Antibiotic and Antifungal Use During Pregnancy and Breastfeeding

Detail-Document #250607
This Detail-Document accompanies the related article published in
PHARMACISTS LETTER / PRESCRIBERS LETTER

June 2009 ~ Volume 25 ~ Number 250607
Antibiotic and Antifungal Use During Pregnancy and Breastfeeding

Infections such as urinary tract infection, yeast infection, or upper respiratory infection are not uncommon in pregnant or lactating women. A list of antibiotics/antifungals and their safety profiles when used during pregnancy and lactation are included in the chart below. Overall, the rule of thumb is to avoid drug use during the 1st trimester and choose an older agent with the most fetal data indicating the drug is safe and effective. Keep in mind that all drugs carry some risk during pregnancy. It is important to weigh the risks and benefits before recommending drug use during pregnancy. Additional fetal monitoring may be warranted if exposure to agents of uncertain teratogenic potential has occurred.37 When an antibiotic is used during lactation, regardless of concentration excreted into breast milk, potential problems for the nursing infant include modification of bowel flora, direct effects on the infant (e.g., allergy or sensitization), and interference with the interpretation of culture results if a fever work up is required.1 Keep in mind that antibiotic dosage may need to be adjusted due to the different volume of distribution in pregnant women during different gestation periods when treating a systemic infection.2,11 Please proceed to the end of this document for a list of helpful on-line resources concerning drug use in pregnancy. Abbreviation: AAP=American Academy of Pediatrics; BSA=body surface area; GI=gastrointestinal; IV=intravenous. Drug Pregnancy Use in Pregnancy Use in Lactation Categorya Amikacin D See aminoglycosides See aminoglycosides. Amikacin is excreted into breast milk Studies in patients undergoing elective abortions in the 1st and in low concentrations. 1 2nd trimesters indicate that amikacin distributes to most fetal 1 tissues except the brain and cerebrospinal fluid. Ototoxicity not expected in infant since oral absorption of amikacin is There are no known reports linking the use of amikacin to low.1 congenital defects.1 Aminoglycosides D In a large database review, a total of 38 cases and 42 controls were treated with aminoglycosides. The investigators concluded that there was no detectable teratogenic risk for structural defects for any of the aminoglycoside antibiotics.1 There is a theoretical risk of vestibular and auditory dysfunction associated with aminoglycoside use.9 However, ototoxicity or nephrotoxicity have not been reported (see exceptions below) as an effect of in utero exposure.1,2 Eighth cranial nerve toxicity in the human fetus is well known after exposure to certain aminoglycosides (see kanamycin and streptomycin), and all aminoglycosides could potentially cause this.1 Ototoxicity not expected in infant since oral absorption of aminoglycosides is low.1 U.S./Canadian product labeling recommend against use during breastfeeding.
More. . .
Copyright 2009 by Therapeutic Research Center Pharmacists Letter / Prescribers Letter ~ P.O. Box 8190, Stockton, CA 95208 ~ Phone: 209-472-2240 ~ Fax: 209-472-2249 www.pharmacistsletter.com ~ www.prescribersletter.com
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Drug Amoxicillin
Pregnancy Categorya B
Use in Pregnancy See penicillin derivatives. Amoxicillin has been used as a single 3 g dose for treatment of bacteriuria in pregnancy without causing fetal harm.1 There are no reports linking the use of amphotericin B with congenital defects.1 Amphotericin B crosses the placenta to the fetus.1 In a large database review, none of the nine 1st trimester exposures to amphotericin B showed evidence of adverse fetal effects.1 Amphotericin can be used during pregnancy in patients who will clearly benefit from the drug.1 Evaluate neonate for renal dysfunction & hypokalemia if mother on chronic amphotericin B at delivery.37 See penicillin derivatives. In a large database review, of the 10,011 1st trimester exposures to ampicillin, there was a total of 441 (4.4%) major birth defects observed (426 expected). However these data do not support an association between the drug and the defects.1 No human data; animal data suggest low risk.1 It is best to avoid anidulafungin in pregnancy since there are no human pregnancy data. However, if the womans condition requires it, the benefit probably outweighs the unknown risk.1 If the decision is made to use anidulafungin, the lowest effective dose should be used.1 Per IDSA, use with caution during pregnancy.36 Use not recommended per CDC.37 Limited human data; animal data suggest low risk.1 Animal studies using mice and rats treated with doses up to maternal toxic levels showed no impairment of fertility or harm to the fetus.1
Use in Lactation Excreted into breast milk in low concentrations.1,2 AAP classifies amoxicillin as compatible with breastfeeding.3 No human data. U.S./Canadian product labeling recommends against use of drug while breastfeeding.
Amphotericin B (Abelcet, etc)
Ampicillin
Excreted into breast milk in low concentrations.1
Anidulafungin (Eraxis)
No human data. The effects on a nursing infant are unknown, but dose-related histaminemediated symptoms (rash, urticaria, flushing, pruritus, dyspnea, and hypotension) have been observed in adults receiving IV anidulafungin.1
Azithromycin (Zithromax [U.S.]; generics [Canada])
Limited human data. Accumulates in breast milk. Likely compatible with breastfeeding.1
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Drug Azole antifungals (Topical) (See individual agents)
Pregnancy Categorya Refer to individual agents
Use in Pregnancy Prospective and observational studies involving the use of topical antifungals did not show an increased risk of major malformations with exposure during pregnancy anytime.8 (No human data for topical ketoconazole).1 Topical (vaginal) use of azole antifungals (e.g., clotrimazole, miconazole, terconazole, etc) are considered therapy of choice to treat vaginal yeast infection during pregnancy.19,20 Topical (vaginal) azole therapy should be recommended for 7 days instead of a shorter duration for vaginal yeast infections because of improved treatment success.19,20 No human data; animal data suggest low risk.1 Animal studies with pregnant rats and rabbits administered high IV doses at 15 times the maximum recommended human dose and five times the maximum recommended human dose, respectively, did not produce embryotoxic, fetotoxic, or teratogenic effects.1 No human data. Similar toxicity concerns as that of aminoglycosides (e.g., cranial nerve VIII and renal).1 Two sources state that capreomycin should be avoided during pregnancy due to potential of ototoxicity and deafness. Neither source cited pregnancy data involving capreomycin.1 (Black Box Warning indicates safety in pregnancy unknown.)28 No human data; animal data suggest risk especially if exposure is during 1st trimester.1 If indicated, maternal treatment should avoid the 1st trimester if possible.1 Per IDSA, use with caution during pregnancy.36
Use in Lactation See individual agents.
Aztreonam (Azactam) (U.S. only) B
Capreomycin (Capastat) (U.S. only)
Limited human data. Excreted into breast milk.1 The AAP classifies aztreonam as compatible with breastfeeding.3 Product labeling recommends not breastfeeding during treatment. No human data. Less than 1% is absorbed from an oral dose by the mother; therefore the risk, if any, to a nursing infant appears to be minimal.1
Caspofungin (Cancidas)
No human data. The risk of harm from exposure to caspofungin appears to be low. Monitor infants for signs and symptoms of histamine release (e.g., rash, facial swelling, pruritus, etc) and GI complaints. Excreted into breast milk in low concentrations.1 AAP classifies cefadroxil as compatible with breastfeeding.3 More. . .
Cefadroxil (Duricef [U.S.]; generics [Canada])
See cephalosporins. In a large database review of the 722 exposures to cefadroxil during the 1st trimester, a total of 27 major birth defects were observed (30 expected). However, these data do not support an association between the drug and congenital defects.1
Drug Cephalosporins
Use in Pregnancy Cephalosporins as a class do not appear to cause fetal toxicity and are usually considered safe to use during pregnancy.1 See individual drugs for more information.
Use in Lactation AAP classifies many cephalosporin drugs as compatible with breastfeeding.3 See individual drugs for more information. Excreted into breast milk in low concentrations.1 The AAP classifies cefazolin as compatible with breastfeeding.3 Cefdinir is expected to be excreted into breast milk due to its low molecular weight. However, it was not detected in breast milk after a single 600 mg oral dose.1 The AAP classifies other cephalosporins as compatible with breastfeeding.3 No human data. Cefditoren excretion in breast milk should be expected.1 In most cases, the effects of this exposure will be insignificant.1 The AAP classifies other cephalosporins as compatible with breastfeeding.3 Cefepime is excreted in human milk in very low concentrations.1 The AAP classifies other cephalosporin antibiotics as compatible with breastfeeding.3
Cefazolin (Ancef [U.S.], Kefzol [U.S.]; generics [Canada])
See cephalosporins. Cefazolin 2 g IV every 8 hours has been used in the treatment of pyelonephritis occurring in the second half of pregnancy. No adverse fetal outcomes attributable to cefazolin was observed.1 See cephalosporins. No human data. In pregnant rats, oral doses up to 11 times the human dose based on body surface area were not teratogenic, but decreased fetal weight occurred at doses > 1.1 times the human dose.1
Cefdinir (Omnicef) (U.S. only)
Cefditoren (Spectracef) (U.S. only)
See cephalosporins. No human data. In pregnant rats and rabbits, doses up to about 24 and 4 times, respectively, the human dose of 200 mg twice daily based on BSA were not teratogenic.1
Cefepime (Maxipime)
See cephalosporins. No human data. No adverse effects on fertility or reproduction, including embryo toxicity and teratogenicity, were observed in mice, rats, and rabbits dosed at 1 to 4 times the recommended maximum human daily dose based on BSA.1
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Drug Cefixime (Suprax)
Use in Pregnancy See cephalosporins. In an observational cohort study, cefixime was taken during the 1st trimester in 11 pregnancies. The outcomes of these pregnancies included 2 spontaneous abortions, 1 elective abortion, 7 normal newborns (1 premature), and 1 unknown outcome.1 See cephalosporins. No detectable teratogenic risk with cefotaxime and other cephalosporin antibiotics was found in a large 2001 populationbased, case-control study of pregnant women.4 See cephalosporins. Reproduction studies in rats and monkeys found no evidence of impaired fertility or fetal harm at doses up to 20 times the human dose.1 See cephalosporins. There were no apparent adverse effects noted in newborns exposed to cefoxitin via the transplacental route.1 See cephalosporins. No human data.1 Based on animal reproduction studies, there is no evidence of impaired fertility or reproductive performance (in rats) or embryo toxicity or teratogenicity (in rats and rabbits) at doses up to 2 times the human dose based on BSA.1 See cephalosporins. No human data.1 Reproduction studies found no evidence in animals of impaired fertility or, in mice, rats, and rabbits, of fetal harm at doses of 8.5, 18.5, and 0.8 times, respectively, the maximum human daily dose based on BSA.1 See cephalosporins. Reproduction studies in mice and rats found no evidence of impaired fertility or fetal harm at doses up to 40 times the human dose.1
Use in Lactation

