1.

1 Introduction to Electromagnetic Spectrum

The term Spectrum was first introduced in the 17th century to explain
the range of colours observed when white light is passed through a prism.
It was soon applied to other waves like sound waves, electromagnetic
waves etc.
Now it is applied to any signal that can be decomposed into frequency
components.
EM Spectrum refers the range of all possible frequencies of EM
radiations and it extends from low frequencies, used for Radio
Communication to higher end at Gama radiation. Alternatively it covers

wavelengths from thousands of km down to the fraction of the size of an

atom.

The term Microwave usually refers to that part of the EM spectrum which
is covered by wavelength range 1m to 1 cm or in frequency scale 300 MHz to
30 GHz.
Above this frequency the wavelength becomes of the order of mm and is
called Millimetre Wave (30 GHz to 300 GHz).
The term Micro in the Microwave stands for Extremely small in scale
and it includes both the microwave and millimetre wave spectrum i.e., UHF,
SHF and EHF bands.

Table 1.1: Electromagnetic Frequency Band Designation

Frequency Band

Designations

Typical Applications

3 kHz 30 kHz

Very Low Frequency

(VLF)

Navigation & Sonar.

30 kHz 300 kHz

Low Frequency (LF)

Radio beacons & Navigation.

300 kHz 3 MHz

Medium Frequency (MF) AM broadcasting & Coast guard

communication

3 MHz 30 MHz

High Frequency (HF)

30 MHz 300 MHz Very High Frequency

(VHF)

Telephone, Telegraph, FAX, Ship

to coast and ship to aircraft
communication, Shortwave
international broadcasting,
Amateur radio and Citizens band.
Air traffic control, Police,
Television, FM, Taxicab mobile
radio and Navigational aids.

Frequency Band

Designations

300 MHz 3 GHz Ultra High Frequency

(UHF)

3 GHz 30 GHz

Typical Applications
Satellite communication,
Surveillance RADAR, Mobile
communication, Television and
navigational aids.

Super High Frequency Airborne RADAR, Microwave

(SHF)
communication, Mobile
communication and Satellite
communication.

30 GHz 300 GHz Extreme High

Frequency (EHF)

RADAR

300 GHz 6 THz

Far Infra-Red (FIR)

Terahertz time domain

spectroscopy, Terahertz imaging

6 THz 100 THz

Mid Infra-Red (MIR)

Guided missile and Thermal

imaging

Frequency
Band

Designations

Typical Applications

100 THz 400 Near Infra-Red (NIR) Fibre optic telecommunication, Night
THz
vision, Long distance telecommunication
400 THz 750 Visible Light
THz
750 THz 1
PHz

Near Ultra Violet

(NUV)

Optical communication

Optical sensors, UV-ID, Label tracking,

Barcode, Forensic analysis, Drug
detection, Protein analysis, DNA
sequencing, Drug discovery, Medical
imaging of cells, Solid state lighting,
Curing of polymers and printer inks,
Light therapy in medicine and Bug
zappers.

Frequency
Band

Designations

Typical Applications

Extreme ultra violet lithography, Optical

1 PHz 30 PHz Extreme Ultra Violet sensors, Disinfection, Decontamination
(EUV)
of surface and water, UV-ID, Label
tracking, Barcode, Protein analysis,
DNA sequencing and Drug discovery.

30 PHz 3 EHz Soft X-Ray (SX)

3 EHz 30 EHz Hard X-Ray (HX)

> 30 EHz

X-Ray microscopic analysis, X-Ray

crystallography, Medical imaging of
bones, Airport security, Border control,
Astronomy.

Absorption spectroscopy, Scanning

microprobe and Radiotherapy.

Gamma Rays ( - Ray) Container security initiative, Irradiation,

g Gamma-knife surgery and Nuclear
medicine.

Table 1.2: Letter designation of Microwave bands as per as per Radio

Society of Great Britain
Frequency Bands

Frequency Range (GHz)

L
S
C
X
Ku
K
Ka
Q
U
V
E
W
F
D
G
H

12
24
48
8 12
12 18
18 26.5
26.5 40
33 50
40 60
50 75
60 90
75 110
90 140
110 170
140 220
170 260

Table 1.3: Letter designation of microwave bands as per US Navy and

International Telecommunication Union (ITU)
Band

US Navy

L
S

0.390 1.55
1.55 3.90

C
X
Ku

3.90 6.20
6.20 10.90
15.25 17.25

10.90 36.00

Ka
Q
V
W

33.00 36.00
36.00 46.00
46.00 56.00
56.00 100.00

ITU
1.215 1.400
2.300 2.500
2.700 3.700
5.250 5.925
8.500 10.680
13.40 14.00
15.70 17.70
24.05 24.25
24.65 24.75
33.40 36.00
59.00 64.00
76.00 81.00
92.00 100.00

1.2 Characteristics Features of Microwave

Limitations:
Upto around a frequency of 1 GHz, most circuits are designed and
constructed using lumped parameter circuit components.

Above 1 GHz the propagation time of the signal becomes comparable

with the time period of the signal. The lumped parameter circuit
component length also becomes comparable to the wavelength.
This results in a rapid amplitude and phase variation of the signal
with the distance.
The phase difference caused by the interconnection of different
components is also not negligible above 1 GHz.
As a result at high frequencies KCL, KVL and normal voltage
current concepts are not applicable. Instead field theory is required.

Distributed circuit theory

Above 1 GHz the lumped circuit elements are replaced by the
distributed circuit element.
The distributed circuit elements are small transmission line sections

and the are defined over an infinitesimal length.

In this model the connecting wires between different elements are not
perfect conductor.
At high frequencies the distributed circuit model is more accurate
than the lumped element circuit model and also more complex in nature.
The existence of non-uniform current in the branches and non-uniform
voltages at the nodes further complicates the analysis of the circuit.
The use of infinitesimals in distributed circuit model requires the
application of calculus rather than linear algebra.

Challenges in designing microwave sources

The high frequency nature of microwave has also brought the

complexity and challenges in designing microwave active components.
At microwave frequencies the transit time of the carriers through
ordinary low frequency triode and transistors becomes comparable with
the time period of the wave which restricts its operation at these
frequencies.
A number of new principles of operation namely velocity modulation,
interaction of space charge waves with EM field, quantum mechanical
tunnelling, avalanche breakdown and transferred electron techniques etc.

have been employed to generate microwave signals.

Challenges in measurement
At microwave frequencies measurements of voltages and currents are
not possible with a multimeter or any other low frequency circuits.
At microwave frequencies the impedance of the parasitic of the
measurement cables and connectors become large enough and frequently
cross the component values. Thus special cable and connectors are
required.

The meter impedance and capacitance also affect the measurement.

The most common method to do microwave measurement is to measure
the field amplitudes, phase difference and power carried by the waves.
Another very common used method is based on the standing wave
pattern measurement.

1.3 Advantages of Microwave

High bandwidth
Improved gain / directive properties
Reduction in antenna size

Low power requirement

Fading effect and reliability
Transparency property of microwave

1.4 Disadvantages of Microwave

Line of sight propagation
Subject to electromagnetic interference
Affected by bad weather
Costly equipments

1.3 Applications of Microwave

Radio detection and ranging
Terrestrial microwave link

Transmission of many television channels over one link

Satellite communication
Radio astronomy
Linear particle accelerator
Studies on basic properties of materials
Microwave oven
Industry
Medical Science