]<gj]<]<j<^]<]

? ?? ?
K

KKK

KKKKKK


]<gj]<]<j<^]<]

K
K

K
K

--

Introduction J

K
K
General ConceptsJ

KW
W
measured quantity EF

Standard system EF

measuring instruments EF
measuring technology EF

W EF
KKKKKKKKKKKKK

KW EF
W

The international standards system EF

The primary standards system EF

The secondary standards system EF

--

EF

K
The working standard EF

W EF
K

W EF
Electrical And Electronic InstrumentsJ

EF
KEF

J J

Functions and Characteristics of Electrical and Electronic Instruments

KK

K(amplifier)
--

Electrical UnitsJ J J

W
(Q) EF

(I) EF

(V) EF
(R) EF

(L) EF

(C) EF

K EJ F

(meter)

(Length)

kg

(kilogram)

(Mass)

(second)

(Time)

(degree Kelvin)

(Temperature)

cd

(candela)

(Ampere)

(Luminous intensity)
i

(Electric current)

(Volt)

(Electromotive force)

(Coulomb)

(Quantity of charge)

(Ohm)

(Electrical resistance)

(Farad)

(Capacitance)

(Henry)

(Inductance)

EJ F

--

Error Sources in MeasurementsJ

W
W(Instrumental Error)
EJ J FW

EF

EFW

E
F

EFW

E
F

EFW

E
F

W(Gross Error)

EF

E
F

E
F

EF

E
F

(Environmental Error)

EF

EF

EF

K (Expected Value)

K(Error)

K(Percentage Error)(Absolute Error)

--

Absolute Error
K
W
EJ F

e = Yn X n

: e

: Yn
: Xn
Relative Error

K
W
Re lative Error =

Y Xn
e
= n
Yn
Yn

EJ F

Percentage Error

K
W
Percentage Error =

Y Xn
e
100 = n
100
Yn
Yn

EJ F

W
Accuracy

--

Relative Accuracy

K (A)

W(A)

A =

Xn
Y Xn
=1 n
= Relative Error
Yn
Yn

EJ F
W
KWA

Percentage Accuracy

K(a)
a =

Xn
Yn X n
= 100 %
Yn
Yn

EJ F

100 %

EJ F

a = 100 % Percentage Error

: a
EJ F

50 V

W 49 V
EF

EF
EF

EF

e = Yn X n = 50 49 = 1 volt

W
W

Percentage Error =

50 V 49 V
100 % = 2 %
50V
--

EF

EF

A = 1

EF

EF

50 V 49 V
1
=1
= 0.98
50 V
50

a = 100 % percentage Error = 100 % 2 % = A 100 % = 98 %

(Precision)K

WK

= 1

Xi Xn
(Precision)i
Xn

EJ FW
(i)W(Precision)i

(i)W X i

(n) W X n

--

EJ F

Xi (volts)

EJ FEJ F

KEF(Precision)
W

WEJ F
(Precision) i = 1

Xi Xn

Xn

n
i = WEF

W X10
X10 =

98 + 102 + 101 + 97 + 100 + 103 + 98 + 106 + 107 + 99

= 101.1
10

(Precision) = 1

X 4 X10
97 101.1
=1
= 0.96
101.1
X10

--

J
Statistical Analysis of Errors in Measurements

K
EF

W W K

WK

(Average deviationF(arithmetic mean)

K(Standard deviation)

Average value (arithmetic mean)J J

(X1 , X 2 , X 3 .....X n ) n X

WKn
X =

X 1 + X 2 + X 3 + ... . . + X n
n

EJ F

deviationJ J

X i ( d i )i

WK X
--

di = Xi X

EJ F
WK
d 1 + d 2 + d 3 + . . .. + d n = 0

EJ F

W
n

di = 0
i =1

EJ F
K
Average deviationJ J J

WK(D)
D=

d 1 + d 2 + d 3 + . ... + d n
n

EJ F
Standard deviationJ J J

K (S)

S=

d 12 + d 22 + d 32 + ... + d 2n
n or (n 1)