Cefotaxime (Claforan)
Cefotetan (Cefotan) (U.S. only) Cefoxitin (Mefoxin [U.S.]; generics [Canada]) Cefpodoxime (Vantin) (U.S. only)
No human data. Cefixime excretion in breast milk should be expected.1 The AAP classifies other cephalosporin antibiotics as compatible with breastfeeding.3 Cefotaxime is excreted into breast milk in low concentrations.1 The AAP classifies cefotaxime as compatible with breastfeeding.3 Cefotetan is excreted into breast milk in low concentrations.1 The AAP classifies other cephalosporin antibiotics as compatible with breastfeeding.3 Cefoxitin is excreted into breast milk in low concentrations.1 The AAP classifies cefoxitin as compatible with breastfeeding.3
Cefpodoxime is excreted into breast milk in low concentrations.1 The AAP classifies other cephalosporin antibiotics as compatible with breastfeeding.3 U.S./Canadian product labeling recommends against use of drug while breastfeeding.
Cefprozil (Cefzil [U.S.]; generics [Canada])
Cefprozil is excreted into breast milk in low concentrations.1 The AAP classifies cefprozil as compatible with breastfeeding.3
Ceftazidime (Fortaz)
Ceftazidime is excreted into breast milk in low concentrations. The AAP classifies ceftazidime as compatible with breastfeeding.3 More. . .
Drug Ceftibuten (Cedax) (U.S. only) Ceftriaxone (Rocephin [U.S.]; generics [Canada])
Use in Pregnancy See cephalosporins. No detectable teratogenic risk with ceftibuten and other cephalosporin antibiotics was found in a large 2001 populationbased, case-control study of pregnant women.4
See cephalosporins. In a large database review, of the 60 1st trimester exposures to ceftriaxone, 4 (6.7%) major birth defects were observed (3 expected), including 3 cardiovascular defects (1 expected). A possible association between ceftriaxone and cardiovascular defects is suggested, but other factors, such as the mothers disease, concurrent drug use, and chance, may be involved. Other cephalosporin antibiotics from this study have also shown possible associations with congenital malformations.1
Use in Lactation
No human data, but presence of ceftibuten in milk should be expected. The AAP classifies other cephalosporin antibiotics as compatible with breastfeeding.3
Ceftriaxone is excreted into breast milk in low concentrations.1 The AAP classifies ceftriaxone as compatible with breastfeeding.3
Cefuroxime (Ceftin [U.S.]; generics [Canada])
See cephalosporins. In a large database review, of the 143 1st trimester exposures to cefuroxime, there were 3 (2.1%) major birth defects observed (6 expected). These data do not support an association between the drug and congenital defects.1
See cephalosporins. In a large database review, of the 3613 1st trimester exposures to cephalexin, there were 176 (4.9%) major birth defects observed (154 expected). The data for total defects, cardiovascular defects, and oral clefts suggest an association between cephalexin and congenital defects, but other factors, such as the mothers disease, concurrent drug use, and chance, may be involved.1 In another large database review, no teratogenic risk was found to be associated with cephalexin use during pregnancy.4
Cefuroxime is excreted into breast milk in low concentrations.1 The AAP classifies other cephalosporin antibiotics as compatible with breastfeeding.3 Consider withholding breastfeeding per U.S./Canadian product labeling.
Cephalexin (Keflex [U.S.]; generics [Canada])
Cephalexin is excreted into breast milk in low concentrations. The AAP classifies other cephalosporin antibiotics as compatible with breastfeeding.3
Chloramphenicol C
In a large database review, there were 98 1st trimester exposures and 348 anytime exposures to chloramphenicol. There was no evidence to suggest a relationship to large categories of major or minor malformations or to individual defects in either group. There is one report that cardiovascular collapse (gray syndrome) developed in babies delivered from a mother treated with chloramphenicol during the final stage of pregnancy.1 Chloramphenicol should be used with caution at term.1
The AAP classifies chloramphenicol as an agent whose effect on the nursing infant is unknown, but may be of concern because of the potential for idiosyncratic bone marrow suppression.1
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Drug Ciprofloxacin (Cipro [U.S.]; generics [Canada])
Pregnancy Categorya C
Use in Pregnancy See fluoroquinolones. In a large database review, of the 132 1st trimester exposures to ciprofloxacin, there were 3 (2.3%) major birth defects observed (6 expected). These data do not support an association between the drug and congenital defects.1
Use in Lactation See fluoroquinolones. Limited human data; however, the amount of ciprofloxacin in breast milk does not appear to represent a significant risk to a nursing infant.1 The AAP classifies ciprofloxacin as compatible with breastfeeding.3 No human data. Because other macrolides are excreted in breast milk, the passage of clarithromycin into milk should be expected.1 The risk of clarithromycin to the nursing infant is probably minimal, but caution should be exercised until the effects of this exposure, if any, have been studied.1
Clarithromycin (Biaxin [U.S.]; generics [Canada]) C Clarithromycin crosses the human placenta. A large database review reported exposure to clarithromycin during the 1st and 2nd trimesters (n=34) for upper respiratory infections. Among the 29 known pregnancy outcomes (5 were pending), there were 8 (28%) abortions (4 spontaneous/4 voluntary), 20 (69%) normal newborns, and 1 (3%) infant with a 0.5-cm brown mark on the temple. Although follow-up of the remaining newborns had not been long enough to completely exclude the presence of congenital malformations, these outcomes do not appear to be different from those expected in a nonexposed population.1 Toxicity has been observed in animals. Per product labeling, use only if necessary, especially during 1st three months gestation.29,30 In a large database review, of the 556 1st trimester exposures to clavulanic acid, there were 24 (4.3%) major birth defects observed (24 expected).1 No adverse effects in the fetus or newborn attributable to the use of amoxicillin and potassium clavulanate were observed in several studies describing the antibiotic use in pregnant women.1
Clavulanic Acid (amoxicillin-clavulanate [Augmentin]) B
There are no data on potassium clavulanate and nursing women. The effects of potassium clavulanate on the nursing infant are unknown.1
Clindamycin (Cleocin [U.S.]; generics [Canada])
There are no reports linking the use of clindamycin with congenital defects.1 In a large database review, of the 647 1st trimester exposures to clindamycin, there were 31 (4.8%) major birth defects observed (28 expected). These data do not support an association between the drug and congenital defects.1 Avoid vaginal clindamycin in second half of pregnancy.19
Clindamycin is excreted into breast milk.1 The AAP classifies clindamycin as compatible with breastfeeding.3
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Drug Clotrimazole (Topical/Vaginal) (Gyne-Lotrimin, etc. [U.S.]; Canesten, etc. [Canada])
Use in Pregnancy
See azole antifungals. Absorption of clotrimazole from the skin and vagina is minimal, posing little risk to the unborn baby.1,8 No adverse effects attributable to clotrimazole have been observed in studies.1 In a large database review, of the 2624 1st trimester exposures to clotrimazole, there were 118 (4.5%) major birth defects observed (112 expected). However, these data do not support an association between vaginal use of clotrimazole and congenital defects.1 See penicillin derivatives. In a large database review, of the 46 trimester exposures to cloxacillin during the 1st trimester, there were 3 (6.5%) major birth defects observed (2 expected), including 2 cardiovascular defects (0.5 expected) and 1 hypospadias (none expected). Only with the former defect is there a suggestion of a possible association, but other factors, including the mothers disease, concurrent drug use, and chance, may be involved.1
Use in Lactation It is doubtful that clotrimazole would appear in breast milk since its absorption through the skin and vagina is minimal.1
Cloxacillin (Cloxapen [U.S.]; generics [Canada])
No human data. Because other penicillins are excreted in breast milk in low concentrations, the presence of cloxacillin in breast milk should be expected.1 Also see ampicillin and penicillin G.
There is a case of hemolytic anemia in both mother and her infant. The mother was taking dapsone during the latter twothirds of her pregnancy and during lactation.1 Although not citing the case of dapsoneinduced hemolytic anemia in a nursing infant described above, the AAP classifies dapsone as compatible with breastfeeding.1,3 U.S./Canadian product labeling recommends against use of drug while breastfeeding.
Dapsone
A number of studies have described the use of dapsone during all stages of human pregnancy. A few fetal or newborn adverse effects directly attributable to dapsone have been reported, but no congenital anomalies thought to be due to the drug have been observed.1 Neonatal hyperbilirubinemia has been reported (one case) with maternal dapsone use close to delivery.1
Daptomycin (Cubicin) B No human data; animal data suggest low risk.1 In animal studies, IV doses up to 3 (rats) and 6 (rabbits) times human dose based on BSA, no evidence of fetal harm was observed.1 Vancomycin, an antibiotic with a similar spectrum and molecular weight (about 1486), is known to cross the human placenta late in the 2nd trimester to produce detectable concentrations in amniotic fluid.1
No human data. The high molecular weight should limit excretion into breast milk. However, vancomycin, an antibiotic with a similar spectrum and molecular weight is excreted into breast milk with concentrations nearly identical to the mothers trough serum concentration.1 More. . .
Drug Demeclocycline Dicloxacillin (Dynapen, etc) (U.S. only)
Pregnancy Categorya D B
Use in Pregnancy See tetracyclines. See penicillin derivatives. Crosses the placenta into the fetal circulation and amniotic fluid. Levels are low compared with other penicillins due to the high degree of maternal protein binding.1 In a large database review, of the 46 1st trimester exposures to dicloxacillin, there was 1 (2.2%) major birth defect observed (2 expected).1 See tetracyclines. No human data. No teratogenicity observed in mice and rats at 3 times the recommended human dose.1 There is no evidence that any beta-lactam antibiotics cause developmental toxicity in humans at therapeutic doses. Therefore, it is probably safe to use ertapenem anytime during gestation if maternal condition requires its use.1 In a large database review, there were 79 1st trimester exposures to erythromycin and 230 exposures for use at any time during pregnancy. There was no evidence to suggest a relationship to large categories of major and minor malformations or to individual defects.1 In another large database review, of the 6972 1st trimester exposure to erythromycin, there were 320 (4.6%) major birth defects observed (297 expected). However, these data do not support an association between the drug and congenital malformations.1 Approximately 10% of 161 women treated with the estolate salt of erythromycin in the 2nd trimester had abnormally elevated levels of serum glutamic-oxaloacetic transaminase, which returned to normal after therapy was discontinued.1,9 It is recommended that pregnant women avoid erythromycin estolate due to potential for hepatotoxicity.9
Use in Lactation See tetracyclines. No human data. Excretion of dicloxacillin into breast milk should be expected, since other penicillins are excreted into the breast milk in low concentrations. 1
Doxycycline (Periostat, etc. [U.S.]; Doxytab [Canada]) Ertapenem (Invanz)
D B
See tetracyclines. Limited human data. Ertapenem is excreted into breast milk based on reports of 5 nursing women treated with ertapenem.1 The effects on a nursing infant are unknown, but are of doubtful clinical significance.1 Erythromycin is excreted into breast milk.1 The AAP classifies erythromycin as compatible with breastfeeding.3
Erythromycin (excluding estolate salt)
Erythromycin estolate (generics [Canada])
N/A
See erythromycin.
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Drug Ethambutol (Myambutol [U.S.]; Etibi [Canada])
Use in Pregnancy

