good-quality nuts are used for propagation. The nuts, which are harvested in June-July, are stored in a cool, dry place until they are stratified in December. The nuts require stratification or chilling treatment at low temperatures (about 45C) for 4560 days to break dormancy. The seed shell begins to crack open at the end of dormancy, and the seeds show signs of germination. These nuts are taken out and sown in nursery beds. The seedlings are ready for transplanting in about 1 year. Among vegetative methods, budding and grafting are more successful in this crop. Seedlings of apricot, plum, peach, and almond have been tried as understocks for budding or grafting. Peach and almond produce good-quality grafts. Almond seedlings, due to their deep root system, are more suitable for arid zones.

Page 5 Table 1 Major Countries Producing Almonds Production Country (1000 MT) Country World 1315 Tunisia United States 478 Turkey Spain 250 Pakistan China 122 Syria Italy 100 USSR Iran 65 Portugal Greece 56 Ivory Coast Source: Ref. 1

Productio (1000 MT 45 40 31 30 18 18 13.5

3. Cultivation

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The almond seedlings or budded (or grafted) plants are planted at 68 m distance (both ways). Due to se incompatibility, most of almond varieties are not se fertilized. Therefore, it is essential to plant more tha one variety in each location. The date of flowering an important consideration in selection of varieties. Varieties with overlapping flowering and flowering for longer duration are considered to be more suitab as pollinators

The young plants need protection from frost, heavy rainfall, and strong winds. Regular irrigation, depen ing on the soil type and weather conditions, is nece sary to produce a good crop. As it is a heavy feeder the organic matter in the soil should always be at a high level. This can be accomplished by regular ma nuring and application of nitrogenous (about 40060 g of nitrogen per year) and phosphatic fertilizer (150160 g of phosphorus per year)

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In almond, the fruits are borne primarily on shortspurs, with some on 1-year-old spurs. The spurs remain productive for 5 years. In bearing trees, generally one-fifth of old bearing wood is pruned every year to encourage production of new spurs. T pruning consists of thinning of branches only. Seve pruning should be avoided, as it affects productivity 4. Harvesting, Handling, and Maturity

Almonds are harvested manually or mechanically. Before mechanization, hand-held mallets were used to strike the major limbs to remove nuts. Canvas sheets, either moved manually or dragged from tree to tree by tractor power, are used to catch the falling nuts (3). Most commercial almond orchards presen employ inertia limb shakers to remove nuts, windrowers to concentrate them, and pickup machines gather them. The shake-catch systems are preferred avoid contact of nuts with toxic molds that produce aflatoxins.

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B. Chemical Composition

The chemical composition of almond as reported by Dhaliwal et al. (6) is presented in Table 2. Almond kernels are rich in lipids and proteins. The sugar co tent ranges from 2.98 to 17.05%. Abrol (7) studied biosynthesis of amygdalin, the cyanogenic glucosid of bitter almonds, and observed that phenylalanine serves as a precursor of amygdalin in P. amygdalus Cynogenic glycosides yield hydrocyanic acid upon hydrolysis.

Almond oil is extracted from bitter or sweet almond Essence of almonds is obtained only from bitter almonds (by decomposition of amygdalin) and is ofte called bitter almond oil. It owes its characteristic od and flavor to benzaldehyde (7).

Table 2 Chemical Composition of Almond Kernel

Cultivar Kernel (%) Moisture (%)Ash (%)Fat (%)P Jeori Selection 1 3.40 Hybrid 4 4.14 3.73 47.37 HP Selection 10 5.06 3.00 56.41 Hybrid 15 4.78 3.52 55.51 California Paper Shell 4.98 3.70 53.12 IXL 4.60 4.00 54.29 Merced 4.30 3.37 57.98 Dethick's Wonder 5.40 3.74 47.57 Strout's Paper Shell 5.70 3.90 57.76 Brue 4.75 3.50 55.51 Sloh 5.08 2.80 50.26 (peach almond hybrid) Source: Ref. 6.

C. Storage

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In-shell almonds can be stored for about 78 months humidity (RH), if the nuts are dried properly. For p should be held at 10C or below. Almonds can rem as long as 2 years if stored at 0C with about 75% R creases the perishability of all nuts, shelled almond most other nuts. Air storage at 0C with 6075% RH months.

Wright (4) reported that modified atmosphere (vacu air for maintenance of flavor during prolonged stor almonds were superior in color to those stored in C Good quality was maintained for 8 months in vacuu monds stored in air at this temperature turned black (CA) storage was found to be equal to or better than in the shell or as meats (8). Stored almonds may be Walker, which initiates its infestation in the orchard insects may infest the nuts (8). Insect control is acc fumigating with methyl bromide or phosphein, or tr D. Processing.

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After the nuts are harvested, they are hulled as soon sacked or loaded into bulk bins and taken to a recei ally separated from the shells; kernels that are brok and diverted to special uses. The sound kernels are treatment. These are sold as whole, unblanched, sel ing to the size of the kernels (5).

Page 5

II. Pistachio

Pistachio nut (Pistacio vera) is native to semi-deser areas and mountains of south-central Asia. It has been used as a nutritious food item since prehistoric times. Other species of pistachio are atlantica, lentiscus, mutica, terebinthus, chinensis, mexicana, an integerrima. The commercial production of pistach is concentrated in the United States, Iran, Turkey, Greece, Syria, and Afghanistan (Table 3). A. Production

Budding or grafting is the most common method of propagation in pistachio. The seedling of the above mentioned species are used as understock. Dorman scion buds take better than nondormant buds (2). Therefore, some growers keep the buds in cold stor age before budding. The budding operation is performed on 1-year-old root stock.

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Pistachio is a dry-climate crop, hardier than other arid-zone crops such as fig and olive. It can be grow in several kinds of soils. Once the tree is established it needs hardly any supplementary irrigation. The re commended spacing is about 8 m (both ways). Sinc the flowers are dioecious, there should be a proper proportion of male to female plants. Generally, one male plant for six female plants is sufficient to provide enough pollen for the female flowers. Som growers mix more than one species. The male trees are usually more vigorous than the female ones. Th grafts start bearing from the fourth year, and up to 4045 kg of nuts can be expected from an individual tree. B. Chemical Composition

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Pistachio nuts contain 5.3% moisture, 19.3% protei 53.7% lipids, 19.0% carbohydrates, and 2.9% mine als (5). They are a good source of magnesium, phos phorus, iron, thiamin, niacin, and riboflavin. The lip ids contain myristic acid (0.6%), palmitic acid (8.2%), stearic acid (1.6%), oleic acid (69.0%), linoleic acid (19.8%), and unsaponifiable matter (0.8%) (5). The oil has a green color and an agreeab odor, like the nut. The oil has specific gravity at 24 of 0.9134, refractive index at 20C of 1.4687, an io ine number of 83.8, and a saponification number of 194.5. C. Storage

2526/2989

Wells and Barber (13) observed that freshly harves ted, dried and shelled pistachios were very stable in storage. Nuts with 4.5% moisture and 49.2% oil we stored at 0, 3.3, 10.0, and 23.9C and in N2 at 3.3 an 23.9C. After 60 weeks' storage, there was no ranci ity or significant difference in quality between thos held at 0 and at 23.9C. After 20 months' storage, samples
Table 3 Major Countries Producing Pistachio Production Country (1000 MT) Country World 220 Turkey Iran 125.0 Greece United States 53.5 Afghanistan Syria 20.0 Source: Ref. 1.

Productio (1000 MT 16.0 3.0 2.0

were found to be in good condition. Lutz and Harde ported that the storage life of pistachios can be exte holding the nuts at 0C. D. Processing

The moisture content of pistachio kernels at harves as 45% (15). This must be reduced to 45% within a Natural air drying can be employed in low-humidit ure conditions. The nuts can, however, be dehydrat air at 3537.8C, very effectively and rapidly (3). In be dried from 2230% to 56% moisture content with air at 3537.8C (14). Freshly harvested nuts with 45 about 18 h in the dryer to reach 56% moisture. III. Chestnut

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The European species of chestnuts (Castanea sativa importance, although chestnuts are also grown in C Japan (C. crenata), and the United States (C. denta ive chestnuts grown in the North and Central Atlan ited States were wiped out by disease (3). Unlike ot starchy nut, with only about 5% oil on a fresh-weig chestnuts should be bright, shiny, and free from mo fresh kernels. Chinese chestnuts have light-brown s and Japanese species are dark brown. The major pr during 1990 were China (producing about one-fifth nuts), Turkey, Italy, Japan, France, and the Korean A. Production

Chestnut can be grown on a wide range of soil type acid soil, but is susceptible to poor drainage conditi mon method of propagation is by budding or graftin nuts. The trees do not require any special cultural p

2529/2989

Chestnuts are very susceptible to molds. Infection m nuts are still on the tree. Wright (15) isolated fungi from Chinese chestnuts. He also found that some ke sociated with bacteria and yeasts. Chestnuts are pic on alternate days during the harvest season to avoid Prompt removal of fruit from the ground is necessa

Table 4 Major Countries Producing Chestnuts Production Country (1000 MT) Country World 488 Spain China 100 Romania Turkey 90 Argentina Korean Republic 78 Korean Democratic Repu Japan 50 France Italy 50 Greece Source: Ref. 1.

Page 528

B. Composition. Chestnuts contain very high amounts of carbohydrates, particularly starch, but are low in fats compared to other nuts. These nuts contain 4.56.5% moisture, 9.6112.23% protein, 2.552.84% fiber, 16.8132.15% starch, 7.1116.42% fat, and 2.663.03% minerals. These nuts are a good source of thiamine, riboflavin, and niacin (5). C. Storage

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Prompt storage of chestnuts at 0C has been recommended. Ryall and Pentzer (3) pointed out that prevention of moisture loss from kernels and reduction of decay organisms are the principal objectives of storage of chestnuts. The burial of sacks of nuts in moist sand or earth in shade has also been used. Woodroof (5) recommended storage of chestnuts at 02.2C immediately after harvest.

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The use of vented polyethylene bags prevents moisture loss. Lipovec (17) compared the storage life of European chestnuts with or without polyethylene box liners at -1.2 to 0C, and in a cellar with temperature decreasing during the storage period from 12.8 to 3.9C. The nuts stored in unlined boxes at either cellar or coldstorage temperatures lost so much moisture that the kernels turned hard and bony. The beneficial effects of packaging were attributed to the accumulation of a suitable concentration of CO2 in the polyethylene-lined boxes, but no CO2 figures were given to substantiate this. D. Processing Chestnuts are purchased in the shell. The shell content ranges from 2125%. The nuts are shelled and dried. They are used as fresh dried, as flour, meal paste, or candied, and mixed with onions.

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IV. Walnut The Persian (English) walnut (Juglans regia) probably originated in the region of the Caspian Sea, but it is grown all over Mediterranean Europe and most other temperate zones of the world. Southern Europe and the Western United States are the principal producers of walnuts. Black walnut, native to eastern North America, is called J. nigra. The western walnut, J. californica, is of little commercial interest (3). The principal walnut-producing countries in 1990 were the United States, Turkey, China, the Soviet Union, Italy, and Spain (Table 5). A. Production

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Walnut trees are susceptible to poor drainage, so heavy soil should be avoided. The ideal soil for walnut is a well-drained, rich, deep (23 m), sandy loam or silt loam. The soil should not be alkaline. Walnut can also be grown on marginal or submarginal soils, on the borders of arable land, or on rocky soils. In shallow soil, the trees suffer from shortage of soil moisture. The climate for walnut should be free from frost in spring and extreme heat during summer. The young buds are vulnerable to low-temperature damage, particularly when the temperature falls 23C below the freezing point (0C). It comes up well in mild climate with moderate rainfall (about 750 mm).

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Seed propagation is by far the most common method in walnut. The walnuts are collected from vigorous and high-yielding trees. These nuts are stratified until they are sown. The nuts are sown 810 cm deep. Germination takes place in about 3 months. The growth of seedlings is relatively slower during the first year, but normal growth starts after the second year. Among vegetative

Page 52 Table 5 Major Producers of Walnuts Production Country (1000 MT) Country World 946 Bulgaria Iran 350 Pakistan United States 199 Greece China 190 India Turkey 115 Italy USSR 95 Germany France 30 Source: Ref. 1. Production (1000 MT) 25 21 21 20 15 12

methods, whip grafting and budding are more common than others. Seedling plants of Juglans regia, J. nignnros, J. hindsii, J. californica, and Fugtans rupestris are generally used as root stock. Other methods, such as cleft grafting and patch budding, have also been used with success.

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Walnuts are planted on marginal lands at a distance of 1012 m (row to row and tree to tree). Farmyard manure is commonly used. The best time for planting is the beginning of monsoon. The young plants should be protected from strong wind, direct sun, heavy rains, frost, etc. Once the tree is established, no special care is necessary. However, some quantity of farmyard manure may be added every year fo proper growth and fruiting.

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Mechanical harvesters are employed to harvest matured walnuts. Present methods of harvest involve mechanical trunk or limb shakers, windrow machines to concentrate nuts between rows, and pickup machines to gather the windrowed crop. Smooth growth or spreading of canvas sheets is essential (3). In some orchards with younger trees, the shake-catch method with essentially the same equipment as for prune harvest is used. Martin (18) recommended spray applications of 5001000 ppm of ethephon (2-chloroethylphosphonic acid), 24 weeks before harvest, to aid mechanical harvest. The hulls dehisced readily, and a single mechanical shaking removed the nuts completely, about 3 weeks earlier than normal harvest periods. The quality of the harvested nuts was superior to those of untreated walnuts. B. Chemical Composition

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There are two types of walnuts, black and Persian (English). The chemical composition is presented in Table 6. The oil of black walnuts contains 5.39% saturated and 88.55% unsaturated fatty acids. The composition of oil in terms of percent fatty acid is oleic, 35.6; linoleic, 48.6; linolenic, 7.4; myristic, 0.4; palmitic, 3.4; stearic, 1.8; and lignoceric, 0.04 (5). The black walnut oil has a refractive index of 1.4730 (25C), an iodine number of 135, and a saponification number of 193.5. English walnut oil has a specific gravity of 0.9235, a refractive index of 1.4751, an iodine number of 158.5, a saponification number of 194.5, an acid number of 5.11; 5.34% saturated acids, and 87.74% unsaturated acids (5). C. Storage

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Properly dried, in-shell walnuts can be held at 0C with 6075% RH. Shelling reduces the storage life o nuts by about one-half, as is the case with most other high-oil nuts. Prompt storage at low temperat ure is therefore recommended for in-shell nuts and is essential for the shelled walnuts. In-shell walnuts can be preserved for about 6 months or less if store at 10C (3). Lutz and

Page 530 Table 6 Chemical Composition of Walnut Constituent Black Persian Moisture (%) 3.1 3.5 Protein (%) 20.5 14.8 Fat (%) 59.3 64.0 Total CHO (%) 14.8 15.8 Fiber (%) 1.7 2.1 Minerals (mg/100 g) 570 380 Phosphorus Trace 99 Calcium 6.0 3.1 Iron 460 150 Potassium Vitamins (mg/100 g) 0.22 0.33 Thiamine 0.11 0.13 Riboflavin 0.7 0.9 Niacin Source: Ref. 5

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Hardenburg (14) reported the effects of various temperatures on storage behavior of Persian and black walnuts. While Persian walnuts can be stored for about 1 year at 0C, the storage life of black walnuts can be extended up to 15 months by storing them at 0C Exposure of shelled walnuts to gamma irradiation, even at a relatively low dosage of 50,000 rad, seriously damaged flavor and odor. Objectionable changes occurred immediately after exposure and did not disappear after 30 days' holding. Ryall and Pentzer (3) concluded that irradiation is not feasible to control molds in shelled nuts.

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Wright (4) studied the effects of temperature, CO2, and N2 on shelled nuts as compared with air storage. Vacuum-packed walnut kernels kept better than those packed in any other way. In vacuum, the walnuts retained good quality after up to 1925 months of storage at 0 and 10C. Even at 21.1C, vacuum-packed nuts remained in good condition for up to 19 months. Storage in an atmosphere of CO2 or N2 was found to be better than air storage at each temperature but was much less effective than the vacuum storage.

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Various antioxidant chemicals have been used to control rancidity in shelled walnuts during storage and marketing. Wells and Barber (13) reported that walnuts in packages labeled as antioxidant, treated in the retail store, were much superior to untreated nuts; about 95% of the nuts from these packages were rated good to excellent in flavor, odor, and color. This study pointed out the significance of protecting shelled nuts from unfavorable temperatures and intense light exposure in retail stores. Musco and Cruess (19) reported the effects of light, antioxidants, and vacuum packing on walnut meats. The deterioration, as formation of fatty acids, was found to be closely related to the moisture content and exposure to oxygen and light. Packing the nuts in lightproof films and in vacuum and low moisture content slowed deterioration. Studies with commercial and laboratory-formulated antioxidants (20,21) confirmed the

2545/2989

usefulness of antioxidants in preserving superior nut quality. D. Processing Walnuts are purchased shelled or unshelled and are processed as salted, glazed, roasted, butter meal, or pickled (immature). They are used with or as adjuncts to almost any kind of baked or

Page 531

roasted foods, salads, breads, cakes, cookies, pies, filling, frostings, candies, and as a nibble or garnish (5). V. Macadamia. The macadamia nut is indigenous to the coastal rain forests of southeast Queensland and northern river districts of New South Wales, Australia (21). This is known as Queensland nut, Australian nut, Bopple nut, and Bauple nut. This nut was discovered by Walter Hill and Ferdinand Mueller and named the macadamia in honor of Dr. John Macadam, President of the Philosophical Society of Victoria, Australia (22).

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Macadamia belongs to the botanical family Proteaceae. There are ten species of Macadamia, but only two of these produce edible nuts. The most commonly grown species is Macadamia integrifolia, known as the smooth-shell type. Macadamia tetraphylla, the rough-shell type, has less desirable processing properties and therefore limited production. Grafted plants flower in 57 years following transplanting into the field (23). The clusters of nuts are borne on racemes about 215 days after flowering.

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The selection of macadamia varieties has been based largely on work conducted by the Hawaii Agricultural Experiment Station. These include HAES 246 Keauhou, HAES 333 Ikaika, HAES 508 Kakea, HAES 660 Keaau, HAES 334 Kau, HAES 741 Mauka, and HAES 800 Makai (24). Both species of nuts and some hybrids are grown in California. Varieties that are well suited to one area do not necessarily perform well in other locations. Hence, each new growing area requires its own varietal selection program (25).

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Jones and Shaw (26) studied the development of macadamia nuts from flowering to maturity. The first 90 days after flowering are spent mostly in laying down the structure of the fruit and in growth of the husk, shell, and endosperm. After 90 days, the macadamia embryo enlarges rapidly and begins to form and accumulate oil. Protein and sucrose are also accumulated. Total nitrogen increases throughout development, but as a percentage of dry weight, it declines after 90 days. After 136 days of flowering, there is a decrease in sugar content with a concomitant increase in fat content. Short-chain saturated fatty acids are formed first from sugar and are then converted into long-chain unsaturated fatty acids. A. Production

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Soil and climatic requirements for growing macadamia are very similar to those for growing common guava (5). An ideal macadamia soil should be reasonably fertile and friable enough to permit good root growth. A pH between 4.5 and 6.5 appears to be favorable for this crop. It grows well at elevations ranging from near sea level up to about 2500 ft. Commercial production of macadamia nuts is from grafted trees of selected varieties. Seedling trees have proven to be unsatisfactory for commercial production due to extreme variation in productivity and kernel quality. The seedling trees generally require longer to produce, with only an average 24% kernel yield (23), and may produce bitter nuts. Grafted trees produce three to four times more nuts on average than seedling trees of similar size and age, and produce kernel yields ranging from 33 to 44% (24).

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Selected varieties of macadamia, if well grown without crowding or shading, develop into large, handsome, and well-shaped trees. The primary purpose of training yield trees is to develop a strong, well-balanced frame for future growth. Macadamia trees developing naturally without training often produce several leaders. This necessitates pruning out extra leaders, leaving only the strongest, straightest one to develop into the trunk of the tree. It is recommended that the lowest branches be allowed to develop 23 ft above ground level. Successive groups of main

Page 532

branches should be spaced 12 ft apart up and down the trunk and arranged uniformly around the trunk. If possible, branches should not be permitted to develop directly above or below the next set of branches. This arrangement and spacing of main branches will establish trees of desirable form and maximum strength.

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It is usual practice to give all bearing macadamia trees in commercial orchards one or more application of fertilizer during the year. Productive macadamia nut trees have a high requirement for nitrogen and potassium as well as phosphorus. Nitrogen, phosphorus, and potassium are used in relatively large quantities by the trees. Older trees in heavy production utilize large amounts of nitrogen and potassium, much of which is removed from the field when the crop is harvested. For small trees not yet in production, complete fertilizers with high nitrogen and phosphorus to promote vegetative growth would probably be more appropriate. The mature nuts fall from the trees. Since nut drop and harvesting extend over about a 7-month period, several harvests are required. Mechanical harvesting has been used on a limited basis in Hawaii. However, most harvesting is done by hand.

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B. Composition The nutrient composition of roasted macadamia kernels (26) is presented in Table 7. In addition to the high fat content, macadamia kernels contain relatively large amounts of protein and carbohydrates. They are considered a good source of calcium, phosphorus, iron, and the B vitamins thiamine, riboflavin, and niacin. Like the proteins of many oil seeds, macadamia protein is low in methionine. Arginine, aspartic acid, and glutamic acid comprise 46.5 and 45.% of the total amino acids in M. tetraphylla and M. integrifolia, respectively.

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The oil is characterized by a high percentage of monounsaturated fatty acids, oleic and palmitoleic being the predominant ones. The high concentration of palmitoleic acid appears to be unique to this nut. Rarely does this fatty acid exceed 10% in most seed oils and animal fats (27). The ratio of unsaturated to saturated fatty acids is slightly higher in M. integrifolia (6.2) than in
Table 7 Nutrient Composition of Roasted Macadamia Kernels Content Constituent (per 100 g edible portion) Moisture (g) 1.19 Fat (g) 78.21 Protein (g) 9.23 Total carbohydrates (g) 9.97 Fiber (g) 1.84 Ash (g) 1.40 Ca (mg) 53.40 P (mg) 240.80 Fe (mg) 1.99 Thiamine (mg) 0.216 Riboflavin (mg) 0.119

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Niacin (mg) Source: Ref. 27

1.60

Page 533

M. tetraphylla (4.8). These nuts are a good source of calcium, phosphorus, iron, and thiamine, riboflavin, and niacin (28). Macadamia proteins are low in methionine. Tryptophan appears to be absent, although it was identified as a free amino acid. Arginine, aspartic, and glutamic acid are the major amino acids in the nuts. Mature kernels of M. integrifolia vary from 35% in total sugar. Young and Hamilton (29) detected a cyanogenic glucoside proteacin as the bitter principle in bitter macadamia nuts. Tocopherols are present in varying amounts and are thought to contribute to nut stability. The average tocopherol content was 6.418 mg/g dry matter (30). Kawano et al. (31) found 1012% tannin in the husk of the Keauhou variety (M. integrifolia) and 6% in M. tetraphylla. C. Storage

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When macadamia nuts fall from the tree, the kernel moisture content varies from 23 to 25%. It is necessary to remove the green husk and initiate drying within 24 h of harvest; otherwise, undesirable changes lead to spoilage of the nut (32). During peak harvest, it is sometimes necessary to hold nuts in the shell before processing. Cavalelto et al. (33) showed that the flavor stability of roasted kernels prepared from in-shell nuts that had been dried to 1.2% kernel moisture and held at that level for as long as 12 months was equal to that of roasted kernels prepared from freshly harvested nuts. However, when nuts were stored at 3.8% kernel moisture (air dried), the shelf life of roasted products was somewhat reduced. Raw kernels with moisture content of about 2% had poor storage stability. Cavaletto et al. (34) showed that kernels with 2.3% moisture showed marked flavor deterioration after 4 months at ambient temperature. Kernels with 4.3% moisture deteriorated even more

2559/2989

rapidly. At higher storage temperature, deterioration is hastened. Naturally occurring enzymes are thought to be responsible for these changes. D. Processing 1. Drying

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When the nuts have been husked, the drying process should begin immediately. Higaki and Dedolph (35) found that lipolysis and molds are the major problems resulting from storage at high temperature and high relative humidity. Hence, storage of high-moisture nuts results in major losses. Drying is usually begun by passing ambient air through the nuts for approximately 1 week, followed by the application of low heat (3854C) for an additional 710 days. High-moisture nuts must be dried initially at low temperature (ambient to 38C); maximum drying temperatures are a function of kernel moisture content. The use of 38C instead of ambient temperature resulted in an increased rate of drying with no undesirable effects. 2. Roasting

2561/2989

After drying to about 1.5% moisture, kernels are roasted or deep fried in refined coconut oil for 1015 min. at 126135C. Dry roasting is also employed. If the moisture content of the kernel exceeds 2%, roasting characteristics and stability of the roasted product are poor. High-moisture kernels have a soft texture, and browning occurs more rapidly during roasting. During storage, especially at elevated temperatures, further darkening occurs and free fatty acids increase; the higher sugar content in the nuts results in rapid browning during roasting (36). Methyl sulfide has been identified as a major component of the volatile compounds of roasted nuts (37,38). Less than 1% increase in oil content occurs in macadamia nuts during oil roasting (38). Cavaletto and Yamamoto (39) compared the storage stability of dry-roasted macadamia nuts with or without added antioxidants at various levels of vacuum. The antioxidant treatment was effective in extending shelf-life stability in these

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antioxidant-treated nuts and was not affected by vacuum

Page 534

level. On the other hand, untreated kernels showed considerable flavor deterioration over 12 months' storage, and flavor quality was related directly to vacuum level. VI. Pecan The pecan is the most important of the nut trees in the southern United States. Pecan belongs to the genus Carva and family Juglandaceae. Pecan (Carva illinoensis) is native to the United States. A. Production.

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Pecan trees grow best in a climate like that of the central or southern states of the United States (40). The pecan is a deep-rooted, moisture-loving tree, which is unsuited to dry places or to places with an impervious subsoil (41). Schley, Burkett, and Nillis are the important varieties of pecan.

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A major portion of the crop is grown, harvested, and processed by mechanical systems that can have a substantial influence on nut quality (42). Standard practices includes fertilization, pest control, irrigation, and selective harvesting of mature nuts, followed by prompt drying and refrigeration. In traditional practice, pecan nuts were allowed to develop and cure naturally on the trees, then allowed to fall to the ground. After all the nuts had dropped, harvesting was accomplished by hand in a once-over operation. A period of 4 weeks or more is often required from the time of maturation of the earliest to the latest nuts (43). Nuts that matured earliest were often exposed to adverse weather conditions prior to harvest, which resulted in substantial impairment of quality. Modern mechanical harvesting and drying practices offer more precise control of quality than is possible with natural curing and hand harvesting. Moreover, mechanical harvesting that includes selective shaking of

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mature nuts from the trees can be performed at an earlier date and thus minimizes the effects of possible adverse weather. Woodroof and Heaton (43) noted that pecans harvested before the shells turned brown were poorly filled, light in weight, and difficult to shell. The quality of the nuts tends to improve soon after they reach full size. B. Composition The chemical composition of pecan is given by Woodroof (41). The nut contains 3.4% water, 9.2% protein, 71.2% fat, 14.6% carbohydrates, 2.3% fiber, 1.6% ash, or 73 mg% calcium, 289 mg% phosphorus, 2.4 mg% iron, 603 mg% potassium, 142 mg% magnesium, 0.86 mg% thiamine, 0.13 mg% riboflavin, 0.9 mg% niacin, and 2 mg% ascorbic acid. C. Storage

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Pecan kernels develop optimum flavor shortly after harvest and gradually deteriorate in all quality parameters during subsequent storage. Forbus et al. (44) described the sequence of this deterioration as follows: 1. Loss of volatile substances so that blandness tends to increase 2. Onset of oxidation, causing color darkening and the development of a stale aroma and flavor 3. Hydrolysis of fats resulting in increases in free fatty acids and development of an acrid flavor Pecan kernels are especially susceptible to staleness and rancidity because of their high oil content, which ranges from 5575% by weight among varieties (41), and the high percentage of unsaturated fatty acids present in the oils (45). Deterioration in quality can be retarded if kernel

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Page 535

moisture is reduced to 3.54.0% immediately after harvest, and if the pecans are stored at reduced temperatures until used. Kernel quality can be maintained for up to 3 years at a temperature of -2C and below (42).

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In commercial practice, pecans gradually deteriorate in quality because they are not refrigerated during the entire time between harvest and use. Williams et al. (46) estimated that more than 50% of pecan kernels offered for sale by retailers did not meet minimum USDA requirements because of discoloration, rancidity, and staleness. Pecan kernels were subjected to steam conditioning and dielectric heating treatments evaluated initially and during 16 weeks of accelerated storage to determine the effect of temperature on color characteristics. Steam conditioning treatment, which raised kernel temperature to 93C, caused significantly greater darkening of the kernels initially and during storage than did dielectric heating to 88, 136, and 156C (47). D. Processing

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Pecans are purchased in the shell, shelled, salted, and packed in tins, bags, or cartons. They are salted, oil roasted, or dry roasted and used in conjunction with almost any food, including pies, cakes, cookies, desserts, confections, fruit cups, salads, fruit, cakes, and snacks (41). According to Heaton and Woodroof (48), kernel moisture should be removed promptly after harvest in order to prevent development and discoloration. They found that most satisfactory color, texture, flavor, and oil stability resulted when the pecans were dried with moderately warm (below 40C) dry air circulating constantly around the nuts. Early harvesting and controlled drying of pecans provides a light colored, bright, uniform kernel with increased storage stability (49).

