& Ha#F

K. Giridhar

rf,:w:,;s ard Radar

Microwave Diodes Transferred Electron Devices

:i-,:upersCri pt ::.;! :Sapplied :;i .i--the thin rc":: :enefated

li:.: l,lllafd p+

regionwith a constant velocity'Do'of about107cm/sec siliconreaddiode.Thefield remains for constantat about5 KV/cm throughoutthe spacechargeregion.The transit-timefor holesin drift regionof lengthL is given by

i space-charge
:-: ;:!ri e cavity,

,=L d D
The avalanche multiplicationfactoris givenby M where
I

.....( 3.6)

:-,: .rpedance 9:"-p o \ \ ' e r b y

1- (v/vo)"

.....( 3.7)

V = appliedvoltage VD avalanche .= breakdownvoltage

r\/ r - Pnltn . lE-"^lt
I v,l

where

' D'

.....( 3.8)

n = variesfrom 3 to 6 for siliconwhichdepends dopingof n*pjunction on = resistivityof semiconductor pn Fn = electronmobility e. = dielectricconstant semiconductor of E_u* = maximum electricfield intensity at breakdown 3.8 IMPATTDIODE Impatt diodes are manufactured having different forms such as n*pip*, p+nin*,p*nn* abruptjunction and p* i n* diodeconfiguration. The materialusedfor manufaitureof these diodesareeitherGermanium, Silicon,GalliumArsenide (GaAs)or Indium phosphide p). (In Out of these materials, highest efficiency, higheroperating frequency lowernoiseis obtained and with GaAs'But the disadvantage GaAsis complexfabrication with process hence and higher cost.Figure3.10 showsa reverse biasedn* pi p* diodewith electricfield variation,doping concentration versus distance plot, the microwave voltageswing andthe cuffentvariation. Principle of operation Whena reverse biasvoltageexceeding breakdown the voltageis applied, high electric a field appears across n+p junction.This high field intensityimpartssufficientenergy the the to holesandalsoto valence electrons raisethemselves theconduction to into band.This results in avalanche multiplicationof hole-electron pairs.With suitabledopingprofile design,it is possible makeelectricfield to havea very sharppeakin the closeuicinity of thejunction to resultingin "impact avalanchemultiplication". This is a cumulative protessresultingin rapidincrease ofcarrier density. preventthe diodefrom burning,a constant To biassource is used to maintainaverage cuffent at safe limit Io. The diode currentis contributed the by conduction electrons whichmoveto then* regionind theassociated holeswhichdrift throush

----*I

-__-*

JI--l

3{::t- than the

-t --:- . -h the

: - -:.rJtion as : :- ihis high r ,: :o the p+

.._-*

B*
Microwaves and Radar llicrowave Dio&lii

lower but steadyelectricfield' i-spacechargeregionto the p* region,undertheinfluenceof a The drift time is given bY

t 'o=%
the drift region' whereVo is the drift velocity of the holesand 'l' is the length of

" "1(:'q)

tI
I
I

thesteadyfid ofQ influence very small, cd D{ avalanche. and the osciQ field, the hob4 zeto. During { circuit whichi corresPonrlin phaseshift H fci resistance angle0 givell Combii

Electric Field

Voltage Swing

(v*)

:3

+ I I
Doping concentration

The rer{ high power{ '{

&

CONSTRT
IhId lr

'{ I -

---{

""1",
i
16r,12412a1

jg*,"-al Elecron currentI"(t)

,11

\TNN
f\\U

-tr

*1
\\
\.

RNN
t\\\\ I\\\T
N\\\t

tTnmrrt
]TTIJIII.4

Figrrre 3.10 : IMPATT diode doping prohle and operation

OF MECHANISM OSCILLATIONS wlgn a biased at components varyingamplitudes' frequency of Noiseconsists various at spikecantriggeroscillations a any a resonatolthen noisevoltage di"d;;;";;Jil;" by are ofth" t"tonut* Th"t" oscillations sustained frequency to equal theresonant frequency

nl

FigureS simplified q

t|es and Radar

MicrowaveDiodes- TransferredElectronDevices

lec-.nc field.

.....(:.q)

thesteady field anda.c.field. Thediodeswingsinto andout of avalanche conditions underthe influence thatreverse of biassteady field andthea.c.field. Dueto thedrift time of holesbeing very small,carriers drift to theendcontacts beforethe a.c.voltageswingsthediodeout of the avalanche. to buildingup of oscillations, a.c.field takes Due the energyfrom the appliedbias andthe oscillations microwave at frequencies sustained are across diode.Due to this a.c. the field, the hole currentgrowsexponentially a maximumand againdecayexponentially to to zefo. During this hole drifting process, constant a electroncurrentis inducedin the external circuitwhich starts flowing whenholecurrent reaches peakandcontinues half cycle(t) its for corresponding negativeswing of the a.c. voltageas shownin figure 3.10. Thus a 1800 to phaseshift betweenthe externalcurrentand a.c. microwavevoltageprovidesa negative resistance sustained for oscillations. maximumnesative The resistance occursat drift transit givenby angle0 ( 0 = (ot o = ? r ..... 3.10) (3.9)and(3.10), get Combining equations we o/ =t vo 2nfl = tt Uo-

t = Y ;t

( . .. . . 3 . 1 1 )