Use in Lactation Excreted into breast milk. The AAP classifies ethambutol as compatible with breastfeeding.1
Ethambutol, isoniazid, and rifampin combination are considered the safest option for treatment of tuberculosis.1,22
Ophthalmic abnormalities have occurred in infants born to women on antituberculosis therapy that included ethambutol.27 There are no reports of long-term follow-up examinations for ocular damage.1 High doses teratogenic in animals.27,37 No evidence of teratogenicity in humans.1,37 Avoid in 1st trimester if possible.37
Ethionamide (Trecator) (U.S. only)
Fluconazole (Diflucan [U.S.]; generics [Canada]) NOTE: Recommendations for use of single-dose oral fluconazole to treat vaginal candida are inconsistent (i.e., second-line agent8,37 vs. contraindicated38). C
Of the 5 human studies describing the outcome of pregnancies exposed to ethionamide, only one of the studies found an increased incidence of birth defects (2 cases of Downs syndrome from 23 exposed infants). The other reports found no association with congenital malformations.1 Animal studies suggest teratogenic potential. Do not use in women who are pregnant or likely to become pregnant unless use is essential.18,37 There are several reports of women treated with 400 mg to 800 mg of fluconazole orally daily throughout the 1st trimester. One of the women continued the treatment until delivery. The infants were born with grossly dysmorphic features including malformations in the head, face, and extremities.1 In a retrospective review of 289 pregnant women treated with either a single dose of fluconazole 150 mg (n=275), multiple 50 mg doses (n=3), or multiple 150 mg doses (n=11) during or shortly before pregnancy for vaginal candidiasis, anomalies were only observed in four infants. In each of the four cases with congenital anomalies, the mother had taken fluconazole before conception for 1 to 26 weeks before the last monthly menstrual period.1 The use of fluconazole during the 1st trimester appears to be teratogenic with continuous daily doses of 400 mg/day or more according to the limited data.1 Currently, there is no evidence of increased risk of major malformations associated with short-term use of 150 mg of fluconazole.8 For vaginal candidiasis, only topical azoles are recommended for use in pregnancy.19,20 Generally avoid in pregnant women per IDSA.36
No human data. Excretion into breast milk is expected due to low molecular weight.1
Fluconazole is excreted into breast milk.1 No drug-induced toxicity has been observed in infants exposed to fluconazole via breastfeeding.1 Therefore, fluconazole is probably safe to use during breastfeeding.1 The AAP classifies fluconazole as compatible with breastfeeding.3 U.S./Canadian product labeling recommends against use of drug while breastfeeding.
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Drug Fluoroquinolones
Use in Pregnancy Concerns regarding the safety of fluoroquinolones originated from reports of arthropathy in animal studies; however, such reports are rare in human cases.5,6 In a 1993 review on the safety of fluoroquinolones, the authors concluded that fluoroquinolones should be avoided during pregnancy because of the difficulty in extrapolating animal mutagenicity results to humans and because interpretation of this toxicity is controversial. The authors were not convinced that fluoroquinolone-induced fetal cartilage damage and subsequent arthropathies were a major concern in humans.7 Data from a prospective follow-up study conducted by the European Network of Teratology Information Services (ENTIS), data on 549 pregnancies exposed to fluoroquinolone (levofloxacin=0; ofloxacin=93) and data on another 116 prospective and 25 retrospective pregnancy exposures to fluoroquinolones were analyzed. Of the 666 cases with known outcomes, 32 (4.8%) of the embryos, fetuses, or newborns had congenital malformations. From previous epidemiology data, the authors concluded that the 4.8% frequency of malformations did not exceed the background rate.1 Because a causal relationship with some of the birth defects cannot be excluded, fluoroquinolones should be used with caution, especially during first trimester.1
Some have suggested that fluoroquinolones should be considered contraindicated in pregnancy because safer alternatives are usually available.1 Both CDC and Canadian STD guidelines consider quinolones to be contraindicated during pregnancy.19,20
Use in Lactation See individual agents. U.S./Canadian product labeling recommends against use of drug while breastfeeding.
Fosfomycin (Monurol)
Fosfomycin has been used in all trimesters of pregnancy with no apparent harm to the fetus or newborn.1
Gemifloxacin (Factive) (U.S. only) C See fluoroquinolones. It is unknown if gemifloxacin crosses the human placenta. Animal data from mice, rats, and rabbits show growth retardation of fetus.1
No human data. Because of its relatively low molecular weight, excretion into milk should be expected.1 U.S./Canadian product labeling recommends against use of drug while breastfeeding.
No human data. See fluoroquinolones. The AAP classifies both ciprofloxacin and ofloxacin as compatible with breastfeeding.3 More. . .
Drug Gentamicin
Pregnancy Categorya D
Use in Pregnancy See aminoglycosides. Human data suggest low risk.1 Crosses the placenta into the fetal circulation and amniotic fluid.
Use in Lactation See aminoglycosides. Small amounts of gentamicin are excreted into breast milk and poorly absorbed by the nursing infant. 1 The levels were low and not likely to cause clinical effects.2 The AAP classifies gentamicin as compatible with breastfeeding.3 No human data. The use of griseofulvin during breastfeeding is not recommended due to the tumorigenicity and other toxicities in animals.1
1,2
Griseofulvin (Fulvicin, etc) C Limited human data; animal data suggest risk.1 Griseofulvin is tumorigenic, embryotoxic, and teratogenic in some species of animals.1 In a large database review, of the 34 1st trimester exposures to griseofulvin, there was 1 (2.9%) major birth defect observed (1 expected). The number of exposure is too small to draw any conclusions.1 Per product labeling, contraindicated during pregnancy.31 Limited human data; animal data suggest low risk.1 Crosses the placenta to the fetus.1 Animal studies in pregnant rabbits and rats showed no evidence of adverse fetal effect at doses up to 2 to 30 times the maximum human dose.1
In a large database review; of the 11 1st trimester exposures, one (0.1) major birth defect was observed (0.5 expected).1 Association between isoniazid and hemorrhagic disease of the newborn has been suspected in two infants. However, the mothers were also treated with rifampin and ethambutol. Although other reports of this potentially serious reaction have not been found, prophylactic vitamin K is recommended at birth.1
Imipenem/Cilastatin (Primaxin)
Isoniazid
The CDC recommends a combination of isoniazid (plus pyridoxine), rifampin, and ethambutol as treatment of choice for pulmonary tuberculosis during pregnancy and breastfeeding.22 The American Thoracic Society recommends use of the drug for tuberculosis occurring during pregnancy.1
INH-induced hepatotoxicity more frequent during pregnancy/postpartum. Monthly LFTs recommended.37
Limited human data. Small amount, comparable to those for other beta-lactam antibiotics, is excreted into breast milk.1 The effects, if any, on a nursing infant are unknown.1 Both isoniazid and its metabolite acetylisoniazid are excreted in breast milk.1 The AAP classifies isoniazid as compatible with breastfeeding.3 Monitor for rare instances of jaundice in the nursing infant.41
More. . .
Drug Itraconazole (Sporanox)
Use in Pregnancy In an observational cohort study, itraconazole was taken orally during the 1st trimester in 41 pregnancies. The outcomes of these pregnancies included 1 ectopic pregnancy, 2 spontaneous abortions, 6 elective abortions, 2 cases lost to follow-up, and 30 normal newborns (1 premature). One of the normal full-term newborns had a minor congenital anomaly (thin, prominent, and protruding left ear).1 Another azole antifungal, fluconazole, has demonstrated possible dose-related association with major malformations. Therefore, is best to avoid itraconazole during organogenesis (1st trimester).1 Per IDSA, itraconazole should generally be avoided in pregnant women.36 See aminoglycosides. Eighth cranial nerve damage has been reported following in utero exposure to kanamycin. 1 In a retrospective survey of 391 mothers who had received kanamycin, 50 mg/kg, for prolonged periods during pregnancy, 9 (2.3%) children were found to have hearing loss. 1 Except for ototoxicity, no reports of congenital defects due to kanamycin have been located. 1 Avoid use in pregnancy if possible.37 Ketoconazole is embryotoxic and teratogenic in rats at a dose 10 times the maximum recommended human dose based on weight.1 In a large database review, of the 20 1st trimester exposures to oral ketoconazole, no major birth defects were observed (one expected). Since the study, the FDA has received 6 reports of limb defects.1 Generally avoid in pregnant women.36