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Waste material from the pecan shelling industry has shown commercial possibilities for the recovery and production of oil, tannin, shell flour, and activated charcoal. Tannic acid produced from pecan shells is used by the tanning industry and by the oil industry to control the viscosity of drilling muds. The spent shells after extraction of tannin are used for making activated charcoal (41). References 1. FAO, Production Year Book, Vol. 34, Food and Agriculture Organization, Rome, 1991. 2. Hayes, W. B., Fruit Growing in India, 3rd rev. ed., Kitabistan, Allahabad, India, 1953. 3. Ryall, A. L., and W. T. Pentzer, Handling, Transportation and Storage of Fruits and Vegetables, Vol. 2, Fruits and Tree Nuts, AVI, Westport, CT, 1974.

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4. Wright, R. C., Investigations on the storage of nuts, U.S. Dept. of Agriculture Technical Bulletin 770, 1941. 5. Woodroof, J. G., Tree Nuts: Production, Processing and Products, AVI, Westport, CT, 1967. 6. Dhaliwal, G. S., J. S. Jawanda, and D. K. Uppal, Studies on physico-chemical characteristics of almond, Punjab Hort. J. 18:72 (1978). 7. Abrol, Y. P., Biosynthesis of amygdalin the cyanogenic glycoside of bitter almonds (Prunus amygdalus), Indian J. Biochem. 41:54 (1967). 8. Guadagni, D. G., E. L. Soderstorm, and C. L. Storey, Effect of controlled atmosphere on flavour stability of almonds, J. Food Sci. 43(4):1077 (1978).

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9. Kind, A. D., Jr., M. J. Miller, and L. C. E. Eldridge, Almond harvesting, processing and microbial flora, Appl. Microbiol. 20(2):208 (1970). 10. Storey, C. L., Mortality of Scitophilus oryzae (L.) and S. granarius (L.) in atmospheres produced by exothermic inert atmosphere generater, J. Stored Prod. Res. 11:217 (1976). 11. Teotia, M. S., S. Kaur, and S. K. Berry, Chemistry and technology of almonds, Indian Food Packer 41(5):49 (1987).

Page 536

12. Teotia, M. S., Postharvest technology of almonds (Prunus amyodalus), Beverage Food World (India) 18:27 (1991). 13. Wells, A. W., and H. R. Barber, Extending the market life of packaged shelled nuts, U.S. Dept. of Agriculture Marketing Research Report 329, 1959. 14. Lutz, J. M., and R. E. Hardenburg, The commercial storage of fruits, vegetables and florist nursery stocks, U.S. Dept. of Agriculture Handbook No. 66 (rev.), 1986. 15. Wright, W. R., Storage decays of domestically grown chestnuts, Plant Disease Rep. 44:820 (1960). 16. Model, S. F., Chestnut species and cultivars, Agro-Survey 18:30 (1990).

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17. Lipovec, J., Storing chestnuts in polyethylene film box liners, Proc. 10th Int. Congress on Refrigeration 3:213 (1960). 18. Martin, G. C., 2-Chloroethylphosphonic acid as an acid mechanical harvesting of English walnuts, J. Am. Soc. Hort. Sci. 96:434 (1971). 19. Musco, D. D., and W. V. Cruess, Studies on deterioration of walnut meats, J. Agr. Food Chem. 2:520 (1954). 20. Swarthour, D. M., R. A. Johnson, and D. De-Witte, Effect of moisture and antioxidant treatment on shelled English walnuts, Food Technol. 12:599 (1958). 21. Rockland, L. B., D. M. Swarthout, and R. A. Johnson, Studies on English (Persian) walnuts (Juglans regia), stabilization of kernels, Food Technol. 15:112 (1961).

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22. Cavaletto, C. G., Macadamia nuts, Tropical and Subtropical fruits (S. Nagy and P. E. Shaw, eds.), AVI, Westport, CT, 1980, p. 542. 23. Storey, W. B., Macadamia nuts bits and pieces, Calif. Macadamia Soc. Yearbook 11:71 (1965). 24. Hamilton, R. N., and E. T. Fukunaga, Growing macadamia nuts in Hawaii, Hawaii Agr. Exp. Sta. Bull. 121, 1959. 25. Hamilton, R. A., and P. J. Ito, Mauka and Makai, two new macadamia cultivars suitable for high and low elevation, Proc. Hawaii Macadamia Producers Assoc. 1977, p. 34. 26. Jones, W. W., and L. Shaw, The process of oil formation and accumulation in the macadamia, Plant Physiol. 18:1 (1943).

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27. Wenkam, N. S., and C. D. Miller, Composition of Hawaii fruits, Hawaii Agr. Exp. Sta. Bull. 135, 1965. 28. Vickery, J. R., The fatty acid composition of seed oil of the Proteaceae: A chemotaxonomic study, Phytochemistry 10:123 (1971). 29. Young, R. L., and R. A. Hamilton, A bitter principle in macadamia nuts, Proc. Hawaii Macadamia Producers Assoc., p. 27 (1966). 30. Wang, Y. Y. D., Factors affecting the tocopherol content in macadamia kernels, M.S. thesis, Univ. of Hawaii, Honolulu, 1972. 31. Kawano, Y., H. Matsumoto, and R. A. Hamilton, Plant products of economic potential in Hawaii II. Tannins, Hawaii Agr. Exp. Sta. Prog. Rep. 130(3):13 (1961).

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32. Chu, A. C., G. S. King, and G. D. Sherman, Macadamia storage studies, Hawaii Agr. Exp. Sta. Prog. Notes 90 (1953). 33. Cavaletto, C. G., E. Ross, and H. Y. Yamamoto, In-shell storage effects on quality of processed macadamia nuts, Food Technol. 22(4):172 (1968). 34. Cavaletto, C. G., A. Dela Cruz, E. Ross, and H. Y. Yamamoto, Factors affecting macadamia nut stability I. Raw material, Food Technol. 20(8):108 (1966). 35. Higaki, T., and R. R. Dedolph, The changes of macadamia nuts (Macadamia integrifolia Maiden and Betche), Am. Soc. Hort. Sci. Proc. 83:359 (1963). 36. Winterton, D., The macadamia nut industryProblems and prospects, Food Technol. (Austral.) 20:119 (1968).

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37. Crain, W. O., Jr., and C. S. Tan, Volatile components of roasted macadamia nuts, J. Food Sci. 40:207 (1975). 38. Delacruz, A., C. G. Cavaletto, E. Ross, and H. Y. Yamamoto, Factors affecting macadamia nut stability II. Roasted kernels, Food Technol. 20(9):123 (1966). 39. Cavaletto, C. G., and H. Y. Yamamoto, Factors affecting macadamia nut stability. 3. Effects of roasting, oil quality, and antioxidants, J. Food Sci. 36:81 (1971).

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40. Wilkinson, A. E., Pecan, The Encyclopedia of Fruits, Berries and Nuts and How to Grow Them, Shree Publishing House, New Delhi, 1987, pp. 123126. 41. Woodroof, J. G., Treenuts: Production, Processing and Products, Vol. I, AVI, Westport, CT, 1967, pp. 59, 60, 72. 42. Heaton, E. K., R. E. Worthington, and A. L. Shewfelt, Pecan nut quality: Effect of time of harvest on composition, sensory and quality characteristics, J. Food Sci. 40(6):1260 (1975). 43. Woodroof, J. G., and E. K. Heaton, Pecans for processing, Georgia Agr. Exp. Sta. Univ. of Ga. College of Agriculture Bull N.S. 80, 1961.

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44. Forbus, W. R., S. D. Senter, B. G. Lyon, and H. P. Dupuy, Correlation of objective and subjective measurement of pecan kernel quality, J. Food Sci. 45(5):1376 (1980). 45. Senter, S. D., and R. J. Horvat, Lipids of pecan nut meats, J. Food Sci. 41(5):1201 (1976). 46. Williams, F. W., M. G. La Plante, and E. K. Heaton, Evaluation of quality of pecans in retail markets, J. Am. Soc. Hort. Sci. 98:460 (1975). 47. Senter, S. D., W. R. Forbus, S. O. Nelson, and R. J. Horvat, Effects of dielectric and steam heating treatments on the prestorage and storage color characteristics of pecan kernels, J. Food Sci. 49(6):1532 (1984). 48. Heaton, E. K., and J. G. Woodroof, Humidity and weight loss in cold stored pecans, ASHRAE J. 12:49 (1970).

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49. Resurreccion, A. V. A., and E. K. Heaton, Sensory and objective measures of quality of early harvested and traditionally harvested pecans, J. Food Sci. 52(4):1038 (1987).

Page 539

28 Other Subtropical Fruits

Susanta K. Roy and D. S. Khurdiya Indian Agricultural Research Institute, New Delhi, India D. P. Waskar Mahatma Phule Agricultural University, Rahuri, Maharashtra, India I. Bael Fruit

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Bael fruit (Aegle marmelos Correa) occupies an important place among minor fruits in India. It is grown throughout India as well as in Sri Lanka, Pakistan, Bangladesh, Burma, Thailand, and most of the Southeast Asian countries (1). Bael fruit was introduced into Europe from India in 1959 (2). It is a very hardy tree and can thrive even under adverse agroclimatic conditions (3). All the parts of the tree, including stem, bark, root, leaves, and fruit at any stage of maturity and ripening, have some use or other. Various chemical constituents, namely, alkaloids, coumarins, and steroids, have been isolated and identified from different parts of the bael tree (47). The medicinal uses of bael fruit were reported by Sebastian and Bhandari (8). Antidiarrhetic activity of bael root was studied by Pitre and Srivastava (9). Aqueous decoction of bael root is reported to have hypoglycemic activity (10).

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A. Botany Bael is a medium-sized tree with trifoliate, deciduous leaves. The branches are unusual, with long straight spines. The bisexual flowers are greenish-white and are borne in clusters. The globose fruits are smooth, usually grayish-green, turning yellowish when ripe. Fruit setting of bael fruit takes place in early May, and ripe fruits are available in the following April (11 months later) under Delhi conditions.

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The growth of bael fruit has three distinct phases: an initial slow increase for 1 month, i.e., to June, followed by a rapid increase to September and then a more or less stationary phase until the fruits are harvested. the fruit is usually globose with a pericarp nearly smooth, greenishyellow, about 3 mm thick, hard, and filled with soft yellow and orange, very fragrant and pleasantly flavored pulp. Seeds are numerous and are surrounded by slimy transparent mucilage (11). There are no standard names for bael fruit cultivars. They are generally named after the locality where they are available. Many workers have reported the physical characteristics of bael fruit (Table 1) from different locations (1215).

Table 1 Physical Character of Bael Fruit Cultivars Obtained f Cultivars of d Particulars Calcutta (7) Varanasi Shape Oblong, spherical, flat, pear, Oblong, sph and cylindrical flat, and p 9.8313.52 8.5214.5 Transverse diameter (cm) Polar diameter 8.6416.05 8.5317.7 (cm) Weight (g) 4401165 401164 External color Greenish to yellowish Greenish yellowis Internal color Various shades of orange and Various sha yellow yellow Peel (%) 20.9127.00 20.8229. Seed (%) 1.385.36 2.363.0 Fiber (%) 1.313.89 1.653.7 Edible portion 66.6974.80 63.5374. (%) 0.180.30 0.190.2 Thickness of peel (cm) Number of seeds 39246 54215 aRange among cultivars at the same location.

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bFigures

in parentheses give the number of cultivars at each lo Source: Refs. 1215, 32.

B. Production.

Bael is a very hardy, subtropical, deciduous tree tha ditions and can tolerate alkaline soil, and is not inju There is no organized orcharding of this fruit in Ind dens. Bael fruit is usually propagated by seeds whic planted a year later. Budding in June-July on its ow obtained. In vegetatively propagated plants, fruiting can be attained in about 15 years. Seedlings take a l

Proper care is required in harvesting bael fruit. At t and the fruits are completely exposed. The fruits sh and should not be allowed to drop. Harvesting by sh fruits are likely to develop cracks on impact, becau commended practice for packing bael fruits. At pre baskets, and wooden boxes, and sometimes they are der to prevent fungal infection, it is highly desirable cracks during packing, harvesting, storage, transpor

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C. Composition

The chemical constituents of different types of bael studied by Roy and Singh (17) and are given in Tab nutritious

Table 2 Chemical Constituents and Organoleptic Quality of B Different Locationsa Cultivars o Particulars Calcutta (7) Varanas Moisture (%) 59.6462.19 59.4068 Total soluble solids (%) 31.535.5 31.034 Reducing sugars (%) 2.505.53 2.355. Nonreducing sugars (%) 11.1112.38 12.5814 Total sugars (%) 13.9016.70 13.6517 Mucilage (%) 13.3319.57 12.7818 Acidity (%)c 0.310.40 0.330. pH 5.15.3 5.155 Ascorbic acid (mg/100 g) 8.9817.51 14.4018 Crude protein (%) 2.283.18 2.323. Total phenolics (mg/100 g) 17552473 177723 Organoleptic scored 5.78.3 5.78. aRange among cultivars at the same location. bFigures in parentheses give the number of cultivars at each lo cExpressed as citric acid. d5.5 and above acceptable. Sources: Refs. 1215, 32.

2592/2989

fruits. According to Gopalan et al. (18), it contains tein, 0.39 g of fat, 1.7 g of minerals, 31.8 g of carbo carotenes, 0.13 mg of thiamine, 1.19 mg of riboflav mg of vitamin C per 100 g of edible portion. It may has such a high content of riboflavin. Mukherjee an ted on the high riboflavin content of ripe bael fruit. phenolic substance detected in bael fruit (20). Chem seeds revealed that the seed contained 62% protein water insoluble), 32% oil, 3% carbohydrates, and 3

A total of 39 aroma components were identified in ponents, terpene alcohols and b-ionone were consid aroma of bael fruit (22). Marmelosin (C13H12O3) is m ically active principle of the bael fruit. It was isolat compound. It is present in the fruit and in no other p varies from 0.03 to 0.37% according to the locality D. Storage

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The storage life of bael fruit can be increased from at 9C. Marked physiological breakdown is noticed ure is below 9C (24). Spoilage of bael fruit is due stem end of the fruit is very vulnerable to infection. E. Processing

Bael fruit has been used widely from time immemo ture green form to prepare preserves. In order to pre of the fruit is removed by a special strong knife. Th thick pieces, washed in water, pricked with a stainle

Page 542

steel fork, and soaked overnight in cold water. The pieces are then blanched and put in light sugar syrup. The strength of the syrup is gradually raised to 70 Brix (25).

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Very scant information is available in the literature regarding the processing of ripe bael fruit. Extraction of the pulp from ripe bael fruit is the main hindrance to processing. Roy and Verma (26) reported a process for manufacturing bael squash and bael jam. Agnihotri (27) published a method for preparing and preserving syrup from ripe fruit. An early report by Singh and Dutt (12) stated that although the fruit was rich in pectin, it did not form jelly due to the excess of gummy principles. Verma and Ahmed (28) reported that bael fruit powder could also be manufactured successfully. Roy and Singh (29) first discussed a process for successful extraction of pulp from bael fruit. According to these researchers, the bael fruit pulp could be successfully extracted by adding water equal to the pulp (with seeds and fiber), adjusting the pH to 4.3 with citric acid (titratable acidity 0.5%), heating at 30C for 1 min, and then passing through a pulping machine. Addition of water helped in

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recovering the pulp. The application of heat coupled with addition of citric acid inactivated the enzymes and also helped in dissolving the mucilage uniformly to provide a homogenous pulp. Bael fruit pulp obtained by the standard method (Fig. 1) had almost the same consistency and color as that of mango pulp. Various products can be prepared from bael fruit pulp. Bael fruit nectar is prepared by blending pulp with sugar, acid, and water. A composition of 35% pulp, 25 Brix, and 0.3% acidity gives a highly acceptable product. Similarly, the best composition for bael fruit squash was found to be 50% pulp, 50 Brix, and 1% acidity. Bael fruit slab is prepared by adding 10% sugar with 1500

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Fig. 1 Extraction of pulp from bael fruit.

Page 543

ppm SO2 and drying to a moisture level of 14.5%. Bael fruit toffee is prepared by mixing 40 parts of sugar, 4.5 parts of glucose, 10 parts of skimmed milk powder, and 6 parts of hydrogenated fat to every 100 parts of bael fruit pulp. The proper moisture content of bael fruit toffee was found to be 8.5%. Bael fruit powder can also be prepared by drying the pulp into sheets after adding 2000 ppm SO2 to 10% moisture. The sheets are then cut into pieces and further dried to a moisture level of 4%. The dried pieces are then ground into powder. Bael fruit powder can be mixed with an equal quantity of milk powder and reconstituted with water as required to make an acceptable beverage (3). Pure and clear bael fruit juice is prepared by enzyme treatment.

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The storage performance of all these bael fruit products was found to be satisfactory even after 6 months storage under ambient conditions. Addition of SO2 not only improves the initial quality of the bael fruit products but also prevents nonenzymatic browning reaction during storage (31). II. Date Date (Phoenix dactylifera L.) is an important crop in Middle Eastern countries. It has been a staple food of this population extending from Western Iraq across Arabia and North Africa (33). Date palm is believed to be indigenous to countries around the Persian Gulf. A. Botany

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Date palm belongs to the Palmae family, is known botanically as Phoenix dactylifera L., and has 36 chromosomes in diploid condition (33). There are about 12 species of Phoenix which are native to tropical and subtropical parts of Africa or Southern Asia. Other closely related species include P. sylvestris (1) Roxb, P. canariensis Chabaud, P. farinifera, and P. humilis. P. dactylifera palm produces axillary offshoots or suckers which arise chiefly near the base of the stem.

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Several varieties of date palm are reported in the literature. However, very few are grown extensively. Depending on the flesh consistency and moisture content, these are divided into soft (>30% moisture), semidry (2030% moisture), and dry (<20% moisture) varieties. The varieties Zahidi, Sayer, Halwy, and Khadrawy are commonly grown in Iraq. Hayani is grown extensively in Egypt, Saidy in the Libyan desert, Medjool in Morocco, and Deglet Noor in Algeria, Tunisia, and the United States. Halawy, Barhee, Chichap, Shanker, Bureim, and Shahaani are grown in India (33).

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Shabana et al. (34) reported that in Sayer and Zahidi varieties, fruit growth followed a sigmoidal curve and had five stages: hababouk, chimri, khalal, rutah, and tamar. The hababouk stage starts soon after fertilization and is characterized by loss of two unfertilized carpes. The chimri stage, termed a depressed period, began 4 weeks after fruit set, lasted for 9 weeks, and had two substages, a rapid period of growth followed by a slow increase in fruit weight. The khalal stage lasted for 45 weeks and produced a slow increase in fruit weight. During the rutab stage, the fruit started losing weight, first slowly and then rapidly for about 4 weeks, continuing for about 1 week in the next tamar stage. In the tamar stage, the fresh weight of the fruit became 9.9 g and 9.1 g in Zahidi and Sayer varieties, respectively. In the Middle East, North Africa, and the United States, most of the harvesting is done at the tamar stage, when the fruit has 6084% sugar depending on location and variety.

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The ripening process is characterized by inversion of sucrose in reducing-sugar varieties. In sucrose types, it is slower and is often arrested, resulting in higher sucrose content in ripe fruits (35). Sugar accumulation continues to a significant degree even after the fruit is fully softened (36). The fruits have a certain amount of astringency which is subsequently lost with loss of color and moisture. In Deglet Noor dates, the onset and development of cellulose, polygalacturonase,

Page 544

and invertase were found to be correlated with fruit ripening (37). Fruit quality depends on hydrolytic enzyme activity. B. Production Date palm can be grown in a wide range of soils. However, sandy loam soils are considered to be best for date palm cultivation. It requires a moderate winter and a long hot summer to mature the fruit. Date can withstand temperatures as high as 50C. Prolonged low temperature of 6.7C or below causes injury to plants (38). The ideal temperature during flowering and ripening of fruit is between 25 and 30C, depending on the variety.

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Date palm can be propagated by seed or by offshoots. Propagation of commercial varieties is always done by offshoots (39). To promote rooting, the base of the offshoot should be in contact with moist soil for at least a year prior to separation. Small offshoots can be induced to root by application of indole butyric acid before removal from the mother palm and keeping the offshoot under moist conditions (40). Clonal propagation is possible by culturing callus in Skoog's medium (41).

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In California, offshoots are transplanted in the late spring or early summer, whereas in India these are planted in March-April (38). After removal of offshoots, old leaf stubs and lower leaves are cut off close to the fiber, the basal 60120 cm of the offshoot being left bare of leaves but leaving 12 leaves around the bud (37). The planting distance depends on variety, texture, and fertility of soil. The offshoots are planted 9 m apart in Arizona, and 58 m apart in Arab countries and India.

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The date palm is drought resistant and is able to survive for long periods without irrigation. Drought, however, retards growth. If it is available, date palm uses water lavishly. It is highly tolerant of excessive irrigation and floods. Immediately after planting, light and frequent irrigation should be given; mulching may be useful at this stage. Water is usually applied in furrows or in a basin. Trickle irrigation was found to give significantly higher yield than sprinkler irrigation (42).

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Fertilizer requirements depend on the fertility status of the soil. In California and Arizona, organic manure is applied along with inorganic nitrogen. Nixon and Carpenter (43) reported that 1.82.7 kg of nitrogen per palm tree is adequate. The application of 600 g N, 100 g P2O5, and 700 g K2O per palm tree had the best effect on growth and productivity (44). In India, application of an annual dose of 5060 kg farmyard manure or 12 kg of ammonium sulfate per bearing tree in equal halves, one in January-February and the other in August-September, has been recommended (44).

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Termites, thrips (Adihetrothrip jambudvipal), scale insects, rhinoceros beetles (Oryctes rhinoceros), and Indian palm weevils (Rhinchophorus ferrugineus) are known to cause damage to bearing trees, whereas cigar hoeing beetles (Lasioderma testace) are known to damage stored dates. The most common disease is false smut or Graphiola leaf spot, caused by Graphiola phoenicus, which attacks the leaves, leading to dark brown or black pasturesful of yellow spores, particularly under humid conditions. The infection causes early death of leaves. Date bunches are generally cut when the majority of the dates are ripe. However, time of harvest is often influenced by weather, cultural, and economic factors, that are not related to optimum date of maturity. C. Chemical Composition

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Date fruit is a rich source of sugar, iron, potassium, calcium, and nicotinic acid. It also contains small amounts of protein, copper, magnesium, chlorine, sulfur, vitamin A, thiamine, and ribo-

flavin. The percentage of sucrose and reducing suga the variety and maturity of the fruit. The nutritional four commercially grown date cultivars is presented Thus, in a given variety the sucrose and reducing su to quality and texture (46). The crude fiber in dates of dry weight. Hussein et al. (45) reported that high ies had average pectin contents of 1.04%, while sem varieties had pectin contents of 1.75 and 1.51%, res protein content ranges from 1.5 to 2.0% (weight ba reported to be of a high nutritive quality (47). The d baikiain, pipecolic acid, and 5-hydroxypipecolic ac man and Smith (49) reported crude fat content of se of date ranging from 2.52 to 7.42% Palmitic acid is largest amount, followed by capric and caprylic aci contains thiamine, riboflavin, potassium, phosphoru iron. The seeds of Ruzeiz and Sifri date cultivars on tained 6.5% protein, 10.4% fat, 22.0% fiber, 1.1% a carbohydrates on a dry-weight basis (50). D. Storage.

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Dates are subject to two general types of deteriorati caused by microbiological activity and includes fer yeasts and molding by fungi. The other form of det physiological and includes darkening and loss of fla Susceptibility of both types of deterioration increas ing moisture content. Natural, or nonhydrated, date more subject to attack by microorganisms than stea dates because of the partial sterilization accompany dration. Dates with 23% or less moisture are compa

Table 3 Nutritional Composition of Commercial Cultivars of Cultiv Constituent Hallawi Sayer K Moisture (%) 7.30 7.50 TSS (Brix) 84.20 81.30 Protein (%) 2.30 2.78 Fat (%) 0.51 0.32 Minerals (%) 1.92 1.80 Crude fiber (%) 1.82 1.72 Total sugars (%) 87.90 86.10 Reducing sugars (%) 82.72 82.60 Thiamine (mg/100 g) 99 130 Riboflavin (mg/100 g) 173 135

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Biotin (mg/100 g) Folic acid (mg/100 g) Ascorbic acid (mg/100 g) Calcium (mg/100 g) Phosphorus (mg/100 g) Magnesium (mg/100 g) Iron (mg/100 g) Manganese (mg/100 g) Copper (mg/100 g) Zinc (mg/100 g) Source: Ref. 45.

4.63 57 3.56 184 16 56 5.26 5.86 2.77 1.39

4.66 70 17.51 203 3 58 3.21 5.25 2.89 1.82

Page 546

atively safe from microbiological spoilage; they become increasingly susceptible as the moisture content exceeds this percentage. Low temperatures also retard microbiological deterioration. As a general rule, dates will retain their quality for a longer period of time when they are held under refrigerated (0C) conditions than at ambient temperatures. Lutz and Hardenburg (51) recommended -17.9 to 0C with 75% or less relative humidity to store dates for about 612 months.

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Particular attention must be paid to the moisture level of the stored fruit to prevent microbial spoilage and chemical deterioration. A relatively small difference in moisture content profoundly affects the keeping quality of Deglet Noor dates. The fruits darken four times as rapidly at 23.9C when stored at 24% moisture content than when stored at 20% moisture content. Such differences are less striking at lower temperatures (52). A high moisture content gives dates the soft texture which many consumers prefer but increases perishability, hence low temperatures are necessary for successful storage. Dates are not subject to low-temperature injury or freezing injury, so temperatures below 0C are not harmful. Depending on the variety and condition at the time of harvest, dates are normally given some type of treatment to dry or hydrate them. Heat treatments are used most frequently. When Deglet Noor dates were treated to temperatures above 60C, a reddish color developed and

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astringency and off-flavors were detected. The undesirable red pigments and astringent compounds probably arose as breakdown products of the insoluble procyanidin tannins (53). Ahmed et al. (54) reported studies on disinfection of commercially packed dates of the Zahdi cultivar by ionizing radiation or by methylbromide fumigation. Complete disinfection was achieved in both methylbromide- and radiationtreated boxes when stored for 25 days. The live insects found in the irradiated dates were genetically sterile and developmentally inactive. E. Processing

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Most of the dates produced in the world are dried in the sun to a moisture content of less than 20%. Dry dates can be held at room temperature for years without significant changes in their color or quality. Dates are almost exclusively sun dried under the natural climatic conditions of the areas in which they are grown. Rodriguez et al. (55) stated that only a small proportion of dates is dehydrated in Arizona and Southern California, to process dates into bakery and confectionery products such as candies. As the dates are harvested from the palm, they are usually astringent. To remove their astringency, dates are incubated at 32.237.8C for a few days to ripen. The softened dates become translucent, and their flavor improves. In the Middle East, dates are often allowed to ripen on the tree and are dried directly in the sun after harvest (55). A number of alcoholic fermented products are produced from date. The important among these are dakkai, sherbote, and nabit wines (56).

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III. Loquat The loquat, Japanese plum, or medlar (Eribotrya japonica Lindl.) belongs to the rose family, which includes several important fruit crops of the temperate region. The loquat is a subtropical fruit that probably originated in China. Japan is a leading producer of loquat, with an annual production of more than 22,000 tonnes. Israel has been another major producer of loquat since 1960. India produces about 5000 tonnes of loquat annually (57). Loquat is widely distributed and is presently grown in Israel, India, the Mediterranean region, Madagascar, and parts of Oceania, South Africa, Australia, North and South America, Argentina, Chile, and California and Florida in the United States.

Page 547

A. Botany The loquat is a small tree, rarely exceeding 10 m in height (average 8 m). The fruits grow in loose clusters and are round, oval, or pyriform in shape, about 2.57.5 cm in length. The fruit has a tough skin, and the flesh is firm and juicy, varying in color from white to deep orange. Cultivars with soft flesh are also known. Smooth, brown seeds (15) are generally found in each fruit (58). Loquat adapts to a wide range of climates from warm-temperature to tropics and subtropics.

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The principal cultivars of loquat grown in Israel are AKKO 13, occupying 6070% of the planted area, AKKO 1 (1020% of the planted area), and Tsrifin 8 and Tanaka, each occupying about 10% of the planted area (59). Tanaka originated in Japan, the other three in Israel. AKKO 13 is an early-season cultivar, ripening in MarchApril, with fruits having excellent storage properties (2 weeks at 0C). The loquat cultivars grown in India are Golden Yellow, Improved Golden Yellow, Large Pale Yellow, Large Gra, California Advance, and Tanaka (57). The cultivars recommended for California are Champagne, Thales, Advance, Benlehr, and Miller. Fletcher and Wolfe are recommended for Florida (59). Loquat fruit consists of about 6070% pulp (wet weight), 1518% seeds, and 1520% skin and core. It has a mild, subacid flavor; some cultivars have an applelike flavor. B. Production

2621/2989

1. Soil and Climate The loquat grows well on a wide variety of soils, ranging from light sandy loam to heavy soil. Good drainage and ample water supply have been considered to be prerequisites for its successful cultivation. The nature of the subsoil is important for loquat. Soils with gravel, nonporous clay, lime-rich, or hard subsoil are not very suitable for commercial production of loquat.