The resonator usuallytunedto this frequency that the IMPATT diodesprovide a is so high powercontinuous wave (CW) andpulsedmicrowavesignals. CONSTRUCTION AND EQUIVALENT CIRCUIT
Gold ribbon Copper stud Alumina GaAs chip Multi-section Quarter-wave Transformer

Figure 3.11 : (a) IMPATT diode construction (b) Equivalent circuit of IMPATT diode

fhen a biased cillationsat a by l sustained

Figure3.11(a) showstheconstructional details IMPATTdiodeandfigure3.11(b), the of simplifiedequivalent circuit of IMPAIT diode.The resistance is the combined R, resistance

_.,.;:i l

Microwavesand Radar

of series resistance thediodenegative and resistance. capacitance The C,represents junction the capacitance, the package Lo lead inductance and Co the package capa"citance. The diodemountis so designed by controllingthepackage that leadinductance total the reactance theentirecircuitis madezetoatresonance. resonance, powerdissipated of At the in thepositivercsistance compensated thepowerin thea.c.field. For achieving condition is by this the total resistance mustbe zero. The diodechip impedance given by is

E r a m p l r3

ZJ.=-l R .l + , L,
If the load impedance then

^
j to C i

(3.r2) ....

Z r=R r+j X , Zr = -Zi

= R ,+ jX, l\l-# =l\l+-!

Equatingreal and imaginaryparts

Rr = l\l
and

( .... 3.13) ( .... 3.14)

Solution: F:-: "

x L=oq

The resistance is dependent both biasand signalcurrents. R, on Hencefor a given bias andloadimpedance, oscillations obtained dustained are whenlR;l= RL.The powerdissipated in the load is determined from the peak RF current.Figure 3.11 (b) showsa multisection quarterwave transformerfor impedancematchingbetweendiode circuit and load. This transformer requiredbecause total negativeresistance the circuit will be very low of is the in the orderof a few ohms Example 3.2 : An IMPATT diode has a drift length of 2 pm. If the basic semi conductor materialis silicon for which the drift velocity is 107 cm/sec,determine(a) the drift time of the carriers,(b) the nominal frequencyof the IMPAT:I diode. So lu ti on :Given, a=107cm/sec, t m, (a ) t o -? @)f = ? V l=2l (a) The drift time to of the carriers given by is
i -== 'd - V

:-

i -

2x10- 6
l0-7x10-2

Na=2x10-llsec (b) The nominal frequency is given by equation (3.11)as

i --:

,r.L

rI

vo
--

2 t2 x2x10 -6 f = 25G}Jz

x 107 10-2

F:?1at'es and Radar

LlicrowaveDiodes - TransferredElectronDevices

225

tar.- thejunction nlc:mce the total n:: Cissipated in -,his m,E condition

Example3.3 : An IMPATT diodehasthe following parameters: Carrier drift velocity Vo = Drift regionlength/ = Maximum operating voltage = Maximum operating biascurrent = 2 x I07 cm/sec 10 pm 100volts

(3.r2) ....

60 m Amps. = 0.42pF Junctioncapacitance C: Package leadinductance = 0.6 nH Lo Package capacitance = 0.25pF C, RF peak.uo"ni = 700 m Amps. Diode JunctionResistance = -Z.S O \ (a) Nominal frequency Find (b) resonant freqlrency oscillations of (c) efficiency

. . . (3.1 3 ) . (3.r4) ....

t":r . eiven bias n,;;r ,Jissipated r ; ::l'.:ltisection r::: ioad. This ! !e i ery'low of *e:l conductor &:: rime of the

Solution: (a) From equation (3.11),the nominalfrequency given by is

r = 3 - ? xlg ? x1 0 ]= r o GHz
21 2 x l0 x 1 0 -o (b) At nominal frequencyof 10 GHz, we have olo = 2nf Lr=2nx 10 x 10e 0.6x l0-e x = 37.7{2

C,givenbf "

= rrl C p R L r Col\l= Znf Cel\l = 2nx 10x 10e 0.25 IVtz x2.5 x x = 0.039f) Sinceto LD>> tDCoR' theexact resonant frequency ' depends thecombination L_ on of v L
,-

'- zrltrn
I

2", , [ f f i
f = 10.03 GHz
(c) The outputrms poweris calculated as current / RF peat< \2 P^ = | ---/^ - | (loadresistance) '\'1 2 )

210

Microwavesand Radar

I |

^/ -

. Jit at = ^

-r

(toox 1o-, )'

t-----F-|

\J2)
.D

(2.5) since = lRf R,

watts ' 0 - 0.6125 Thed'c' inputpower= Pin (Maximum = operating voltage) (maximum x operating current) bias = (100)(60 x 10r) = 6 watts Efficiencyn = 3 r in xt{|To