Use in Lactation Limited human data; potential toxicity.1 Itraconazole is excreted into breast milk.1 The potential effects of itraconazole exposure to nursing infants have not been studied, therefore, women taking itraconazole should probably not breastfeed.1
Kanamycin (U.S. only)
Ketoconazole (Oral) (Nizoral, etc)
See aminoglycosides. Limited human data; probably compatible. 1 Kanamycin is excreted into breast milk. Ototoxicity not expected in infant since oral absorption of kanamycin is low. 1 The AAP classifies kanamycin as compatible with breastfeeding.3 Ketoconazole is excreted into breast milk. The effects on the nursing infant from exposure to ketoconazole in the milk are unknown. Other agent may be preferred due to potential for liver toxicity.41 The AAP classifies ketoconazole as compatible with breastfeeding.3 U.S./Canadian product labeling recommends against use of drug while breastfeeding. More. . .
Drug Levofloxacin (Levaquin)
Use in Pregnancy See fluoroquinolones. Human data suggest low risk.1 Levofloxacin should be use with caution during pregnancy, especially during the 1st trimester.1
Use in Lactation See fluoroquinolones. Limited human data. The use of levofloxacin during lactation was not recommended when the product was first marketed due to the potential of arthropathy and other toxicity in the nursing infant.1 U.S./Canadian product labeling still recommend against use while breastfeeding. Photosensitivity has also been reported in nursing infants who have been exposed to levofloxacin via breastfeeding.1 The AAP classifies both ciprofloxacin and ofloxacin as compatible with breastfeeding.3 No human data. The molecular weight is low enough that excretion into breast milk should be expected.1 Because myelosuppression has occurred in dogs and rats and reversible thrombocytopenia in adult humans, women taking linezolid should probably not breastfeed. 1
Linezolid (Zyvox [U.S.]; Zyvoxam [Canada])
Meropenem (Merrem) B
No human data. No evidence of teratogenicity was observed in mice and rats at doses 4 and 1 times the expected human exposure based on AUC, respectively. However fetal toxicity (embryo death, total litter loss, decreased fetal weight, and an increased incidence of costal cartilage fusion) were observed at this dose. It is unknown if linezolid crosses the human placenta. However, the molecular weight is low enough that transfer to the fetus should be expected.1 If no other alternatives are available and linezolid must be used, the maternal benefit appears to outweigh the unknown fetal risk.1 No human data; animal data suggest low risk.1 Animal studies in rats and cynomolgus monkeys at doses up to 1.8 and 3.7 times, respectively, the usual human dose found no evidence of impaired fertility or fetal harm.1 The fetal risk of use before 28 weeks of gestation is unknown.1
No human data. The potential effects, if any, on nursing infants are unknown.1
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Drug Metronidazole (Oral, IV) (Flagyl, etc)
Use in Pregnancy In a large database review, 31 who had 1st trimester exposure to metronidazole. A possible association with malformations was found based on defects in 4 children (RR=2.02), but independent confirmation is required.1 In another large database review, of the 2445 1st trimester exposures to metronidazole, there were 100 (4.1%) major birth defects observed (97 expected). Only with oral clefts is there a suggestion of possible association.1 Oral metronidazole is contraindicated during the 1st trimester in patients with trichomoniasis per U.S. product labeling.1,23 (Note: Canadian product labeling and some U.S. products consider drug contraindicated during 1st trimester regardless of indication.)24,25 Metronidazole use during 2nd and 3rd trimester for trichomoniasis or bacterial vaginosis is acceptable.1 For other indications, metronidazole can be used during pregnancy if there are no other alternatives.1 Some recommend routine screening for and treatment of asymptomatic bacterial vaginosis only if patient high-risk for preterm birth.13,14,19 Considered safe for use during pregnancy per CDC/Canadian STD guidelines.19,20 No human data; see metronidazole oral/IV. Because metronidazole is a carcinogen in rodents, it should be used during pregnancy only if clearly needed. 15-17
Use in Lactation Metronidazole is excreted into breast milk.1 Unnecessary exposure to metronidazole should be avoided since the drug is mutagenic and carcinogenic in some test species.1 If a single 2 gram oral dose of metronidazole is used for trichomoniasis, the AAP recommends discontinuing breastfeeding for 12-24 hours to allow excretion of the drug.1,3
Metronidazole (Topical, Vaginal) (Metrogel, etc) B
See oral and IV metronidazole.
Micafungin (Mycamine)
No human data; animal data suggest moderate risk.1 Per IDSA, use with caution during pregnancy.36 Use not recommended per CDC.37
No human data. The high molecular weight, low lipid solubility, and very high protein binding suggests that excretion into breast milk will be limited. However, the drug is excreted into the milk of lactating rats.1
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Drug Miconazole (Monistat, etc)
Use in Pregnancy See azole antifungals. Miconazole is normally used as a topical antifungal and small amounts are absorbed from the vagina.1 Use of miconazole vaginally has not been associated with increased congenital malformations.1 In a large database review, of the 2092 1st trimester exposures to miconazole, the estimated relative risk for birth defects from the data was 1.02 (95% CI 0.9-1.2). No association was found between miconazole use and oral clefts, spina bifida, or cardiovascular defects. However, the possibility of an association with other specific defects cannot be excluded.1 If possible, avoid vaginal use in 1st trimester.32
Use in Lactation No data available. Remove excess cream or ointment from the nipples before nursing.41
Minocycline (Solodyn, etc [U.S.]; generics [Canada])
See tetracyclines.
See tetracyclines.
Moxifloxacin (Avelox)
See fluoroquinolones. Animal data showed growth retardation and delayed fetal skeletal development in rats exposed to moxifloxacin.1
Nafcillin (Unipen, etc) (U.S. only)
See penicillin derivatives and Penicillin G. No reports linking nafcillin use with congenital defects have been located.1
See fluoroquinolones. No human data. The AAP classifies both ciprofloxacin and ofloxacin as compatible with breastfeeding.3 U.S./Canadian product labeling recommend against use of moxifloxacin while breastfeeding. No data available. See Penicillin G.
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Drug Nitrofurantoin (Macrobid, Macrodantin [U.S.]; generics [Canada])
Use in Pregnancy Data suggest risk in 3rd trimester.1 Case-control studies and case series involving thousands of women who received nitrofurantoin in pregnancy reported no increase of major malformations among the newborns. In addition, a meta-analysis failed to show teratogenic risk with first-trimester use of nitrofurantoin.5 In a large database review, of the 1292 1st trimester exposures to nitrofurantoin, there were 52 (4.0%) major birth defects observed (55 expected). However, these data do not support an association between the drug and congenital defects.1 A retrospective analysis of 91 pregnancies in which nitrofurantoin was used yielded no evidence of fetal toxicity. Other studies have also supported the safety of this drug in pregnancy.1 A retrospective, case-control study (n=13,155) suggests an association with birth defects. However, the study has multiple limitations and does not establish a causal relationship.40 Nitrofurantoin can theoretically induce hemolytic anemia in glucose-6-phosphate dehydrogenase (G-6-PD)deficient patients and in patients whose red blood cells are deficient in reduced glutathione; however, cases of this toxicity are rare.1,5 Contraindicated in pregnant women at term (38 to 42 weeks gestation), during labor and delivery, or when onset of labor is imminent.1,21 See fluoroquinolones. The use of norfloxacin during human gestation does not appear to be associated with an increased risk of major congenital malformations. However, a causal relationship with some of the birth defects cannot be excluded.1 Norfloxacin should be used with caution during pregnancy, especially during the 1st trimester.1
Use in Lactation Limited human data. Nitrofurantoin is excreted into breast milk.1 Based on measurement of nitrofurantoin excretion in milk, investigators estimated that if a 60 kg woman was taking nitrofurantoin 100 mg twice daily, the infant dose would be 0.2 mg/kg, or about 6% of the mother's weightadjusted dose.1 Although this exposure was thought to be low, nursing infants younger than 1 month of age and those with a high frequency of G-6-PD deficiency or sensitivity to nitrofurantoin may be at risk for toxicity.1 The AAP classifies nitrofurantoin as compatible with breastfeeding.3 U.S. product labeling recommends against use of drug while breastfeeding (Canadian labeling advises caution). See fluoroquinolones. No human data. Although it is not known whether norfloxacin is excreted into human milk, the high concentrations of the drug found in the milk of ewes, the relatively low molecular weight (about 319), and the excretion of other quinolones suggest that the drug will probably be in milk.1 The AAP classifies both ciprofloxacin and ofloxacin as compatible with breastfeeding.3 More. . .