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Loquat is a typical subtropical crop. It does best in milder climates with well-distributed rainfall ranging from 60 to 100 cm. Dry, hot weather during fruiting affects the growth and ripening of fruits. In addition, the fruits are very susceptible to sunburn, which makes them unacceptable in the market. In contrast, damp or foggy weather during ripening affects the development of desired flavor and total sugars. It is for this reason that loquat cultivation in India is restricted primarily to the northern States such as Uttar Pradesh, Punjab, and Delhi. 2. Propagation

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Several methods of propagation, both sexual as well as asexual, can be used to multiply loquat. Plants grown from fruits grow slowly, taking a long time to reach bearing stage, and in many cases do not seem to possess the characteristics of the mother plant. Although it is used in some parts of the world, sexual propagation is not recommended for establishment of commercial orchards.

2624/2989

Major vegetative methods of propagating loquat include layering, cutting, budding, and inarching. Propagation by cuttings, although possible, is not satisfactory on a commercial scale. Layering, especially air layering (gootee), is satisfactory as well as an easier method in loquat (60). However, budding (shield) or in-arching has been found to be preferable to other methods. These methods are easier to perform, economical, and satisfactory. Several members of the loquat family (Rosaceae), such as apple, plum, pear, Grataegus, Sorbus, and Mespilus are used as rootstocks in different countries. Quinces are also used as rootstocks to produce dwarf trees in some countries. In India, seedling loquats are the most satisfactory rootstocks for grafting. 3. Cultural Practices

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The distance from the market, soil type, and climate are some of the important considerations in locating loquat orchards. Being a delicate fruit, they are easily damaged during transportation.

Page 548

Hence, the distance from the major market where they are sold should be reduced whenever possible. The fruits and the trees are vulnerable to damage by hot, dry winds. Therefore, the site for a loquat orchard should be protected from hot winds by planting windbreaks.

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Pits of 1 m3 are dug during the summer and filled with good garden soil and farmyard manure (3:1). These pits should be prepared at a spacing of 9 m under ideal climatic and soil conditions. However, when the loquat are grown in poor soil, the planting distance can be reduced to 8 m. Similarly, when the plants are budded on dwarfing rootstocks, they can be planted at 45 m. With the onset of rains, the land should be plowed and green manure crops sown. these are subsequently plowed back when the plants are 1 m high. September-October has been shown to be the best time for loquat planting. However, planting can be extended until February if sufficient irrigation facilities are available. The young plants need to be supported with the help of bamboo sticks to avoid wind damage.

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A proper irrigation schedule is necessary for successful loquat cultivation. The schedule must be designed to provide sufficient water during winter and summer, as well as long breaks in monsoons. However, water stagnation should be avoided at all times. Loquat, generally recognized as a heavy feeder, tends to deplete the soil very quickly. To prevent deficiency of nutrients in the soil, adequate amounts of nutrients must be applied every year. The manuring should be decided based on the age of the tree. Singh (61) suggested that production of 445 kg of loquat fruits would require 365 g of N, 360 g of P2O5, 1350 g of K2O, and 325 g of CaO besides additional requirements for vegetative growth.

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When the space between tree rows is unoccupied, intercrops such as mung, pea, blackgram, Bengal gram, or some vegetable crops can be profitably grown to increase the return from the orchards. In certain cases, green manuring crops are grown as intercrops in loquat orchards.

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The time taken by loquat trees to come into bearing depends on the tree type. It is well established that budded or grafted plants start bearing a substantial crop from the sixth or seventh year. Flowers produced until after about the first four years should be pinched off to encourage vigorous vegetative growth of the tree. In India, loquats produce flowers in three distinct flushes, from July to January or February. The flowers are borne on current-season growth, appearing in clusters usually on 3- to 6-month-old shoots. It is recommended that the shoots produced in July be pinched off to prevent the first flush and to produce profuse flowering in the second flush, which bears the maximum number of fruits. Some loquat varieties have been shown to be self-incompatible or self-sterile, and thus cross pollination becomes a necessity. It is therefore advisable to plant more than one variety in an orchard. Pale Yellow variety has been found to be a good pollinator for Golden

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Yellow, while California Advance was best for Tanaka. Thinning of fruits is followed when larger-sized fruits are desired. Either the flowers (single or in clusters) or fruits are removed to regulate the crop. This is also beneficial in preventing the trees from fruiting heavily with small fruits in one year, followed by a poor crop in the next year. Hayes (57) suggested a positive correlation between the size of fruits in the current season and the number and weight of fruits in the preceding year as well as the leaf area per fruit in the current year. 4. Diseases and Pests. The most common disease of loquat is collar rot caused by Diplodia natelensis (62,63). Fruit flies, aphids, and scale insects have been reported to attack the loquat. Bark-eating caterpillars are sometimes a common pest.

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5. Harvesting For fresh consumption, fully matured loquat fruits are harvested; although for jellies and cooking, slightly unripe (green) loquats are preferred. The fruits are commonly clipped by hand and then

Page 549

sorted into two or three grades. The poorest grades are used for processing and to make jam, jelly, and other products. Randhawa and Singh (62) recommended careful packaging of loquats with soft packaging material during shipping to avoid bruising. C. Composition

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Randhawa and Singh (62) reported that the principal constituents of ripe loquats are fructose, sucrose, and malic acid. Citric, tartaric, and succinic acids were also present. The glucose, maltose, and sucrose content of the fruit increased with maturity, although the maltose content disappeared with ripening (64). Malic acid represented about 83% of the total acids present, the remainder of the acid being citric acid. The malic and citric acid levels increased with maturity and then decreased; citric acid decreasing at a faster rate than malic acid. Rajput and Singh (65) noted almost no variation in acid values. There was a relatively high percentage of reducing sugars (5.107.70%) in nine cultivars of loquat studied. The sugar:acid ratios varied according to the acid content. Hall et al. (66) reported that loquat pulp contained 0.42% crude protein, and 146 mg and 387 mg of essential and total amino acids, per 100 g flesh pulp, respectively. The leucine was found to be the most

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abundant, with cysteine-cystine as the least abundant amino acids. Among the nonessential amino acids, glutamic and aspartic amino acids were the most abundant, together with an usually high level of proline (66). Rajput and Singh (65) reported that the ascorbic acid content of loquat varied from 2.5 to 4.1 mg/ 100 g pulp. Kumar (67) found that Pale Yellow and Thames Pride cultivars of loquat had 0.32 and 0.38 mg of ascorbic acid per 100 g pulp, respectively. Sadana (68) observed that the bcarotene content of loquat pulp was 33.7 mg/ 100 g, equivalent to about 5600 IU of vitamin A. This amount is slightly more than 100% of the U.S. recommended daily allowance of vitamin A (69).

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The loquat has a relatively high proportion of potassium (about 210 mg/100 g pulp) and low sodium content (less than 1 mg/100 g pulp). This desirable mineral constitution of loquat, which is similar to that of orange juice, is recommended for diuretic patients (70). Loquat also contains substantial amounts of calcium and magnesium. Other minerals present in small quantities are iron, zinc, and phosphorus (69). The major part of volatiles are comprised of alcohols and cabonyls. In total, 80 aroma substances were identified, of which 72 were reported for the first time as major aroma compounds in loquat fruit. D. Storage

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Ogata (72) stored fully ripe and firm-ripe (mature) loquat fruits as 710C and at 2325C. After 11 days of storage, he found that 65% of the fully ripe fruits stored at the lower temperature were spoiled. The corresponding spoilage for the immature fruits was 40% and 0%, respectively. After storage at low temperatures, the mature fruits could be held for 35 days in ambient conditions. The total sugars, reducing sugars, nonreducing sugars, and total acidity decreased gradually during storage at 2325C in fully ripe loquat fruits.

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Mukerjee (73) noted that loquat fruits picked at the climacteric stage could be stored in unsealed polyethylene bags at 35C for about 8 weeks, and fully ripe fruit could be held at 3C for 4 weeks without deterioration. The low-temperature storage prevented the characteristic browning of the fruit. Guelfat-Reich (74) stored fruits of four loquat cultivars, Acco 13, Tarifine 8, Acco 1, and Tanaka, with and without polyethylene wraps at 0, 6, and 8C and 90% RH for 4 weeks and then at 20C for 4 days. The storage at 0C caused the least loss of weight, withering, and internal browning. Guelfat-Reich (74) recommended a temperature of 0C to store loquats for periods up to 3 weeks. The polyethylene wraps increased internal browning and postharvest

Page 550

rotting, even though they preserved the fresh appearance of the fruits and decreased weight loss. The wrapped fruit had poorer flavor quality than the unwrapped fruit except for storage at 0C. The storage behavior of the cultivars differed significantly. Singh (75) stored loquat fruits at two stages of ripening under three sets of conditions; in wheat straw in cardboard boxes, in perforated sealed polyethylene bags, and under normal conditions, and noted that considerable water loss occurred in the fruit stored in wheat straw. The polyethylene bags also appeared to cause adverse chemical changes, even though water loss was retarded. E. Processing

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Loquats are consumed largely as dessert fruits, only a small quantity being processed into jams, jellies, and pies (69). In Japan, a significant quantity of fruit is canned. Adam (76) studied changes in the pH of loquats canned at 100C and produced over a period of several years. The pH range of 4.05.4 was too high to prevent microbial growth during storage of the product, and pH above 4.0 was considered injurious. Adam (76) recommended reduction in the pH of the final canned product to increase storage stability. IV. Persimmon

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Persimmon or kaki belongs to the genus Diospyros of the family Ebenaceae. Of the many species of Diospyros, only four are of commercial importance: D. kaki L., D. lotus L., D. virgiena L., and D. oleifera Cheng. Diospyros kaki is known as Japanese persimmon and is the most important species; it probably originated in China rather than Japan (77). Persimmon has spread all over Asia and South America. Japan is the largest producer of persimmon. Other persimmon-producing countries are the United States, Brazil, Israel, and Queensland in Australia. A. Botany

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Ito (78) grouped kaki cultivars into two groups: (a) those which show no change in color of the flesh under the influence of pollination; and (b) those in which the fruit darkens as a result of pollination. Ito referred to the two groups as pollination constant and pollination variant, respectively. Nonastringent and astringent are the two major groups of persimmons; each can be subdivided into two further groups based on whether they belong to the pollination constant or pollination variant group. Mori (79) thus classified Japanese persimmon cultivars into four groups as follows: 1. Nonastringent and pollination-constant (PCNA) cultivars, e.g., Fuyu, Jiro, Gosho, and Suruga (which usually have dark tannin spots)

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2. Nonastringent and pollination-variant (PVNA) cultivars, e.g., Zenjimaru, Shogatsu, Mizushima, and Amahyakume (which have tannin spots and may become astringent when seedless) 3. Astringent and pollination-constant (PCA) cultivars, e.g., Aizumishirazu, Yokono, Yotsumizo, Shakokushi, Hagakushi, Hachiya, and Gionbo (which have no dark tannin spots) 4. Astringent and pollination-variant (PVA) cultivars, e.g., Aizumishirazu, Emon, Koshuhyakume, and Hiratanenashi (which are astringent when pollinated, with some dark tannin spots around the seeds)

2644/2989

Nonastringent cultivars predominate in Japan, usually including more than 60% of the total yield. While the nonastringent persimmons can be consumed as dessert fruits, the astringent ones become edible only after removal of the astringency or after drying.

Page 551

Fuyu is the most popular nonastringent cultivar of persimmon, grown over 80% of the cultivated area occupied by the sweet cultivars. Other important cultivars are Jiro (excellent quality and fine texture), Gosho (best quality of all cultivars, fine texture, and excellent, sweet taste), and Suruga (new, high-yielding cultivar). Recently, a new nonastringent cultivar named Daean Dangam (80) and Youhou (81) have been reported. Among the astringent group, the most important cultivars are Hiratanenashi, Hachiya, Aizumishirazu, Yotsumizo and Yokono (78), and Shuibansh and Dazhen gmuosh (82). B. Production

2646/2989

The persimmon is propagated through veneer grafting (83) or budding. Generally, seedlings of Diospyros lotus are used as rootstock. Planting is done during monsoon. The recommended spacing is 810 m (both ways). The depth of planting should be the same as in the nursery. Persimmon does not transplant well, so the young plants should be properly nursed until they can establish well in the orchard. The trees need training to keep them low. This is accomplished by heading back the trees about 1 m from the ground and encouraging about four or five strong branches to grow. The branches should be distributed all around in order to avoid bad crotches and to produce a well-balanced frame. Trees do not need regular pruning. However, deadwood and undesirable growth should be removed as necessary. There has been no systematic work on nutrition and other cultural practices. However, organic manure can be added every year to obtain higher fruit yield.

2647/2989

According to Kitagawa (84), persimmon fruits of both astringent and nonastringent cultivars develop brown flecks in their flesh. The tannin cells in these areas become coagulated and are shrunken and have brown protoplasts. Fruit rots, including blue mold rot, gray mold rot, and Rhizopus rot, are common in the harvested fruits. Orchard diseases such as anthracnose and Phoma kikivora cause spotting of the fruit (8587). Black spots occur during storage as splits in the cuticle where fruit rots can gain entrance, especially Penicillium (88). Nizaradze and Lomasadze (89) reported that the astringent cultivars of persimmon were resistant to infections by Penicillium and Botrytis but not to Rhizopus. Ryall and Pentzer (90) concluded that careful handling of persimmons is essential to prevent peel breaks.

2648/2989

Persimmon fruits are picked when still firm enough to handle, to avoid bruising and injury. The fruits are packed in one or two layers in boxes lined with polystyrene film. Ryall and Pentzer (90) stated that nailed wooden boxes are generally used to ship persimmons in one-layer flats holding 1012 lb of fruit. Two-layer lug boxes are commonly used for shipment. A few commercial shipments have been made using cartons and containers molded from polystyrene. Charney and Seeling (91) recommended that fruit may be individually wrapped in paper to prevent abrasion injury. C. Composition.

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Water, sugars, pectins, tannins, carotenoids, and ascorbic acid are the main constituents of persimmon fruit. The reducing sugar content increases steadily during fruit development, reaching a maximum at the middle of November (92). Most of the sucrose translocated from leaves is hydrolyzed enzymatically to reducing sugars in the fruit flesh. Mature fruits contained pectic substances varying from 0.52 to 1.07% in four nonastringent cultivars, predominately watersoluble (64.69%) pectins (92). Fructose and glucose constitute more than 90% of the total sugars in persimmon flesh. Sucrose is present as a minor component. Immature persimmon fruit has remarkable astringency. This is due to high tannin content. In mature fruit of astringent varieties, the amount of soluble tannins

ranges from 0.80 to 1.94% of flesh weight. These ta consist of catechin, catechin-3-gallate, gallocatechi gallocatechin-3-gallate (93).

The color of persimmon fruit varies from red to yel ange, primarily due to its content of carotenoid pigm Brossard and MacKinnery (94) surveyed pigments cultivars of D. kaki and 2 cultivars of D. lotus. The anthin was the major component (3040% of the tota carotenoid content). The ascorbic acid content of th and flesh of mature persimmon fruits of different cu is given in Table 4. Immature fruit and the nonedib of mature fruit contain considerably higher amount amin C than the pulp of mature fruit (95). D. Storage

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A temperature of -1.2C and 9095% relative humid been recommended for storing persimmons. William reported that storage of persimmon at 0C was bette at 2.2 or 4.4C, because it permitted less ripening. R and Pentzer (14), however, recommended -1.2C to the storage life of persimmons up to 34 months. Ka Raheh (97) obtained best results when persimmon f were stored at 5C followed by 0 and 10C. Persim China are stored outdoors, on a bed of sorghum stem placed across trenches to give drainage and ventilat fruits are held under these conditions from harvest u March. The fruits are covered with a light grass ma protect them from rain. The frozen fruits are then co with about 2 ft of dry grass to keep them frozen unt (98,99). Controlled atmosphere with 8% CO2 and 3 at 1.1C and 90100% RH was found to be optimum persimmons (100). Storage of persimmons in sealed ethylene bags (0.06 mm thick) at 0C produced atm spheres of 58% O2 and almost 100% RH, which im storage life of fruits.

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E. Processing

The astringency of persimmon fruits can be remove treatments with warm water, alcohol, or carbon dio (78). Fruits treated with CO2 gas remain firm and k quality after removal of astringency (101). Matsuo (100) described a new, constant-temperature, short(CTSD) method for removal of astringency. Treatm CO2 at 20C for 1825 h, followed by storage in air a for 3 days, produced deastringent fruit of excellent without abnormal softening. Gazit and Adato (101) nized that there are two distinct processes attributed appearance of astringency by the CTSD method: (a duction process in which exposure of the fruit to CO causes chemical reactions related to occurrence of

Table 4 Ascorbic Acid Content of Mature Persimmon Fruit (m fresh weight) Part of Ascorbic Dehydroascorbic Total Cultivar fruit acid acid Fuyu Peel 195 25 Flesh 41 11

2653/2989

Jiro

Peel Flesh Okugosho Peel Flesh Hanagosho Flesh Seidoshi Flesh Source: Ref. 87.

144 24 126 16 33 31

31 11 24 9 11 14

Page 553

deastringency (formation of an astringency-removing factor) and (b) a deastringency process in which the astringency of the fruit disappears gradually and the presence of CO2 is no longer essential. Pesis et al. (102,103) reported that anaerobic conditions stimulated production of acetaldehyde and ethanol by the fruits. It is believed that acetaldehyde causes polymerization of tannin, which leads to loss of astringency. The astringency of persimmon was removed by enclosing the fruits in polyethylene bags under vacuum or by replacing air with N2 or CO2 (103). Acetaldehyde produced by the fruit under these conditions accumulated. The rate of deastringency was directly proportional to the level of acetaldehyde accumulation (103). Removal of persimmon astringency by treatment with ethephon (104) and gamma irradiation (105) has been attempted.

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V. Phalsa Phalsa (Grewia subinaegualis L.) belongs to the family Tiliaceae. It is probably a native of India (57). The various plant parts of phalsa are used for curing a variety of ailments. Phalsa is drought resistant and can be easily grown even in hot, dry tracts where most other fruit trees fail to grow. The fruits ripen in summer and have extremely poor keeping quality. Being highly perishable, the fruits should be utilized within 24 h after harvesting. This restricts the cultivation of this fruit to the peripheries of cities and towns, where it can be quickly marketed. A. Botany

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Phalsa is a small bush, which bears many small berrylike fruits. It is a subtropical fruit. There are 18 genera and 400 species in the Tiliaceae family, distributed mostly in the tropical and subtropical regions of the world. The genus Grewia has 140 species, of which 40 occur in India. There is no distinct variety available in Phalsa (106). Some growers have, however, assigned names such as Local and Sherbat. Two distinct types, tall and dwarf, are recognized, and the dwarf type has been found to be more productive. B. Production 1. Soil and Climate

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Phalsa can be grown on almost all kinds of soil, but the ideal is loamy. In most cases, this crop is grown in neglected areas. Owing to its deep root systems, it can tap nutrients in deep layers of soil. Deep alluvial soils free from alkali patches are recommended for its profitable cultivation. Under waterlogged conditions, plants become chloratic and make poor growth. It is one of the hardiest fruit trees and almost free from insect pests and diseases. It is deciduous and thus can withstand freezing temperatures during the winter. It is drought resistant and can be grown on hot, dry tracts with very limited irrigation facilities. Phalsa requires clear weather at the time of flowering. Rains at flowering time affect setting of fruit. 2. Propagation

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The most common method of propagation of phalsa is by seeds. Although it is possible to propagate phalsa through cuttings and budding, they are not used commercially to multiply this plant. The seeds are sown in July-August, either in nursery beds or in earthen pots. It takes nearly 6 months for the plants to be ready for transplanting. 3. Cultural Practices. Recommended spacing is 3 m, in either a square or a hexagonal system. Plant density may be increased when the soil is poor. Some growers plant phalsa at 11.5 m spacing. Proper site preparation is necessary to ensure desired results. The pits of 1 1 1 m are dug and refilled with

Page 554

a soil mixture of silt, farmyard manure, and good top soil (1:1:1). The pits are watered to allow the soil to settle down. Planting is done in February or July-August, depending on the location and irrigation facilities. The young plants need protection from strong winds, hot desiccating weather, and freezing temperatures. Phalsa is commonly not fertilized by growers. However, the plants need ample nutrients after pruning. About 1015 kg of farmyard manure per bush is sufficient to produce prolific flowering in these plants. Manures should be applied immediately after pruning.

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Pruning is a very important operation in the successful production of phalsa, as the flowers are produced in the axils of leaves of new shoots. Severe annual pruning is essential to induce new vigorous shoots and a heavy crop. In this crop, the yield of the tree is directly proportional to the number of shoots arising from annual pruning. The desirable height of pruning is 0.91.2 m from the soil surface. The best time for pruning is late winter, when the plant comes out of dormancy. This will avoid any chance of new shoots being exposed to frost or low temperature. Some growers in South India follow root pruning. Root pruning can be used to regulate flowering in phalsa. 4. Pests and Diseases

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Phalsa is free from serious pests and diseases. The only pest which is serious is the bark-eating caterpillar (Inderbela sp.), which makes a tunnel in the main branches or trunk. This can easily be controlled by injecting kerosene oil or gasoline into the holes and plugging them in December or January, after pruning. Cercospora leaf spot (C. greniae) and other fungal diseases caused by Dasturella grewiae and Phyllostica grewiae have been found to cause heavy losses of phalsa. 5. Yield

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The average yield from a mature plant in a single-row system is 67kg, whereas the average yield per plant in double-row planting is lower (45 kg). However, the total yield per unit area is much higher because of higher plant density. The positive effects of growth regulators such as NAA (150 ppm) and NAA (150 ppm + Ethrel (400 ppm)) on yield of phalsa fruit were found to be significant (107). 6. Harvesting and Postharvest Handling

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The fruit starts ripening in the last week of April, when few fruits are in the market. The period of harvesting continues up to the first week of June. The fruits ripen slowly and steadily, and must be picked from the bush. Several pickings are required, increasing the cost of harvesting. After harvesting, mature but not completely ripe fruits can be stored for up to 48 h, while fully ripe fruits can hardly be stored for up to 24 h at room temperature (108). The fruits, being highly perishable, must be utilized within 24 h of picking. C. Chemical Composition

2664/2989

The edible portion of phalsa fruit ranges from 69 to 93% (109112). The juice content may vary from 55 to 67% (113). The phalsa seed coat and the kernel have oil contents of 2.0 and 23.7%, respectively. Fatty acid composition analysis of phalsa seed revealed that it is rich in linoleic acid (114). The carbohydrate content of phalsa fruit has been found to vary from 6.88 to 25.80% (115). The presence of glucose, fructose, and maltose in phalsa has been reported (116). Phalsa juice showed a wide variation in acidity, from 0.42 to 2.5% (117). This could be explained on the basis of varietal or maturity differences among the fruits. The organic acid fraction in the fruit consists mainly of citric acid and traces of malic acid (109). Phalsa fruits are fair sources of phosphorus and iron. Ascorbic acid content of phalsa juice was reported to vary from 8.93 to 22 mg% (110).

Page 555

The color of phalsa fruit is due to anthocyanins. The anthocyanins in phalsa were found to be delphinidin-3-glucoside and cyanidin-3-glucoside (109). D. Storage As noted, fruits that are mature but not completely ripe when harvested can be stored for up to 48 h, while fully ripe fruits can be stored barely up to 24 h at room temperature. Being highly perishable, the fruits must be utilized within 24 h after harvesting. E. Processing

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Phalsa juice has a deep, crimson-red color and a pleasing flavor, which makes the juice very popular. In addition, the juice is extremely refreshing in summer (118). A method of extracting juice from phalsa fruit was developed in which fully ripe and sound fruits were crushed and mixed with two-thirds their weight of water in a Waring blender. Then the crushed mass was heated quickly to 80C, cooled, and finally pressed through a piece of muslin cloth to obtain a clear, crimson-colored juice (117). In another method, crushed phalsa fruit was heated to 6070C for 10 min. This method gave clear juice (119). Various heat treatments have been employed to extract the maximum amount of juice from phalsa fruit. It was found that heating the crushed fruit to 50C gave the highest recovery of the juice with appropriate quantities of anthocyanins, acids, sugars, and minerals (120).

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The pomace (30.92%) left after the extraction of the juice from phalsa fruit has been used to extract pigments and the total soluble solids. It was found that addition of 75% water to pomace gave the most pigments and total soluble solids (121). A ready-to-serve (RTS) beverage from phalsa fruit juice was formulated and standardized. It contained 25% juice and a Brix-acid ratio of 45:1 (120). The syrup was prepared from phalsa fruit juice in which the clear juice was mixed with an equal amount of sugar and preserved with sodium benzoate (119). A carbonated beverage was also prepared from phalsa juice (122).

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Yeast fermentation in phalsa juice was effectively controlled with 500 ppm sodium benzoate (117). The color of phalsa juice was better retained during storage in glass than in polyvinyl chloride (PVC) or high-density polyethylene (HDPE) containers (123). The stability of color in the juice was highest at 3C, followed by 20C and room temperature (3136C). The organoleptic score of the juice remained acceptable for a period of 10 days at room temperature (120). Phalsa beverages such as nectar, concentrate, squash, and crushed phalsa packed in glass containers were found to be acceptable for up to 240 days in cool storage (3C). Phalsa squash packed in glass bottles, stored at low temperature, was superior to the other treatments and maintained its natural color, taste, and flavor for a period of 6 months (122,123). The anthocyanins in phalsa syrup were better retained when packed in glass bottles than in PVC or HDPE containers at all storage temperatures. Phalsa

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syrup packed in glass bottles remained acceptable for up to 240 days storage in cool store (4C) but for up to 180 days when packed in PVC and HDPE bottles. The syrup remained acceptable in all three containers for up to 120 days in a cool chamber and for up to 60 days at room temperature (124). VI. Other Minor Fruits A. Carob. Carob (Ceratonia siliqua L.) is a leguminous tree grown mainly in the Mediterranean basin. It is known in Arabic as alkharoubah, which in other languages has given rise to similar names such as kharuv (Hebrew), caroube (French), algarroba (Spanish), and carruba (Italian). It is commonly

Page 556

grown in Spain, Portugal, Cyprus, and Syria, and the beans are the principal export of Cyprus and Syria (125). The European countries, the United States, and Japan are the importers of carob. Carob is a tree reaching over 10 m and having rich, glossy, evergreen foliage (126). It has tiny red flowers, buds that expand into greenish or cream-colored flowers, which eventually convert into thick broad pods 1030 cm long. When ripe, the pods turn brown and begin to fall. Each pod contains 515 seeds embedded in a sweet, mealy pulp (126).

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Carob grows in a wide variety of soils, sometimes clinging to hillsides that seem to be pure rock, and it grows in stony areas unsuited to other crops (125). It can adapt to slightly alkaline soils but it cannot withstand waterlogged conditions. Carobs are usually propagated by seeds. They can also be propagated by cutting, suckers, and air layering. Buds of high-yield varieties are grafted onto 3- to 4-year-old seedlings in the field.

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Most carob trees are either male plants that produce pollen or female plants that produce pods. Plantations are composed of female plants interspersed with 5% well-placed male plants that provide necessary pollen even though they contribute no pods. There is no serious disease of carob plant. However, root rot nematodes occur when roots are in damp soil. Carob moth is an important pest of this crop (127). In Cyprus, carob plantations usually have a density of about 90 trees per hectare, and yields of 1.54.0 tonnes of pod per hectare are achieved if plants are grown under good conditions. In Israel, irrigated plantation yields about 12 tonnes per hectare (125).

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Carob seeds contain about 20% protein, but they comprise only 10% of the weight of the pod (125). When whole pods are ground, the resulting edible powder contains 7% proteins, 30% sugars, and 9% fiber (128). Fat contributes only 1.2% of pod weight, making the crop a low-energy food. The sweet pulp surrounding the seeds contains sugars to almost half the weight of the pulp. The seeds contain mucilaginous gum which is neutral galactomannan (129). Carob pods are reported to contain 1620% tannin on a dry-weight basis (130). Hence, carob may not be suitable as animal feed or human food without processing. Carob pulp can be converted into syrup and fermented into wine or liquor (125). It is also widely used to flavor chewing tobacco. The pods can be ground and used to flavor chocolate. B. Naranjilla

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Naranjilla (Solanum quitoense Lam.) belongs to the family Solanaceae and is grown mainly in Colombia and Ecuador. It is an excellent dessert fruit and is also used to flavor confections, jelly, jam, and other preserves (131). The plant is a large, robust shrub with hairy leaves and spherical, yellow-orange fruits densely covered with white hair. The acidulous yellow-green pulp has numerous seeds. The fruit is produced throughout the year (132134).

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In Ecuador, the naranjilla grows best on fertile, well-drained slopes of humid, upland valleys where annual rainfall is 1500 mm. The plant grows rapidly and bears large quantities of fruit. It yields 10002000 kg of fruits per hectare with little care. The plant needs good drainage and a humid climate. It is susceptible to root-rot nematodes, viruses, fungal diseases, and parasites. Seedlings of grafted plants begin to bear fruit when they are 612 months old and continue to produce fruit for about 2 years (131). The plants need frequent fertilization and water during dry periods. Freshly squeezed naranjilla juice is used in Ecuador and Colombia to make a beverage, a green foamy drink with an appealing sweet-sour flavor of pineapple and strawberry. The fresh juice can be processed into frozen concentrate (132134). References

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1. Singh, R. N., and S. K. Roy, The Bael: Cultivation and Processing, ICAR, New Delhi, 1984. 2. John, L., and V. Stevenson, The Complete Book of Fruit, Anqus and Robertson Publications, 1979.