EJ F
( n )(n )( n < )
Kn

EJ F
W

K X EF
K d i EF

--

K d i EF
i =1

KD EF
KS EF

{
{

X
X

{
{

X
X

EJ FEJ F

X =

W X

EF

W d i

EF

W d i

EF

50.1 + 49.7 + 49.6 + 50.2

= 49.9
4

d1 = 50.1 49.9 = 0.2

d 2 = 49.7 49.9 = - 0.2

d 3 = 49.6 49.9 = - 0.3
d 4 = 50.2 49.9 = 0.3
n

i =1

di
i =1

D =

= d 1 + d 2 + d 3 + d 4 = 0.2 0.2 0.3 + 0.3 = 0

0 .2 + 0 .2 + 0 .3 + 0 .3

S=

d 12 + d 22 + d 32 + d 24
=
4 1
--

WD

EF

WS

EF

1
= 0.25
4

0.2 2 + 0.2 2 + 0.3 2 + 0.3 2

= 0.294
3

Limiting ErrorsJ

KFull scale reading

K 2% voltmeter
K

K
K

EJ F

% v

K vK

W
Limiting Error at full scale = 0.02 300 v = 6 v
W v
Limiting Error at 120 v =

6
100 % = 5 %
120

--

Elements of Electronic InstrumentsJ

WKEJ F

Transducer

Signal modifier

Indicating device

EJ F
WTransducer EF

WSignal Modifier EF
K

WIndicating Device EF
K(Ammeter)(Voltmeter)
W

W
K

--

Selection, Usage and Care of Measuring Instruments

K
K

(The operating and instructions manual)E

K

KEF

K
W

K K
K

--

{ A J
KK { A

W{ k k J
K

EF

E
F

{ V J
K{ V
W J

(a)
(b)
(c)
(d)
(e)
(f)

(volts)

{
{
{
{
{
{

--

W J

(mm)

{
{
{
{
{
{

K EF
KE
F
W J

V V

EF

EF

E
F

J
K

J
W{ k

(k)

{
{
{
{
{
{
{
{

W J

(kHz)

--

EF

E
F

E
F

K VK

--


]<gj]<]<j<^]<]

K
K

--

Introduction J

E F

W
K
D'Arsonval Meter Movement J

KW
Construction of D'Arsonval MeterJ J

EJ F

(soft iron)(horseshoe)

Scale

Pointer

Permenant Magnet

Spring

Core

North Pole

Moving Coil

South Pole

KEJ F
--

Operation of D'Arsonval MeterJ J

J J

D'Arsonval Meter in Direct Current Circuits

J J J

D'Arsonval Meter as D.C Ammeter

KA
K

(Rsh)
EJ FK

K
Im

Ish

Rm

Rsh

Vm

KEJ F
--

ImIsh

K
WEJ F
WRsh

EF WRm
WIsh

W Im

WI

WEJ F

EJ F

Vm = I m R m

Rsh
W

EJ F

Vm = Vsh

EJ F

I = I m + I sh

WRsh

I sh = I I m

E J F

WRshVmIsh

EJ F

R sh =

Vsh
I Rm
= m
(I I m )
I sh

Wnn
--

EJ F

n =

I
Im

WEJ F
EJ F

(I m R m ) / I m
(I I m ) / I m

R sh =

Rm
(n - 1)

EJ F
W

K I m = 1 mA
100 Rm
K I = 10 mA
W

R sh

Im R m
1 10 3 100
=
=
= 11.11
(I I m )
9 10 3

WEJ F

n =

10 10 3
1 10 3

WEJ Fn
= 10

WEJ F

R sh =

Rm
100
100
=
=
= 11.11
(n 1) 10 1
9

The Ayrton shuntJ J J J

KRsh

Rsh
K (range selector switch)

KRc Rb, Ra RshEJ F

WRsh
--

EJ F

R sh = R a + R b + R c

WEJ F Rsh
R sh = R m / (n 1)

EJ F

n = I1 I m

W
(-)

Rm

Im

R sh
Rc

Ra

Rb

I-Im
I

K[I]EJ F
R a , R b , R c

KEJ F

Rm

Im

R sh
Rc

Ra

Rb

I-Im
I

+
K[I]EJ F
--

Rb+RcRa[I]
Rm+ RaRb + RcRm
W

VR b + R c = VR a + R m

EJ F
W
EJ F

(R b + R c )(I 2 I m ) = I m (R a + R m )