Norfloxacin (Noroxin [U.S.]; generics [Canada]) C
Drug Nystatin
Use in Pregnancy Nystatin is poorly absorbed after oral administration and from intact skin and mucous membranes.1 In a large database review of the 489 1st trimester exposures, a total of 20 (4.1%) major birth defects were observed (21 expected).1 Topical nystatin is probably a safe alternative to topical azole antifungals for the treatment of vaginal yeast infections.9 No association with the risk of major malformations have been observed in numerous trials.8 See fluoroquinolones. Although a number of birth defects have occurred in the offspring of women who had taken ofloxacin during pregnancy, the use of ofloxacin during human gestation does not appear to be associated with an increased risk of major congenital malformations.1 A causal relationship with some of the birth defects cannot be excluded. Because of this and the available animal data, ofloxacin should be used with caution during pregnancy, especially during the 1st trimester.1
Use in Lactation Nystatin is poorly absorbed, if at all.1 Excretion into breast milk is not expected.1
Ofloxacin (Floxin [U.S.]; generics [Canada])
Oxacillin (Bactocill, etc) (U.S. only) Oxytetracycline Paromomycin (Humatin) B See penicillin derivatives. Crosses the placenta in low concentrations.1 See tetracyclines. See aminoglycosides. Limited human data.1 No reports linking this agent with congenital malformations have been located.1 Two women, one at 13 weeks' and the other at 23 weeks' gestation, were treated for a symptomatic intestinal infection caused by Giardia lamblia. Both delivered normal female infants at term.1
See fluoroquinolones. Limited human data. Excreted into breast milk.1 The use of ofloxacin during lactation was not recommended when the product was first marketed due to the potential of arthropathy and other toxicity in the nursing infant.1 Photosensitivity has also been reported in nursing infants who have been exposed to ofloxacin via breastfeeding.1 The AAP classifies ofloxacin as compatible with breastfeeding.3 Oxacillin is excreted in breast milk in low concentrations.1 See tetracyclines. No human data.1 Paromomycin excretion in human milk is not expected because the drug is not absorbed into the systemic circulation after oral dosing.1
D C
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Drug Penicillin G
Use in Pregnancy See penicillin derivatives. In a controlled study, 110 patients received one to three antibiotics during the 1st trimester for a total of 589 weeks. Penicillin G was given for a total of 107 weeks. The incidence of birth defects was no different than in a nontreated control group.1 See penicillin derivatives. In a large database review, of the 4597 1st trimester exposures to penicillin V, there were 202 (4.4%) major birth defects observed (195 expected). However, these data do not support an association between the drug and congenital defects.1 Penicillins transferred to the fetus and amniotic fluid reach therapeutic levels.2 In a large database review, of the 3546 cases of 1st trimester exposure to penicillin derivatives and 7171 cases of exposures for use anytime during pregnancy, there was no evidence found to suggest a relationship to large categories of major or minor malformations or to individual defects.1 Rapidly crosses the placenta to the fetus.1 No reports linking the use of piperacillin with congenital defects in humans have been located.1 No adverse maternal or fetal effects have been observed when used between 24 and 35 weeks gestation in women with premature rupture of the membranes to delay delivery.1 No human data; animal data suggest risk.1 See fluconazole and itraconazole for related risks. Avoid posaconazole during pregnancy, especially in the 1st trimester.1 If use cant be avoided, use lowest dose possible.1 Per IDSA, generally avoid in pregnant women.36
Use in Lactation Excreted into breast milk in low concentrations.1
Penicillin V
Penicillin Derivatives
Excreted into breast milk in low concentrations.1,2 See individual agents for details.
Piperacillin/Tazobactam (Zosyn [U.S.], Tazocin [Canada])
Posaconazole (Noxafil [U.S.]; Posanol [Canada])
No human data. Excretion to breast milk should be limited due to its molecular weight, low metabolism, long elimination half-life, and high plasma protein binding.1 The effects on the nursing infant is unknown, but its been associated with hepatic toxicity, nausea, and vomiting in adults.1 U.S./Canadian product labeling recommends against use of drug while breastfeeding. More. . .
Drug Quinupristin/Dalfopristin (Synercid) (U.S. only)
Use in Pregnancy No human data. Quinupristin/dalfopristin crosses rat placenta and is expected to cross human placenta.1 There is no evidence of impaired fertility or fetal harm in pregnant mice, rats, and rabbits at approximately 0.5, 2.5, and 0.5 times the human dose, respectively.1 Because the indication for the combination involves potentially life-threatening infections, the maternal benefit of therapy appears to far outweigh the unknown embryo or fetal risk.1 No human data; animal data suggest low risk.1 Animal studies showed that doses < 40 times recommended human daily dose were not teratogenic in rats and rabbits, but the high dose caused a decrease in fetal viability.1 It is unknown if rifabutin or its active metabolites crosses the human placenta. However, the low molecular weight, moderate plasma protein binding, high lipid solubility, and prolonged terminal half-life suggests that passage to the fetus will occur.1 Therapy should not be withheld if maternal benefit outweighs the unknown fetal risk.1 Teratogenicity in rodents has been reported with oral doses 1525 times the human dose.1 Studies with rabbits showed no evidence of teratogenicity.1 In a large database review, of the 20 1st trimester exposures to rifampin, there were no major birth defects observed (one expected).1 Rifampin can potentially cause hemorrhagic disease in the newborn and mother when given in the last few weeks of pregnancy. Prophylactic vitamin K is recommended to prevent this serious complication.1 The CDC recommends a combination of isoniazid (plus pyridoxine), rifampin, and ethambutol as treatment of choice for pulmonary tuberculosis during pregnancy and breastfeeding.22 One report described 9 malformations in 204 pregnancies that went to term (incidence=4.4%, which is similar to the expected frequency of defects in a healthy nonexposed population, but much higher than other tuberculosis patients [1.8%]).1
Use in Lactation
No human data; potential toxicity.10 The relatively high molecular weights for the two components suggest that only small amounts, if any, will pass into human milk.1 Quinupristin/dalfopristin is not recommended during breastfeeding due to the potential of the development of resistance to quinupristin/dalfopristin.1 No human data. The molecular weight, moderate plasma protein binding, and prolonged terminal half-life suggest excretion into milk should be expected.1 Milk may be stained a brown-orange color.1 Potential serious toxicity to the nursing infant includes leucopenia, neutropenia, rash, etc.1 (U.S./Canadian product labeling recommends against use while breastfeeding.)
Rifabutin (Mycobutin)
Rifampin (Rifadin [U.S.]; Rofact [Canada]) C
Rifampin is excreted into human milk in a low concentration, which presents a very low risk to the nursing infant.1 No reports describing adverse effects in nursing infants have been located.1 The AAP classifies rifampin as compatible with breastfeeding.3 U.S./Canadian product labeling recommends against use of drug while breastfeeding.
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Drug Rifapentine (Priftin) (U.S. only)
Use in Pregnancy Limited human data; animal data suggest risk. When taken in the last few weeks of pregnancy, rifapentine may cause hemorrhage in both the mother and newborn (similar to that observed with rifampin).1 Prophylactic vitamin K recommended to prevent serious complication.1 Avoid rifapentine during 1st trimester until more human data are available.1
Use in Lactation
No human data. It is unknown if rifapentine is excreted into breast milk. However, the molecular weight is low enough that passage into breast milk should be expected.1 Breast milk may be discolored.1 The effects of this exposure, if any, on a nursing infant are unknown.1 The AAP classifies rifampin, a closely related antibiotic, as compatible with breastfeeding.3
Product labeling recommends against use while breastfeeding.