Page 557

3. Jauhari, O. S., and R. D. Singh, Bael, valuable fruit, Indian Hort. 16(1):9 (1971). 4. Chatterjee, A., and S. Bose, The active principles of the leaves of Aegle marmelos, J. Indian Chem. Soc. 29:425 (1952). 5. DasGupta, B., and R. N. Chakravarti, Isolation of aegalin, J. Proc. Inst. Chem. (India) 30(6):308 (1958). 6. Chatterjee, A., and B. Choudhury, Occurrence of auraptene, umbelliferone, marmine, lepeol, and simmianine in the root of Aegle marmelos, J. Indian Chem. Soc. 37:334 (1960). 7. Patro, A., A. K. Mukhodyay, A. Ghosh, and A. K. Mitra, Composition of Aegle marmelos. Carbon 13 NMR spectra of aurapten and marmin, Indian J. Chem. B17(4):385 (1979).

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8. Sebastian, M. K., and M. M. Bhandari, Medico-enthno botany of Mount Abu, Rajasthan, India, J. Ethnopharmacol. 12:223 (1984). 9. Pitre, S., and S. K. Srivastava, Pharmacological, microbiological and phytochemical studies of roots of Aegle marmelos, Fitoterapia 58:194 (1987). 10. Karunanayaka, J. Welininda, S. R. Sirimorne, and G. Sinnadorai, Oral hypoglycaemic activity of some medicinal plants of Sri Lanka, J. Enthnopharmacol. 11:223 (1984). 11. Reuther, W., H. J. Webber, and L. D. Batchlor, The Citrus Industry, Vol. 1, University of California, Division of Agricultural Sciences, Berkeley, 1967, pp. 407409.

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12. Singh, B. N., and S. Dutt, Studies on the formation of jellies from some Indian fruits, Indian J. Agr. Sci. 11:1006 (1941). 13. Teotia, S. S., V. N. Maurya, and B. N. Agnihotri, Some promising varieties of bael (Aegle marmelos) of eastern district of Uttar Pradesh, Indian J. Hort. 20:210 (1963). 14. Jauhari, O. S., R. D. Singh, and R. K. Awasthi, Survey of some important varieties of bael (Aegle marmelos), Punjab Hort. J. 9:48 (1969). 15. Mazumdar, B. C., Physico-chemical analysis of some types of bael (Aegle marmelos) fruit growing in West Bengal, Indian Agr. 19(3):295 (1975). 16. Roy, S. K., and R. N. Singh, Bael fruit (Aegle marmelos): A potential fruit for processing, Econ. Bot. 33(2):1979.

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17. Roy, S. K., and R. N. Singh, Studies on utilization of bael fruit (Aegle marmelos) for processing. 1. Physico-chemical characteristics of different cultivars, Indian Food Packer 32(6):3 (1978). 18. Gopalan, C., B. V. Ramasastri, and S. C. Balasubramanian, Nutritive Value of Indian Foods, National Institute of Nutrition, ICMR, Hyderabad, India, 1978. 19. Mukherjee, B., and K. Ahmed, Riboflavin, Pakistan J. Biol. Agr. Sci. 1:4751 (1954). 20. Siddappa, G. S., The polyphenols in Bilwa preserve (Aegle marmelos), Food Sci. (Mysore) 7:186 (1958). 21. Banerjee, N., and M. Maity, Some physicochemical studies on a protein rich fruit seed (Aegle marmelos Correa), J. Indian Chem. Soc. 57(9):945 (1980).

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22. Tokitomo, Y., Y. Shimono, A. Kobyahi, and T. Yamanishi, Aroma components of bael fruit (Aegle marmelos), Agr. Biol. Chem. 46(7):1873 (1982). 23. Dixit, B. B. L., and S. Dutt, The constitution of marmelosin, J. Indian Chem. Soc. 9:271 (1932). 24. Roy, S. K., Studies of bael fruit (Aegle marmelos Correa). Changes in constituents during development, ripening and storage and processing of the fruit, Ph.D. thesis, B. C. K. V. Kalyani, W. Bengal, India, 1975. 25. Lal, G., G. S. Siddappa, and G. L. Tandon, Preservation of fruits and vegetables, ICAR, New Delhi, 1960. 26. Roy, R. S., and U. P. Verma, Bael products, Indian Food Packer 14(8):13 (1950).

2682/2989

27. Angnihotri, B. N., The bael (Aegle marmelos Correa), Indian Food Packer 4(9):29 (1950). 28. Verma, U. P., and S. Ahmed, Drying of bael (Aegle marmelos) pulp, Indian Food Packer 12(7):7 (1958). 29. Roy, S. K., and R. N. Singh, Studies on utilization of bael fruit (Aegle marmelos) for processing. II. Extraction of bael fruit pulp. Indian Food Packer 33(1):5 (1979). 30. Roy, S. K., and R. N. Singh, Studies on utilization of bael fruit (Aegle marmelos) for processing. III. Preparation and preservation of bael fruit products, Indian Food Packer 33(5):9 (1979).

Page 558

31. Roy, S. K., and R. N. Singh, Studies on utilization of bael fruit (Aegle marmelos) for processing, IV. Storage studies of bael fruit products, Indian Food Packer 33(6):43 (1979). 32. Singh, L. B., Some promising selection of bael, Ann. Rep. Hort. Res. Inst. Saharanpur 111 (1961). 33. Pareek, O. P., Date palm, Fruits of India: Tropical and Sub-tropical (T. K. Bose, ed.), Naya Prokash, India, 1985, p. 506. 34. Shabana, H. B., N. D. Benjamin, and S. Mohammad, Pattern of growth and development in date palm fruit, Date Palm J. 1:31 (1981). 35. Rygg, G. L., Compositional changes in the date fruit during growth and ripening, U.S. Dept. of Agriculture Technical Bulletin, 1946, p. 910.

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36. Sawaya, W. N., H. A. Khatchadourin, J. K. Khalil, W. M. Safi, and A. Al-Shalhat, Growth and compositional changes during various developmental stages of Saudi Arabian date cultivars, J. Food Sci. 47:1489 (1982). 37. Hasegawa, S., D. C. Smolensky, and V. P. Maier, Hydrolytic enzymes in dates and their application in the softening of tough dates and sugarwall dates, Date Growers Inst. Rep. 49:6 (1932). 38. Tate, H. F., and R. H. Hilgeman, Dates in Arizona, University of Arizona, Tucson, 1962, p. 32. 39. Nixon, R. W., Growing dates in the United States, USDA Agricultural Research Services Agriculture Information Bulletin 207, 1969.

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40. Bakshi, J. C., and J. S. Dhillon, Propagation and plantation of date offshoots, Punjab Hort. J. 2:142 (1962). 41. Tisseret, B., Production of free-living date palms through tissue culture, Date Palm J. 1:43 (1981). 42. Reuveni, O., Date Growers Inst. Rep. 48:16 (1971). 43. Nixon, R. W., and J. B. Carpenter, USDA Agriculture Information Bulletin 207, 1978, p. 63. 44. Bajwa, B. S., and J. C. Bakshi, The Date Palm Cultivation in India, ICAR Bulletin 63, 1961. 45. Salunkhe, D. K., and B. B. Desai, Postharvest Biotechnology of Fruits, Vol. II, CRC Press, Boca Raton, FL, 1984, p. 111.

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46. Coggins, C. W., Jr., and J. C. F. Knapp, A study of the chemical and physical factors influencing changes in texture and quality of mechanically harvested Degled Noor dates, Semi-Annual Prog. Rep. Res. and Serv. Contract, U.S. Dept. of Agriculture, July 1968. 47. Al-Rawi, N., P. Markakis, and D. H. Bauer, Amino-acid composition of Iraqui dates, J. Sci. Food Agr. 18:1 (1967). 48. Grobbellar, N., J. K. Pollard, and F. C. Steward, New soluble nitrogen compounds (aminoand iminoacids and amides) in plants, Nature 175:703 (1955). 49. Hilgeman, R. H., and J. G. Smith, Crude fat content of date skins correlated with moisture damage, Date Growers Inst. Rep. 14:16 (1937).

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50. Sawaya, W. N., J. K. Khalil, and W. J. Safi, Chemical composition and nutritional quality of date seeds, J. Food Sci. 49:617 (1984). 51. Lutz, J. M., and R. E. Hardenburg, The commercial storage of fruits, vegetables and florist and nursery stocks, U.S. Dept. of Agriculture Handbook 66, 1968. 52. Ryall, G. L., Date development, handling and packing in the United States, USDA Agriculture Research Service Handbook 482, 1975. 53. Vandercook, C. E., S. Hasegawa, and V. P. Maier, Dates, Tropical and Subtropical Fruits (S. Nagy, and P. E. Shaw, eds.), AVI, Westport, CT, 1980, p. 506.

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54. Ahmed, M. S. H., Z. S. Al-Hakkak, S. R. Ali, A. A. Kadhum, I. A. Hassan, S. K. Al-Maliky, and A. A. Hameed, Disinfection of commercially packed dates. Zahdi variety, by ionizing radiation, Date Palm J. 1(2):249 (1982). 55. Rodriguez, R., B. L. Raina, E. B. Pantastico, and M. B. Hatti, Quality of raw materials for processing, Postharvest Physiology, Handling and Utilization of Tropical and Sub-tropical Fruits and Vegetables (E. B. Pantastico, ed.), AVI, Westport, CT, 1975, p. 467. 56. Ali, M. Z., and H. A. Didar, A microbiological study of Sudanese date wines, J. Food Sci. 49:459 (1984). 57. Hayes, W. B., Fruit Growing in India, 3rd rev. ed., Kitabistan, Allahabad, India, 1953.

Page 559

58. Popenoe, W., Manual of Tropical and Subtropical Fruits, Macmillan, New York, 1920. 59. Knight, R. J., Jr., Origin and world importance of tropical and subtropical fruit crops, Tropical and Subtropical Fruits (S. Nagy and P. E. Shaw, eds.), AVI, Westport, CT, 1980, pp. 1120. 60. Pathak, R. K., and H. O. Gautam, Loquat, Fruits of India: Tropical and Subtropical, (T. K. Bose, ed.), Naya Prokash, Calcutta, 1985. 61. Singh, M. P., Mineral composition of fruits of litchi (Litchi chinensis) and loquat, Indian J. Hort. 9:53 (1952). 62. Randhawa, G. S., and R. K. M. Singh, The Loquat in India, ICAR, New Delhi, 1970, pp. 162.

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63. Pathak, V. N., Diseases of Fruit Crops, Oxford and IBH Publishing, New Delhi, 1980. 64. Kursanow, A. L., Biochemistry of the ripening fruits of Japanese medlar (Eriobotrya japonica), Planta 15:752 (1932). 65. Rajput, C. B. S., and J. P. Singh, Chemical analysis of loquat fruits, Indian J. Hort. 21:204 (1964). 66. Hall, N. T., J. M. Smoot, R. J. Knight, Jr., and S. Nagy, Protein and amino acid composition of ten tropical fruits by gas-liquid chromatography, J. Agr. Food Chem. 28:1217 (1980). 67. Kumar, R., Introduction of seedlessness in loquat, Indian J. Hort. 33:26 (1976). 68. Sadana, J. C., Carotenoids of loquat (Eriobotrya japonica Lindl.), Biochemistry 44:401 (1949).

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69. Shaw, P. E., in Tropical and Subtropical Fruits (S. Nagy and P. E. Shaw, eds.), AVI, Westport, CT, 1980, pp. 479491. 70. Araujo, P. E., Role of citrus fruit in human nutrition, Citrus Science and Technology, Vol. 1 (S. Nagy, P. E. Shaw, and M. K. Veldhuis, eds.), AVI, Westport, CT, 1977. 71. Frohlich, O., and P. Schreider, Volatile constituents of loquat (Eriobotrya japonica Lindl.) fruit, J. Food Sci. 55:176 (1990). 72. Ogata, Y., Physiological study of the fruit of loquat during storage, Kagawa Agr. Coll. Tech. Bull. 1(3):42 (1950). 73. Mukerjee, P. K., 1958. Storage of loquat (Eriobotryo japonica Lindl.), Hort. Adv. 2:64 (1958).

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74. Guelfat-Reich, S., Storage of loquat, Fruits Outre Mer. 25:169 (1970). 75. Singh, U. P., Artificial ripening of loquat, Sci. Cult. 24:335 (1959). 76. Adam, W. B., pH in fruit and vegetable canning, Food Sci. 19:4 (1950). 77. Knight, R. J., Jr., Origin and world importance of tropical and subtropical fruit crops, Tropical and Subtropical Fruits (S. Nagy and P. E. Shaw, eds.), AVI, Westport, CT, 1980. 78. Ito, S., Persimmon, Tropical and Subtropical Fruits (S. Nagy and P. E. Shaw, eds.), AVI, Westport, CT, 1980. 79. Mori, H., Studies on the inheritance of the main characters of deciduous fruit trees, Natl. Inst. Agr. Sci. Jpn. E2:168 (1958).

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80. Kim, Y. J., S. B. Jeongson, K. K. Lee, and U. J. Lee, A new non-astringent persimmon cultivar. Daean Dangam. Rep. Rural Development Administration, Horticulture Korea Republic 30:79 (1988). 81. Yamane, H., A. Kurihara, K. Nagata, M. Yamada, T. Kishi, K. Yoshinaga, R. Matsumoto, K. Kanato, T. Sumi, T. Hirabayashi, T. Ozawa, K. Hirose, M. Yamamoto, and M. Kakutani, New Japanese persimmon cultivar youhou, Bull. Fruit Tree Res. Sta. 20:49 (1991). 82. Liu, Q. X., F. R. Han, G. S. Zhang, and J. W. Wang, Two good persimmon varieties, Shuibansh and Dazhengmuosh, China Fruits 1:47 (1990).

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83. Chauhan, J. S., and D. R. Gautam, Veneer graftingAn excellent technique for persimmon propagation, Proc. Natl. Symp. on Temperate Fruits, Himachal Pradesh Agricultural University, Solan, India, 1986, p. 115. 84. Kitagawa, H., Studies on the removal of the astringency and storage of kaki. I. Microscope observation of tannin cells in nonastringent fruits, J. Jpn. Soc. Hort. Sci. 37:89 (1968). 85. USDA, Index of plant disease in the United States, U. S. Dept. of Agriculture Handbook 165, 1960. 86. Yamada, S., Blemishing of Japanese persimmon fruits caused by Phomo kikivera, Bull. Hort. Res. Sta. Okitsu 5:133 (1966).

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87. Tani, T., Studies on the phytopathological physiology of kaki anthracnose with special reference to the role of pectic enzymes in symptom development in kaki fruits, Mem. Fac. Agr. Kagawa 18:83 (1975).

Page 560

88. Tarutani, T., H. Kitagawa, and K. Fukuda, Studies on the utilization of persimmons, D. kaki L. VIII. Effect of skin injuries on fruit keeping quality, Tech. Bull. Fac. Agr. Kagawa 21 (1970). 89. Nizaradze, A. N., and R. N. Lomasadze, Phytological properties of subtropical persimmon fruits, Prikl. Biochem. M. Krobiol. 3(6):704 (1967). 90. Ryall, A. L., and W. T. Pentzer, Handling, Transportation and Storage of Fruits and Vegetables, Vol. 2, Fruits and Tree Nuts, AVI, Westport, CT, 1974. 91. Charney, P. F., and R. A. Seelig, Fruits and Vegetables: Facts and Pointers. Persimmons. United Fresh Fruit and Vegetable Association, Washington, DC, 1967.

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92. Kitahara, M., Y. Takeuchi, and M. Matsui, Biochemical studies on persimmon fruit. I. Composition of some properties between bagged and unbagged fruit, J. Jpn. Soc. Food Nutr. 4:138 (1951). 93. Ito, S., Chemical studies on the tannin of Japanese persimmon, Bull. Hort. Res. Sta. Jpn. Ser. B(1): 116 (1962) (in Japanese). 94. Brossard, J., and G. Mackinney, The carotenoids of D. kaki (Japanese persimmons), J. Agr. Food Chem. 11:501 (1968). 95. Senter, S. D., G. W. Chapman, W. R. Forbus, and J. A. Payne, Sugar and non-volatile acid composition of persimmons during maturation, J. Food Sci. 56:989 (1991). 96. Williams, W. J., Cold storage of figs, raisins, persimmons, quinces and tobacco, Ice Refrig. 89:367 (1935).

2698/2989

97. Kamal, H. M., and M. R. M. Raheh, Effect of cold storage temperature on storability and fruit quality of persimmon fruits, Bull. Fac. Agr. Univ. of Cairo 40:347 (1989). 98. Dorsett, P. H., Chinese method of outdoor cold storage for persimmons, Ice Refrig. 75:242 (1928). 99. Wardlaw, C. W., Tropical fruits and vegetables, an account of their storage and transport, Imp. Coll. Trop. Agr. Trinidad B. W. T. Mem. 7, 1937. 100. Matsuo, T., J. Shinohara, and S. Ito, An improvement on removing astringency in persimmon fruits by carbon dioxide gas, Agr. Biol. Chem. 40:215 (1976).

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101. Gazit, S., and I. Adato, Effect of carbon dioxide atmosphere on the course of astringency disappearance of persimmon fruits, J. Food Sci. 37:815 (1972). 102. Pesis, E., and R. Ben-Arie, Involvement of acetaldehyde and ethanol accumulation during induced deastringency of persimmon fruit, J. Food Sci. 49:896 (1984). 103. Pesis, E., A. Levi, and R. Ben-Arie, Role of acetaldehyde in removal of astringency from persimmon fruits under various modified atmospheres, J. Food Sci. 53:153 (1988). 104. Awad, M., and H. Amenomon, Astringency removal in persimmon fruits with ethephon, Hort. Sci. 7:174 (1972).

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105. Kitagawa, H., H. Yamane, and M. Iwata, Removal of the astringency in kaki by gamma radiation, Proc. Am. Soc. Hort. Sci. 84:213 (1962). 106. Singh, J. D., Cultivation of some less known fruits in India, Indian Hort. 11:651 (1967). 107. Rema, J., and V. P. Sharma, Effect of plant growth regulators on yield and quality of phalsa (Grewia subinaegualis L.), South Indian Hort.39:327 (1991). 108. Gangwar, B. W., and R. S. Tripathi, Chemical changes during ripening and storage of phalsa, Indian Food Packer 17:138 (1972). 109. Khurdiya, D. S., Nature and retention of anthocyanins pigments in phalsa (Grewia subinaegualis L.) fruit, Ph.D. thesis, IARI, New Delhi, 1979.

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110. Gopalan, C., B. V. Ramasastri, and S. C. Balsubramanian, Nutritive Value of Indian Foods, NIN, ICMR, Hyderabad, India, 1971. 111. Mikki, M. S., Efficacy of certain chemical preservations in Indian beverages, Ph.D. thesis, IARI, New Delhi, 1975. 112. Waskar, D. P., Studies on phalsa (Grewia subiniagualis L.) beverages, M.Sc. thesis, IARI, New Delhi, 1985. 113. Waskar, D. P., and D. S. Khurdiya, PhalsaA potential indigenous fruit for processing, Proc. Natl. Sem. on Production, Processing, Marketing and Export of Untapped Indigenous Fruits and Vegetables, IARI, New Delhi, 1990, p. 133. 114. Madan, T. R., and D. S. Khurdiya, A study of phalsa seed oil, J. Oil Tech. Assoc. India 19:23 (1987).

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Page 561

115. Waskar, D. P., V. R. Shelar, and D. S. Khurdiya, Processing of phalsa fruit, Beverage and Food World 18:10 (1991). 116. Srivastava, H. C., Paper chromatography of fruit juices, J. Sci. Ind. Res. India 12B:363 (1953). 117. Anand, J. C., Efficacy of sodium benzoate to control yeast fermentation in phalsa juice, Indian J. Hort. 17:138 (1960). 118. Kirtikar, K. R., and B. D. Basu, Indian Medicinal Plants, Vol. I, L. M. Basu, Allahabad, India, 1933. 119. Amba, D., Some new fruit beverages, Indian Hort. 18:5 (1973).

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120. Khurdiya, D. S., and J. C. Anand, Effect of extraction method, container and storage temperature on phalsa fruit juice, Indian Food Packer 35:6 (1981). 121. Waskar, D. P., and D. S. Khurdiya, Studies on the utilization of phalsa pomace, Abstracts of Int. Food Convention and Exhibition (IFCON-88), CFTRI, Mysore, India, 1988, p. 24. 122. Khurdiya, D. S., A study on fruit juice based carbonated drink, Indian Food Packer 44:45 (1990). 123. Khurdiya, D. S., and J. C. Anand, The colour stability in phalsa juice, Indian Food Packer 36:144 (1982). 124. Waskar, D. P., and D. S. Khurdiya, Processing and storage of phalsa beverages, Indian Food Packer 41:7 (1987).

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125. Jain, S. P., V. K. Tripathi, D. B. Ram, and J. D. Singh, Effect of storage conditions on the keeping quality of fruit squash, Abstracts of Papers of Seminar on Recent Developments in Fruit and Vegetable Technology, MAU, Parbhani, India, 1984. 126. Waskar, D. P., and D. S. Khurdiya, Effect of packaging containers on the anthocyanins of phalsa syrup, Indian Food Packer 41:17 (1987). 127. National Academy of Sciences, Tropical Legumes: Resource for the Future, National Academy of Sciences, Washington, DC, 1979, p. 109. 128. Davies, W. N. L., The carob tree and its importance in the agricultural economy of Cyprus, Econ. Bot. 24:460 (1970).

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129. Goor, A., R. J. Ticho, and I. Garmi, The Carob, Agricultural Publication Section, Ministry of Agriculture, Israel, 1958. 130. Charalambous, J., The Composition and Uses of Carob Bean, Cyprus Agricultural Research Institute, Nicosia, Cyprus, 1966, p. 50. 131. Davies, W. N. L., P. I. Orphanos, and J. Papaconstantinou, Chemical composition of developing carob pod, J. Sci. Food Agr. 22:83 (1971). 132. Wursh, P., S. delVedovo, J. Rosset, and M. Smiley, The tannin granules from ripe carob pod, Lebens. Wiss. Technol. 17(6):351 (1984). 133. National Academy of Sciences, Underexploited Tropical Plants with Promising Economic Value, National Academy of Sciences, Washington, DC, 1975, p. 69.

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134. Schultes, R. E., and R. Romero-Castaneda, Edible fruits of Solanum in Colombia, Howard Univ. Bot. Museum Leaflets 19:235 (1962).

Page 563

29 Minor FruitsTropical
Susanta K. Roy Indian Agricultural Research Institute, New Delhi, India G. D. Joshi Konkan Agricultural University, Dapoli, Maharashtra, India I. Acerola

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Acerola or West Indian cherry (WIC) originated in tropical America. Nutritionally, this is a very important fruit, mainly because of its high ascorbic acid content. Acerola is also called cereza in Puerto Rico, Barbados cherry in Florida and Texas, cerise in Haiti, and Surinam cherry in Surinam (1). It is widely distributed throughout tropical America, Africa, and the West Indies. It has also been introduced in Hawaii and India. A. Botany

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The genus Malpighia is composed of over 30 different species of shrubs and small trees of tropical and subtropical America. The formal name of the West Indian cherry is Malpighia emarginata DC (2). The name Malpighia glabra L. is applicable to a species that is unknown in Puerto Rico but is native to Jamaica, Mexico, Central America, and the northern part of South America and which is seldom cultivated for its fruit (2). Trees classified as M. punicifolia L. yield fruit that is high in vitamin content, while those classified as M. glabra produce fruit that may be either high or low in vitamin C (2). Cultivar B-17 was the most important commercial cultivar of acerola selected in Puerto Rico (1), but it has been surpassed by B-15 in yield and vitamin content. Other cultivars grown in Puerto Rico are A-14, A-12, B-6, B-7, and B-8. The pulp and juice of Florida Sweet cultivar are low in acidity and are most suitable for fresh consumption.

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B. Production The acerola tolerates a wide range of soils and climatic conditions, but optimum growth and yield depends on well-drained soil and abundant moisture. The soil pH should not be below 5.5. The application of fertilizers increases yield and ascorbic acid content considerably (4). Vegetative propagation of outstanding cultivars affords the most practical means of establishing an acerola planting. Hardwood cuttings treated with indole butyric acid (IBA) roots satisfactorily when kept

Page 564

in rooting medium for 2 months. Air layering with sphagnum moss and vinyl plastic may be used. The acerola grows as an attractive plant with dark, glossy green leaves. Under optimum growing conditions, the plant may attain a height of 5 m and a spread of 4 m. Normally, it bears a large crop of waxy, bright red cherrylike fruit during the warm, wet part of the year (5). C. Chemical Composition

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Acerola is an excellent source of vitamin C (Table 1). The vitamin C content ranges from 1 to 4%, depending on the cultivar and stage of maturity of the fruit. In addition to vitamin C, all other vitamins with the exception of b-carotene are present only at low levels. In addition to ascorbic acid and dehydroascorbic acid, acerola contains 2,3-diketogulonic acid at levels fluctuating between 0.0183 and 0.1092% (6). Malic acid contributes 2550% of the total acids. Glucose, fructose, and sucrose are important sugars present in acerola. Calcium, phosphorus, iron, sodium, and potassium are present in minor quantities (6). D. Storage.

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Pantastico et al. (6) recommended a temperature of 0C and 8590% relative humidity (RH) to extend the storage life of acerola fruit for about 8 weeks with an average 6.3% loss of weight. In Puerto Rico, the acerola is exported in a frozen state to the continental United States, where it is processed. The loss of ascorbic acid in canned acerola juice can be minimized by holding it at 7C (7). E. Processing 1. Juice

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Acerola is commonly used for extraction of juice. The juice is extracted by breaking fruits into a mash by means of a high-speed stirrer before squeezing in a cider press (8). The juice obtained is clarified by centrifugation, followed by filtration and pasteurization in a tubular heat exchanger at 88C for 45 s. This causes a slight loss of ascorbic acid. The juice is transported and stored at room temperature. The storage of cans at room temperature results in considerable (5181%) loss of ascorbic acid. As noted above, this loss can be minimized by storage at 7C (9). Frozen bottled juice with and without sugar exhibited approximately 1318% loss of ascorbic acid at the end of 8 months storage (10). The pleasant flavor of freshly extracted juice changes during heating, with development of a haylike flavor (8). Acerola juice frozen without pasteurization suffers less change and retains ascorbic acid fairly well for a period of 1 year. Freezing also prevents changes in color and

2716/2989

flavor. The bright red color of West Indian cherry juice changes to a yellowish brown after pasteurization and canning, upon standing at room temperature, CO2 gas, originating from ascorbic acid, is evolved (1). 2. Powder

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Acerola berries are picked by hand. The berries are washed and ground and the juice is recovered by means of a rack-and-frame press. The yield of juice obtained is 6085% of the initial weight of the fruit (1). The juice is clear and pale pink. It contains about 8% total soluble solids (TSS) and 1.82.2% ascorbic acid (1). This is fed to a vacuum evaporator that concentrates the juice to about 60% soluble solids with 1012% ascorbic acid. This concentrated juice is unstable even at 0C, and there is a loss of vitamin C and then a gradual darkening of the concentrate and evolution of carbon dioxide. Juice dehydrated to less than 1% moisture by freezedrying is completely stable.

Page 565 Table 1 Nutritional Composition of Acerola Fruit Content (in edible Constituent portion) Moisture (%) 91.10 Proteins (%) 0.68 Minerals 0.45 Fats (%) 0.19 Crude fibers (%) 0.60 Carbohydrates (%) 6.98 Ascorbic acid (mg/100 2329.00 g) 28 Thiamine (mg/100 g) 79 Riboflavin (mg/100 g) 340 Niacin (mg/100 g) Calcium (mg/100 g) 8.7 Phosphorus (mg/100 g) 16.2 Total iron (mg/100 g) 0.17 Source: Ref. 2

3. Jelly and Puree

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Acerola is low in pectin, but a good jelly can be prepared from acerola by addition of pectin. Acerola jelly contains high amounts of ascorbic acid and has a beautiful red-purple color. Puree is a frozen product prepared from freshly harvested acerola. The whole fruits are washed, homogenized in a blender, and ground to a smooth consistency. The resulting puree is pressed through plies of cheesecloth to remove approximately its weight of granulated sugar and pectin until the desired consistency is obtained. The product is packed in containers and frozen. It can be used for preparation of punch, ice cream topping, and a flavoring for ice cream. II. Aonla (Amla)

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Aonla is one of the minor fruit crops of commercial significance. It is quite hardy and is highly remunerative even without much care (11). It has acquired wide popularity all over the world due to its medicinal properties and is frequently recommended in both the Ayurvedic and Unani systems of medicines. Aonla is commonly known as amla, nelli, emblica, or Indian gooseberry in different parts of India and grows widely in that country. It is said to be indigenous to tropical Southeast Asia, particularly central and southern India (12), and thrives throughout tropical India. The fruit is highly nutritive and is a rich source of ascorbic acid. It is also a rich source of pectins and tannins. The plant is a prolific bearer and is hardy enough for growing in dry areas. A. Botany

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Aonla (Phyllanthus emblica L. Syn. Emblica officinalis Gaert.) belongs to the family Euphorbiaceae, to which also belongs another species, Phyllanthus acidus (distichus). In both these species, leaves are small and arranged in two rows along small branches, some of which are

Page 566

deciduous. Aonla fruits are borne on the branches and the plant thus appears to bear flowers on its leaves, giving the name of the genus Phyllanthus which means literally leaf flower. A third species of the genus, P. fischeri, found in the forests of South India, also bears fruits suitable for human consumption (13). The genus Phyllanthus comprises about 350 species, mostly shrubs, some herbs or trees (14).