W
I 2 (R b + R c ) I m (R b + R c ) = I m (R a + R m )

EJ F

WIm (Rb + Rc)

I 2 (R b + R c ) = I m (R a + R b + R c + R m ) = I m (R sh + R m )

EJ F

(Rb + Rc)

Rb + Rc =

I m (R sh + R m )
I2

EJ F

Ra (Rb + Rc)Rsh
W
EJ F

R a = R sh (R b + R c )

--

WEJ F[I]
Rm

Im

R sh
Rc

Ra

Rb

I-Im
I

K[I]EJ F

RcRaHRm RcRb
W Rm+ Ra+ Rb
EJ F

VR C = VR m + R a + R b

W
EJ F

R c (I 3 I m ) = I m (R a + R b + R m )

W
I 3 R c I m R c = I m (R a + R b + R m )

EJ F

WRcIm
I 3 R c = I m (R a + R b + R c + R m ) = I m (R sh + R m )

Rc =

I m (R sh + R m )
I3

EJ F

(Rc)
EJ F
WRb
EJ F

R b = R sh (R a + R c )

EJ F

KEJ F
--

Im = A

Rm = k

Rb

Rc

Ra

I3 = 1 A

I 2 = 100 mA

I1 = 10 mA

KEJ FEJ F
W

W
n = 10 mA 100 A = 100

R sh = R a + R b + R c = R m (n 1)
R sh = 1 k (100 1) = 10.1

W R b + R c
Rb + Rc =

I m (R sh + R m )
I2

Rb + Rc =

100 A (10.1 + 1000 )

= 1.01
100 mA

R a = R sh _(R b + R c ) = 10.1 1.01 = 9.09

W R c
Rc =

I m (R sh + R m )
I3

Rc =

100 A (1010.1 )
= 0.101
1A

W R b

R b = R sh (R a + R c ) = 10.1 (9.09 + 0.101) = 0.909

--

J J J J

Ammeter Loading Effect

K
EJ F

Ie = E / RWEIeF

Ie

KEJ F

ERmF
WEJ F
Im = E

EJ F

(R 1 + R m )
R

Im

Rm

KEJ F

R = kE = V
I e = E R 1 = 10V 1k = 10 mA

WEJ F

k EJ F

Im = E

(R 1 + R m ) = 10 V

(1 k + 2 k )
--

= 3.33 mA

Rm
K

J Voltmeter) J J J
EDC

E mvFK

(RS) mv
KEJ F
Rm

Im

RS

VRs

Vm

KEJ F

WVRS

I m = V (R m + R S )

EJ F

R S = (V I m ) R m

EJ F
W(Sensitivity (S))
--

EJ F

S = 1 I FS

KW I FS
S

1
1
=
= ohm / volt = V
Ampere
volt ohms

WS
EJ F

WRS

EJ F

RS = S V Rm

RSV
VRSEJ FK

IFS A. k

. V

EJ F
R S = SV R m
S = 1 I F.S = 1 100 A = 10 k / V

WS

R S = ( 10 k / V 50 V) 1 k = 499 k

WRSS

--

EJ F
KEJ FRS, RS, RS

R m = 1 k

I m = 50 A

RS

RS
V

RS

KEJ FEJ F

S = 1 / I FS = 1 / 50 A = 20 k / V

WS
W VRS

R S1 = S V1 R m = 20 k / V 3V 1 k = 59 k

W VRS

R S2 = S V2 R m = 20 k / V 10V 1 k = 199 k

W VRS

R S3 = S V3 R m = 20 k / V 30V 1 k = 599 k

--

EJ F
KEJ FRa, Rb, Rc
I m = 50 A

R m = 1 k

Ra

Rc

Rb

+
KEJ FEJ F

S = 1 / I FS = 1 / 50 A = 20 k / V

WS

W VRa

R a = S V1 R m = 20 k / V 3V 1 k = 59 k

W VRb

R a + R b = S V2 R m = 20 k / V 10V 1 k = 199 k
R b = 199 k R b = 199 k 59 k = 140 k