Rifaximin (Xifaxan) (U.S. only) C No human data; animal data suggest risk. Teratogenic in rats and rabbits. The adverse effects included cleft palate, agnathia, jaw shortening, hemorrhage, partially open eye, small eyes, brachygnathia, incomplete ossification, and increased thoracolumbar vertebrae.1 It is not known if rifaximin crosses the human placenta, but its molecular weight is low enough for passive transfer.1 Although the embryo/fetal risk is suspected to be low due to minimal absorption, rifaximin should be avoided during 1st trimester until human data are available.1 See aminoglycosides. Several cases of maternal use of streptomycin during pregnancy resulted in infant ototoxicity have been reported. However, in general, the risk of congenital ototoxicity, cochlear or vestibular, from streptomycin is low, especially with careful dosage calculations and the duration of fetal exposure is limited.1 Except for eighth cranial nerve damage, no reports of congenital defects caused by streptomycin have been located.1 In a large database review, there were 135 1st trimester exposures to streptomycin and 355 exposures recorded for use any time during pregnancy. There was no evidence to suggest a relationship to large categories of major or minor malformations or to individual defects in either group.1 Avoid use during pregnancy if possible.37, 39
Streptomycin
No human data. The molecular weight (about 786) is low enough for excretion into breast milk, but only very small amounts of the antibiotic are absorbed into the systemic circulation.1 The effects of this exposure on a nursing infant are unknown but appear to be negligible.1 Product labeling recommends against use of drug while breastfeeding. See aminoglycosides. Streptomycin is excreted into the breast milk.1 Ototoxicity would not be expected in nursing infant of mother who received streptomycin since oral absorption of streptomycin is poor.1 The AAP classifies streptomycin as compatible with breastfeeding.3
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Drug Sulbactam (ampicillin/sulbactam [Unasyn]) (U.S. only)
Use in Pregnancy Sulbactam is always given in combination with ampicillin. It has caused no harm in animal reproduction studies, but reports of human exposure in early gestation are lacking.1 However, none of the penicillins has been shown to be teratogenic. Sulbactam readily crosses the human placenta to the fetus. Although no direct adverse effects of this exposure on the fetus or newborn have been reported, use of ampicillin/sulbactam combination near delivery may result in superinfection with resistant bacteria in the newborn.1
Use in Lactation Sulbactam is excreted into the breast milk of animals (sheep and goats) and humans.1 The potential effects of exposure to sulbactam on the nursing infant are unknown but are probably similar to those that might occur with other antibiotics such as modification of bowel flora, direct effects on the infant (e.g., allergy or sensitization).1 The AAP classifies sulbactam as compatible with breastfeeding.3 The AAP classifies TMP-SMX as compatible with breastfeeding.3 U.S./Canadian product labeling considers drug contraindicated in lactation.
Sulfamethoxazole/ Trimethoprim (Bactrim DS, etc [U.S.]; generics [Canada]) C Sulfonamides as a group do not appear to pose a serious teratogenic risk. However, trimethoprim is a folic acid antagonist and its use in 1st trimester has been associated with structural defects (e.g., neural tube and cardiovascular defects).1 A retrospective study suggests sulfonamides are associated with birth defects. However, the study has multiple limitations and does not establish a causal relationship.40 Sulfamethoxazole can persist in neonatal circulation for several days after delivery if taken near term and there is a theoretical risk of sulfonamides increasing unbound bilirubin owing to competitive protein binding.1,5,7 In most cases, TMP-SMX should be avoided during the 1st trimester and after 32 weeks of gestation.1,5,7,9 Per product labeling, TMP-SMX contraindicated during pregnancy. No human data; animal data suggest low risk.1 Telithromycin may cause severe hepatocellular hepatitis that can be fatal.1 Avoid use of telithromycin in human pregnancy until more human data are available.1
Telithromycin (Ketek) C
No human data. Excretion into breast milk is expected.1 Erythormycin, a closely related antibiotic, is considered compatible with breastfeeding.1 Observe nursing infant for the most common adverse effects reported in adults, such as diarrhea, nausea, vomiting, headache, and dizziness.1 More. . .
Drug Terbinafine (Lamisil [U.S.]; generics [Canada])
Use in Pregnancy No human data. No evidence of fetal harm has been found in animal studies at doses up to 12 times the maximum recommended human dose based on BSA in rats 9 times the maximum recommended human dose in rabbits.1 Product labeling recommends against use during pregnancy (oral or topical).33,34 No human data. See azole antifungals. Terconazole is available as either a vaginal cream or suppositories and is absorbed into the systemic circulation in humans after vaginal administration.3 In a large database review, of the 1167 1st trimester exposures to terconazole a total of 34 (2.9%) major birth defects were observed (48 expected). However, these data do not support an association between terconazole and congenital defects.1 See tetracyclines. Contraindicated in 2nd and 3rd trimesters.1 However, evidence of embryotoxicity noted in animals treated early in pregnancy.26 Tetracyclines, as a class, should not be used during pregnancy unless absolutely necessary.26 Problems attributable to the use of the tetracyclines during or around the gestational period include: adverse effects on fetal teeth and bones, maternal liver toxicity, congenital defects, miscellaneous effects.1 In a large database review, there were 341 1st trimester exposures to tetracycline, 14 to chlortetracycline, 90 to demeclocycline, and 119 to oxytetracycline. For use anytime in pregnancy, 1336 exposures were recorded for tetracycline, 0 for chlortetracycline, 280 for demeclocycline, and 328 for oxytetracycline. No evidence was found to suggest a relationship to large categories of major or minor malformations or to individual defects with chlortetracycline, demeclocycline, or oxytetracycline. However, the sample size is extremely small, and safety should not be inferred from these negative results.1 There was evidence to suggest a relationship to minor, but not major malformations with tetracycline.1
Use in Lactation
Terbinafine is excreted into human milk.3 The effects on a nursing infant are unknown.3 U.S./Canada product labeling recommends against use while breastfeeding. Topical terbinafine should not be applied to breasts.
Terconazole (Terazol, etc) C
No data available. Product labeling recommends against use of drug while breastfeeding.
Tetracycline Tetracyclines
D D
See tetracyclines. See individual agents. Tetracycline is excreted into breast milk in low concentrations.1 Theoretically, dental staining and inhibition of bone growth could occur in breastfed infants whose mothers were taking tetracycline. However, the possibility seems remote, because tetracycline serum levels in infants exposed in such a manner were undetectable (<0.05 mcg/mL).1 The AAP classifies tetracycline as compatible with breastfeeding.3 U.S./Canadian product labeling recommends against use while breastfeeding.
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Drug Tigecycline (Tygacil)
Use in Pregnancy Tigecycline is a glycylcycline broad-spectrum antibacterial agent, which is structurally related to the tetracycline class of antibiotics and may have similar adverse effects.1 Similar to tetracyclines, tigecycline can permanently discolor the teeth if used in the second half of pregnancy.1 Use in the 1st trimester probably does not represent a major risk to the embryo or fetus, but use in later trimesters should be avoided.1 Limited human data. Tinidazole is chemically related to metronidazole, and there is no convincing evidence of embryo or fetal harm with metronidazole.11 Tinidazole can be used in cases where metronidazole has failed to eradicate the infection.1,11 Contraindicated during 1st trimester per product labeling.35 Human data suggest low risk.1 See aminoglycosides. In a large database review, of the 81 1st trimester exposures to tobramycin, there were 3 (3.7%) major birth defects observed (3 expected), one of which was a cardiovascular defect (1 expected).1 There are no cases of congenital defects attributable to vancomycin and the manufacturer has received reports on the use of vancomycin in pregnancy without adverse fetal effects.1 Vancomycin crosses the human placenta and appears in umbilical cord blood after IV maternal treatment. Amniotic fluid and umbilical cord blood concentrations during the early 3rd trimester are comparable to maternal blood levels (fetalmaternal serum concentration ratio of 0.76).2
Use in Lactation No human data. Tigecycline is expected to be excreted into the breast milk based on its molecular weight (about 586), prolonged elimination half-life, and wide distribution in tissues.1 It is best to not to nurse if a woman is receiving this antibiotic.1 The AAP classifies tinidazole as an agent whose effect on nursing infants is unknown but may be of concern.1 Discontinue breastfeeding while being treated and for 3 days following the last dose.35 See aminoglycosides.
Tinidazole (Tindamax) (U.S. only)
Tobramycin
Vancomycin (Vancocin [U.S.]; generics [Canada])
Limited human data. Vancomycin is excreted into breast milk.1 Vancomycin is poorly absorbed from the normal intact gastrointestinal tract, and thus, systemic absorption would not be expected.1 Product labeling recommends against use of drug while breastfeeding.
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Drug Voriconazole (Vfend)