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Aonla cultivars have not been standardized and are identified mostly on the basis of size, color (15), or location where they grow. The popular cultivars are Banarasi, green tinged, red tinged, and white streaked. Some important varieties of aonla recommended for commercial cultivation are Banarasi, Deshi, Chakaiya, and Hatijhool. The Banarasi is the best variety for making preserves. The fruits are large, yellowish, and shiny, with good keeping quality. Chakaiya is a very hardy variety, a heavy bearer with medium fruits and very good keeping quality. Deshi is a very hardy but late bearer and bears small fruits (16).

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After fruit set in April-May, the embryo lies in a dormant condition and the ovary does not exhibit any symptoms of external growth until the middle of August. Thereafter, the diameter and volume of the fruit increase rapidly; maximum growth is achieved by November. The endocarp cells form the hard stone, while mesocarp cells are responsible for fruit enlargement (17). B. Production

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Aonla can be grown in light as well as heavy soils, but well-drained, fertile, loamy soil is best. Aonla can be propagated through seeds, but the seedling trees bear small, poor-quality fruits. For commercial cultivation, shield budding and in-arch grafting are used, while the seedlings are used as understocks (11). The grafted or budded plants are planted in pits at 89 m square spacing during the rainy season. Intercropping can be done with leguminous crops for up to 8 years while the plants remain in nonbearing stage. Irrigation is supplied as needed until the trees are established. During summer, irrigation at fortnightly intervals is necessary. Irrigation of mature bearing trees is also necessary for higher fruit set and better development of fruits. The mature tree should be fertilized with 3040 kg of farmyard manure, 600900 g of nitrogen, 160200 g of phosphorus, and 600900 g of potash in two equally split doses in a year, at fruit set and at fruit development stage (16).

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As the branches carrying heavy crop load break off, the plants should be trained to develop a low-headed foundation frame of main branches on the trunk within 1 m from the ground. The frame should be developed by encouraging growth of 46 well-spaced branches with fairly wide angles. Bearing trees can be pruned after the termination of crop each year by removing dead, diseased, broken, or weak cross branches and suckers from the rootstock (16).

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No serious incidence of pests or diseases has been reported. However, crops suffer from barkeating caterpillars, shoot gall makers, and brown spot on leaves and fruits (16). The mature fruit changes color from light green to dull greenishyellow. The best time for harvesting the fruits is February, when they have maximum ascorbic acid content. The mature fruits are hard and are well suited to bulk harvesting, distant transport, and marketing. A full-grown grafted tree yields 187299 kg of fruits per year (15) with an average of 200 kg/tree (11). C. Composition.

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Aonla is one of the richest natural sources of ascorbic acid, containing as much as 747 mg/ 100 g of pulp (18). The fruit contains about 5% tannins (Table 2). The astringency of aonla fruit may be assigned to the presence of polyphenols (19). The nutritional composition of aonla varieties grown in India is presented in Table 3.

Table 2 Chemical Composition of Fresh and Dried Banarasi Aonla Fruits Chemical constituent Fresh fruits Dried f L-Ascorbic acid (mg/100 g) 347 197 Dehydroascorbic acid (mg/100 g) 335 215 Total ascorbic acid (mg/100 g) 682 412 Acidity as anhydrous citric acid (%) 2.59 9.10 Sugars: 15.57 42.2 Reducing (%) Absent Abse Nonreducing (%) Acid:sugar ratio 1:6.0 1:4. Starch (%) 3.46 10.3 Protein (%) 0.91 2.81 Tannin (%) 4.45 13.8 Source: Ref. 20.

D. Storage

Storage of aonla fruits is required to extend their pe tially control market gluts. The storage life depends harvest. The fruits keep well in cold storage at 02C days (21).

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E. Processing

Fresh aonla fruits are highly acidic and unsuitable f Hence, the fruits are processed into products such a powder. Preserves have been prepared by various m prepared by using optimum-maturity fruit keeps lon leptic qualities (26). The optimum stage of maturity December to the third week of January, when the fr 2.552.46% acidity, 1.091.05% tannins, and a vitam 100 g (27).

A substantial quantity of the ascorbic acid of aonla method of pickling, but much of it can be retained b for a few minutes and then putting them in a heavy is prepared by mincing the fresh fruits and
Table 3 Chemical Composition of Aonla Varieties TSS Acidity Total sugars Reducing sugars Variety (%) (%) (%) (%) Banarasi 13.0 2.34 8.0 1.04 Hatijhool 11.5 2.52 7.0 4.08 Chakaiya 9.0 2.17 9.6 1.99

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Bansi 15.0 Red Deshi 15.2 Source: Ref. 16.

2.32 2.58

8.2 7.1

1.38 1.03

Page 568

powdering slices after natural drying in the sun. The product contains about 1016 mg ascorbic acid/100 g powder, which may be increased by refinement of the process (20). Jain and Lal (18) extracted about 90% of the ascorbic acid from aonla fruits. The concentrate had a slightly astringent and bitter taste. However, it could be used to fortify other products. Hays (29) observed that steeping fruits in 2% brine for a week removes most of the astringency and almost a third of the ascorbic acid. The extract can be preserved with potassium metabisulfite or by adding sugar to the extract.

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Aonla fruits are widely used in the Unani and Ayurvedic systems of medicines. They are used in the form of fresh fruit or powder in various preparations such as chavanprash, triphala, and arishtha (21). A number of products including sauce, candy, dried chips, powder, tablets, chutney, and muramba can be prepared from aonla fruit (30). The fruits are valued as antiscorbutic, diuretic, and laxative (31). One or another part of the plant can be used in treating chronic dysentery (32), jaundice, dyspepsia, and cough. It is also used in the tanning and dyeing industries (33). III. Breadfruit

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Breadfruit is a widely grown, nutritious tree fruit. It is more important as a subsistence crop than as a commercial crop in most areas of the world, especially in the Pacific islands, where it is an important staple crop (34). The fruit is typically roasted or boiled, and occasionally fried as chips. A. Botany Breadfruit is a member of the genus Artocarpus (family Moraceae), which contains about 50 species of trees that grow in the hot, moist regions of the Southeast Asian tropics and in the Pacific islands. A. altilis (synonym A. communis) and A. marianensis, as well as possible hybrids, grow in Micronesia. Artocarpus mariannensis grows wild but is limited in distribution to Micronesia (34).

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The fruit of breadfruit is a highly specialized structure, a syncarp, composed of 15002000 flowers attached to the fruit axis or core. The core contains numerous latex tubes and larger vascular bundles, which discolor rapidly upon cutting due to oxidative enzyme activity. The bulk of the fruit is formed from the persistent perianth of each flower. The perianths fuse together except at the base, forming a cavity which contains the true fruit and its enclosed ovary and seed. As the fruit develops, this area grows vigorously and becomes fleshy at maturity, forming the edible portion of the fruit. The rind is usually stained with latex exudations at maturity. Breadfruit seeds are thin-walled, obovoid, irregularly compressed, 12 cm thick, and embedded in the pulp (34).

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The creamy white or pale yellow flesh is soft and pulpy when mature, surrounding a spongy core. Since many cultivars of breadfruit are seedless, it has been inferred that fruit development is due to parthenocarpy. Seedless cultivars often have numerous tiny aborted seeds surrounding the core. A few seeded forms also occur, and these usually contain from one to several normal or aborted seeds. B. Production Breadfruit can be grown successfully in warm areas that have a well distributed annual rainfall of 200250 cm, a temperature range of 1638C, and 7080% relative humidity. Lateritic red loams are best suited for breadfruit. The plant requires a high humus content in the soil. It may seem to grow satisfactorily in shallow soils, but sooner or later a decline sets in, resulting in the death

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Page 569

of the tree. Good drainage of the soil is essential for breadfruit, as impeded drainage stunts the trees and water stagnation around the roots causes premature dropping of fruits (37).

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Breadfruit is propagated through seeds in the case of seeded varieties. The seeds lose viability soon after removal from the fruits. They should therefore be sown immediately after extraction from the ripe fruits. Propagation of seedless varieties is effected through several vegetative methods, the most common being planting of root cuttings and air layering of root suckers. Formation of root suckers is stimulated by deliberate injury of the roots. Sprouted root portions are separated from the mother plant and planted during the rainy season. Root cuttings taken between October and March have shown success ranging from 29 to 90%. Root cuttings about 2.5 cm in diameter and 22.5 cm long, planted horizontally, give 90% success, as compared to 40% success when they are planted vertically. Breadfruit can be propagated by grafting tender branches on seedlings of wild jack (A. hirsutus) as stock. Budding is also successful.

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Active buds of breadfruit trees can be easily budded to seedlings of wild jack. The trees are planted 1520 m apart in circular pits of 1 m3. Young plants should be properly watered and shaded: They cannot stand stagnation. In coastal regions, although plants do not require much irrigation, young plants may be watered at frequent intervals during hot spells. After the plants have established properly, farmyard manure plus wood ash or a mixture of ammonium sulfate, muriate of potash, and superphosphate may be applied during the monsoon. In addition to this basal manure, 2 kg of superphosphate should be applied to each bearing tree annually to enhance the number and size of the fruits.

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No serious diseases or pests have so far been noticed on breadfruit. Soft rot caused by Rhizopus artocarpi Racib is the common fungal disease affecting the tree. This disease causes rotting and dropping of fruits at all stages of development. Prophylactic spraying with copper fungicides is effective against fungal diseases. Shedding of immature fruits due to fungal diseases can be controlled by spraying the tender fruit with 1% Bordeaux mixture twice at intervals of 1 month after setting of fruit. A full-grown and well-bearing tree produces about 150200 fruits a year, although the average annual yield is reported to be 50100 fruits weighing 2346 kg. The fruit is green in the initial stages and turns yellowish-green upon maturity. Harvesting is best done by lowering the fruits without letting them fall from the tree. C. Chemical Composition

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Breadfruit is an important source of energy, being high in carbohydrates, but it is low in fats and protein. When enough breadfruit is eaten daily to provide most of the caloric needs, it is a good source of phosphorus, iron, calcium, ascorbic acid, and the B vitamins thiamine, nicotinic acid, and riboflavin. Breadfruit has little yellow pigment and is not a good source of vitamin A (35). It is better source of calcium, riboflavin, nicotinic acid, phosphorus, and ascorbic acid. Seeds are a good source of protein (8%) and are low in fat (35%) compared to nuts such as peanuts or almonds, which contain 5060% fat. Breadfruits are a poor source of ascorbic acid. The nutrient composition of fresh, roasted, boiled, and preserved fruits, and that of cooked seeds, is presented in Table 4. D. Storage

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Breadfruits are typically picked when in a mature but firm starchy stage. Sweet ripe fruits are rarely eaten, although a few traditional dishes utilize fruit at this stage. Fruits soften within 13 days, although a few cultivars may keep for as long as 10 days. Fruits may be submerged in water to retard softening, but the outer surface splits and softens, reducing the amount available for

Table 4 Approximate Composition of Boiled Seeds, and Fresh Pit-Fermented Breadfruit per 100 g of Edible Portion Method of prep Constituent Fresh Roasted Boiled Water (%) 69.1 65.7 70.6 Food energy (cal) 121.0 133.0 115.0 Protein (g) 1.3 1.5 1.1 Carbohydrate (g) 28.1 31.4 27.4 Fat (g) 0.4 0.3 0.3 Calcium (mg) 23.2 23.0 16.6 Phosphorus (mg) 47.2 59.6 32.6 Iron (mg) 0.63 0.96 0.38 Thiamine (mg) 0.09 0.08 0.08 Riboflavin (mg) 0.06 0.08 0.06 Nicotinic acid (mg) 1.28 1.42 0.67 Vitamin C (mg) 8.7 1.9 3.1 Source: Ref. 35.

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consumption. Preliminary studies to extend the she demonstrated that the fruit can be stored in polyethy temperature; however, this tropical fruit is prone to temperatures below 13C. Cooked breadfruit can be storage method deserves greater attention as it may effective means to better utilize this crop. E. Processing. 1. Drying

Drying is another common method used to store bre ripe fruits are boiled until soft, then sliced into piec in the sun for 34 days. The dried breadfruit is eaten or prepared for long-term storage by first roasting w fire. After the fruits are peeled and cut into bite-size pieces are dried on racks for 824 h over a fire. Brea manner can be stored for up to a year in leaf-lined b initely in airtight plastic or glass containers. Dried b ally eaten without additional preparation, but it may flour and mixed with water or coconut milk to mak

2746/2989

2. Fermentation

Fermented, preserved breadfruit is called ma, masi, storage is a semianaerobic fermentation process inv acidification, which reduces the fruit to a sour paste breadfruit can be stored for 12 years in the pit if the placed as needed during the storage period. A clean product can be prepared by placing the softened fru plastic containers (36). IV. Jackfruit

Jackfruit is widely cultivated through the tropical lo hemispheres. It is commonly grown in Burma and M considerable extent in Brazil (38). The popularity o commercial crop is very meager due to the wide va quality, the long gestation period of plants raised fr sence of a commercial method of vegetative

Page 571

propagation, and the widespread belief that excessive consumption leads to certain digestive ailments. It is a comparatively cheap fruit, however, and is favored by poor people when the price of staple foods is high. Hence, it is considered a poor man's food/fruit in the eastern and southern parts of India. Jackfruit is not grown in regular orchards, so reliable statistics on area and production are not available. A. Botany

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Jackfruit (Artocarpus heterophyllus Lan Syn. A. integrifolia) belongs to the family Moraceae. The chromosome number is 2n = 56. The tree is 811 m tall, with a straight stem, evergreen, and with glossy leaves. On young plants the leaves are lobed, but they are fully expanded on mature trees. The inflorescence is always solitary and peduncles have unisexual flowers. Male spikes develop from the main or secondary branches, while female spikes arise from foot stalks on the trunks and also on primary and secondary branches. Jackfruit is formed by a large number of individual flowers and the fruit is therefore called a multiple fruit.

2749/2989

Jackfruit is a cross-pollinated plant, hence there are innumerable types or forms depending on fruit characteristics. Cultivated types are classified into two groups by consumers as soft flesh and firm flesh. Some distinct types are capable of maintaining their identity even after propagation by seeds (39). These are Rudraleshi and Singapore or Ceylon jack. A variety named Muttam Vakira, which produced fruits of an average weight of 7.0 kg with 46 cm length and 23 cm width has been reported (38). B. Production

2750/2989

Jackfruit tolerates a wide variety of soils, provided they are well drained. However, it prefers a rich, deep, and well-drained alluvial soil or a very open-textured loamy or lateritic soil. It does not grow well if the water table fluctuates frequently. Jackfruit flourishes in warm and humid tropical climates, under a wide range of rainfall and to an elevation of about 1500 m. Cold weather and frost are harmful. It can also be grown in drought-prone areas if irrigation is available, and tolerates very high rainfall of about 400 mm where water does not stagnate.

2751/2989

Propagation of jackfruit by seed is the most common method. This leads to immense variation, with the result that it is difficult to find jackfruits of standard quality or performance in any plantation or region. Moreover, seedlings take many years to come to fruiting. A number of vegetative propagation methods including cutting and air laying, budding, in-arch grafting (4042) and in vitro propagation by tissue culture (4345) have been tried with limited success. Commonly, the square system is followed for planting. A hexagonal system is also followed in less fertile soil. A spacing of 12 12 m is used in fertile soil. However, high-density planting is practiced in heavy soil (38). Jackfruit is an evergreen tree bearing on the mature wood of the trunk and branches, hence no regular training or pruning are practiced except removing dead and diseased parts.

2752/2989

Jackfruit is grown mostly as a rain-fed crop, and regular irrigation is seldom needed. If grafts are planted, they are hand watered during winter and summer during the first 2 years. For quick growth of trees, manures and fertilizers may be added twice a year before and after the rainy season. It is advisable to apply 80 kg of farmyard manure per tree per year. According to the nutrient status of soil and the growth of the trees, chemical fertilizers are applied. These are spread in a basin and thoroughly mixed with soil. Jackfruit is not grown in an orchard, hence no regular intercultural operations are practiced. However, it is necessary to weed out the areas under the canopy. If planted in regular layouts, it is advisable to grow an intercrop such as Stylosanthus hamata or fodder shrubs such as Sesbania grandiflora and Subabul (Leucaena).

Page 572

No serious pests have been observed on jackfruit. However, diseases such as soft rot of fruits and pink disease have been noticed. Soft rot is caused by a fungus, Rhizopus artocarpi, which affects the male spikes and young fruits, resulting in blackening, rotting, and shedding of premature fruits. This disease can be controlled by spraying the young fruits with Zineb and Elatox (46). Pinkish as well as whitish growth is seen on the branches and shoots. The incrustation gradually extends and ultimately surrounds the stem and branches. In order to control this disease, the affected parts are cut off and Bordeaux paste or coal tar is applied at the cut ends. A prophylactic spray of 1% Bordeaux mixture before the onset of monsoon reduces the incidence of this disease. Although a number of pests are known, shoot and trunk borers, brown weevils (Ochyromera artocarpi), mealy bugs, and jack scales are the important pests of jackfruit.

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Jackfruit seedlings start fruiting after 810 years, whereas grafts may fruit from 35 years. Fully mature but unripe fruits are harvested, and fruit maturity is judged by dull appearance and a dull sound upon tapping. The season extends to August. The yield varies from tree to tree and according to the age of the tree. On average, 50100 fruits of medium size (610 kg) are borne on adult trees. The jackfruit tree lives for over 80 years. No systematic grading of the fruits is practiced. The fruits are transported to nearby markets on head loads or in carts. For distant markets, the fruits are transported in trucks. Generally, no packing is used. Jackfruit prices depend on the size, quality, type of fruit, and season. C. Composition

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Flakes of ripe jackfruit contain 14.5% sugars, of which a-glucose, b-glucose, fructose, and sucrose constitute 3.63, 2.33, 1.74, and 6.90%, respectively (17). The composition of jackfruit is presented in Table 5. The seeds are rich in carbohydrates and are also a rich source of vitamins B1 and B2. The reported volatile components of jackfruit are listed by Berry and Kalra (47). D. Storage Jackfruit ripens when the maximum temperature is reached at the end of the summer season. The fruit may mature later in colder regions. The fruits are normally not kept in cold storage. A storage
Table 5 Chemical Composition of Jackfruit Constituenta Flakes Seeds Moisture (%) 77.2 64.5 Carbohydrate (g) 18.9 25.8

2756/2989

Protein (g) Fat (g) Fiber (g) Minerals (g) Calcium (mg) Phosphorus (mg) Potassium (mg) Vitamin A (IU) Thiamine (mg) aConstituent per 100 g. Source: Ref. 38.

1.9 0.1 1.1 0.8 20 30 500 30 0.25

6.6 0.4 1.2 21 28 17 17

Page 573

life of 6 weeks can be expected when the storage temperature is 11.112.7C and the humidity is between 85 and 90% (47). The initial quality and stage of maturity influence storage life. Pink disease caused by Botrybasidium salmonicolor (Berk. and Br.) Venkatraman affects jackfruit. Fruit rot is caused by Phytophthora palmivora. Rhizopus rot of jackfruit caused by R. artocarpi Racib has been reported in India (42). Batocera rufomaculala and larvae of the moth Perina nuda have been reported to infest jackfruit. E. Processing.

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Ripe jackfruit is consumed as a dessert fruit. Jackfruit chips are prepared by frying ripe or semiripe flakes in margarine. Jackfruit leather is also prepared from the firm-flesh-type fruits. Jackfruit bulbs can be preserved by canning them in syrup (48,49). A palatable beverage concentrate can be made from jackfruit pulp by adding sugar, citric acid, and water. V. Jamun

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Jamun (Syzygium cuminii Skeels) is an important minor fruit of Indian origin. It grows widely in different agroclimatic conditions and is one of the hardiest fruit trees (50). Jamun is also found in Thailand, Philippines, the West Indies and many other tropical and subtropical countries (51). The fruit syrup is very useful for curing diarrhea. It is stomachic, carminative, and diuretic, apart from having cooling and digestive properties (52). Jamun seeds are also known for their medicinal properties and are used to treat diabetes, diarrhea, and dysentery. Bhargava et al. (53) have shown that jamun markedly lowers blood pressure. It is also used as a lotion for the cure of ringworm (54). The jamun fruit is tasty and pleasantly flavored. It is generally oblong or round in shape, deep purple or bluish in color, having juicy, sweet pulp and a small stone (55). The keeping quality of the fruit is very poor, so the fruit must be utilized within 24 h after picking.

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A. Botany Jamun tree belongs to the family Myrtaceae. The flowers are hermaphrodite, and light yellow in color. The jamun is a cross-pollinated crop, and pollination is done mainly by honeybees (56). Flower and fruit drop are the main problems of jamun: only 1215% of flowers reach maturity (57). The jamun has three distinct growth phases: The first phase (1552 days after fruit set) is slow, the second phase (5258 days) is rapid, and the last phase (5860 days) is slow growth with little increase in fruit weight (58). Seedling jamun trees start bearing after 810 years, and grafted ones after 67 years. There is no standard cultivar of jamun. The common cultivar grown under North Indian conditions produces big fruit with a small stone and is early maturing. Another, late-maturing cultivar bears small-sized fruits (59) with a larger stone (Table 6).

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B. Production Jamun is widely grown throughout the tropical and subtropical regions of India, from the IndoGangetic plains in the north to Tamil Nadu in the south. Jamun tree is found growing up to an elevation of 1600 m (50). Information concerning the area and production of this fruit is not available, as there is no organized orcharding. Jamun is grown in parks, on roadsides and avenues, and as a windbreak. It can easily grow in neglected and marshy land where no other fruit plants can be grown normally. However, for optimum growth and good fruiting the jamun tree requires deep loam and well-drained soil. It needs a dry atmosphere at the time of flowering and fruiting. Jamun is commonly propagated by seed. Vegetative methods of propagation, such as in-arch

Page 574 Table 6 Physical Characteristics of Different Types of Jamun Fruit Type of jamun Parameters Small Big Length (cm) 1.62 2.40 Diameter (cm) 1.39 1.92 Shape index 1.17 1.25 Weight of fruit (g) 3.30 6.70 Volume of fruit (ml) 3.08 6.60 Specific gravity 1.07 1.06 Seed (%) 36.36 32.17 Edible portion (%) 63.64 67.83 Juice (%) 49.42 48.37 Source: Ref. 59.

grafting, budding, cutting, veneer grafting, and air layering, can be used for improved types of plants (56).

2763/2989

The ripe jamun fruit is available during summer and disappears once the monsoon has set in. The main characteristic of ripe fruit at full size is the development of a very deep purple or black color. The fruit should be harvested as soon as it is ripe, because it cannot remain on the tree in the ripe stage and starts dropping to the ground immediately after ripening. During the peak jamun season, the ground below the tree commonly turns purple due to dropping of fruits. Jamun is often picked from the ground, but these fruits are generally infected with soil-borne organisms. Since most of the fruits are damaged once they hit the ground, the common method of harvesting jamun is to shake the tree and collect the fruit by holding a big piece of cloth or canvas under the tree. Harvesting is also done by climbing on the tree and collecting the fruit in a cloth bag. Using this method, the incidence of damage is less but it is somewhat dangerous for the picker. It is unfortunate that no proper technique for

2764/2989

harvesting jamun has yet been developed. The fruit should be picked immediately when it is ripe. The ripe fruits should be picked singly by hand, and great care should be taken to avoid any damage to the fruits. The fruits of jamun are generally harvested daily and sent to market on the same day, as they cannot be kept for a longer time. A full-grown seedling jamun tree yields about 80100 kg on average, while grafted trees yield 6070 kg per year (56). C. Composition

2765/2989

Ramanjaneya (59) reported chemical characteristics of two different types of jamun, one small and the other large (Table 7). The bigger fruits have a high Brix/acid ratio, low contents of acids, tannins, and total anthocyanins, and are suitable for table purposes. The small-sized fruits, which are not suitable for table purposes, are ideal for processing, as they contain high amounts of acids, tannins, and anthocyanins. The sugar content of jamun fruit consists principally of reducing sugars. The high tannin content is mainly responsible for its astringency. Jamun color is due to anthocyanin pigments (60). Jamun fruit processes considerable nutritive value. According to Singh et al. (50), the fruit has 19.7% carbohydrates, 0.7% protein, 0.02% calcium, 0.1% fat, 0.01% phosphorus, 0.4% mineral matter, 0.1% iron, 0.9% fiber, and a calorific value of 83/100 g. Jamun is a very good source of iron. Bajpai and Chaturvedi (56) reported that the vitamins present in

2766/2989

Page 575 Table 7 Chemical Constituents of Different Types of Jamun Fruit Type of jamun Parameters Small Big Moisture (%) 79.12 81.24 Total soluble solids (%) 11.10 12.30 Acidity (%) 1.00 1.20 pH 3.35 3.45 Brix/acid ratios 6.94 10.25 Reducing sugars (%) 8.41 9.06 Total sugars (%) 8.40 9.68 Total anthocyanins (mg/100 g) 242.50 210.00 Tannins (mg/100 g) 428.26 386.25 Source: Ref. 60.

jamun are thiamine (0.03 mg), riboflavin (0.01 mg), nicotinic acid (0.2 mg), vitamin C (18 mg), and folic acid (3 mg) per 100 g of edible pulp. D. Storage

2768/2989

Shukla (61) observed that the storage life of jamun fruit is 6 days at room temperature and 3 weeks at low temperature (9 1C and 8590% RH) when precooled fruit is kept in perforated polyethylene bags. However, according to Ramanjaneya (59), jamun fruits are highly perishable and cannot be stored more than 24 h at room temperature under Delhi conditions. Only in cool storage (34C and 8590% RH) can the fruits be stored for up to 12 days. E. Processing Jamun has never been exploited commercially for preparation of different products. However, it is reported that the fruits are used for making preserves such as jam, jelly, beverages, wine, vinegar, and pickles (61). Jamun fruit is used for preparation of wine in certain parts of India (56).

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A method of extraction of jamun juice has been standardized. It has been found that the maximum yield of jamun juice with a high level of anthocyanins and other soluble constituents can be obtained by grafting the fruit, heating it to 70C, and passing the heated mass through a basket press (59,60). The jamun juice thus obtained (Fig. 1) is again heated to 85C and then cooled to room temperature. Sodium benzoate (500 ppm) is added to the juice before it is stored. Pure jamun juice can also be preserved by heat pasteurization. Jamun juice can be concentrated in either an open pan evaporator or a vacuum concentrator. However, it has been found that using an open pan evaporator, only concentrates up to 30 Brix are acceptable; on the other hand, jamun juice can be concentrated to 60 Brix in a vacuum concentrator. Vacuum concentration with the addition of cutback is therefore regarded as being better than open-pan concentration (59).

2770/2989

Jamun juice, being highly acidic, is not consumed as such. A ready-to-serve beverage (nectar) is prepared with 25% juice, 18 Brix, and 0.6% acidity. This nectar is delicately flavored, has an appealing color, and has been found to be highly acceptable (60). A detailed storage study of jamun juice and nectar was done by Khurdiya and Roy (60). It was found that at the end of 12 months in cold store, both products were highly acceptable. At room temperature, jamun juice could be stored for up to 8 months and nectar for up to 10 months.

Page 576

Fig. 1 Flow sheet for the preparation of jamun juice.

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During the extraction of jamun juice, a large amount of pomace remains as waste. However, this pomace contains considerable amounts of anthocyanins, tannins, and sugars. A method has been evolved by addition of a 3:4 ratio of water to pomace to obtain pomace extract which can be further utilized in the beverage industry (59). Acceptable dry table wine can be prepared from jamun juice (55). In the preparation of must, dilution of whole fruit pulp in the ratio of 1:1 with water was found to be suitable. The use of pectic enzyme was found to be beneficial in obtaining a clear product (55). VI. Tamarind

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Tamarind (Tamarindus indica L.) belongs to the Leguminosae family. It is most probably native to tropical East Africa and was introduced into India, where it was readily adopted and cultivated (63). Among the many names for tamarind, the most common ones are tamarin, tamarindier, tamarindo, and imli. Tamarind grows in tropical countries of both hemispheres and has been neutralized in the subtropics (64). A. Botany and Production. Tamarind is a large, evergreen tree with excellent foliage. It can grow to heights of 30 m, but most often it attains a height of about 10 m. The tree grows slowly, taking 1012 years before it matures

Page 577

and can yield fruit. It can survive for up to 200 years. It has alternate leaves containing small leaflets which fold at night. They are about 1.22.5 cm long. The five-petaled, inconspicuous flowers, grown in terminal racemes, are yellow with red lines and about 2.5 cm wide. The pods vary greatly in size and shape and contain 110 seeds. Initially, the pods are green and tender, and the immature seeds are soft and whitish. As the pod matures, the skin develops into a brown brittle shell and the seeds become covered with dry, sticky pulp. The pulp and seeds are kept together by a few strands of strong fiber. The seeds are red-brown or black, hard, and relatively square. The pods are indehiscent. The tamarind fruit ripens on the tree. Tamarind is propagated by seed. Patch budding has been recommended for faster multiplication of tamarind (65).