W VRc

R a + R b + R c = S V3 R m = 20 k / V 30V 1 k = 599 k

R c = 599 k (R a + R b ) = 599 k 199 k = 400 k

J J J J

Voltmeter Loading Effect

--

EJ F

RB

WRB

VR B = E

RB
EJ F
RA + RB

VR B = 30V

5 k
= 5V
25 k + 5 k

RA = K
E = V
RB = K

VR B

KEJ F

RB
WReq
R eq = R B // R V

RB RV
RB + RV

5 k 10 k
= 3.33 k
5 k + 10 k

W
VR B = E

R eq

R eq + R A

= 30 V

3.33 k
= 3.53 V
3.33 k + 25 k

{ %
K

--

EJ F

Kk

J J J

D'Arsonval Meter as Ohmmeter

KEJ F

Rz

Rm

Ifs

EJ F

EJ F

ERxFEEFERmFERzF
[EJ FX, Y]

K

--

I =

WERxF

E
Rz + Rm + Rx

EJ F

R x = W
ERxF
: R x = 0 I = 0 W
I=

E
Rz + Rm

EJ F

KEIFSFEE, Rz, RmF

I f .s =

E
Rz + Rm

EJ F
W R x = R z + R m

I =

E
1
= I FS
2 ( Rz + Rm )
2

EJ F

KIfs
W R x = 2 ( R z + R m )

I =

E
3( Rz + Rm

1
I FS
3

EJ F
W R x = 3 ( R z + R m )

I =

E
4 ( Rz + Rm

1
I FS
4

EJ F

()

ERxF
[]
(Rz + Rm)
X, YK(Rz + Rm)

K EshortFEJ F
.(Rz)

--

D'Arsonval Meter in Alternating Current Circuits

J J

K
K

FK
(rectification) KE

K(diode rectifier)

J J J

D'Arsonval Meter with Half Wave Rectification

EJ F

RS

If.s

E r.m.s

E av

Rm

EJ F
--

E F

K
K

(Eav)

W(Erms)

Q E av =

E max
= 0.318 E max

Q E r.m.s =

E max
2

EJ F

, E max = 1.414 E r.m.s

EJ F
EJ F

E av = 0.318 1.414 E r.m.s = 0.45 E r.m.s

E av
= 2.22 E av
EJ F
0.45
Eform factor)[{]
E r.m.s =

K
W(Rs)
RT = RS + Rm =

E d.c
0.45 E r.m.s
=
I d.c
I d.c

EJ F
W

KW R T
RS =

0.45 E r.m.s
E d.c
Rm =
Rm
I d.c
I d.c

EJ F

EJ F EJ F


V V
--

{ V
W

Sa.c = 0.45 Sd.c EJ F

W R T

RT =
RT =

E d.c
= S d.c E d.c
I d.c

EJ F

0.45 E r.m.s
= 0.45 S d.c E r.m.s = S a .c E r.m.s
I d.c

R T = R S + R m = S d.c E d.c = S a.c E r.m.s

--

EJ F
EJ F

EJ F
EEJ FF

K10 Vr.m.s

RS

If .s = 1 mA

E r.m.s = 10 Vr.m.s

E av

R m = 300

KEJ FEJ F
W

WEJ F
E av = E d.c = 0.45 E r.m.s = 0.45 10 = 4.5 V

WEJ F
S d.c =

1
I FS

= 1000 / V = 1 k / V

WEJ F
S a .c = 0.45 S d.c = 0.45 1 k / V = 0.45 k / V

WEJ F

R T = R S + R m = S d.c E d.c = 1 k / V 4.5 V = 4.5 k

R T = R S + R m = S a.c E r.m.s = 0.45 k / V 10 V = 4.5 k

W
R S = 4.5 k 300 = 4.5 k 0.3 k = 4.2 k
--

RS =

0.45 E r.m.s
0.45 10
Rm =
300 = 4200 = 4.2 k
I d.c
1 10 3

J F
(Rsh)

KE

RS

I f .s

E in

Rm

KEJ F

(reverse-biased)(D)

K
(forward-biased)
(D)