0.612s x 100 %o Vorl = 10.21 Vo Applications of IMPATT Diodes (i) Usedin the final power stage of solid statemicrowave transmitters communication for purpose. (ii) Usedin rhetransmirter TV of system. (iii) Usedin FDM/TDM sysrems. (iv) used as a microwavesource in raboratory measurement for pulposes. 3.9 TRAPATT DIODES silicon is usuallyused themanufacture for of TRAPATTdiodes havea configuration and of p* nn* as shownin figure 3.r2. Thep-N junction is reverse biased beyondthe breakdown region'sothatthecurrentdensity larger. is This decreases electricfield in thespace the charge region and increases carriertrans=it the time. Due to this, the frequencyof operation gets loweredto lessthan 10 GHz. But the efficiencygetsincreased to lorv power due dissipation. Insidea co-axialresonator, TRAPATT the diodeis normallymountedat a point where maximumRF voltageswingis obtained. when thecombined biasandRF voltage dc exceeds breakdown voltage, avalanche occurs a plasma holesandelectrons and of aregenerated which getstrapped. when theexternal circuitcuffentfl9*,r, thevoltage risesand,n",rupp"l!ffi; getsreleased producing current pulseacross drift space. totat the ttre transittime is thesumof thedrift time andthedelayintroduced by th3release thetrapped of plasma. Due to thislonger transit time'theoperating frequency limitedto 10GHz.Because is thecurrentpulse associated is with low voltage, powerdissipation the is row resulting rniigh", efficiency. Thedisadvantages TRAPATTarehigh of noise figureunJg"ne.ation strong of harmonics due to shortdurationof the cuffentpulse. diodefinds application s-bandpulsed in transmitersfor pulsed array radar ,rrr"ffilt*T

3.10

I 3 A i , es and Rad a r

MicrowaveDiodes - Transferred ElectronDevlces

227

:.9 :tas cunent)

Voltage, V Cunent, I

Figure 3.12: TRApATT diode

lf--llunication

:r:::-guration e ::33kdown i:;,e Charge E:.1:tOngets ::-::rpatiOn. :'- -nt where :3:: eKceeds 3r;t3d rvhich l:eJ plasma :,i:h3 SUm of r rhis longer :-.a-ssociated I harmonics array radar

3.10 BARITT DEVIES(BARRIER INJECTIONTRANSITTTME DEVICES) BARITT devicesarean improved versionof IMpATT devices. IMpArr devicesemploy impactionizationtechniques *tti"h is too noisy.Hencein orderto achieve low noisefigures, impact ionizationis avoidedin BARRITT devices. rt. injectionis providedby punch-through the intermediate of region.(depletion,egion;. The process -l""r1y is tasically of lower noisethanimpactionization *rpr"]9F f"^t i" anIMpATT. Thenegative obtained account iire drift of @;;j..ri"n on or the injeciJJr,ot"sto the collectorend of the ;:;HA:s Figure 3'13 showsthe construction of a BARITT deviceconsistingof emitter,base, intermediate drift or depleted or regionandcoilector. An requirement theBARITT for device is thereforethat the int"ti-t"oiaie "rr.ntiul drift region ue .ntLty depletedto causepunchtheemitter-base junction *itttout causing avalanche breakdown thebase-collecror of ilr:"lr-"T
ForwardBias

Figure 3.13: BARITT Diodeand electricfield distribution.

r
228 Microwavesand Badar

arelow poweroutput& rerativery narrowbandwidth. 3.11 VARACTORDIODE

gain been pri Ivued ampers er ;, **ilfi dB have obtained. are BARrrrs mari s for Iifi rath,n ilffi,liiT:;rTi,"Ii:,:,*:.;;G"4";;l*,15 :# J:"#,:T:.""?i?:Tf; disadvantages ,lf+ilffi:

The efficiencvof BARITTs are lower thanIMPATTsbut the noise performance better. is

genera,t"l'i,,?lilll"||;li"llil,llltli; widely useddevices at oi devices. -i.ror"uuJ.".nr.onou.tor Operation

Any semiconductor diodehasa junctioncapacitance varyingwith reverse diodehasmicrowavecharacteristicsin"n bias.If sucha it becomes varactor a diode. with a reverse bias'thejunction is depleted of mobilecarries resurting a capacitance in i'e'' the diodebehaves a capacitance as wiih tne3un.tionu"rrngu. a dierectric two conducting between the materials' The width of the o"pr"tion iut". rn increases with reverse capacitance bias decreases dr" r"u"rse bias ut in.reo."s as shown in figure 3.14(b) \o^'n" o tn" avalanche regionis neverusedas it is Iikery l"'t.j ;,,l' to destroythe device.
Fl

Iow ampliriers noise (parametric ampririers), purse

varactors (variable-capacitor) havenonJinearity capacitance of which is fastenough follow microwaves' to varactor dioo" ir u *.iconductor di"dJ; whichthejunctioncapacitance canbe variedas a functionof reverse uotrug"of the di;;. i;rres in this non_linear will be.almostnegligible.Varactor element iioJ., are usedas harmo

',..
*, , : -"j

_--*tr_| :,l -i^: r-ii-]-

-: _-_
t. I

i^1-

Charac '-::
,!:--,

Co -+ thejunction

Saturated

nce under no biascondition.