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B. Composition

2776/2989

The tamarind pod contains about 30% pulp, 40% seeds, and 30% shell (64). The approximate composition (6567) of tamarind pulp is presented in Table 8. Baragano de Mosqueda (63) reported a total sugar content of 31.01% in tamarind pulp and that reducing sugars contributed about 23.05% of tamarind fresh weight. Cellulose and pentosans were also present at high levels. Tamarind is a very acidic fruit, with a total acidity range varying from 12.2 to 23.8%, mostly as tartaric acid (69). Almost half of the tartaric acid is in combined form, mainly as potassium bitartarate and to a lesser extent as calcium tartarate (70). Verhar (71) reported 10.86% free tartaric acid and 6.36% of potassium bitartarate in tamarind fruit. In addition to tartaric acid, the presence of malic acid has been reported (72,73). The ascorbic acid content of tamarind is extremely low, varying from 2 to 20 mg/100 g (74). The only other organic acid reported in tamarind is oxalic acid (75). The

2777/2989

tartaric acid is synthesized in the tamarind leaves in the light, from where it is translated to the flowers and the fruits (72,76). The precursor of tartaric acid seems to be glucose (77) or ascorbic acid (78). Tamarind pulp contains 55% of the total N as nonprotein nitrogen (79). There is accumulation of free amino acids during ripening. The uncommon amino acids occurring in tamarind pulp are g-methylene glutamic acid and g-methylene glutamine.
Table 8 Chemical Composition of Ripe Tamarind Pulp Constituent Range Water (%) 22.669.2 Protein (%) 1.43.3 Lipids (%) 0.40.81 Carbohydrates (%) 59.7671.8 Total acidity (%) 17.118.4 Free tartaric acid (%) 8.412.4 Minerals (mg/100 g) 54113.50 Calcium

2778/2989

Phosphorus Iron Vitamins (mg/100 g) Thiamine Riboflavin Niacin Source: Refs. 6567.

95.40108 0.61.0 0.150.44 0.160.21 1.282.10

Page 578

Tamarind pulp is a good source of phosphorus, calcium, and iron (63). It is an excellent source of riboflavin, thiamine, and niacin. However, it is exceptionally poor in vitamin A and ascorbic acid (63). Among volatile compounds, the most abundant volatile constituent is 2-acetylfuran, coupled with traces of furfural and 5-methylfurfural. These appear to be major contributors to the overall aroma of tamarind (63). C. Storage

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The pulp of mature ripe fruit is an agricultural product of considerable economic importance. It is compressed and packed in palm leaf mats or plastic bags and stored at room temperature. During storage, the dry, dark brown pulp becomes soft, sticky, and almost black in color. The changes in texture are due to the hygroscopic nature of the pulp, containing high levels of sugars and acid, and presumably due to action of pectin hydrolyzing enzymes. The darkening might be the result of nonenzymatic browning, since free amino acids and reducing sugars are present in the pulp (70). Several pigments have been identified in various parts of the tamarind (70). A red variety of tamarind fruit contains anthocyanin and chrisanthemin. Leucoanthocyanidin is present in the common variety. D. Processing 1. Pulp

2781/2989

The separation of pulp from tamarind seed is rather difficult due to its low water content. In the pulping process, the shell is removed manually, followed by agitation of the seeds in water in order to disperse the pulp and separate it from the seeds. The pulp can also be separated from the seeds by covering with water placed in a steam bath for several hours, allowing to stand overnight, filtering through a linen filter, and washing with hot water. The industrial process for the manufacture of tamarind juice concentrate in India is also based on extraction of pulp with boiling water (80).

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Baragano de Mosqueda (68) described a process for extraction of pulp in which prefermentation of pulp in 1:2 (fruit:water) dilution prior to pulping and heat treatment was used. After removal of the shell, the fruits were soaked for 48 h to develop aroma and flavor characteristics, to soften the tissues, and to facilitate extraction. Benero et al. (64) reported the mechanical extraction of tamarind pulp from unpeeled fruit. In this process, the pulp was removed from broken shells and seeds after dilution with water (1:2). The dilution produced a slurry that allowed continuous operation of the pulping line. The pulp obtained at this dilution had 13.2 Brix. Benero et al. (64) prepared tamarind beverage containing 912% pulp adjusted to 21.5 Brix with sugar. The ranges in composition of beverages containing 912% tamarind pulp were 2021.4 Brix and 0.350.44% titrable acidity (as tartaric acid). The beverage was pasteurized at 85C, canned in plain tin containers, cooled, dried, and stored

2783/2989

at 30C. After 1 year of storage, the beverage was found acceptable by a taste panel. Tamarind pulp is also the fruit base in preparations of jams, jellies, and ice cream. In South American countries, it is often enjoyed in the form of a refreshing drink. 2. Juice Baragano de Mosqueda (68) developed a process for clarification of tamarind juice by treatment with 0.120.15% gelatin. After agitation of fruit pulp with gelation, the mash was left standing for 1015 days at 610C. During this period, colloidal particles were precipitated and removed by decantation and filtered in a vacuum using asbestos. The mash was adjusted to 0.750.80%

Page 579

tartaric acid content and 18 Brix and pasteurized for 5 min at 8085C. The product maintained its distinctive color and flavor while being absolutely transparent. 3. Syrup Syrup can be prepared from tamarind pulp and sugar. The recommended concentration of tamarind pulp in syrup is 2024%, which makes a beverage after dilution with distinct flavor and desirable acidity. Syrup containing 56.7% total solids, 43.8% reducing sugars, 56.54% total sugars, and a total acidity of 1.11% as tartaric acid (81) yielded a refreshing drink after appropriate dilution. 4. Concentrate

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Nagaraja et al. (80) prepared tamarind juice concentrate by clarification of fruit extract and concentration of the clear extract under vacuum to 6568% total soluble solids. The product was filled into sterile glass containers. The product set to a jamlike consistency upon cooling. 5. Seeds. Tamarind seeds are commonly used in the manufacture of sizing powders (82). Seed polysaccharides form a jelly with any kind of sugar without addition of acid (83). The composition and structure of seed polysaccharides have been studies (84). Bhat (85) has reported the properties and composition of tamarind seed oil. VII. Other Minor Fruits

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In ancient Asia and Africa, many fruits prevailed in their natural habitats (1). The selection of more useful fruits resulted in development and maintenance of better types of fruits. Some of these fruit cultivars were subsequently introduced into the Western world. They have become well known and widely utilized. Thus, apples, citrus, and nuts utilized by the people of the Orient have become integral parts of Western diets. The discovery of Central and South America introduced many fruits, such as pineapple, guava, and papaya, to the Western world. There remain, however, many species which are little known to the Western world but are of considerable economic value. These fruits are widely grown and consumed by various ethnic groups. It is estimated that more than 1000 species of fruiting plants are utilized in Africa (86). In the Amazon basin alone, there are possibly more than 1000 species of plants which are unknown outside the region but could provide

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sources of food and other uses (86). All these fruits are still found in their native habitats. Compared to major commercially grown fruits, information on these fruits is scanty. Schroeder (86) has provided a comprehensive list of these fruits (Table 9). The chemical composition of some of these fruits is presented in Table 10. It is expected that some of these fruits will be grown commercially and utilized in many parts of the world in the near future. A. Carambola

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Carambola (Averrhoa carambola L.), belonging to the family Oxalidaceae, is often called star fruit. The carambola tree is native to Sri Lanka and the Moluccas and grows to 8 m in height. The leaves are compound leaves of two to five pairs of leaflets with light green color. Small, white-purple flowers give rise to oval elliptical fruits that are translucent, yellow to pale golden brown in color, with three to five longitudinal ribs so that the cross section is star shaped. A close botanical relative, the bilimbi (Averrhoea bilimbi L.), bears a highly acid, ellipsoidal, cucumber-shaped fruit. Carambola can be propagated by seeds. Several cultivars have been developed in Caribbean countries, Florida, and Taiwan. Some sweet types such as Golden Star, Newcomb, and Thayer are grown commercially. The fruit is a good source of vitamin A (Table 11). Carambola fruit has juicy

Table 9 Minor Fruits in Various Continents of the World Sr. no. Common name Sci A. Asia 1.Bacuri Plantonia insigmu 2.Barbados cherry Malpighia punicif 3.Barbados gooseberry Pereskia aculeata 4.Cactus apple Opuntia ficus indi 5.Cape gooseberry Physalis perucian 6.Capulin cherry Prunus serotina v 7.Cocoplum Chrysobalanus ic 8.Genip (marmalade box genip) Genipa americana 9.Grumichama Eugenia brazilien 10.Ice cream bean (pecay) Inga edulis von M 11.Jaboticaba Myrciaria couliflo 12.Matasano Casimiroa tetram 13.Mangabeira Hancornia specio 14.Matisia Matisia cordata H 15.Nance (miriaco) Brysonomia crass 16.Pineapple guava Feijoa sellowiana 17.Peach palm (pejibaye) Bactris gasipaes H 18.Pigeon plum Cocolobis florida 19.Pithaya Hylocereus undat 20.Pepino Solanum muricatu 21.Quito palm Parajubaea cocoi

2790/2989

22.Surinam cherry 23.Souari nut 24.Sea grape 25.Tree tomato (tamarillo) 26.Ugni 27.White sapote B. Africa 1.Abyssinian gooseberry (koshom) 2.Baobab 3.Bird's brandy 4.Buffalo thorn 5.Ceylon gooseberry (ketembilla) 6.Desert date 7.Governor's plum 8.Hottentot's fig 9.Kei apple (umkokolo) 10.Marula 11.Monkey plum 12.Moepel 13.Natal plum 14.Resin tree

Eugenia uniflora Caryocar amygda Cocoolobis uvifer Cyphomandra bat Myrtus ugni Casimiroa edulis

Dovyalis abyssini

Adansonia digitat Lantana rugosa T Zizyphus mucrona Zizyphus abyssini Dovyalis hebecar Dovyalis longispi Balanites aegyptic Flacourtia raman Carpobrotus edul Dovyalis caffra H Sclerocarya birre Strychnos nux-vom Mimusops zeyheri Carissa carandas Carissa macrocar Ozoroa reticulata

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Table 9 Continued Sr. no Common name B. Africa (continued) 15.Sand apple 16.White strawberry bush 17.Wild medlar 18.Wild grape 19.Wild plum 20.Wild plum 21.Wild apricot 22.Wild grape 23.Wild grape C. Australia 1.Bignay (Chinese laurel) 2.Chinese wingnut 3.Carob (St. John's bread) 4.Carambola (star fruit) 5.Dillenia (chalta) 6.Engkala 7.Gnemon (meninjau) 8.Java apple 9.Ligaro 10.Kepel

Scientific

Parinari curatelifolia Plan Cephalanthus natalensis O Vangueria infausta Burch Lannea edulis (Sond.) Eng Garcinia livingstoni T. An Harpephyllum caffrim Bern Dovyalis zeyheri (Sond) W Rhoicissus tomentosa (Lam Rhoicissus tridentata (L. f.

Antidesma bunius (L.) Spre Pterocarya stenoptera CDC Ceratonia sliqua L. Averhoa carambola L. Wilughbeia edulis Roxb. Dillenia indica L. Litsea garciae Gnetum gnemon L. Syzygium samarangense Eleagnus philippensis Perr Stelechocarpus burahol Bl

2793/2989

11.Langsat Duku 12.Mountain apple 13.Mapiang 14.Otaheite gooseberry 15.Plajau 16.Rambai 17.Rose apple 18.Raisin tree 19.Salac 20.Sandoricum 21.Water apple 22.Wampi 23.Wild langsat D. Central America 1.Apple berry 2.Black apple 3.Black fruit 4.Blue quandong 5.Burdekin plum 6.Conkerberry 7.Crabapple 8.Cherry Ballart 9.Dessert banana

Lansium domesticum Corr. Syzygium malaccense L. Bovea macrophylla Griff Phyllanthus distachus (L) M Pentaspadon motleyi Hook Baccaurea motleyana Mue Syzygium jambos L. Hovenia dulcis Thunb Salacca edulis Reinw Sandoricum koetijape Burn Syzygium aquem Alston Clausena lansium (Lour) S Walsora spp. Roxb.

Billardiera scandens Planchonella australis Terminalia muellen Eleocarpus grandis F.V. M Pleiogynium solandri Engl Carissa brownii F.v. Muell Schizomeria ovata D. Dov. Exocarpus cupressiformis Luchhardtia australis

Table 9 Continued Sr. no Common name Scientific nam D. Central America (continued) 10.Dessert orange Capparis mitchellii Lundl. 11.Davidson's plum Davidsonia prurins Muell. Aig 12.Dodder laurel Cassytha melantha 13.Emu berry Grewia retusifolia 14.Lily-pilly Acmena smithii (Poiret) Merr & 15.Native raspberry Rubus parvifolius 16.Plum pine Podocarpus elata R. Br. 17.Quandong Santalum acuminatum (R.Br.) 18.Wild plum Santachum lanceolatum R. Br. 19.Wild plum Terminalia ferdinandiana Exel 20.Wild peach Terminalia carpintariae 21.Wild quince Planchonia careya Source: Ref. 86.

Table 10 Chemical Composition of Tropical Minor Fruits Constituent (per 100 g edible portion) Grumichama Abiu Jab Food energy (kcal) 53 140 Moisture (%) 85.3 60.6 Protein (g) 0.6 1.4

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Fat (g) Total carbohydrate (g) Fiber (g) Ash (g) Calcium (mg) Phosphorus (mg) Iron (mg) Vitamin A (mg) Thiamine (mg) Riboflavin (mg) Nicotinic acid (mg) Ascorbic acid (mg) Source: Ref. 92

0.3 13.4 0.6 0.4 4.0 14 0.5 20 0.04 0.03 0.3 19

0.4 36.3 0.9 0.9 22 41 1.0 13.0 0.02 0.02 3.4 49

Page 583 Table 11 Chemical Composition of Carambola Content (per 100 g of edible Constituent partion) Food energy (kcal) 36 Moisture (%) 90 Protein (g) 0.5 Fat (g) 0.3 Total carbohydrate 8.8 (g) Fiber (g) 0.6 Ash (g) 0.4 Calcium (mg) 5 Phosphorus (mg) 18 Iron (mg) 0.4 90 Vitamin A (mg) Thiamine (mg) 0.04 Riboflavin (mg) 0.02 Nicotinic acid (mg) 0.3 Ascorbic acid (mg) 35 Source: Ref. 90

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pulp and astringent taste when green and is agreeable and sweet when fully mature, with a strong perfume, like that of a quince (86). The fruit is consumed fresh, stewed, or as a jelly or pickle. The unripe fruit has a high oxalate content and is used in dyeing to remove iron rust, and to clean or polish metals. B. Durian

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Durian (Durio zibethinus Murray) is a delicious tropical fruit belonging to the family Bombacaceae. It is cultivated in Southeast Asia, particularly Malaysia, Indonesia, Thailand, and the Philippines. It grows in the warm, wet conditions of the equatorial tropics. The durian is a large, heavy fruit covered with hard, hexagonal spines. It turns from green to yellow when ripe and can be broken into five locules by pressing it with the hand. Each locule contains up to four seeds enveloped in a firm pulp. The pulp varies in color from white to cream, grayish yellow, or pinkish in some cultivars. The best cultivars are those which have small seeds and large arils. Seedless varieties are also known (88).

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Durian is a good source of iron, B vitamins, and ascorbic acid. The thick, puddinglike texture of the aril is due to gums, pectin, and hemicellulose (88). The seed of durian is rich in oil, carbohydrates, and some proteins (Table 12). Durian is characterized by a penetrating, sulfury, and often objectionable odor described as being close to that of rotten onion. This odor has two distinguishable notes, one strong and onionlike, and another more delicate and fruitlike. Baldry et al. (89) reported the volatile constituents of durian fruit. It was indicated that thiol compounds may be responsible for the stink or fetid odor of the fruits. The pleasant fruity flavor was attributed to the presence of ester components in the volatiles.

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Durian fruits can be stored at about 45C and 8590% RH (88). The fruit has a wide range of uses. The pulp can be added to ice cream and can also be made into jam. The pulp is preserved with sugar or by fermentation, as is commonly done in Southeast Asia. A delicious drink is made of milk and durian pulp in Malaysia (88).

Page 584 Table 12 Chemical Composition of Durian and Mangosteen Constituent (per 100 g edible portion) Durian Mangosteen Food energy (kcal) 67 60 Moisture (%) 81.1 84.9 Protein (g) 2.2 0.5 Fat (g) 0.8 0.1 Total carbohydrate (g) 14.8 14.3 Fiber (g) 1.6 Ash (g) 1.1 Calcium (mg) 8 10 Phosphorus (mg) 38 20 Iron (mg) 0.7 10 Vitamin A (mg) Thiamine (mg) 0.35 Riboflavin (mg) 0.20 Nicotinic acid (mg) 0.7 Ascorbic acid (mg) 24 Source: Ref. 88

C. Kokum

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Kokum (Garcinia indica Choisy) is a neglected but very useful fruit crop. The fruits of various species of Garcinia serve as flavoring substitutes for tamarind and are used as fish preservatives. Kokum is a good source of acid for coagulating rubber latex, as well as tannins and medicinal preparations. However, kokum plantations have not been established on a commercial scale. The trees are found scattered over roadsides, jungles, backyards, riversides, wastelands, and also in coconut and arecanut gardens. Apart from their economic value, kokum trees form an excellent avenue, as they are evergreen and slender in growth.

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Kokum is a slender, evergreen tree with drooping branches. The leaves are ovate or oblong lanceolate, 68.5 cm long, and 23.5 cm broad, dark green above and pale beneath. The fruit is generally globose or spherical and dark purple when ripe. Flowering commences from October-November and is staggered until FebruaryMarch. The ripening of fruits starts in February and continues up to July. Kokum is a cross-pollinated, highly variable plant and is multiplied by seeds. Each kokum tree shows variation, so there are no distinct or named varieties of kokum. However, there are a few very high-yielding trees with bold-sized fruits.

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Kokum trees grow luxuriently in tropical rain forests. High humidity and warm temperatures throughout the year is very favorable for kokum cultivation. Extreme temperatures and dry conditions are harmful to kokum plants. Kokum grows on a variety of soils ranging from very marginal soils to deep alluvial soils which are well drained. Lateritic soils are also very suitable for kokum cultivation. The tree is very strong and sturdy, so it can grow on rainwater alone. Kokum seedlings start flowering from the seventh or eighth year. If they are well cared for, they may flower and fruit much earlier. Similarly, grafts fruit earlier than seedlings. Flowering starts from OctoberNovember and continues to FebruaryMarch. The harvest starts from March and continues to July. Harvesting is started earlier in the southern part of Maharashtra in India

Page 585

than in northern parts. The immature green fruits turn red and then purplish when they are harvested from the tree. The male trees do not bear any fruits. The hermaphrodite trees bear sparsely, and the fruits are often malformed. Only female trees give good yields. Though the yield varies from tree to tree, on average, 3050 kg of fruits are obtained from an adult bearing tree.

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The ripe fruit has an agreeable flavor and acid taste. It contains a substantial amount of malic acid but little tartaric or citric acid. The fresh ripe rind is made into an acid drink called solkadi, which serves as a substitute for buttermilk. Kokum syrup, called amrit kokum locally, is prepared from fruits and makes an excellent sherbet (90). Kokum is also useful for fever as a cooling and refreshing drink. The dried rindaamsolis used as a condiment in curry. The kernel, which forms about 60% of the weight of the seed, yields 3344% oil. On the basis of seed weight, the oil content is about 2326%. The oil is popularly known as kokum butter. Kokum fat is now much in demand as a substitute and extender for cocoa butter in chocolates and other confectionery products. Because of its high stearic acid content, it can be used as a source of stearic acid and other pharmaceutical preparations. The cake left over is used as a cattle feed. Most of the kokum fat produced in India is

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exported to the Netherlands, Italy, Japan, Singapore, Great Britain, and Malaya (90). D. Longan The longan originated either in subtropical China or in the area between Burma and India. There are two subspecies in the genus Dimocarpus, both from tropical and subtropical Asia, but longan (D. longan var. longan) is the only one grown substantially for its edible fruit. D. longan subsp. var. malesianus (mata kuching) produces fruit of similar size to longan. The fruits have a tough skin which is pale, dull yellow with dark, raised specks. The aril, which envelops a big seed, is whitish, translucent, and sweet, and may be nearly 0.5 cm thick, although it is usually much thinner. Longan is substantially commercialized in China, Taiwan, and Thailand (91).

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Longan fruits are small (about 1.53.0 cm in diameter), globose to round shaped, sometimes with distinctive shoulders. The fruit skin is thin, leathery, and changes from green-yellow to yellow-brown with advancing maturity. The aril (flesh) is translucent white to off-white in color, sometimes with a pinkish tinge (after processing), and ranges in texture from juicy to very crisp and in flavor from bland to sweet aromatic, seldom acidic.

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Longans do not ripen off the tree. They may sweeten a little, but they do not develop full flavor. Maturity is judged by the particular shade, skin color, and flavor of each cultivar. Most fruit can be picked from a tree in one harvest and from a single cultivar in an orchard within 2 weeks. Consequently, to spread the picking workload, it is essential to plant a range of cultivars in any one orchard. Fruits are harvested by removing the whole cluster plus one or two leaves. Fruits are clipped from the panicles, sorted for size, insect damage, and skin blemishes, and placed in bulk trays.

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Diseases appear to be the main factor limiting longan storage. With adequate disease control, fruits maintain acceptable eating quality for 5 weeks at 10C and 90% RH, although significant browning of the skin occurs. In the absence of good disease control, storage at 7.5C is recommended, but for periods not exceeding about 3 weeks. At lower temperatures there is a rapid loss of eating quality, principally associated with the presence of off-flavors, while fruits succumb to postharvest diseases at about 10C. Metabisulfite pads offer some control of browning and postharvest diseases for up to 4 weeks for fruit stored at 10C but can taint the flavor of the flesh. Slow-release systems cause high sulfur dioxide levels to build up and are more difficult to control than sulfur dioxide fumigation. Fruits are precooled with cold water (hydrocooling) to remove field heat and then refrigerated.

2811/2989

Page 586

The standard pack is 5 kg without any plastic wrapping. The fruits are fumigated with sulfur dioxide (gaseous application). Sulfur removes blemishes and turns the fruit bright yellow. The optimum sulfur dioxide concentration is a compromise that is effective in maintaining fruit appearance without causing tainting of the pulp (91).

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Longans can be eaten fresh, dried, or quickfrozen. Thawed fruit are quite satisfactory. The fruit can be peeled, pitted, and canned. The juice of most cultivars is sufficiently sweet for processing without adding sugar. Canned fruits are very acceptable and taste much better than canned lychees. Taiwan and Thailand have substantial canning industries, and there is a small industry in China. In China, certain cultivars are preferred for canning or drying; others are eaten fresh. Sweet fruit are best used for drying, but those lower in sugar are preferred for canning. Flavor and sweetness are normally correlated. In Thailand, the preference is for fruit with a large aril and whiter flesh (91). E. Mangosteen

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Mangosteen (Garcinia mangostana L.) belongs to the family Guttiferae and is described as one of the world's best-flavored fruit. It is grown mostly in Southeast Asia. The mangosteen grows in high-rainfall areas where, because of high humidity, few commercial crops can be economically cultivated (88). The fruit is tennisball size, containing white pulp that is protected by a purple shell (cortex) of 6 mm thickness. This is bitter due to its content of tannins and xanthones.

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The mangosteen fruit has a high percentage of sugars. It is rather low in minerals and vitamins (92). Mangosteen can be stored for 23 weeks at room temperature, and its shelf life can be increased for about a month of storing at 912C (88). Srivastava et al. (93) found that the optimum storage conditions for mangosteen were 46C with 8590% RH to obtain a maximum shelf life of 49 days. The soluble solids, total acidity, and ascorbic acid content of the fruit decreased and reducing sugars increased during storage. The hardness of the fruit also increased, particularly at storage temperature of less than 4C. Aroma and flavor were quite stable during the low-temperature storage. Siddappa and Bhatia (94) reported that the shelf life of mangosteen, which was about 1 week at room temperature, could be extended for up to 57 weeks at 1.75C.

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A preserve called manggis is made from mangosteen fruit, which is delightful but does not
Table 13 Composition of Longan and Rambutan (FreshWeight Basis) Constituent Longan Rambutan Protein (%) 1.0 0.9 Fats (%) 0.5 0.1 Carbohydrates (%) 25.2 14.2 Fiber (%) 0.4 1.1 Calcium (mg/100 g) 2 3 Phosphorus (mg/100 g) 6 6 Iron (mg/100 g) 0.3 1.8 Thiamine (mg/100 g) 0.04 0.04 Riboflavin (mg/100 g) 0.07 0.05 Nicotinic acid (mg/100 g) 0.6 0.6 Ascorbic acid (mg/100 g) 8 31 Source: Ref. 92

Page 587

capture the flavor of the fresh fruit (88). The fruit can also be processed into stable products such as juice, jelly, squash, and canned fruit segments, although much of the fruit aroma is lost during processing (95) F. Rambutan and Pulasan Rambutan and pulasan fruits are similar to lychee, but with a range of skin color from bright red to orange or yellow. However, long hairs or spinterns replace the angular protuberances. Rambutan and pulasan are strictly tropical, cropping only in warm, wet, lowland tropical areas (95).

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Rambutan and pulasan are widely distributed in the humid tropics of Southeast Asia. The largest commercial plantings of rambutan occur in Malaysia, Indonesia, Thailand, and the Philippines. In Malaysia, rambutan is the most important fruit crop in terms of total production, while in Thailand and Java, rambutan ranks third after mango and tangerine. In the Philippines, rambutan was introduced from Indonesia only in this century and is not listed among the 20 main tree fruits. The pulasan is widely grown in the western part of Java, with smaller plantings in other parts of Indonesia, Malaysia, and Thailand.

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Rambutan fruits are ovoid or ellipsoid and 3.88.0 cm long and 2.55.0 cm wide. The fruit has a very attractive appearance, with the skin changing from green to various shades of pink, red, or yellow during ripening. The skin has haillike growths or protuberances (spinturns) up to 2 cm in length, densely clustered over the surface. Pulasan fruits are ovoid in shape, 59 cm long, and resemble those of rambutan in general appearance. However, the pericarp is thicker, usually dull red, with shorter spines. The aril normally clings to the testa. The flavor and quality of the aril are invariably good, and often sweeter and preferred to that of rambutan.

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Fruit maturity in rambutan and pulasan is determined by the color of the skin and the taste of the aril, which vary considerably with cultivar. It is not easy to judge a fruit as mature by its skin color, unless one knows the ripening characteristics of the particular cultivar. Fruit with a Brix reading of 2024 is normally acceptable with regard to flavor and juiciness. Yellowskinned cultivars normally turn slightly orange when very mature. The whole panicle is normally harvested. In order to harvest all the fruit at correct maturity, it may be necessary to pick trees at weekly intervals over a period of 26 weeks. The fruits are reasonably hardy, but should be handled carefully to avoid bruising and crushing. In Malaysia and Indonesia, fruits are presented for sale in bunches on panicles; while in the Philippines, Thailand, and Australia, fruits are detached prior to sale (95).

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Rambutans and pulasans are normally grown for fresh fruit, although a canning industry for rambutans exists in Thailand and Malaysia. Asians generally prefer rambutan cultivars with crisp, nonjuicy fruit, and the testa clinging to the aril is not generally regarded as objectionable. Europeans prefer sweet, stringless fruit without objectionable testa. Pulasans generally have fewer testa problems than rambutans (95). G. Woodapple.

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The woodapple (Feronica elephantun) belongs to the family Rutaceae. This fruit is a native of India, and is found throughout the plains of India, particularly in dry situations (97). It is often cultivated on borders of fields and as a roadside tree and is sometimes planted in orchards. It can be planted under almost all conditions of soil and climate, thrives in adverse climatic conditions, and tolerates salinity and low temperatures. Woodapple is propagated by seeds or by cuttings and layering. Buds from mature trees budded on seedlings are said to produce dwarf trees which fruit early. Planting is done in the rainy season at a distance of 10 10 m. Woodapple starts

Page 588

bearing at an age of 56 years. The fruits ripen from November to March. Ripe fruits drop from the trees, and as they have a hard shell outside, the inner pulp keeps well for some days (97). An average tree yields 250500 fruits per year; bigger and more vigorous trees may yield more. Each fruit weighs about 150500 g. The fruit has 5558% edible part, which contains 69.5% moisture, 7.3% proteins, 0.6% fat, 1.9% minerals, 5.2% fiber, 15.5% carbohydrates, 0.13% calcium, and 0.11% phosphorus (97). The acid content of the pulp varies from 7.6% in unripe fruits to 2.3% in fully ripe ones. It contains 3.5% pectin and forms an excellent material for making jelly. Woodapple jelly resembles black currant or apple jelly. It is clear and bright purple in color, with firm consistency and agreeable flavor (97).

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The pulp of the ripe fruit is eaten as such or with sugar. It can be used for making sherbet. The pulp is also used in making chutney. The fruit is very rich in acid and pectin (90). The acidity of the pulp varies from 7.6% in raw fruits to 6.3% in semiripe and 2.3% in fully ripe ones. Ripe fruits contain 7.25% total sugars. The fruit thus forms an excellent raw material for jelly making. The fruit has a thick, hard shell, inside which is a darkish brown and acid-sweet pulp, in which a large number of small seeds are embedded. Ripe fruits are used for making jelly. The shell is broken and the pulp is boiled with water, in a proportion of 1:3 (pulp:water) for about 30 min. Upon cooling, it is strained, and to the liquid is added about its own volume of clean crystalline sugar. The liquid is then boiled to about 105C and poured hot into sterilized containers for setting.