K(D)(reverse-biased leakage current)

(D)(Rsh)
K(D)

--

EJ F
EEJ FF

KRS

EF

EF

EF

WRSEF
W
I f .s R m = I sh R sh

RS

IT
I sh

E in = 10 Vr.m.s

R sh = 200

I f .s = 100 A
R m = 200

KEJ FEJ F

WIsh
I sh =

I FS R m 100 A 200
=
= 100 A
R sh
200

WIT
I T = I FS + I sh = 100 A + 100 A = 200 A

W
--

E d.c = E av = 0.45 E r.m.s = 0.45 10 V = 4.5 V

WRT
RT =

E d.c
4.5 V
=
= 22.5 k
I T 200 A

RS, Rd

WRshRm
RT = RS + Rd +

R m R sh
R m + R sh

WRS
RS = RT Rd
R S = 22.5 k 50

R m R sh
R m + R sh

200 200
= 22.35 k
200 + 200

WEF
S d.c =

R T 22.5 k
=
= 5 k / V
E d.c
4 .5 V

WEF
S a.c =

--

R T 22.5 k
=
= 2.25 k / V
E a .c
10 V

J J J
D'Arsonval Meter with Full Wave Rectification

K
K

EJ F
K(bridge rectifier)

RS

If.s
Rm

KEJ F

FK

E
K

K
W

EJ F

Q E av =

EJ F

2
E max = 0.636 E max

Q E max = 1.414 E r.m.s

--

EJ F

E av = 0.636 1.414 E r.m.s = 0.9 E r.m.s

EJ F

E r.m.s =

E av
= 1.11 E av
0.9

[{]

EJ F

K Vr.m.sEJ F

RS

E in = 10 Vr.m.s

I f .s = 1 mA

R m = 500

KEJ FEJ F

W
S d.c =

I FS

1
= 1 k / V
1 mA

E d.c = 0.9 E r.m.s = 0.9 10 Vr.m.s = 9 V

--

R T = S d.c E d.c = 1k / V 9 V = 9 k = R S + R m

R S = 9 k 500 = 8.5 k

EJ F

EJ F

KRS

EF

EF

EF

WRS EF
E d.c = 0.9 E r.m.s = 0.9 10 Vr.m.s = 9 V

E in = 10 Vr.m.s

RS

IT

I sh

I f .s = 1 mA
R m = 500

R sh = 500

KEJ FEJ F

W
I sh R sh = I m I m = 1 mA 500 = 0.5 V
I sh =
--

0.5 V
= 1 mA
500

WIT

I T = I m + I sh = 1 mA + 1 mA = 2 mA

WRT
RT =

E d.c
9V
=
= 4 .5 k
IT
2 mA

WRS
R T = R S + 2R d +
4.5 k = R S + 2 50 +

R m R sh
R m + R sh

500 500
500 + 500

R S = 4.5 k 350 = 4.15 k

W EF
R T = S d.c E d.c

S d.c =

R T 4 .5 k
=
= 500 / V
E d.c
9V

W EF
S a .c =

--

RT
4.5 k
=
= 450 / V
E r.m.s 10 Vr.m.s

EF
K A

EF
K A V

EF
K k/V

EF
mA mA

W ( kF EF
K k VA EF

. k VB E
F

R, R& R EF
W
Im = A

Rm = k

I 3 = 100 mA I 2 = 10 mA
--

I1 = 1 mA

R, R, R& R
W
Im = A

Rm = k

EF

I 4 = 100 mA I 3 = 10 mA I 2 = 1 mA I1 = 100 A

RJ R
W

EF

Im = A

Rm = k

Rx
K

R= k

Im = A

Rm = k

EF

Rsh=
E = V
--

Rx

R= k

k EF
V, V, V, W k/V

V
K

E=V

X, Y k/VA EF
BVV

.BV{VX, Y

E = V

X
R

k EF
V k/V

--

E = V

EF EF

Apeak
{ mAEF EF

mA EF

K Vrms

A
EF

.Vp-p
E F
EF

RS RD = I T

E in = 20 Vr.m.s

I sh

RD=

R sh = 250

--

I f .s = 1 mA
R m = 250

E F
EF

KE F

E in = 20 Vr.m.s

RS

IT
R sh = 250

I sh

I f .s = 1 mA

R m = 250

--


]<gj]<]<j<^]<]