E q u i ra I
n _i:

:i.
:

(a) Figure 3.14 : (a) I-V characteristics

(b) (cl (b) Capacitance variation with bias (c) Biasingof p-n junction
rPl rl _:

Varactor Construction diodeencapsulation contains electricalleadsattached the semiconductor , th. to anda low lossceramic wafer case shownin figure3.15. as

-.JLiL-

-.J _ i-_--

n:\i: , as and Radar

MicrowaveDiodes - TransferredElectronDevices

:-:",--e better. is are "E -RITTS :-:. Themajor

Gold plated molybdenum stud

tO i ::): enough ::: -3pacitance ---:::.1r element -:-: lnversion, r.-_: They are

Gold-plated wlre

5.3 mm

CeramicTube

Figure 3.15: Varactor construction

e:

'.Ifsucha

: . ::lacitance :: ::irt'eenthe '.:: ::'' efSebiaS -- : -r: 3.14(b) :; ---e.

They Diffusedjunction mesasilicondiodesarewidely usedat microwavefrequencies. Theyhaverelative voltages. breakdown powerandlargereverse large of arecapable handling limit of Si rangeupto 25 and of independence ambienttemperature low noise.Frequency frequency(over 90 (GaAs)have high operating madeof gallium arsenide GHz. Varactors techniques the However manufacturing at functioning thelowesttemperature. GHz) andbetter for areeasier silicon. Characteristics and Requirements point to a point just above saturation the are Varactors normallyusedbetween reverse voltageswingarelimited to variationandthe reverse region.The capacitance the avalanche above. regionmentioned the between operating Equivalent Circuit of Varactor Diode waferis shownin figure 3.16(a)consisting circuit of the semiconductor The equivalent of, (function applied voltage) of capacitance C, e Junction (functionof appliedbias) n., Junctionresistance of -+ includingbulk resistance the resistance & R, - Series leads of wafer andresistance ohmic electrical (functionof appliedbias) junction resistance At microwave frequencies, to as R, (= 10 MQ) is neglected compared the capacitive re!actance. resistances add of Encapsulation thevaractor parasitic wafer. to and reactances the semiconductor
RJ

p-n junction

: Figure 3.16(a) Wafer Equivalentcircuit

,:-iuctor wafer

230

Microwavesand Radar

Microwane I

C"J

cr +
\- > \

Capacitance ceramiccase of Fringingcapacitance Lead inductance \ tt # at microwavefrequencies.

I

is neglected as

Figure 3.16(b): EquivalentCircuit and Encapsulated VaractorDiode

The parasiticsshouldbe kept as low as possible.The equivalentcircuit depends the on type of encapsulation and mounting make. For many applications,there shouid be a large capacitance variation,small value of minimum capacitance seriesresistance and R". The cut off frequencyat a specifiedbias (V) is given by

" (r) t."= [z"np"J

f" for silicon diodesrangeupto 250 GHzandfor Gallium Arsenidediodesupto 900 GHz. Operationis normally limited to f./10 125GHzfor Si and 90 GHz for GaAsl. Frequency of operationbeyond (f"/10) leads to increasein R,, decrease efficiency and increasein in noise. 3.12 PARAMETRICAMPLIFIERS The parametricamplifier is an amplifier using a device whose reactance varied to is produceamplification.Varactordiode is the most widely usedactiveelementin a parametric amplifier. It is a low noise amplifier because resistance involved in the amplifying no is process.There will be no thermal noise, as the active element used involved is reactive (capacitive).Amplification is obtainedif the reactance varied electronicallyin some is predetermined fashion. Due to the advantage low noise amplification,parametricamplifiers are extensively of usedin systems suchaslong rangeradars,satellitegroundstations, radio telescopes, artificial satellites,microwavegroundcommunicationstations,radio astronomyetc. Basic Parametric Amplifier A conventionalamplifier usesa variableresistance and a d.c. power supply.For a parametricamplifier, a variablereactance an ac power supply are needed. and Pumpingsignal at frequencyfn and a small amplitudesignal at frequency are applied { simultaneously the device(varacior).The pump sourcesuppliesenergyto the jignal (at the to signal frequency) resulting in amplification. This occurs at the active device where the capacitivereactance variesat the pump frequency.

T"he peali a.:$ sigral trEl

One 1 Omti :hru trequen{lr

uf ulr f -

rf f I

u..:s and Radar

MicrowaveDiodes - TransferredElectronDevices

{
>. 1

--+ Signal input voltage

.+
-

/\

Kt

at --r- (- ,
I

i
together

-f-r

-*Pumping r!,{ Circuit and cldu Diode

voltage

PlatesApart

ftnds on the m :e a large ER..

-)

Output voltagebuildup

..(3.15) r: 900GHz. l. Frequency I ;ncrease in

Parametricamplifi cation with squarewave pumping.

Figure 3.17 : parametric Amprification with Square wave pumping

i; i aried to r Psrametric : rnplifying I rs reactive llr in some e.\rensively e:. artificial

f."q11:v is fo,rhesignal frequencyr.,itren is ior",rrJqu"nff f, _ fo_ ^ i, t If f. = f then

it is calledDegenerate , amplifier and if f, * f , thenit is non-degenerate amplifier.