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In addition to jelly, woodapple syrup can also be prepared and used as a drink. The chutney of this fruit, if standardized, may also be turned into a commercial product. The fruit is considered to be tonic, refreshing, antiscorbutic, and alexiformic. It is used as a substitute for bael in the treatment of diarrhea and dysentery (90). The pulp is used to treat infections of the gum and throat. References 1. Asenjo, C. F., Acerola, Tropical and Subtropical Fruits. (S. Nagy and P. E. Shaw, eds.), AVI, Westport, CT, 1980, p. 341. 2. Salunkhe, D. K., and B. B. Desai, Acerola, Postharvest Technology of Fruits, CRC Press, Boca Raton, FL, 1984.

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3. DelCampillo, A., and C. F. Asenjo, The distribution of ascorbic acid and diketogulonic acid in acerola fruit at different stages of development, J. Agr. Univ. Puerto Rico 41:61 (1957). 4. Ostendorf, F. W., The West Indian cherry, Trop. Abstr. 18:145 (1963). 5. Knight, R. J., Jr., Fruit trees as useful landscape items in Florida's dooryard planting, Proc. Fla. State Hort. Soc. 88:393 (1975). 6. Pantastico, Er. B., Postharvest Physiology, Handling and Utilization of Tropical and Subtropical Fruits and Vegetables, AVI, Westport, CT, 1975. 7. Sanchez Nieva, F., Extraction, processing, canning and keeping quality of acerola juice, J. Agr. Univ. Puerto Rico 39:175 (1955).

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8. Nakasone, H. Y., R. K. Miyashita, and G. M. Yamane, Factors affecting ascorbic acid content of the acerola, Proc. Am. Soc. Hort. Sci. 89:161 (1966). 9. Fitting, K. O., and C. D. Miller, The stability of ascorbic acid in frozen and bottled acerola juice and combined with other fruit juices, Food Res. 25:203 (1960). 10. Chan, H. T., Jr., H. Y. Yamamoto, and J. C. Higaki, Role of ascorbic acid in CO2 evolution from heated acerola juice (Malpighia glabra L.), J. Agr. Food Chem. 14:483 (1966). 11. Singh, R. N., Hardy aonla ideal for dry regions, Indian Hort. 19(3):17 (1974). 12. Firminger, T. A., Firminger's Manual of Gardening for India, 8th ed., Thacker Spink Co., Calcutta, 1947.

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13. Naik, K. C., South Indian Fruits and Their Culture, P. Varada Chary & Co., Madras, India, 1949.

Page 589

14. Hooker, J. D., The Flora of British India, Vol. V, First Indian reprint, Periodical Experts, Delhi, 1973. 15. Singh, R., Fruits, National Book Trust, New Delhi, 1969, p. 144. 16. Bajpai, P. N., and H. S. Shukla, Aonla, Fruits of India, Tropical and Subtropical (T. K. Bose, ed.), Naya Prokash, Calcutta, 1985. 17. Bajpai, P. N., Studies on flowering and fruit development in aonla, Hort. Adv. 7:38 (1968). 18. Jain, N. L., and G. Lal, Studies on the preparation of amla syrup, CFTRI Mysore Bull. 3:297 (1954). 19. Sastry, L. V. L., M. N. Satyanarayana, M. Srinivasan, N. Subramanian, and V. Subramanian, Polyphenols in edible materials, J. Sci. Ind. Res. 15C:70 (1956).

2830/2989

20. Srivastava, R. P., Aonla, Allahabad Farmer 34(2):81 (1960). 21. Kalra, C. L., The chemistry and technology of amla (Phyllanthus emblica), Indian Food Packer 42(4):67 (1988). 22. Mehta, G. L., and M. C. Tomar, Studies on simplification of preserve making, Indian Food Packer 33(5):27 (1979). 23. Sethi, V., and J. C. Anand, Retention of nutrients in amla, Indian Food Packer 37(6):64 (1983). 24. Lal, G., G. S. Siddappa, and G. L. Tandon, Preservation of Fruits and Vegetables, Indian Council of Agricultural Research, New Delhi, 1986.

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25. Tripathi, V. K., M. B. Singh, and S. Singh, Chemical changes during storage of preserve and dehydrated products, Indian Food Packer 42(4):60 (1988). 26. Jain, S. P., V. K. Tripathi, H. B. Ram, and S. Singh, Optimum stage of maturity for preparation of aonla preserve, Part II, Indian Food Packer 37(6):85 (1983). 27. Ram, H. B., S. P. Jain, V. K. Tripathi, and S. Singh, Composition of aonla fruits during growth and development, Part I, Indian Food Packer 37(5):57 (1983). 28. Salunkhe, D. K., and B. B. Desai, Amla, Postharvest Biotechnology of Fruits, Vol. II, CRC Press, Boca Raton, FL, 1984, p. 128. 29. Hayes, W. B., Fruit Growing in India, 3rd ed. (rev.), Kitabistan, Allahabad, India, 1953.

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30. Srivastava, R. P., and R. K. Srivastava, Chemical composition of fresh and dried aonla fruits, Science and Culture 30:446 (1964). 31. Nadkarni, A. K., Indian Materia Medica, Vol. I, Popular Book Depot, Bombay, 1954, p. 348. 32. Chopra, R. N., I. C. Chopra, K. L. Nanda, and L. D. Kapur, Indigenous Drugs of India, 2nd ed., UN Dhar and Sons, Calcutta, 1958, p. 506. 33. CSIR, Wealth of IndiaRaw Materials, Vol. 3, Council of Scientific and Industrial Research, New Delhi, 1953, p. 168. 34. Ragone, D., Breadfruit, Encyclopaedia of Food Science, Food Technology and Nutrition (R. MaCrae, R. K. Robinson, and M. J. Sadler, eds.), Academic Press, London, 1993, p. 2180.

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35. Murai, M., F. Pen, and C. D. Miller, Some Tropical South Pacific Island Foods, Research Extension Series, University of Hawaii Press, Honolulu, 1958. 36. Wootom, M., and F. Tumaalii, Breadfruit production, utilization and compositionA review, Food Technol. (Australia) 36:464 (1984). 37. CSIR, Breadfruit, Wealth of India, Council of Scientific and Industrial Research, New Delhi, 1980. 38. Samaddar, H. N., Jackfruit, Fruits of India: Tropical and Subtropical (T. K. Bose, ed.), Naya Prokash, Calcutta, 1985, p. 487. 39. Sen, P. K., and T. C. Bose, Effects of growth substances on rooting of Jackfruit (Artocarpus integrifolia Linn. F.) layerings, Indian J. Agr. 3:43 (1959).

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40. Gunjate, R. T., D. T. Kokkar, and V. P. Limaye, Epicotyl grafting in jackfruit, Curr. Sci. 49:667 (1980). 41. Madhav Rao, V. N., The jackfruit in India, ICAR Farm Bull. 34:18 (1965). 42. Singh, K., Farm Information Bulletin No. 71, Directorate of Extension, Ministry of Agriculture, New Delhi, 1972. 43. Salunkhe, D. K., and B. B. Desai, Jackfruit, Postharvest Technology of Fruits I, CRC Press, Boca Raton, FL, 1985, p. 187. 44. Siddappa, G. S., Utilization of jackfruit and orange, Indian Coffee 15:130 (1971). 45. Rajmohan, K., and N. Mohanakumaran, Influence of explant source on the in vitro propagation of jack (Artocarpus heterophyllus Lam.), Arg. Res. J. Kerala 26:169 (1988).

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Page 590

46. Singh, N. I., and K. U. Singh, Efficacy of certain fungicides against Rhizophus rot of jackfruit, Indian Phytopathol. 42:465 (1989). 47. Berry, S. K., and C. L. Kalra, Chemistry and technology of jackfruitA review. Indian Food Packer 42(3):62 (1988). 48. Siddappa, G. S., Utilization of jackfruit and orange, Indian Coffee 15:130 (1971). 49. Chin, A. H. G., and Z. Nashirwan, Jack fruit, for canning in syrup, MARDI Res. J. 17(2):266 (1989). 50. Singh, S., S. Krishnamurthi, and S. L. Katyal, Fruit Culture in India, ICAR, New Delhi, 1967, p. 255.

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51. Morton, J. F., The jambolan (Syzgium cuminii Skeels), its food, medicinal, ornamental and other uses, Proc. Fla. State Hort. Soc. 76:328 (1968). 52. Thaper, A. R., Jamun, ICAR Farm Bull. 42 (1958). 53. Bhargava, U. C., A. B. Westfall, and D. J. Siehr, Preliminary pharmacology of ellagic acid from Juglans nigra (black walnut), J. Pharm Sci. 57:1728 (1969). 54. Dastur, J. P., Medicinal Plants of India and Pakistan, 2nd ed., D. B. Taraporevala Sons, Bombay, 1952. 55. Shukla, K. G., M. C. Joshi, S. Yadav, and N. S. Bisht, Jamun wine making standardization of a methodology, and screening cultures, J. Food Sci. Technol. 28(3):142 (1991).

2838/2989

56. Bajpai, P. N., and D. P. Chaturvedi, Jamun, Fruit of India: Tropical and Subtropical (T. K. Bose and S. S. Mitra, eds.), Naya Prokash, Calcutta, 1990. 57. Misra, R. S., and P. N. Bajpai, Studies on floral biology of jamun (Java plum) (Syzygium cuminii [L] Skeels), Indian J. Hort. 32:15 (1975). 58. Shukla, J. P., and A. Prasad, Changing pattern of jamun (Syzygium cuminii Skeels) fruit during growth and development. II. Changes in biochemical indices, Indian J. Agr. Chem. 13:141 (1980). 59. Ramanjaneya, K. H., Studies on some aspects of jamun (Syzygium cuminii Skeels) and its processing, Ph.D. thesis, I.A.R.I., New Delhi, 1985.

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60. Khurdiya, D. S., and S. K. Roy, Processing of jamun (Syzygium cuminii Linn.) fruit into a ready to serve beverage, J. Food Sci. Technol. 22:27 (1985). 61. Shukla, J. P., Ph.D. thesis, C.S.A. University of Agriculture and Technology, Kanpur, India, 1979. 62. Ochse, J. J., M. J. Sole, Jr., M. J. Dijkman, and C. Wehlberg, Tropical and Subtropical Agriculture, Macmillan, New Delhi, 1961. 63. Bueso, C. E., Soursop, tammarind and chironja, Tropical and Subtropical Fruits (S. Nagy and P. E. Shaw, eds.), AVI, Westport, CT, 1980, p. 375.

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64. Benero, J. R., A. L. Collazo de Rivera, and L. M. I. George, Studies on the preparation and shelf-life of soursop, tamarind and blended soursop-tamarind soft drinks, J. Agr. Univ. Puerto Rico 58:99 (1974). 65. Pathak, R. K., C. M. Ojha, and K. Dwivedi, Adopt patch budding for quicker multiplication in tamarind, Indian Hort. 36:17 (1991). 66. Hasan, S. K., and S. Ijas, Tamarind review, Sci. Ind. (Karachi) 9:131 (1972). 67. Wenkam, N. S., and C. D. Miller, Composition of Hawaii fruits, Hawaii Agr. Exp. Sta. Univ. Hawaii Bull. 135 (1965). 68. Baragano de Mosqueda, M., Technology of clarified tamarind juice, Sp. Soc. Cieve. Natur. La Salle. Memo (Spanish) 26:62 (1966).

2841/2989

69. Ulrich, R., Organic acids, Biochemistry of Fruits and Their Products, Vol. 1 (A. C. Hulme, ed.), Academic Press, New York, 1970. 70. Lewis, Y. S., and S. Neelakantan, The chemistry, biochemistry and technology of tamarind, J. Sci. Ind. Res. 23:204 (1964). 71. Verhar, G., Tartaric acid and other constituents in the fruits of Tamarindus indica L., Chron. Nat. 104:8 (1970). 72. Lewis, Y. S., S. Neelakantan, and D. S. Bhatia, Organic acid metabolism in tamarind leaves, Curr. Sci. 30:381 (1961). 73. Kalyankar, G. D., P. R. Krishnamurthy, and M. Sreenivasana, Characterization and estimation of organic acids in plants by paper chromatography, Curr. Sci. 21:220 (1952).

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74. Lefevre, J. C., Review of the literature on the tamarind, Fruits 26:687 (1971). 75. Singh, P. P., Oxalic acid content of Indian foods, Qual. Plant. Mater. Veg. 22:335 (1973). 76. Patnaik, K. K., Seasonal pattern of tartaric acid metabolism underlying the phasic development in Tamarindus indica, Biol. Plant. 16:1 (1974).

Page 591

77. Stafford, H. A., and F. A. Loewus, The fixation of 14CO2 into tartaric acid and malic acid of excised grape leaves, Plant Physiol. 33:194 (1958). 78. Wagner, G., and F. Loewus, The biosynthesis of tartaric acid in Pelargonium crispum, Plant Physiol. 52:651 (1973). 79. Lakshminarayan, S., M. V. Rao, N. Subramanian, and N. Srinivasan, Free amino acid in tamarind pulp, J. Sci. Ind. Res. (India) 13B:377 (1954). 80. Nagaraja, K. V., M. N. Manjunath, and M. L. Nalini, Chemical composition of commercial tamarind juice concentrate, Indian Food Packer 29:17 (1975). 81. Taber, W. C., Tamarind syrup, J. Ind. Eng. Chem. 7:607 (1915).

2844/2989

82. Rao, P. S., Industrial Gums, Academic Press, New York, 1959. 83. Yoshida, T., Y. Yokoo, and Y. Koyama, Jelly strength of tamarind polysaccharide jelly, Nippon Shokuhin Kogyo Gakkai-Shi 11:200 (1964). 84. Srivastava, H. C., and T. N. Krishnamurthy, Tamarind kernel polysaccharides. III. Structure of dextrin, Staerke 24:40 (1972). 85. Bhat, S. G., Tamarind seed oil: Its properties and composition, Indian Oil Soap J. 32:53 (1966). 86. Shroeder, C. A., Lesser known foods of Africa and Asia, Encyclopaedia of Food Science, Food Technology and Nutrition (R. MaCrae, R. K. Robinson, and M. J. Sadler, eds.), Academic Press, London, 1993, p. 2126.

2845/2989

87. Underhill, S. J. R., Fruits of tropical climate, Encyclopaedia of Food Science, Food Technology and Nutrition (R. MaCrae, R. K. Robinson, and M. J. Sadler, eds.), Academic Press, London, 1993, p. 2108. 88. Martin, P. W., Durian and mangosteen, Tropical and Subtropical Fruits (S. Nagy and P. E. Shaw, eds.), AVI, Westport, CT, 1980, p. 407. 89. Baldry, J., J. Dougan, and C. E. Howard, Volatile flavouring constituents of durian, Phytochemistry 11:2081 (1972). 90. CSIR, The Wealth of India: Raw Materials, Council of Scientific and Industrial Research, New Delhi, 1980. 91. Menzel, C. M., B. J. Watson, and D. R. Simpson, LongansA place in Queensland's horticulture, Queensland Agr. J. 115:251 (1989).

2846/2989

92. Stanton, W. R., The chemical composition of some tropical food plants, Trop. Sci. 8:6 (1966). 93. Srivastava, H. C., K. K. Singh, and P. B. Mathur, Refrigerated storage of mangosteen (Garcinia mangostana), Food Sci. (Mysore) 11:226 (1962). 94. Siddappa, G. S., and S. S. Bhatia, Preservation of mangosteen (Garcinia mangostana), Central Food Technol. Res. Inst. (Mysore) Bull. 3:296 (1954). 95. Bauchau, P. C., Utilization of Local Malaysian Fruits. Development of Some Products from Durian, Publication 69, Food Technology Research & Development Centre, Malaysia, Kuala Lumpur, Malaysia, 1972.

2847/2989

96. Menzel, C. M., D. R. Simpson, and B. J. Watson, Fruits of sapidaceae, Encyclopaedia of Food Science, Food Technology and Nutrition (R. MaCrae, R. K. Robinson, and M. J. Sadler, eds.), Academic Press, London. p. 97. Bose, T. K., and M. K. Mitra (eds.), Fruits: Tropical and Subtropical, Naya Prokash, Calcutta, 1989.

Page 593

30 Fruits in Human Nutrition

S. S. Kadam Mahatma Phule Agricultural University, Rahuri, Maharashtra, India D. K. Salunkhe Utah State University, Logan, Utah

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The world's hunger is widespread and growing. Billions of people suffer from severe undernutrition in Asian, African, and Latin American countries, and from malnutrition in North American and Western European countries. There is nearly a 20-year gap in life expectancy between the rich and poor nations. Apart from the caloric needs, there is a severe shortage of food materials, such as fruits and vegetables, tubers, root crops, and fruit nuts, which are the most important plant foods, supplying people with many of their nutritive requirements, including minerals, vitamins, proteins, starches, fats, and sugars. Fruits are particularly important because they provide vitamin C, b-carotene, B-complex vitamins, minerals, dietary fiber, and bulk, as well as a variety of flavors. With increasing recognition of their value in the human diet, fruits are gaining commercial importance (1).

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Fruits are highly perishable food products. Water loss and postharvest decay account for most losses. These have been estimated to be more than 4050% in the tropics and subtropics. The problems of postharvest biotechnology of fruits are critical in the battle to minimize wastage and to extract the maximum potential from the harvested crops. Wastage of fruits is so high in some instances that between the field and the consumer, bountiful amounts of highly nutritious crops are reduced to heaps of refuse. Lack of understanding of the postharvest etiology of these crops affects both supplies and profits, even in some technologically advanced countries. Reduction of high postharvest losses of fruits, therefore, entails the integration of a variety of aspects such as the botany of an individual crop and cultivar, its physiology and biochemistry, types of infecting pathogens and pests, and the various feasible technological measures to be adopted to reduce these losses.

2851/2989

These include harvesting, handling and maturity, low-temperature storage and environmental control (controlled/modified and hypobaric storage), irradiation and use of chemicals and fungicides, as well as packaging techniques and processing (canning, freezing, drying, and others) of fresh fruits into suitable products with improved storage characteristics (2). The nutritional value of fruits as a vital source of essential minerals, vitamins, and dietary fiber has been well recognized. In addition to these constituents, fruits also supply fair amounts of carbohydrates, proteins, and energy. Fruits play a particularly important role in human nutrition in

Page 594

supplying certain constituents in which other food materials are deficient. Fruits and vegetables contribute 90% of the vitamin C, 50% of the b-carotene (vitamin A), 35% of the vitamin B6, 20% of the thiamine, 25% of the magnesium, 20% of the iron, 10% of the calories, 10% of the proteins, and the bulk of the dietary fiber to the diets of human beings (3). They neutralize the acid substances produced in the course of digestion of meat, cheese, and other high-energy foods. The value of fruits and vegetables as dietary fiber has increasingly been realized in recent years. The possible beneficial effects of fiber, vitamin C, b-carotene, and the vitamin B-complex derived from fruits on human health are being reexamined with the objective of minimizing certain important diseases of humans related to lack of fiber and antioxidant vitamins and minerals in diets (2).

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Ascorbic acid (vitamin C) is the principal vitamin supplied by fruit in the diet. About 90% of a person's dietary vitamin C requirement is obtained from fruits and vegetables (3). Some fruits are rich in this vitamin. An adult human being, on average, requires about 50 mg of vitamin C per day, and many fruits contain this amount of ascorbic acid in less than 100 g of tissue (3). Citrus fruits have around 50 mg per 100 g, kiwi fruit 100 mg per 100 g (4), while aonla (Amala) and acerola fruits contain about 3001000 mg per 100 g. Green and yellow fruits are rich sources of b-carotene, thiamin, niacin, and folic acid. Vitamin A (b-carotene) is essential for the normal functioning of the visual processes and structure of the eye, and a prolonged deficiency of this vitamin may lead to blindness. Fruits do not contain the active vitamin A compound, retinol, but certain carotenoids such as bcarotene are converted to active retinol in the body. Only about 10% of the carotenoids

2854/2989

present in fruit products are precursors of vitamin A; other carotenoids such as lycopene (the red pigment in tomato) have no vitamin A activity. The orange-colored fruits such as rockmelon, peach, persimmon, and apricot are rich in bcarotene (4). Certain fruits are rich in particular vitamins. Strawberries and oranges have significant amounts of folic acid (3). Pantothenic acid is found in appreciable quantities in watermelon, currants, apricots, and berries, and nicotinic acid in apricots, nectarines, peaches, passion fruits, and guavas. Fruits are fair suppliers of calcium, magnesium, phosphorus, and iron (1), which are not present in many other food materials in quantities sufficient for the needs of the body (2).

2855/2989

Fruits are particularly rich in pectins and gums. Pectins have been shown to delay gastric emptying, which may lead to favorable changes in glycemic responses to foods. Pectin may also induce a satiety effect. It acts as a general intestinal regulator and detoxifying agent (5). It is used as a standard additive in commercial baby food formulations. Pectin has been shown to have antibacterial, antiviral, wound-healing, and metalbinding properties. It is effective in reducing cholesterol levels (5). A substantial proportion of carbohydrates in fruits is present as dietary fiber in the form of cellulose, hemicellulose, pectic substances, and lignin. It is not digested and passes through the human intestinal system, as people are not capable of secreting the digestive enzymes necessary to break down these polymer complexes into simpler units in the forms absorbed by the intestinal tract (3). Humans lack enzymes such as cellulase, hemicellulase, and pectinase. Fiber was once considered

2856/2989

to be an unnecessary component in the human diet, although it was thought to relieve constipation. The epidemiological evidence obtained so far shows that dietary fiber can be the panacea to cure several human diseases, especially in the affluent Western societies. Most developed countries encourage increased consumption of complex carbohydrates and fiber (4), which are abundant in fruits, and dietary recommendations in the United Kingdom and Germany specifically advise increased fruit consumption (4). In addition to the above-mentioned vital constituents, fruits also supply proteins, lipids, organic acids, and volatiles that give characteristic flavors. Water is the most abundant constituent of fruits, most fruits containing more than 80% and some fruits such as apples, oranges, and several others containing as much as 90% water (3).

Page 595

2858/2989

Many therapeutic drugs in use in modern medicine originated as plant extracts. Certain fruit components exert pharmacological or therapeutic effects. Limonin and nomilin (and other limonoids) are present in citrus plants such as orange, lemon, lime, and grapefruit (4). These compounds are believed to have a role in inhibiting the development of certain forms of cancer, and recent research has indicated that the antioxidant properties of b-carotene may also play a role in the prevention of some forms of cancer. Prunes contain hydroxyphenylisatin derivatives which stimulate colonic smooth muscle, explaining their traditional use as a laxative (4). Ellagic acid is a naturally occurring phenolic constituent present in fruits, especially strawberries (6,7) and other berries (8). It has been shown to be effective as an antimutagen and anticarcinogen and a potential inhibitor of common inducers of cancer (6). Fruits are generally low in fats and oil and are, therefore, an

2859/2989

important food in diets designed to reduce the risk of coronary heart diseases (4). An exception is the avocado, which has an unusually high oil content (up to 30% fat, depending on production area), but most recent studies indicate a beneficial role of the avocado with respect to heart disease, probably because 5070% of the fat is monounsaturated (4).

2860/2989

Fruits are processed into several products, such as juices, jams, jellies, wines, dried fruits, and canned products, by employing different methods of food preservation. The consumption of these products provides the majority of the nutrients present in fruit to the consumers. However, some nutrients are lost during processing. Processed fruits are being used increasingly in the dairy industry, as an additive in fermented milk products such as yoghurt. This use of fruits has led to a wider acceptability of yoghurt and has, therefore, influenced the intake of certain nutrients such as calcium and milk protein. This also applies to fruit jams and preserves. Although these fruit products may not have a remarkable nutrient composition themselves, they can be used to improve the palatability of foods such as whole-meal bread, thus increasing the intake of nutrients such as grain fiber and the B-complex vitamins. Fruit

2861/2989

derivatives are also used in the confectionery manufacturing industries (4). Large quantities of fruits are used in the production of fruit juices (9). The physical processing to which fruit is subjected for juice production leads to significant reduction in the content of ascorbic acid, but vitamin C is added to processed fruit juice, primarily as an antioxidant preservative, but also to increase consumer appeal. Fruit juice, either processed or fresh, is a significant source of vitamin C in many countries.

2862/2989

Canning is a process that has continued to decline recently (9). The two main limitations of canning are high container cost and effect that processing and retorting has on texture. Current emphasis is on producing nutritious products while reducing addition of fat, sugars, or salt. Hence, it is necessary to find a medium that would protect the product during storage and handling from physical and adverse oxidative reactions but that would also not add anything to it (9).

2863/2989

Dehydration reduces the water activity of a product to a point at which it will not support microbial growth (9). In many fruits and vegetables, blanching treatment is given to fruits before they are dried (2). Blanching produces mildly cooked products, thus altering the sensory as well as nutritional properties. A significant amount of vitamin C and other vitamins is lost during blanching and subsequent drying. However, dehydration can concentrate several other vitamins and minerals in the products. A nonheat method for enzyme inactivation that would not influence product flavor and texture may offer the potential of producing higherquality products (9).

2864/2989

There is ever-increasing demand for products with less salt and sugar. Fermented products with desirable qualities can be prepared by using fruits as raw material. New products with high nutritive value and fiber should be developed (9). Considering the nutritional and pharmacological significance, fruits will play a major role in the nutrition of the world population.

Page 596

References 1. Salunkhe, D. K., and B. B. Desai, Postharvest Biotechnology of Fruits, Vol. I, CRC Press, Boca Raton, FL, 1984. 2. Salunkhe, D. K., and B. B. Desai, Postharvest Biotechnology of Fruits, Vol. II, CRC Press, Boca Raton, FL, 1984. 3. Salunkhe, D. K., H. R. Bolin, and N. R. Reddy, Storage Processing and Nutritional Quality of Fruits and Vegetables, Volume IFresh Fruits and Vegetables, CRC Press, Boca Raton, FL, 1991.

2866/2989

4. Smith, L. G., and S. M. Somerset, Fruits of temperate climates: Commercial and dietary importance, Encyclopaedia of Food Science, Food Technology and Nutrition (R. MaCrae, R. K. Robinson, and S. J. Sadlers, eds.), Academic Press, London, 1993, p. 2083. 5. Pilnick, W., and A. G. J. Voragen, Pectic substances and other uronides, The Biochemistry of Fruits and Their Products, Vol. 1, (A. C. Hulme, ed.), Academic Press, London, 1970, p. 53. 6. Mass, J. L., G. J. Galletta, and G. D. Stoner, Ellagic acid, an anticarcinogen in fruits especially in strawberries: A review, HortScience 26:10 (1991). 7. Mass, J. L., S. Y. Wang, and G. J. Galletta, Evaluation of strawberry cultivars for ellagic acid content, HortScience 26:66 (1991).