K
K
K

- -

(Introduction)J
F

(parameters)

KEEFJ F

KEEFJ F

EF

EF

KEJ F

- -

(Digital Voltmeters [DVM])J

W K

(Decade Counting Units)(A/D Converters)

(Display Unit)

(Single-slope DVM's) K

(Dual-slope DVM's) K
(Voltage-to-Frequency Converters) K

(Successive-Approximation DVM's) K
K

(Single-Slope DVM's)J J

EJ F

(-Vref)
(Integrator)K (Vx)
(Counter)(AND)(Comparator)
WK(digital readout)

K K

() F(main gate control) K

(leading edge)SEEJ F
K[High]AND

K
CS K
]

K[EJ F()

- -

(Vx)[High] K
ANDK[EJ F() ]

K[High]

R
Vref ()

Vx

KEJ F

J F () ]Clock

[High]AND[E

[EJ F () ]

K(Binary Counter)

Vx

AND

K(Clock)

Vx

(main gate control)

K(digital readout)

(falling edge)K
- -

CS

K

EJ F

K(Timing Diagram)EJ F

S
S

Vx
t

KEJ F

( T )

W[Vio(t)]
1 t
Vio ( t ) =
Vref dt
RC t

EJ F

Vio ( t ) =

1
Vref ( t t 1 )
RC

EJ F

t t

W
- -

at

t = t2

EJ F

Vio ( t 2 ) = Vx

1
Vref ( t 2 t 1 )
EJ F
RC
WTtt
Vio ( t 2 ) = Vx =

T = t t
Vx =

or

1
Vref T
RC

EJ F

Vx
Vref

EJ F

T = RC

KVxT

ER, CF

EJ F

ttT

Vx = 5 V C = 0.1 f R = 10 k

K Vref = 10 V

WEJ F

T = RC

Vx
5
= 100 10 3 0.1 10 6 = 5 10 3 sec = 5 m sec
Vref
10

J J (Dual-Slope DVM's)

K EJ F

- -

RA
AC

[High] [Low]
WK
W K
KCS J
KAS J

K(...) J

Vref (-)
B

Vi

KEJ F

K
KEJ F

[High]
K
K(Clock)AND

- -

KEJ FEJ F

t K
[Overflow Pulse]EJ F
VrefBS

K( )(at time t)

ttC K
t
(Clock) AND
[Low]

tt
K

t K
K

WAS
V1 ( t ) =

1 t
Vin dt
RC t

t1 t t 2

EJ F

V1 ( t ) =

Vin
(t t1 )
RC

t = t2

at

V1 ( t 2 ) =
If

EJ F
EJ F

V1 ( t ) = V1 ( t 2 )

Vin
(t 2 t1 )
RC

EJ F
EJ F

T1 = t 2 t 1

- -

V1 ( t 2 ) =

Vin T1
RC

EJ F

V(t)tt

1 t
V2 ( t ) = V1 ( t 2 ) +
Vref dt
RC t

EJ F

1
Vref ( t t 2 )
V2 ( t ) = V1 ( t 2 ) +
RC

EJ F

EJ F

t = t 3 V2 ( t 3 ) = 0
1
1

Vref ( t 3 t 2 ) =
Vin T1
RC
RC
If
T2 = t 3 t 2 therefore,

at

EJ F
EJ F
EJ F

Vref T2 = Vin T1
which equal,

T2 Vin
=
T1 Vref

Vin = Vref

T2
T1

EJ F

KT

- -

EJ F
V
tVref
KT= secVi = Vtt

WEJ F
T2 = T1

Vin
1
= 1 = 0.2 sec
5
Vref

(Digital Multimeter [DMM])J

L
K(Decade Counter)

EJ F

(Compensated Attenuator)(Attenuator)

L
K
(Rectifier)

EJ F (Current-to-Voltage Converter)

KEJ F

K
i(Summing Junction)