The voltageacross varactor increased thepumping the is by signalat eachsignalvoltage peakasshownabovei'e., energy takenfrom is thepu-p ro*"" andadded thesignalat the to signalfrequency' With an input circuit and loadconnected, amplification results. amplifier is the most commonly used parametricamplifier. ' One port non-degenerate only threefrequencies areinvolvea- tn" pump,the signalandtheidler frequencies. If pump

ppiy. For a are applied ignal(at the $'herethe

Figure 3.18: Simplified BasicAmplifier Circuit

Microwaves and Radar

l,'l:crou;a,.'e :-t I

L, C, -+ tunedcircuit at signalfrequencyf L, C, -+ tunedcircuit at idler frequency (Rump f, frequency tunedcircuit is not shown). The output can be takenat idler frequencyf,. Gainis possible with this typeof amplifier.Because pumpsource the givesmoreenergy to the tankcircuit thanit takesout on an averase.

Equ.'"::
,LtilC ^^,, PLt\1 --. ::

rnto th: :-:-

G ain=*=T

( ......3.16)

In non-degenerate usuallyf, > f, resultingin gain.The idler circuit permitsenergy type, to be takenfrom the pump source. This energyis converted into signalfrequency and idler frequencyenergyand amplified output can be obtainedat either frequency. MANLEY-ROWE RELATIONS For the determinationof maximum gain of the parametricamplifier, a set of power conservation relations knownas(6Manley-Rowet' relations quiteuseful. are Figure3.19shows
.]':..:I

::- J U 3 :.-.1--...---i1! J, -: *

, ....': .
Jjg

r:

Figure 3.19: Illustrating Manley-RoweRelations

two sinusoidal signalsfo and{ appliedacross lossless a time varyingnon-linear capacitance C, (tl. et the outputof this varyingcapacitance, harmonics the two frequencies andf are of fo generated. Theseharmonicsare separated using band-pass filters having very narrow bandwidth. The power at theseharmonic frequencies dissipatedin the respectiveresistiveloads as are shownin figure3.19. From the law of conservation energy,we have of

", - :

-- a

ii
^u-nt|onf,

-nt'" -=o + mfo

ffi P *

(3 ..... .17)
-r

1T

,3 "Z"t;;4

in

=o

(3 ..... .18)

whereP_n = average power at the output frequencies *

l("f.+ mfe)i

tes

and Radar

Microwave Diodes- Transferred Electron Devices

oot shown). llore energy

When unuurronr. Equation(3.I7)relaticjns called"Manley-Rowe"powerconservation are powerwill flow In thepoweris supplied thetwo generators, P,nn positive. this case, then is by into the non-linear If capacitance. it is the otherway,thenP.n is negative.

-_. . ( . . 1 6 ) .3 rrnits energy 11'and idler

rt of power r3.19shows
a

Figure 3.20: Illustrating output power flow at only sum frequency

let whenthepoweroutputflow is allowedat thesum As an example, us consider case the beingopen harmonics frequency * t only as shownin figure 3.20,with all the remaining f" 'n' cantakeon falues -1, 0 and 'm' circuited. With the aboverestructions, quantities and the (3.17)anO(l.tS; become 1 eachrespectively. With thesevaluesof 'm' and 'n', equations

=o ?.4ft
o

(3.1e) .....

,& & and0,+fri' = 0 ,,

....(3.20)

r capacitance rf psandf are r bandwidth. dve loads as

vs wherePo, = Power suppliedby generator at freqdency! vo P,d = Power suppliedby generator at frequencyfo into the P,, = Power output flowing from the non-linearcapacitance resistive load at sum frequencyfo + fr. negative. positive,whereas is considered P,, The powersPn,andP,oareconsidered delivered capacitor .'. The powergain definedasthe poweroutputfrom the non-linear to the load at sum frequencyto that power receivedby it at a frequencyf, is given by

( .. . .. 3 . 1 7 )

Go=

P,,

f" + f"

#=T

(formodulator)

(3.2r) .....

( .. . .. 3 . 1 8 )

Thus the power gain is the ratio of output to input frequency.This type of parametric deviceis called"sum-frequency parametric amplifier" or "up-converter". is is On the otherhand,if the signalfrequency fo + { andoutputfrequency {, then

,)

c. =

(fordemodulator)

(3.22) .....

