Genetics and Heredity

Heredity is the passing of physical traits from one generation to another

Traits are passed from parent to offspring by the process of reproduction. Traits can be traced through ancestrial lines.
(though, not all traits can be seen)

Genetics is the scientific study of the mechanisms of heredity.

The Beginning of Genetics

The first scientific study of how traits are passed down through generations was done in 1866 by an Austrian monk named Gregor Mendel.
Mendel spent many years performing detailed experiments examining the inherited traits of pea plants in his monastery garden.

Mendels works were published, but largely forgotten for many years. In the early 1900s, years after his death, several scientists rediscovered Mendels work. Scientists realized that the principles this simple monk discovered applied to all life on this planet. The modern study of trait inheritance is known as Mendelian Genetics. Mendel is widely referred to as the Father of Genetics.

The 4 Major Principles of Mendelian Genetics

Individual units, called genes, determine biological characteristics (traits). For each gene, an organism inherits two genetic units called alleles- one unit from each parent. An allele for a trait can demonstrate dominance over other alleles of the same gene. Alleles segregate independently from each other. Meaning offspring can inherit any combination of the parent's alleles.

The Biological Basis of Genetics

Heredity is driven by the process of reproduction. Asexual Reproduction: growth of a new individual, which gets its genetic information from one parent organism. Asexual reproduction produces offspring that is genetically identical to the parent.

Sexual Reproduction: growth of a new individual which gets its genetic information from two parent organisms.
Sexual reproduction produces offspring that is gentically unique to either of the parents.
Henry Paul Wasemann (my nephew)

The offspring is a genetic mixture of traits derived from both the mothers and the fathers genes.

How Do Genes Make a Trait?

A gene is the genetic code for a specific trait.
Trait

Eye Color Gene

Eye Color

Genes are specific locations on the chromosomes, which translate to a specific part of the DNA.

Alleles are all the different genetic variations for that trait.
Possible Variations

Variations in the genetic code result in differences in the physical appearance of the trait.

Most cells in an organism have two alleles for every trait, one on each chromatid in a pair, but not all alleles are expressed.

Dominant: Traits that covers up most other alleles. The symbol for a dominant trait is a capital letter (B). Recessive: Traits that can be covered up and hidden by other alleles.
The symbol for a recessive trait is a lower-case letter (b).
Dominant Recessive

An organism that has two of the same alleles is considered Homozygous. This would be written either BB or bb.

An organism that has two different alleles for one trait is called Heterozygous. This would be written Bb.

In either case, if the dominant trait is present, the dominant trait will be expressed.

Genotype: The genetic make up of an organism. The particular combination of alleles contained in the chromosomes. ex: BB, Bb, bb TT, Tt, tt NN, Nn, nn Phenotype: The physical expression of a particular genotype. The trait shown by an organism.
ex: Black hair vs. Blond hair Blue eyes vs. Green eyes Short vs. Tall

The Geneticist's Best Friend... The Punnett Square"

The Punnet Square is a diagram used to determine the possible ??? and ??? of a particular genetic cross. The alleles of the mother
and

The alleles of the father are put in a grid to determine what possible traits the offspring can have.

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Punnett_square http://anthro.palomar.edu/mendel/mendel_2.htm

How to work a Punnett Square... The genotype of the female is placed at the top, with one allele over each column... The genotype of the male is placed on the side, with one allele by each row... The parent alleles are filled into the boxes of the square... The resulting genotypes in each square represent the possible combinations the offspring can have.

Example # 1 Both Mom & Dad are Heterozygous for Brown Hair (Bb) B = Dominant brown hair b = Recessive blond hair

B B b

b
Possible Genotypes for the kids... BB, bb, 2/4Bb Possible Phenotypes for the kids...

B B b B B b b b

brown blond

Example # 2 Mom is homozygous for Green Eyes (GG) & Dad is homozygous for Blue Eyes (gg) G = Dominant Green Eyes g = Recessive Blue Eyes

G g g

G
Possible Genotypes for the kids... 4/4 GG Possible Phenotypes for the kids... Green eyes 100%

G g G g G g G g

Example # 3 Mom is heterozygous for Long Fingers (Ll) & Dad is homozygous for Stubby Fingers (ll) L = Dominant Long Fingers l = Recessive Stubby Fingers

L l l

l
Possible Genotypes for the kids... 2/4 Ll 2/4 ll Possible Phenotypes for the kids... 50% long 50% stubby

L l l l L l l l

Standard notation for Punnett Square crosses is written like this... BB x Bb

Female Genotype Male Genotype

Ff x FF

qq x qQ

F F F FF FF

f fF fF q Q

q qq qQ

q qq qQ

Some traits are linked", meaning they are found on the same chromosome. Genes that are linked are essentially inherited at the same time. The genetic cross becomes more complicated. Gene for eye color Gene for curly hair

Let's look at one of Mendel's experiments...

Female Genotype Male Genotype

RrYy

RrYy

R is linked to Y R= r= Y= y= Round seeds Wrinkled seeds Yellow seeds Green seeds

RY

Ry

rY

ry

RY RYYY ???? ???? ???? Ry rY ry ???? RRyy ???? ???? ???? ???? rrYY ????

???? ???? ???? ????

RY RY RRYY

Ry RRYy

rY RrYY

ry Round Yellow Seeds RrYy Round Green Seeds

Ry

RRYy

RRyy

RrYy

Rryy Wrinkled Yellow Seeds

rY

RrYY

RrYy

rrYY

rrYy Wrinkled Green Seeds

ry

RrYy

Rryy

rrYy

rryy

RY RY RRYY

Ry RRYy

rY RrYY

ry Round Yellow Seeds RrYy

9
Round Green Seeds

Ry

RRYy

RRyy

RrYy

Rryy

3
Wrinkled Yellow Seeds

rY

RrYY

RrYy

rrYY

rrYy

3
Wrinkled Green Seeds

ry

RrYy

Rryy

rrYy

rryy