2867/2989

8. Daniel, E. M., A. S. Krupnick, Y. H. Heur, J. A. Blinzler, R. W. Nins, and G. D. Stoner, Extraction, stability and quantification of ellagic acid in various fruits and nuts, J. Food Chem. Comp. Anal. 2:338 (1989). 9. Salunkhe, D. K., H. R. Bolin and N. R. Reddy, Storage, Processing, and Nutritional Quality of Fruits and Vegetables Volume II Processed Fruits and Vegetables. CRC Press, Boca Raton, FL, 1991

Page 597

Index
A Aamsol, 583 Abscisic acid, 150 Acerola: botany, 563 composition, 564 jelly, 565 juice, 564 powder, 564 processing, 564

2869/2989

production, 563 puree, 565 Acetaldehyde, 195, 553 Acetylfuran, 578 Acrid oil, 41 Actinidia, 322 Adriatic fig, 408 Aegle marmelos, 539 Agrimycin, 134 Agrobacterium tumefaciens, 99, 399 Air layering 437 Alar, 457 Albedo, 42

2870/2989

Almond: chemical composition, 524 cultivation, 524 harvesting, 524 maturity, 524 processing, 525 production, 523 propagation, 523 soil and climate, 523 storage, 525 Alternaria rot, 414 Aminobutyric acid, 340 Ammonium oxalate, 429

2871/2989

Amphotericin B, 403 Amygdalin, 222, 342, 524 Amygdalus, 243 Amygdalus communis, 535 Amylopectin, 449 Amylose, 449 Anacardiaceae, 123, 509 Anacardic acid, 513 Anacardium occidentale, 509 Ananas, 171 Ancorcin, 383 Anhydrogalacturonic acid, 466 Annonaceae, 377

2872/2989

Annonaceous fruits: budding and grafting, 381 composition, 382 cultivars, 379 cultural practices, 381 diseases, 382 disorders, 382 fertilization, 381 harvesting, 382

Page 598

[Annonaceous fruits] pests, 382 pollination, 379 processing, 383 propagation, 380 pruning, 381 soil and climate, 380 storage, 383 training, 381 Annona cherimola, 377 Annona muricata, 377 Annona squamosa, 377

2874/2989

Anolobine, 383 Anonaine, 383 Anthocyanins, 24, 224, 268, 321, 400, 436, 441, 459, 469, 555, 576, 578 Anthracnose, 19, 135 Antibiotics, 403 Anticarcinogenic properties, 31 Antidiarrhetic activity, 539 Antimicrobial properties, 328 Antioxidant, 329, 530 Antiradical activity, 329 Aonla (Amala): botany, 565

2875/2989

composition, 566 processing, 567 production, 566 storage, 567 Apigenin, 469 Apple: botany, 91 butter, 116 canned apples, 114 chemical composition, 105 chutney, 116 cider, 115 citric acid, 117

2876/2989

concentrate, 113 controlled atmosphere storage, 110 crop regulation, 98 cultivars, 92 cultural practices, 96 diseases, 99 dried products, 115 frozen products, 114 fruit development, 93 fruit ripening, 94 fruit thinning, 99 grading, 104 harvesting, 103

2877/2989

irrigation, 96 jam, 116 juice, 112 low-temperature storage, 109 manuring and fertilization, 96 minerals, 107 nutrient deficiencies, 97 organic acids, 106 pectin, 117 pests, 101 phenolic compounds, 108 pickles, 116 planting, 96

2878/2989

pollination, 98 postharvest diseases, 111 preserves, 116 processing, 112 propagation, 95 proteins, 106 rootstocks, 95 scab, 99 storage, 109 subatmospheric pressure storage, 110 training and pruning, 97 transport, 105 vitamins, 108

2879/2989

world production, 91 Apricot: baby foods, 358 botany, 365 canned apricot, 348 chemical composition, 340 concentrate, 352 controlled atmosphere storage, 342 cultivars, 337 cultural practices, 339 diseases and pests, 340 dried apricot, 350 frozen product, 355

2880/2989

fruit development, 337 gamma irradiation, 344 harvesting, 340 jam, 356 jelly, 356 maturity, 340 modified atmosphere, 342 nectar, 352 preserves, 356 processing, 347 production, 337, 365 propagation, 337 storage, 342

2881/2989

Page 599

Arabinose, 423, 468 Arachas zapota, 475 Aromatic volatiles, 195 Ascorbic acid, 565, 566, 569 Aspartic acid, 549 Aspergillus rot, 414 Astringency, 195 Atemoya, 377 Atracarpus heterophyllus, 571 Avocado: amino acids, 368 beverage, 373

2883/2989

chemical composition, 368 controlled atmosphere storage, 370 cultivars, 364 cultural practices, 366 diseases and pests, 367 fatty acid composition, 368 frozen slices, 372 fruit development, 365 guacamole, 373 handling, 367 harvesting, 367 irradiation, 372 irrigation, 366

2884/2989

low-temperature storage, 370 maturity, 367 modified atmosphere storage, 371 planting, 366 postharvest diseases, 372 processing, 372 production, 366 propagation, 366 pruning, 366 storage, 368, 372 subatmospheric pressure storage, 371 world production, 363

2885/2989

B Baby food, 276 Bacillus subtilis, 383 Bacterial canker, 219 Bacterial gummosis, 261 Bacterial spot, 261 Bacterium savastanoi, 467 Bael fruit: botany, 539 composition, 540 cultivars, 540 nectar, 542

2886/2989

processing, 541 production, 540 storage, 541 toffee, 542 Bahar treatment, 421 Baikiain, 545 Banana: brandy, 85 carbohydrates, 76 chemical composition, 74 chemical control of postharvest losses, 82 chips, 84 concentrate, 84

2887/2989

controlled atmosphere storage, 81 cultivars, 68 cultural practices, 70 diseases and pests, 70 enzymes, 76 flavor constituents, 76 fruit development, 69 harvesting, 71 juice, 84 low-temperature storage, 81 organic acids, 76 phenolic compounds, 76 pigments, 76

2888/2989

powder, 85 processing, 84 propagation, 70 pulp, 84 soil and climate, 70 storage, 78 subatmospheric pressure storage, 81 transport, 83 world production, 67 Benomyl, 414 Benzaldehyde, 407, 524 Benzyladenine, 150, 224 Benzyl isothiocyanate, 304

2889/2989

Ber (jujube): beverage, 391 botany, 387 candy, 392 chemical composition, 390 cultivars, 388 cultural practices, 389 diseases, 389 fertilization, 389 fruit development, 388 fruit ripening, 388 harvesting, 390 jam, 394

2890/2989

jelly, 394 juice, 391

Page 600

[Ber (jujube)] pests, 389 planting, 389 powder, 392 processing, 391 production, 388 propagation, 389 pulp, 391 soil and climate, 388 storage, 391 training, 389 tutti-frutti, 392

2892/2989

wine, 392 Berries, 315, 316 Beverages, 59, 228, 275 Bird cherry, 397 Blackberries, 12, 318, 323 Blueberries, 12, 318, 323 Botrytis cinerea, 187 Brandy, 85 Breadfruit: botany, 568 chemical composition, 569 drying, 570 fermentation, 570

2893/2989

processing, 570 production, 568 storage, 569 Bromeliaceae, 171 Brown core, 188 Brown rot, 220, 261, 399 C Cadra cautella, 490, 495 Caffeic acid, 348, 469 Calciferol, 368 Calcium, 150 Calcium ammonium nitrate, 389

2894/2989

Calcium chloride, 299 Calcium oxalate, 355 Calcium tartarate, 577 Cancer, 4 Candicidin, 403 Candy, 199 Canker, 100 Canned apple, 114 Canning, 229, 349 Capric acid, 545 Carambola, 579 Cardioprotective properties, 329 Cardiovascular disease, 329

2895/2989

Cardol, 513 Carob, 555 b-Carotene, 465, 594 Cashew: alcoholic beverages, 520 apple, 518 apple residue, 520 beverages, 519 botany, 509 candy, 159 canned apple, 519 composition, 513 cultivars, 510

2896/2989

cultural practices, 511 diseases, 512 drum-roasting, 515 drying of kernels, 516 fruit development, 510 grading, 516 harvesting, 512 nutrition, 512 oil-bath roasting, 515 packing, 576 peeling, 516 pests, 512 processing, 514

2897/2989

propagation, 511 roasting, 515 shelling, 515 shell liquid, 517 soil and climate, 510 storage, 513 world production, 509 yield, 512 Cashew apple, 518 Cashew nut, 513, 514 Cashew nut processing, 514 Cashew nut shell liquid, 513, 517 Catalase, 449

2898/2989

Catechin, 552 Catechin-3-gallate, 552 Catechol, 348 Centrifugal separator, 452 Chemical composition: almond, 524 annonaceous fruits, 382 aonla, 566 apple, 105 apricot, 340 avocado, 368 ber, 390 breadfruit, 569

2899/2989

cashew, 513 cherry, 400

Page 601

[Chemical composition] chestnut, 528 citrus, 47 coconut, 491, 493 date, 544 fig, 412 grapes, 22 guava, 422 jackfruit, 572 jamun, 574 kiwi fruit, 329 loquat, 549

2901/2989

lychee, 439 mango, 144 olive, 468 papaya, 302 passion fruit, 449 peach, 266 pear, 190 pecan, 534 pineapple, 176 pistachio nut, 526 plum, 222 pomegranate, 457 sapota, 481

2902/2989

tamarind, 577 Cherry: botany, 397 composition, 400 cultivars, 398 cultural practices, 399 diseases, 399 disorders, 399 fruit development, 398 gamma irradiation, 402 harvesting, 400 pests, 399 processing, 403

2903/2989

production, 398 propagation, 399 soil and climate, 398 storage, 401 subatmospheric pressure storage, 402 Chestnut: composition, 528 processing, 528 production, 527 storage, 528 Chickle gum 475, 483 Chilling injury 5, 78, 147, 302, 370, 441 Chips, 85

2904/2989

Chlorogenic acid, 268, 348, 459, 477 Choke-cherry, 397 Chrisanthemin, 578 Cider, 115 Cinnamyl acetate, 423 Citric acid, 61, 117, 268, 304, 328, 449, 554 Citrus: acids, 47 beverage, 59 bitter principles, 49 botany, 40 chemical composition, 47 controlled atmosphere storage, 52

2905/2989

cordials, 60 cultivars, 42 cultural practices, 44 diseases and pests, 45 enzymes, 49 extraction of juice, 53 flavonoids, 49 fruit set and fruit drop, 44 grading of fruits, 46 irrigation, 44 lipids, 47 low-temperature storage, 52 manuring and fertilization, 44

2906/2989

minerals, 50 morphological characters, 42 oils, 62 packaging, 46 pectic substances, 49 pectin, 62 peel oils, 46 physiological disorders, 43 physiology of fruit, 43 pigments, 50 postharvest diseases, 53 processing, 54 propagation, 43

2907/2989

resting or bahar treatment, 44 soil and climate, 43 storage, 51 sugars, 47 types, 41 vitamins, 50 volatile constitutents, 50 world production, 49, 50 Climateric fruit, 72 Coconut: amino acid composition of copra, 492, 493 botany, 486 chemical composition of coconut water, 493

2908/2989

chemical composition of copra, 491

Page 602

[Coconut] coir, 502 copra flour, 500 copra press cake, 500 copra production, 485 cultivars, 486 cultural practices, 486 dry milling, 498 drying of copra, 496 extraction of oil, 497 fruit development, 487 harvesting, 490

2910/2989

irrigation, 490 manuring, 489 milk, 499 minerals, 493 pests and diseases, 490 planting, 489 processing, 496 propagation, 488 protein products, 499 proteins, 492 soil and climate, 487 storage, 495 sulfur fumigation, 496

2911/2989

toddy, 501 wet milling, 498 Coconut cream, 499 Coconut milk, 499 Coconut oil, 491 Concentrate: apple, 113 apricot, 340 banana, 84 grapes, 27 mango, 154 passion fruit, 452 pear, 200

2912/2989

plum, 228 pomegranate, 461 sapota, 480 tamarind, 579 Cordon system, 16 Cork spot, 186 Coronary heart disease, 4 Corrugated fiber board cartons, 105 Corypaline 384 Coumaric acid, 459 Coumarin, 539 Cracking of cherries, 399 Cracking of pomegranate, 457

2913/2989

Cranberries, 315, 319, 325 Cryptoxanthin, 552 Currant, 12, 315, 317, 325 Cyanidin, 321 Cyanidin-3-,5-diglucoside, 459 Cyanidin-3-glucoside, 268, 459 Cyanidin-3-rutinoside, 224 Cyanogenic glucoside, 525 Cycloconium oleaginum, 467 Cycocel, 409 Cytochrome oxidase, 52 Cytospora canker, 220

2914/2989

D. Date: botany, 542 chemical composition, 544 processing, 546 production, 544 storage, 545 Dehydration, 151, 155 Dehydro ascorbic acid, 564 Delphinidin, 322 Delphinidin-3-5-diglucoside, 459 Delphinidin-3-glucoside, 459

2915/2989

2,6-Dichloro-4-nitroanaline, 403 Dichogamy, 363 Dieback disease, 135 Dietary fiber, 3 Dihydroxy cinnamic acid, 230 Dihydroxy phenol, 245 2,3-Diketogulonic acid, 564 Dinitro-ortho-cresol, 248 Diopyros kaki, 550 Diphenol oxidase, 469 Discretamine, 383 DNA recombinant techniques, 245 Downey mildew, 19

2916/2989

Drying, 350 Durian, 583 E Ectoparasites, 260 Egg albumen, 427 Ellagic acid, 322, 323 Endoparasites, 260 Endosepsis, 412 Enzymatic browning 348 Eribotrya japonica, 546 Ethephon, 266, 553 Ethrel, 14

2917/2989

Ethyl acetate, 413 Ethyl butyrate, 449 2-Ethyl-1, 2-dihydrothiophene, 410 Ethylene, 5, 13, 52, 72, 82, 110, 365, 424

Page 603

Ethylene absorbent, 266 Ethylene oxide, 496 Ethyl hexanoate, 449 Ethyl oleate, 230 Eucitrus, 41 F Fabraea maculata, 187 Fatty acid composition, 356, 368, 529 Ferulic acid, 469 Ficus carica, 402 Fig: botany, 407

2919/2989

chemical composition, 412 controlled atmosphere storage, 413 cultivars, 408 cultural practices, 410 diseases, 411 dried fig, 414 fertilization, 411 fruit development, 409 harvesting, 412 irrigation, 411 low-temperature storage, 413 maturity, 412 notching, 411

2920/2989

oleification, 411 pests, 411 postharvest diseases, 414 processing, 414 production, 410 propagation, 410 pruning, 411 soil and climate, 410 storage, 413 training, 414 Flavedo, 42 Flavonoids, 469 Fragaria sp., 316

2921/2989

Fructose, 551 Fruits and Vegetables: dietary fiber, 3 nutritional significance, 2 vitamin C, 2 Furfural, 578 Fusarium moniliforme, 42 G Galactose, 423 b-Galactosidase, 413 Galacturonic acid, 423 Gallocatechin, 552

2922/2989

Gallocatechin-3-gallate, 552 Gamma radiation, 305, 553 Gastroenteritis, 493 Geraniol, 13, 449 Gibberellic acid, 409 Gibberellins, 18 Glucose, 468, 551 Glutamic acid, 549 Glycerol monostearate, 427 Glycolic acid, 423 Gooseberries, 315, 317, 319, 325 Grapefruit, 41 Grapefruit juice, 57

2923/2989

Grapefruit juice concentrate, 59 Grapes: acids, 23 berry development, 12 berry maturation, 12 berry ripening, 12 climate, 14 concentrate, 27 cultivars, 10 cultural practices, 15 diseases and pests, 19 enzymes, 25 flowering, 17

2924/2989

fruit set, 17 genetic improvements, 14 grading, 21 harvesting, 19 imports and exports, 8 irrigation, 17 jelly, 31 juice, 27 low-temperature storage, 25 manuring, 28 minerals, 23 morphological characters, 11 pectin, 24

2925/2989

pigments, 24 planting, 15 pollination, 17 postharvest diseases, 26 precooling, 25 proteins, 23 raisins, 29 storage, 25 structure of vine, 11 tannins, 23 training, 8 types, 9 vitamins, 23

2926/2989

wine, 28 world production, 7

Page 604

Growth regulators, 179 Guar gum, 427 Guava: botany, 419 cheese, 427 chemical composition, 422 cultural practices, 420 dehydrated guava, 425 diseases, 421 harvesting, 421 intermediate moisture fruit, 426 jam, 427

2928/2989

jelly, 428 juice, 428 juice concentrate, 428 nectar, 428 pectin, 429 pests, 421 powder, 425 processing, 425 production, 420 pulp, 426 puree, 427 seed oil, 429 storage, 424

2929/2989

toffee, 427 wine, 429 Gummosis, 399 H Harvesting: almond, 524 annonaceous fruits, 382 apple, 103 apricot, 340 avocado, 367 banana, 71 ber, 390

2930/2989

cashew, 512 cherry, 400 coconut, 490 fig, 412 grapes, 19 guava, 421 loquat, 548 lychee, 439 mango, 139 olive, 468 papaya, 301 passion fruit, 445 peach, 282

2931/2989

pear, 188 phalsa 554 pineapple, 176 plum, 222 pomegranate, 457 Heating treatment, 368 Hedgerow system, 253 Hemicellulose, 477 Hermaphrodite, 573 Hexanal, 323 Hex-2-enal, 323 Hexyl butarate, 449 Hexyl hexanoate, 449

2932/2989

High vacuum flame sterilization, 277 Hot water treatment, 302 Hydrocyanic acid, 268, 524 5-Hydroxypipecolic acid, 545 I Indole acetic acid: decarboxylase, 245 oxidase, 245 Internal breakdown, 456 Invertase, 302, 440 Iodine value, 469 b-Ionone, 541

2933/2989

Irradiation, 148, 179, 197 Isoboldine, 383 Isolimonin, 49 Isopropyl phenyl carbamate, 482 J Jackfruit: botany, 571 composition, 572 processing, 573 production, 571 storage, 572 Jam:

2934/2989

apple, 116 apricot, 356 ber, 394 guava, 427 papaya, 306 plum, 227 Jam marmalade, 61 Jamun: botany, 573 composition, 574 processing, 575 production, 573 storage, 575

2935/2989

Jelly: apricot, 356 ber, 394 grapes, 31 guava, 428

Page 605

[Jelly] papaya, 306 pomegranate, 461 Jelly marmalade, 60 Jelmeter, 31 Juglans regia, 528 Juice: apple, 112 banana, 84 ber, 391 grapes, 27 guava, 428

2937/2989

papaya, 451 passion fruit, 451 pear, 200 plum, 227 pomegranate, 460 Juniper sabianae, 187 K Ketoheptose, 412 Kiwi fruit, 315, 319, 325, 329 Kokum, 584 Kokum butter, 585 L.

2938/2989

Lauraceae, 363 Lauric acid, 491 Lemon, 41 Lemon juice, 57 Lemon juice concentrate, 59 Leucoanthocyanidins, 423, 477, 578 Lime, 41 Lime juice, 57 Lime juice concentrate, 59 Lime pickle, 60 Limonenic acid, 49 Limonin, 49 Linalool, 13, 24, 304, 449

2939/2989

Linoleic acid, 554 Linolenic acid, 368, 410, 469 Lipolysis, 553 Litchi chinensis, 435 Longan, 585 Loquat: botany, 547 composition, 549 cultural practices, 547 diseases, 548 harvesting, 548 pests, 548 processing, 550

2940/2989

production, 547 propagation, 547 soil and climate, 547 storage, 549 Luteolin, 469 Lychee: botany, 435 composition, 437 cultivars, 436 cultural practices, 438 diseases, 439 fertilization, 438 fruit development, 436

2941/2989

fruit ripening, 436 harvesting, 439 irrigation, 438 packaging, 439 pests, 439 planting, 438 processing, 441 production, 437 propagation, 437 pruning, 439 soil and climate, 437 storage, 440 training, 439

2942/2989

M Macaca nemestrina, 491 Macadamia integrifolia, 531 Macadamia nut: composition, 532 drying, 533 processing, 533 production, 531 roasting, 533 storage, 533 Macadamia tetraphylla, 531 Maleic hydrazide, 424

2943/2989

Malic acid, 192, 224, 232, 249, 549, 559, 577 Malvidin, 322 Mandarin, 41 Mandarin juice, 57 Mandarin juice concentrate, 59 Mangifera, 123 Mango: anthracnose, 135 beverage, 152, 154 biennial bearing, 132 chemical composition, 144 chilling injury, 147 chutney, 152

2944/2989

clustering, 130 compositional changes, 137 concentrate, 154 controlled atmosphere storage, 148

Page 606

[Mango] cultivars, 124 cultural practices, 129 diseases, 134 flowering, 126 fruit development, 127 fruit drop, 131 fruit growth, 127 fruit set, 126 harvesting, 139 heat treatment, 149 intercropping, 129

2946/2989

kernel, 156 low-temperature storage, 145 malformation, 130 manuring and fertilization, 129 maturity, 136 peel, 156 pests, 132 pickling, 152 postharvest treatment, 149 powdery mildew, 135 production, 128 propagation, 128 pruning and training, 130

2947/2989

puree, 153 ripening, 141 slices, 152, 155 soil and climate, 128 subatmospheric pressure storage, 148 world production, 124 Mangosteen, 586 Manilkara zapota, 475 Mannitol, 400, 468 Mannoheptulose, 368, 449 Mannose, 468 Mannosidase, 413 Marmalade, 178

2948/2989

Meadow orcharding, 252 Medicinal properties of berries, 328 Methyl anthranilate, 13, 24 Methyl benzoate, 423 Methyl bromide, 270 Methyl-butanoate, 304 Methyl cinnamate, 423 Methylene glutamic acid, 577 Methylene glutamine, 577 Methyl furfural, 578 Methyl 1-4 naphthoquinone, 368 Methyl sulfide, 533 Monkey, 491

2949/2989

Moraceae, 407 Morphactin, 424 Mucilage, 539 Musa, 67 Musaceae, 67 Mycobacterium phlei, 383 Mycosphaerella claybafierisis, 187 Myristic acid, 491 Myrtaceae, 419 N Naphthalene oil, 248 Naranjilla, 556

2950/2989

Naringin, 50 Nectar, 275, 306 Nectarine, 243 Nematodes, 260 Neohesperidin, 50 Neohesperiodose, 50 Notching, 411 O Oil stability, 491 Oleaceae, 465 Olea europaea, 465 Oleic acid, 368, 469, 526

2951/2989

Oleification, 411 Oleocellosis, 53 Oleuropein, 466, 469 Olive: black olives, 472 botany, 465 cake, 472 canned ripe olives, 472 composition, 468 cultivars, 466 cultural practices, 467 diseases, 467 fatty acid composition, 470

2952/2989

fruit development, 466 green fermented olives, 472 harvesting, 468 oil, 471 pests, 467 production, 467 propagation, 467 pruning, 467 soil and climate, 467 stone, 472 storage, 471 volatile components of oil, 470 world production, 466

2953/2989

Olive oil, 411, 468 Orange juice, 56 Orange juice concentrate, 58

Page 607

Organic acids, 194 Oryctes rhinoceros, 490 Osmotic dehydration, 230, 425 Osmovac, 230 Osmovac dehydration, 425 Ostiole, 407 Ostiolum, 408 Oxalic acid, 429, 577, 583 Oxyethylene docosanol, 410 P Paclobutrazol, 231, 252 Palmitic acid, 368, 469, 543

2955/2989

Papain, 308 Papaya: acids, 304 composition, 302 concentrate, 307 controlled atmosphere storage, 305 cultivars, 298 cultural practices, 299 diseases and pests, 301 enzymes, 304 fruit development, 298 harvesting, 301 irradiation, 305

2956/2989

irrigation, 300 jam, 306 jelly, 306 low-temperature storage, 304 manure and fertilizers, 300 maturity, 301 papain, 308 pickles, 305 powder, 307 processing, 305 production, 298 propagation, 299 puree, 306

2957/2989

slab, 307 soil and climate, 299 storage, 304 subatmospheric storage, 305 sugars, 302 toffee, 307 tutti-frutti, 307 volatile compounds, 304 Parthenocarpy, 69 Passiflora, 445 Passifloraceae, 445 Passion fruit: botany, 445

2958/2989

by-products, 452 composition, 449 concentrate, 452 cultivars, 447 cultural practices, 448 diseases and pests, 448 fruit development, 447 harvesting, 449 irrigation, 448 juice, 451 manuring and fertilization, 448 maturity, 449 processing, 451

2959/2989

production, 447 propagation, 447 soil and climate, 447 storage, 451 training and pruning, 448 Peach: brandy, 281 butter, 278 chemical composition, 266 climate, 245 clingstone, 244 conserve, 278 controlled atmosphere storage, 272

2960/2989

cultivars, 244 cultural practices, 252 diseases, 259 dried peaches, 277, 279 free stone, 245 fruit bar, 279 fruit development, 245 fruit ripening, 266 fruit thinning, 258 grading, 263 irradiation, 274 low-temperature storage, 272 marmalade, 278

2961/2989

maturity, 260 nematodes, 260 packaging, 264 pests, 259 pickle, 279 planting, 252 postharvest diseases, 271 processing, 274 production, 243 propagation, 251 pruning, 252 rootstocks, 250

Page 608

[Peach] soil, 250 starch, 268 subatmospheric pressure storage, 273 training, 252 transportation, 265 waste management, 281 wine, 281 Pear: botany, 183 candy, 199 canned pear products, 199

2963/2989

canned pears, 199 chemical composition, 190 concentrate, 200 controlled atmosphere storage, 196 diseases, 187 dried pears, 199 fertilization, 186 fruit thinning, 187 fruit waste utilization, 200 irradiation, 197 irrigation, 186 juice, 200 low-temperature storage, 196

2964/2989

modified atmosphere storage, 196 pests, 188 physiological disorders, 188 planting, 186 postharvest diseases, 197 postharvest disorders, 197 processing, 198 production, 184 storage, 196 subatmospheric pressure storage, 197 Pecan: composition, 534 processing, 535

2965/2989

production, 534 storage, 534 Pectin, 62, 117, 190, 310 Pectinase treatment, 327 Pectinesterase, 56 Pectin methyl esterase, 449 Pelargonidin, 321 Pelargonidin-3-5-diglucoside, 459 Pelargonidin-3-glucoside, 459 Penicillium expansum, 187 Peonidin, 322 Peonidin-3-rutionoside, 224 Pericarp, 183

2966/2989

Peroxidase, 52 Persea americana, 363 Perseitol, 368 Persimmon: botany, 550 composition, 551 processing, 541 production, 540 storage, 552 Petunidin, 322 Phalsa: botany, 553 chemical composition, 544

2967/2989

cultural practices, 553 diseases, 554 harvesting, 554 pests, 553 processing, 555 production, 553 propagation 553 soil and climate, 58 storage, 555 Phenolic compounds, 268 Phloroglucinol, 410 Phoenix dactylifera, 542 Phomopsis sp., 457

2968/2989

Phytophthora, 45, 48 Phytophthora palmivora, 490 Pineapple: composition, 176 controlled atmosphere storage, 178 cultivars, 173 cultural practices, 174 diseases and pests, 175 fruit development, 173 harvesting, 176 low-temperature storage, 177 manuring and irrigation, 175 maturity, 176

2969/2989

powder, 180 production, 174 propagation, 174 storage, 177 waste product, 180 Pink berry disorder, 24 Pipecolic acid, 543 Pistachio nut: chemical composition, 526 processing, 526 production, 526 storage, 526 Plum:

2970/2989

beverage, 228 canning, 229 chemical composition, 222

Page 609

[Plum] concentrate, 228 controlled atmosphere storage, 226 cultivars, 206 cultural practices, 213 diseases and pests, 219 dried plums, 230 fertilization, 215 fruit development, 206 fruit growth, 206 fruit thinning, 219 harvesting, 222

2972/2989

herbicides, 216 hypobaric storage, 227 irradiation, 227 irrigation, 218 jam, 227 juice, 227 low-temperature storage, 226 maturity, 221 mulching, 216 packaging, 222 pests, 220 postharvest diseases, 225 processing, 227

2973/2989

production, 204, 207 propagation, 207 pruning, 214 purees, 230 rootstocks, 211 soil and climate, 207 storage, 224 training, 214 transport, 222 vermouth, 233 weed control, 215 wine, 231 Polygalacturonase, 466, 543

2974/2989

Polyphenol oxidase, 52, 268, 348 Polyphenols, 391 Pomegranate: anardana, 461 anar-rub, 461 botany, 455 chemical composition, 457 concentrate, 461 cultivars, 455 cultural practices, 456 diseases, 457 fruit development, 456 harvesting, 457

2975/2989

jelly, 461 juice, 460 low-temperature storage, 459 pests, 457 processing, 460 production, 456 propagation, 456 soil and climate, 456 storage, 459 syrup, 461 Potassium benzoate, 327 Potassium bitartarate, 577 Potassium metabisulfite, 23, 403

2976/2989

Powdery mildew, 99, 135, 261 Processing: almond, 525 annonaceous fruits, 383 aonla, 567 apple, 112 apricot, 347 avocado, 372 banana, 84 ber, 391 breadfruit, 570 cashew, 509 cherry, 403

2977/2989

chestnut, 528 citrus, 54 coconut, 496 date, 546 fig, 414 grapes, 27 guava, 425 jackfruit, 573 jamun, 575 loquat, 550 lychee, 441 mango, 151 olive, 471

2978/2989

papaya, 305 passion fruit, 451 peach, 274 pear, 198 pecan, 535 phalsa, 555 pineapple, 179 pistachio nut, 526 plum, 227 pomegranate, 460 sapota, 483 tamarind, 578 Procyanidin, 546

2979/2989

Production: almond, 523

Page 610

[Production] annonaceous fruits, 337 aonla, 566 apple, 94 apricot, 365 avocado, 366 banana, 70 ber, 388 breadfruit, 568 cashew, 510 cherry, 398 chestnut, 527

2981/2989

citrus, 43 coconut, 487 date, 544 fig, 410 grapes, 14 guava, 420 jackfruit, 571 jamun, 573 kiwi fruit, 319 loquat, 547 lychee, 437 macadamia nut, 531 mango, 128

2982/2989

olive, 467 papaya, 298 passion fruit, 447 peach, 243 pear, 184 pecan, 534 pineapple, 174 pistachio nut, 526 plum, 207 pomegranate, 456 sapota, 478 tamarind, 576 Proline, 549

2983/2989

Proteaceae, 531 Prunes, 203, 205 Prunoidae, 203, 243 Pseudostem, 70 Psidium guajava, 49 Pulasan, 587 Purees, 230, 274, 306 Pyrus communis, 183 R Raisins, 29 Rambutan, 587 Rancidity, 534

2984/2989

Raspberries, 12, 317, 321, 326 Refined olive oil, 471 Resorcinol, 513 Respiration, 190 Reverse osmosis, 452 Rhamnose, 468 Rhinocerous beetle, 490, 544 Ribes sp., 317 Ribonucleic acid, 409 Rootstock, 95 Rosaeceae, 365 Rubus, 317

2985/2989

S Sapindaceae, 435 Saponification value, 469 Sapota (sapodilla): botany, 475 chemical composition, 481 cultivars, 476 fruit maturation, 476 fruit ripening, 477 harvesting, 480 intercrops, 479 irrigation, 479

2986/2989

manuring, 479 pests and diseases, 480 planting, 479 processing, 483 production, 478 propagation, 478 soil and climate, 478 storage, 482 training and pruning, 479 Sapotaceae, 475 Sapotin, 482 Scleroids, 420 Sedoheptulose, 449

2987/2989

Silver nitrate, 82 Sodium benzoate, 231, 403, 575 Sodium bisulfite, 324 Sodium hexametaphosphate, 429 Sodium sorbate, 321 Sorbitol, 245, 440 Sour cherry, 397, 398 Staphylococcus aureus, 383 Stearic acid, 469 Steroids, 539 Stone cells, 420 Storage: almond, 525

2988/2989

annonaceous fruits, 383 aonla, 567 apple, 109 apricot, 342

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