Newton: - Regarded as a great mind by all philosophers - His Newtonian world machine concept was the basis for

all philosophers and they believed they could use this concept to understand all aspects of life. Immanuel Kant: - Dare to know his famous phrase - People need to think for themselves - He started the enlightenment Reason: - Word used by all philosophers - They emphasized use of reason to explain how people should think - The flaw or error when using reason is that people decide it means that they have the right to do whatever they want. - This is not what Kant had wanted them to think Fontenelle: - Possessed deep knowledge of previous scientists - Plurality of Worlds was a literary work written by Fontenelle. o Two lovers laying under the night sky o The man describes all the fundamentals of Newtons laws to the woman o Fontenelles Plurality of Worlds brought together the ideas of literature and science Pierre Bayle: - Doubted what was told and taught to him in the past - He was protestant and a skeptic of traditional religious attitudes - Believed their should be religious tolerance - He said having many religions different religions would benefit individual states. - Historical and Critical Dictionary o Attacked traditional religious practices and biblical heroes o Undermined biblical hero King David as a treacherous, cruel, and evil man. James Cooks Travels - Account of his journeys around the world - Made people curious about traveling - People start to accept other cultures John Locke - Lockes theory of knowledge especially influenced the philosophers. - Tabula Rosa means blank mind o Mentioned in his Essay Concerning Human Understanding Locke said we are born with a blank mind and that our knowledge is derived from our environment Essay Concerning Human Understanding - Lockes work in which we learn that our knowledge is derived from our environment

Ways to receive knowledge o Through our environment and through the use of reason - Ways we cant receiver knowledge o Through faith or heredity - Locke states that our mind and body are one in the same Philosophes: - French term given to the intellectuals of the enlightenment - Not all philosophes were French though, and few were actually philosophers - They were literary people, professors, journalist, statesmen, economists, political scientists, and above all, social reformers. Montesquieu: - Part of the French nobility - Attacked traditional religions, used reason, and was in favor of religious toleration - Criticized catholic church and the French monarch in his work Persian Letters - Most of all, he influenced American philosophers such as Ben Franklin and John Adams - The Spirit of the Laws o Attempted to apply scientific method to the social and political arena o Emphasized the 3 types of government Republics, monarchs, and despotism Despotism: government controls the state through the use of fear Voltaire: - Frenchman - Greatest figure of the enlightenment - Well know for his ideas on religious toleration and criticism of traditional churches - Philosophic letters on the English o Expressed his admiration of English life - Treatise on Toleration o Stated that religious tolerance hadnt caused any problems in England or in Holland so the French should adopt this concept Deism: - Championed by Voltaire - Religious outlook shared by most philosophes - Stated that God created the world but then left it alone and has no part in what happens in it - Built upon the Newtonian world machine concept Diderot: - Frenchman - Condemned Christianity as fanatical and unreasonable - Of all religions, he believed Christianity was the worst - Encyclopedia o Also know as Classified Dictionary of the Sciences, Arts, and Trades o Criticized old French society

o Other philosophers contributed their opinions in this encyclopedia and overall, it attacked religious superstition and said that there needed to be religious toleration o It helped spread Enlightenment ideas even further o Also influenced professional individuals (Ex. Doctors, Professors, etc.) The Science of Man - What we would call Social Sciences - Philosophers developed natural laws that they believed governed human actions - Incorporating of all aspects of life together David Hume: - Strong believer of the science of man - Hume has been called a pioneering social scientist - Treatise on Human Nature o Written so people could better understand humans and the human mind o Stated that careful examination of the experiences that constituted human life would lead to the knowledge of human nature that would make this science of man possible Physiocrats: - Have been viewed as founders of the modern discipline of economics - The leader was Francois Quesnay Francois Quesnay: - He and the rest of the Physiocrats claimed they would discover the natural economic laws that governed human society - Their first and most important principle was that land constituted the only source of wealth and that wealth could only be increased by agriculture of this land - They believed that the government should only tax the people based on land and nothing else - Also that government should not interfere with any individuals pursuit of their own economic self-interest - Came up with the phrase, laissez-faire which means let people do as they chose Adam Smith: - Made the best example statement of laissez-faire in The Wealth of Nations - The Wealth of Nations o In 3 basic principals of economics, Smith presents a strong attack on mercantilism o Supported free trade no government involvement in the economy Baron dHolbach: - A wealthy German aristocrat - Settled in Paris - Was an atheist and materialistic man - System of Nature

o He argued that everything in the universe consisted of matter in motion o All people need to live in this world is reason Marie-Jean de Condorcet: - A Frenchman who was a victim of the turmoil of the French Revolution - Wrote The Progress of the Human Mind in which he made an exaggerated claim for progress. o Stated that human beings had been going through different stages since the beginning of timestarting at stage 1 o He claimed that the Enlightenment was the 10th and final stage of human development and that they had achieved perfection Jean-Jacques Rousseau - Frenchman who was the most critical or his predecessors - Attended school after receiving money from his role as a paid lover of an older woman - Liked to be alone - 3 major works - Discourse on the Origins of the Inequality of Mankind o Talks about how humans, in their most primitive stage, were so happy and discusses what went wrong and why there is no going back to living in the woods amongst the animals o Government was evil, but was necessary - The Social Contract o Tried to harmonize individual liberties with government authority o Everybody was in charge of making laws and this duty could never be delegated to a parliamentary institution - Emile o One of the Enlightenments most important works on education o Education should foster rather than restrict childrens natural instincts o Start with sense learning then move on to formal education and finally spiritual education which is the highest form of learning Mary Astell - Daughter of a wealthy English coal merchant - A Serious Proposal to the Ladies o Argued that woman need to become better educated - Some Reflections upon Marriage o Argued for womens equality, at least in a marriage Mary Wollstonecraft - English writer whose work was the strongest statement for womens rights - Viewed by many as the founder of modern European feminism - Vindication of the Rights of Women o The subjection of women to men was equally as wrong as the subjection of slaw to their slave owners o Woman should have same rights as men in education as well as in economic and political life

Coffeehouses, Cafes, Reading Clubs, and Public Lending Libraries - Established by the state - Gatherings were held at these places - Secret Societies Developed at these places o Most famous- the Freemasons o Freemasons were sympathetic to the ideas of the philosophers Salons - Elegant drawing rooms in the urban houses of the wealthy where invited philosophers and guests would engage in conversations that often centered around the ideas of the philosophers - Ran by woman Marie-Therese de Geoffrin - A wealthy middleclass widow - The authors of the Encyclopedia were threatened by other people in the state so - Welcomed the authors of the Encyclopedia into her salon and offered them financial assistance to complete their work in secret Newspapers - First ones were printed in London - Relatively cheap and filled with news and special features Libraries - Offered books for rent - Through the libraries developments, books received wider circulation Cesare Beccaria - Italian philosopher - Made the most notable effort on the topic of crime and punishment which he addressed in his writing - On Crime and Punishments o Argued that punishments should serve only as deterrents, not as exercises of brutality o Opposed capital punishment o In favor of imprisonment Carnival - Celebrated in the weeks leading up to lent in Spain, Italy, France, Germany, and Austria - Excessive eating and drinking as well as intense sexual activity - Particularly related to the lower class John Wesley - An ordained Anglican minister (was English) - He experienced a deep spiritual crisis and underwent a mystical experience - Shared his experience with the English people - Faced Opposition from the Anglican church Methodism - Founded by Wesley - Methodists helped each other do good works that Wesley considered a component of salvation

Wesley wanted to keep Methodism part of the Anglican church but after his death, it became a separate and independent group