Microwaves and Radar

Itkngrorl

This type of parametricdevicewill now be called '6parametric down-conyerter,, and the power gain becomes power attenuation. PIN DIODE AND tTS APPLICATIONS The PIN diodeis a p-type,intrinsic,n-type diodeconsisting a narrowlayerof p-type of semiconductor u narro*luyer of n-type and semiconductor, with a thicker region of intrinsic n-doped 3.13

h fr
Jr'estr d nUS;:g fi :roc. mp

naauemr

[Jr:tl l?ltlv

semiconductoi material sandwiched between asshown ttre,ir in

Metallic contact

Silicon is the semiconductor normally used N- type b::uu:: of its power handlingcapability silicon and it offershighresistivityfor theinirinsicregi,on. Intrinsic silicon But, (slightly N-doped) now-a-days GalliumArsenide(GaAs)is ilso being P+ype used.As shownin figure 3.21, metallayers are silicon attachedfor contact purposes. mainappiications Metallic contact Its arein microwaveswitchingand moduiation. Figure 3.21 : P-I-N Diode construction PIN diodeactsas a moreor lessordinary diodeat frequencies upto about100MHz. At high frequencies, ceases rectify and it to thenactsasa uuriufi. resistance with an equivalent circuitshownin figure(3'22)anda iesistance-voltage characteristics shown figure(3.23). as in In the equivalentcilcujt, Lo and co represent the packageinductanceand capacitance respectively' is thebulk seiliconduttor R. layerandcontact rEsistance. andc, represent R, the respective junction resistance capacitance and of the intrinsiclayer.wtien the'biasis varied on the PIN diode,its microwau",.rirtun"e.R changes from a typical valueof 6 Ka under negative biasto perhaps Q whenthe biasis 5 u"rrro*n in figure (3.23).Thus, the fositiv"e if diodeis mounted across 50 c2co-axialline, it ril noi rig"ificuntty a load this line whenit is back-biased' thatthe powerflow will not so be interfered iuith. Ho*"ver, if thediodeis now forwardbiased, resistance its dropssignificantly 5e, so thai mostof thepower to is reflected and hardlyany is transmitted; di;e is th; acringas a switch.

rcl

Idee! in the OFF ON stater Similar!1',I Because d diode can I cannotmd

Forrr behaveaso shownin d

+v
Figwe3.22: FIN Diodeequivalentcircuit Figure 3.23: Resistance variation with bias voltage

APPLICATION OF PIN DIODE AS SINGLE-POLE SWITCH A PIN diodecanbe usedin eithera series or.ashuntconfiguration form a single-pole, to single-throwRF switch.These circuitsareshownin figure z i+ioand (b) with biasnetworks.

rves

and Radar

Microwave Diodes- Transferred Electron Devices

rverterrt and

D''erof p-type m of intrinsic as shown in

E I

In the seriesconfigurationof figure 3.24(a),theswitch is ON when the diode is forward biased OFFwhenit is reverse and biased. But, in shunt configuration figure3.24(b),forward of biasingthediode"cuts-off'thetransmission reverse and biasingthediodeensures transmission from input to output. The DC blocks should have a very low impedanceat RF operating frequencyand RF chokeinductorsshouldhavevery high RF impedance.
BIAS BIAS

L silicon f !,i{oped)
I

nr(rrrgti6n

l(D MHz. At Il equivalent figure (3.23). I capacitance npresent the [as is varied :6 KA under lThus, if the ie whenit is diode is now r is reflected

(a)

Figure 3.24: Single-pole PIN diodeswitches (a) Series conliguration (b) Shuntconfiguration.

Ideally, a switch shouldhavezero insertionloss in the ON stateand infinite attenuation in the OFF state.Realisticswitchingelements, course, of resultin someinsertionloss for the ON stateand finite attenuationfor the OFF statedue to non-zeroforward bias resistance. Similarly, for reversebias shunt capacitoris not infinite & non-zeroinsertion loss results. Because the large breakdownvoltage (= 500 volts) comparedto an ordinary diode, pIN of diode can be biasedat high negativeregion so that large a.c. signal, superimposed d.c. on cannotmakethe deviceforward biased. Forward Bias: When the PIN diode is forward biased,the capacitors C-and C, almost behave opencircuits so that the equivalentcircuit of figure (3.22)can now de simplified as as shown in the figure (3.25) whereRris the total forward resistance the PIN diode given by of

voltage

rsingle-pole, ls networks.

Figure 3.25 : Simplilied equivalent circuit for forr+ard biasedPIN diode.

Rr = Rr+R .'. The diodeimpedance Zoof thePIN diodeis given by - Zr= Rr+jrol,o Zd ....;.(3.24) \ Reversebias: When the PIN diode is reverse biased, capacitance the intrinsic the of layer C, becomes significantandR. will be the equivalent reverse resistance the siniiplified and equivalent circuit for reverse biased PIN diodecanbe constructed shownin nguret[1.26;. as The diodeimpedance zoof thePIN diodeunderreverse bias,is thengiven by .,

Figure 3.26: Simplified equivalentcircuit for reversebiasedpIN diode.

zolz,=.R,*j[rtr-#)
Insertion Loss:Theinsertiaon is givenby .-'. loss Insertion indB= fL = rOros.^[L) loss -''[P t J = where Pr_ actual power delivered theload. to
t.

(3.2s) ......

(3.26) ......