Use in Pregnancy No human data. Teratogenic in animals.1 A closely related antifungal, fluconazole, is a suspected teratogen. Therefore, voriconazole should be avoided during 1st trimester.1 Per IDSA, voriconazole contraindicated during pregnancy because of fetal abnormalities observed in animals.36
Use in Lactation No human data; potential toxicity.1 Excretion to breast milk is expected with its low molecular weight.1 There is potential for toxicity in nursing infants. Therefore, women taking voriconazole should not breastfeed.1
a.
FDA Categories for the use of medications in pregnancy:12 A: adequate, well-controlled studies in pregnant women have not shown an increased risk of fetal abnormalities. B: Animal studies have revealed no evidence of harm to the fetus, however, there are no adequate and well-controlled studies in pregnant women. OR Animal studies have shown an adverse effect, but adequate and well-controlled studies in pregnant women have failed to demonstrate a risk to the fetus. C: Animal studies have shown an adverse effect and there are no adequate and well-controlled studies in pregnant women. OR No animal studies have been conducted and there are no adequate and well-controlled studies in pregnant women. D: Studies, adequate, well-controlled or observational, in pregnant women have demonstrated a risk to the fetus. However, the benefits of therapy may outweigh the potential risk. X: Studies, adequate, well-controlled or observational, in animals or pregnant women have demonstrated positive evidence of fetal abnormalities. The use of the product is contraindicated in women who are or may become pregnant.
On-line resources:
Motherisk. http://www.motherisk.org/index.jsp. Offers consumers answers to questions about morning sickness and the risk or safety of medications, disease, chemical exposure, and more. Provides teratogen information for healthcare professionals and updates on Motherisks continuing reproductive research. Perinatology.com. http://www.perinatology.com/. Provides teratogen information for healthcare professionals and links to clinical guidelines and more. Organization of Teratology Information Specialists (OTIS). http://www.otispregnancy.org/. Provides medical consultation on prenatal exposures for consumers and healthcare professionals. OBfocus. http://www.obfocus.com/. Provides information for healthcare professionals and consumers on pregnancy related issues, including drug exposure. Provides a list of resources on high risk pregnancy. Drug and Lactation Database (LactMed). http://toxnet.nlm.nih.gov/cgi-bin/sis/htmlgen?LACT. Provides information on drug use during lactation. Each drug has a drug monograph that discusses its safety in lactation.
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Users of this document are cautioned to use their own professional judgment and consult any other necessary or appropriate sources prior to making clinical judgments based on the content of this document. Our editors have researched the information with input from experts, government agencies, and national organizations. Information and Internet links in this article were current as of the date of publication.
13.
14. 15.
Project Leader in preparation of this DetailDocument: Wan-Chih Tom, Pharm.D.
16. 17. 18. 19. 20.
References
Briggs GG, Freeman RK, Yaffe SJ. Drugs in th pregnancy and lactation. 8 ed. Philadelphia, PA: Lippincott Williams & Wilkins, 2008. http://www.briggsdrugsinpregnancy.com. 2. Nahum GG, Uhl K, Kennedy DL. Antibiotic use in pregnancy and lactation. Obstet Gynecol 2006;107:1120-38. 3. Committee on Drugs. American Academy of Pediatrics. Transfer of drugs and other chemicals into human milk. Pediatrics 2001;108:776-89. 4. Czeizel AE, Rockenbauer, M, Sorensen HT, Olsen J. Use of cephalosporins during pregnancy and in the presence of congenital abnormalities: a populationbased, case-control study. Am J Obstet Gynecol 2001;184;1289-96. 5. Lee M, Bozzo P, Einarson A, Koren G. Urinary tract infections in pregnancy. June 2008. Motherisk.org. http://www.motherisk.org/prof/updatesDetail.jsp?cont ent_id=882. (Accessed April 11, 2009). 6. Pregnancy Team, Food and Drug Administration. Cipro (ciprofloxacin) use by pregnant and lactating women. Center for Drug Evaluation and Research. Food and Drug Administration. October 30, 2001. http://www.fda.gov/cder/drug/infopage/cipro/cipropre g.htm. (Accessed April 13, 2009). 7. Sivojelezova A, Einarson A, Shuhaiber S, Koren G. Trimethoprim-sulfonamide combination therapy in early pregnancy. Can Fam Physician 2003;49:10856. 8. Soong D, Einarson A. Vaginal yeast infections during pregnancy. Can Fam Physician 2009;55:2556. 9. Einarson A, Shuhaiber S, Koren G. Effects of antibacterials on the unborn child. What is known and how should this influence prescribing. Paediatr Drugs 2001;3:803-16. 10. Czeizel AE, Rockenbauer M, Olsen J. Use of antibiotics during pregnancy. Eur J Obstet Gynecol Reprod Biol 1998;81:1-8. 11. Donders GG. Treatment of sexually transmitted bacterial diseases in pregnant women. Drugs 2000;59:477-85. 12. Meadows M. Pregnancy and the drug dilemma. FDA Consumer Magazine. May-June 2001. 1.
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http://www.fda.gov/fdac/features/2001/301_preg.html (Accessed April 12, 2009). Okun N, Gronau KA, Hannah ME. Antibiotics for bacterial vaginosis or Trichomonas vaginalis in pregnancy: a systematic review. Obstet Gynecol 2005;105:857 68. Yudin MH, Money DM. Screening and management of bacterial vaginosis in pregnancy. J Obstet Gynaecol Can 2008;30:702-16. Product information for Metrogel. Galderma Laboratories, L.P. Fort Worth, Texas 76177. July 2004. Product information for Metrogel-Vaginal. 3M Pharmaceuticals. Northridge, CA 91324. December 2006. Product monograph for Metrogel. Galderma Canada Inc. Thornhill, Ontario L3T 7W3. July 17, 2007. Product information for Trecator. Wyeth Pharmaceuticals, Inc. Philadelphia, PA 19101. November 2007. CDC, Workowski KA, Berman SM. Sexually transmitted disease treatment guidelines, 2006. MMWR Recomm Rep 2006;55(RR-11):1-94. Public Health Agency of Canada. Canadian guidelines on sexually transmitted infections. Pregnancy. Updated 2008. http://www.phacaspc.gc.ca/std-mts/sti_2006/pdf/604_Pregnancy.pdf. (Accessed May 19, 2009). Product information for Macrobid. Proctor & Gamble. Cincinnati, OH 45202. January 2009. CDC. Tuberculosis and pregnancy. October 2008. http://www.cdc.gov/tb/pubs/tbfactsheets/pregnancy.p df. (Accessed May 17, 2009). Product information for Flagyl. G.D. Searle LLC (Division of Pfizer). New York, NY 10017. August 2006. Product monograph for Flagyl. Sanofi-Aventis Canada. Laval, Quebec H7L 4A8. September 27, 2007. Product information for Flagyl ER. G.D. Searle LLC (Division of Pfizer). New York, NY 10017. August 2006. Product information for tetracycline. Barr Labs. Pomona, NY. 10970. February 2006. http://dailymed.nlm.nih.gov. (Accessed May 19, 2009). Product information for ethambutol. Versa Pharm Inc. Marietta, GA 30062-2260. April 2005. Product information for Capastat. Eli Lilly. Indianapolis, IN 46285. January 2008. Product information for Biaxin. Abbot Labs. North Chicago, IL 60064. October 2008. Product monograph for Biaxin. Abbott Labs. SaintLaurent, Quebec H4S 1Z1. April 15, 2009. Product information for Gris-Peg. Pedinol Pharm. Farmingdale, NY 11735. January 2007. Product information for miconazole suppositories. Alpharma USPD. Baltimore, MD 21244. December 2005.
More. . .
33. Product information for Lamisil. Novartis. East Hanover, NJ 07936. November 2005. 34. Product monograph for Lamisil. Novartis Canada. Dorval, Quebec H95 1A9. January 30, 2008. 35. Product monograph for Tindamax. Mission Pharm. San Antonio, TX 78230-1355. May 2007. 36. Pappas PG, Kauffman CA, Andes D, et al. Clinical practice guidelines for the management of candidiasis: 2009 update by the Infectious Diseases Society of America. Clin Infect Dis 2009;48:503-35. 37. CDC. Guidelines for prevention and treatment of opportunistic infections in HIV-infected adults and adolescents. MMWR 2009;58(No. RR-4):1-207. 38. Public Health Agency of Canada. Canadian guidelines on sexually transmitted infections, vaginal discharge (bacterial vaginosis, vulvovaginal candidiasis, trichomoniasis. Updated January 2008. http://www.phac-aspc.gc.ca/std-
mts/sti_2006/pdf/408_Vaginal_Discharge.pdf. (Accessed June 3, 2009). 39. American Thoracic Society, CDC, and Infectious Disease Society of America. Treatment of tuberculosis. MMWR 2003;52(RR-11):1-77. 40. Crider KS, Cleves MA, Reefhuis J, et al. Antibacterial medication use during pregnancy and risk of birth defects. National Birth Defects Prevention Study. Arch Pediatr Adolesc Med 2009;163:978-85. 41. U.S. National Library of Medicine. Toxicology Data Network (Toxnet). Drug and Lactation Database (LactMed). February 12, 2010. http://toxnet.nlm.nih.gov/cgi-bin/sis/htmlgen?LACT. (Accessed March 28/29, 2010 and April 6, 2010).
Cite this Detail-Document as follows: Antibiotic and antifungal use during pregnancy and breastfeeding. Pharmacists Letter/Prescribers Letter 2009;25(6):250607.
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Antibiotic and Antifungal Use During Pregnancy and Breastfeeding

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PHARMACISTS LETTER / PRESCRIBERS LETTER

Antibiotic and Antifungal Use During Pregnancy and Breastfeeding

(Detail-Document #250607: Page 2 of 27)

Amphotericin B (Abelcet, etc)

Excreted into breast milk in low concentrations.1

Azithromycin (Zithromax [U.S.]; generics [Canada])

(Detail-Document #250607: Page 3 of 27)

Drug Azole antifungals (Topical) (See individual agents)

Pregnancy Categorya Refer to individual agents

Use in Lactation See individual agents.

Aztreonam (Azactam) (U.S. only) B

Capreomycin (Capastat) (U.S. only)

Cefadroxil (Duricef [U.S.]; generics [Canada])

(Detail-Document #250607: Page 4 of 27)

Cefazolin (Ancef [U.S.], Kefzol [U.S.]; generics [Canada])

Cefdinir (Omnicef) (U.S. only)

Cefditoren (Spectracef) (U.S. only)

(Detail-Document #250607: Page 5 of 27)

Drug Cefixime (Suprax)

Cefprozil (Cefzil [U.S.]; generics [Canada])

(Detail-Document #250607: Page 6 of 27)

Cefuroxime (Ceftin [U.S.]; generics [Canada])

Cephalexin (Keflex [U.S.]; generics [Canada])

(Detail-Document #250607: Page 7 of 27)

Drug Ciprofloxacin (Cipro [U.S.]; generics [Canada])

Clavulanic Acid (amoxicillin-clavulanate [Augmentin]) B

Clindamycin (Cleocin [U.S.]; generics [Canada])

(Detail-Document #250607: Page 8 of 27)

Drug Clotrimazole (Topical/Vaginal) (Gyne-Lotrimin, etc. [U.S.]; Canesten, etc. [Canada])

Cloxacillin (Cloxapen [U.S.]; generics [Canada])

(Detail-Document #250607: Page 9 of 27)

Drug Demeclocycline Dicloxacillin (Dynapen, etc) (U.S. only)

Doxycycline (Periostat, etc. [U.S.]; Doxytab [Canada]) Ertapenem (Invanz)

Erythromycin (excluding estolate salt)

Erythromycin estolate (generics [Canada])

(Detail-Document #250607: Page 10 of 27)

Drug Ethambutol (Myambutol [U.S.]; Etibi [Canada])

Ethionamide (Trecator) (U.S. only)

(Detail-Document #250607: Page 11 of 27)

(Detail-Document #250607: Page 12 of 27)

(Detail-Document #250607: Page 13 of 27)

Drug Itraconazole (Sporanox)

Kanamycin (U.S. only)

Ketoconazole (Oral) (Nizoral, etc)

(Detail-Document #250607: Page 14 of 27)

Drug Levofloxacin (Levaquin)

Linezolid (Zyvox [U.S.]; Zyvoxam [Canada])

(Detail-Document #250607: Page 15 of 27)

Drug Metronidazole (Oral, IV) (Flagyl, etc)

Metronidazole (Topical, Vaginal) (Metrogel, etc) B

See oral and IV metronidazole.

(Detail-Document #250607: Page 16 of 27)

Drug Miconazole (Monistat, etc)

Minocycline (Solodyn, etc [U.S.]; generics [Canada])

Nafcillin (Unipen, etc) (U.S. only)

(Detail-Document #250607: Page 17 of 27)

Drug Nitrofurantoin (Macrobid, Macrodantin [U.S.]; generics [Canada])

Norfloxacin (Noroxin [U.S.]; generics [Canada]) C

(Detail-Document #250607: Page 18 of 27)

Ofloxacin (Floxin [U.S.]; generics [Canada])

(Detail-Document #250607: Page 19 of 27)