% = incidentpowerappliedto load directlywhen switchis absent. Poa (Vo)2and P, o whereVo is the load voltagewithout switch and V,lt:.". .(Vr)' actualload voltagewhen switchis present. With this,equation (3.26)becomes

IL = l0log*l #' I --\ vt'/

(v \''

.
Asw

In
diodc"

IL= ,Ot*r(;)

(3.27) ......

zo

Refeming the shuntconfiguration figure3.24(b),let the line be terminated Zo so to of is thattheimpedance lookingtowards loadat AA'is Zo.Theimpedance lookingtowards loadside alongwith the switchar BB'ts thengivenby
,7 - 7- LdLo ; e7L7 :: r ,Tddlr .fo .. .7

( ......3.28)
.\

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MicrowaveDiodes - TransferredElectronDevices

237

(3.23) ...... .. . . .(3 . 2 4 ) . I theintrinsic hesirnplified Egure'(3.26).

where

(3.2e) ......
.'. Thetransmission coefficient is givenby T T = l*K= ,-= 22' 22,
Z"+Zo

l*2"- Z'

Z"+Zo

(3.30) ......

Using equation (3.28) in (3.30), we ger /\ .'[ ZoZo )

-l-l .F _ _(2. +2" )
L = ___=r_=_

2zdz"
2ZoZ" + Zo2

toto Zd+ Zo

*' Z" "

(3.2s) ......
or T=

2zo 2 Z o+ 2 "

( ......3.31)

But, from definitionof transmission coefficient we have T, (3.26) ...... Z T-vt- Z o + 2 , z u '-V " -2 Substituting equarion (3.32)in (3.27),weger

(3.32) .....

is absent. ritch and V,

n-= zot.g,,(+*)0"
\ --d ./

( ..... 3.33)

( . .....3 . 2 7 ) rtedis Zoso

rds loadside

In equations (3.32)and (3.33),it is assumed thereis no loss in the that line and in the diode'Equation(3.32)canbe represented an equivalent by circuit asshownin figure (3.27). As seen from thefigure(3.27),thediodeimpedance zoisinshunt with theloadiripedance of zo

t' Y'

Z"

. . . . .(.3 . 2 8 )

Figure3'27 : Equivalentcircuit representing equation(3.32)for shunt configuration.

238

Microwavesand Radar

Erampie

-i'ilun:,:n
Figure 3.28: Equivalentcircuit for seriesconfiguration.

Similarly,for the seriesconfiguration figure 3.24 (a), an equivalent of circuit can be constructed shown in figure 3.28 where the diode impedance is in serieswith the as Zo characteristic impedanceZo..Carrying a similar analysis the seriescircuit, one can out for obtainthe insertionlossas IL=

zots,,(4*)dB

( ..... 3.34)

PIN DIODE AS SPDT SWITCH Single-pole doublethrow (SPDT)actioncanbe obtained usinga pair of PIN diodes by either in seriesconfiguration in shuntconfiguration shown in figure 3.29(a)and (b) or as respectively In the series configuration figure 3.29(a), of when D, is forwardbiasedand D, reverse biased, connection established is between input andoutputI andno outputat OUTPUTII. RF Whenthebiasing (D, conditionis reversed reverse biased D, forwardbiased), and connection is established RF between input and outputII.
Pindiodes

[.

,t" - ,,:...j

<1 rl

"!

DiL -i - - :i

RF

: :

.-.1 i:l'l

Figure 3.29: Circuits for SPDT PlN-diodeSwitches (a) Seriesconfiguration (b) Shunt conliguration

In the shuntconfigurationof figure 3.29(b),when D, is forward biased,it becomes short circuitedthrowingan opencircuit at RF input linejunctiondueto (1./4)section. is reverse Do biasedso that it becomes opencircuit (high impedance state)and connection established is between input andoutputII. WhenD, is reverse RF biasedandDoforwardbiased, connection is established betweenRF input and output I.

res

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Microwave Diodes- Translerred Electron Devices

Example 3.1 : The forward resistance of a shuntmountedPIN diodeis 0.12 e and the R, capacitance theintrinsiclayeris 0.025pF.The shuntmounted of PIN diodeswitchis connected to a transmission of characteristic line impedanceZo=50 O. At a frequency 2.5 GHz, of determinethe insertionloss underreversebias and isolation underforward bias conditions. Solution : GivenRr = 0.12O, Cj = 0.025pF, Zo= 50 gt. From equation (3.33),the insertionrossunderreverse biasis given by ircuit can be des with the ruit, one can [l= where

2o,og,ol+*)*
1 undetreverse bias <oC; I 2 n f C,

Zo= -

.....(3.34)

f PIN diodes D(a) and (b) d D, reverse OUTPUT II. f6connection

(zn)(z.s loe)(o.ozs 1o-r2) x x

= 2.546KQ

x Insertion = 20loe,^ x z's+o ro31so-.|0" loss [z -'" L 2x2.546x10' I

When the PIN diode is forward biased,then Zo = R, = 0.12 C) and the sameequation (3.33)is usedwhich givesisolationin dB given by

+ = Isotation 20toe.^ x o-tz sol " ' ulz 2 x 0 . t Z L l

Isolation = 46.42dB SCHOTTKYBARRIER DIODE Schottkybarrierdiodeis a sophisticated versionof thepoint-contact silicon crystaldiode, whereinthe metal-semiconductor junction so formed is a surfaceratherthan a point contact. The advantage schottkydiodeoverpoint contactcrystaldiodeis theeliminationof minority of carrier flow in the reverse-biased condition of the diode. Due to this elimination of holes, thereis no delay dueto hole-electron recombination (which is present junction diodes)and in hencethe operationis faster.Because largercontactareaof rectifying contact(refer figure of 3.30 (a)), comparedto crystal diode, the forward resistance lower as also noise. Noise is figures as low as 3dB have beenobtainedwith thesediodes.Just like crystaldiodes,the schottkydiodesare also usedin detectionand mixing 3.14

short -omes D. is reverse r established lconnection

240
Microwaves and Radar
fi!icror|art

Rectifying Gold or surface contact Aluminium

Goldor Aluminium /

13. wid l-1. Exg 15. Exd 16" \lid 3.16Pt criri inui t_ - {G

1" In al

(a)
Figure 3.30 : (a) Schottkybarrier diode (b) Its equivarent circuit

ft)

10P t criti 3. -{R I siliq cerri

metal over SiOr.

The construction schottkydiodeis illustrated of in figure 3.30(a). The diodeconsists of n* siliconsubstrate uponrvhicha thin layerof siliconof 2lo3 micron thickness epitaxially is grown' Then a thin insulatinglayer of silicon dioxide is grown thermally.After openinga window throughmaskingprocess' metal-semiconductoijunction a is formedby depositing .' vJ s
'v''rvv

4" ..\xn

Figure3'30 (b) showstheequivalent circuit of theschottkydiodewhich is almostidentical s.'vol with that of crystaldiode.

3.1sQUESTTONS
1' what is "GUNN EFFECT"?with a neatdiagram explainthe constructrual detailsof a GUNN diode. 2. Explainthe differentmodesof operation Gunn of diodes. 3. Give a brief account RWH theory. of 4. with a neatdiagramexprainthe operation of Gunndiodeoscilrator. 5' what areavalanche transit-time devices? How aretheydifferentfrom transferred electron devices? 6. with neatdiagrams explaintheconstruction operation READ diode. and of 7. with neatdiagramsexplain the constructionand operationof IMpATT diode. 8' with neatdiagramsexplain the constructionand operationof TRApATT diode. 9. with neatdiagramsexplain the constructionand operationof BARITT diode. 10' with neatdiagramsexplain the construction and operationof varactordiode. 11. Explainthe operation a basicparametric of amplifierwith square wavepumping. 12' what areMANLEY-ROWE relations? How aretheyusefulin understanding parametric amplifiers?
DefiE!

*{. Thc I

tu d
::"mfl! iefreil

6 Afu
"nFFl

rrld
--:nlllClfl

l *a, e s and Rada r

MicrowaveDiodes - TransferredElectronDevices

z1 |

13. with neatdiagrarns explainthe construction operation pIN diode. and of 14. Explainrheoperation single-pole pIN diode. of switchusing 15. Explainthe operation a SPDTswitchusingpIN of diode. 16' with neatdiagrams explainthe construction operation Schottkybarrierdiode. and of 3.16 P ROB LE MS
4

:c: ,-onsists of s rsepitaxially :::i opening a i'" depositing ::,i stidentical

1' In a Gunndiodeoscillator, electron the drift velocityu,asfbundto be 10scm/sec. the and critical field for GaAs was 3 KV/cm. If the effective length/ is 10 pm, determine the intrinsicfrequency andthe criticalvoltagethat can fo be appliedto the diode. 2' A GaAsGunn diodeoscillatoroperates 8 GHz at with drift velocityof electrgns being 106cm/sec'Determine effectivelengthof the active the region.Also find the requirecl critical voltagefor oscilrations the criticarfield is 3 if KV/cm. 3' An IMPATT diodehasa drift lengthof 2.5 pm. If the basicsemi-conductor materialjs siliconfor which the clrift velocityis 5 x 106 cm./sec, determine the drift time ol tire (a) carriers the nominarfrequency theIMPATT diode. (b) of 4. An IMPATT diodehasthe following parameters Diodejunction resistance R = _2 f,) = Junctioncapacitance C: = 0.2 pF = Breakdown voltage = Vuo= g0 volts Package leadinductance Lo = 0.55nH = Package = capacitance Co= 0.3 pF Bias current = 80 m Amps Determine (a) the exactresonant frequency (b) the average outputpower (c) the average input power (d) the efficiency

.1 details a of

ered electron

--.:;il -

lq_l - .

5' The forwardresistance of a shuntmounted PIN diodeis 0.i5 a andthecapacitance of \ the intrinsic layer is 0.03 pF. The shuntmountedPIIrI diode switch is connected a to transmission line of characteristic impedanceZo = 55 e. At a frequencyof 3 GHz, determine insertion underreverse andisolation the loss bias underforward conditions. bias 6' A shuntmounted PIN diodeswitchis connected a transmission of to line characteristic impedance zn= 60,Q. At a frequency 2 GHz,the insertionloss of and isolationwere found to be 0'12 dB and 48 dB resiectively.Find the forward resistance and the R, capacitance C.

ri:rping. l: parametric