KIi IR

(Voltage drop)IR
L
K

K
- -

DCV

ACV
DCMA

DCV

ACV
DCMA

ACV

DCMA
OHMS

OHMS

OHMS

DCV

KEJ F

IR

Ii

KEJ F

- -

L
K

- -

K K
K K
K K

K K

( T ) K
K
K K

K K
K K
K K

- -


]<gj]<]<j<^]<]

W
K

K
K

--

Introduction J

K
Oscilloscope Block Diagram

(Cathode-Ray Tube or CRT)

KEEJ F F

Y, X

C
EJ F S

d.cS K
K

YY

KY

(preamplifier).
--

KEJ F

(time base)

(saw tooth waveform)

K

KEX F

K KX

xz[]EJ F
K

--

[][]

Kxz[]EJ F

[EJ F S] K

K EJ F S
K

(graticule)

KE F

YK

[VOLTS/DIV]Y [(J FS]

Y .Y
YVOLTS/DIVKY
K

[TRIGGER LEVEL]

AUTOTrigger levelK

K[?J ??H?]
VARIABLE

TIME/DIVKTIME/DIVCONTROL
--

KCalibrateVARIABLE CONTROL
K shiftJ X

FOCUS
INTENSITY

K
KEF

Oscilloscope as a measuring instrument J

- MHzK
K

K (Calibration)

K
HzK

ms/divTIME/DIV

K div

Voltage Measurements

J J

EF

FAK(sine waves)EJ FK

divEF B {divE
mv[VOLTS/DIV]K

WEF

--

KEJ FEJ F
Wave A: VA = ({ DIV) mv/DIV = mv
Wave B: VB = ({ DIV) mv/DIV = mv

Frequency Measurements

J J

(CAL) Y

W(T)
T = (Horizontal divisions/cycle) (TIME/DIV)

W(T)(F)
F = /T.
{ ms [TIME/DIV]
WEJ F(F)(T)
Wave A : TA = [({ DIV) { ms/DIV]/ cycles = { ms
FA = / ({ms) Hz
Wave B : TB = [({ DIV) { ms/DIV]/ cycles = { ms
FB = /({ms) { kHz
--

Lissajous Figures

J J

[Lissajous figures]

KK

Y(F)

X(F)
KEJ F
K

F/F = L F/F = L
[][]

KEJ F

FLF=EFLEF
Phase Angle Computation

J J

(Phase difference)

W
(CAL) (Channel and )
--

EJ F
{ divisions divisions

div =
(One cycle)K

div = / =

KEJ F

= { div (/div) =

W
(Channel and )

KEJ F

E
--

[ellipse] [ < < ]

K

K(L)EJ F

KE F
[ < < ]
--

[ellipse]
K

KE

[] EJ F

K[ellipse]

KEJ F

WEJ F[]
Sin() = Y/Y

KW(Y)
KW(Y)

K
--

K
K

J
J

--


]<gj]<]<j<^]<]

K
K

--

Introduction J

K K
K

KEF

K
Direct Current BridgesJ
Wheatstone BridgeJ J
EEJ FF

K

E
FK (E)
K

A
I

I
R

G
R

B
R

KEJ F

ER FER F
K

--

Condition of Balance of Wheatstone BridgeJ J J

BA

WRR
EJ F

I1 R 1 = I 2 R 2

WRR
EJ F

I3 R 3 = I 4 R 4

I1 = I 3 , I 2 = I 4

EJ F

WEJ FEJ F
I1 R 1 I 2 R 2
=
I3 R 3 I 4 R 4

EJ F
WEJ FEJ F

R1
R
= 2
R3
R4

EJ F

WEJ F
EJ F

R1 R 4 = R 2 R 3

EJ F

EJ FRx

R = k
E

R = k

R = k

Rx

KEJ FEJ F
--

WEEJ FF
R1 R x = R 2 R 3

WRx
Rx =

R 2 R 3 15 k 32 k
=
= 40 k
R1
12 k

General solution of Wheatstone BridgeJ J J

K

KK

Vth

RGrth
W
IG =

Vth

rth + R G

EJ F
WrthVth
VthW

RGF Vth BA

KE

Vth

WVthEJ FK

EJ F
EJ F

Vth =

Vth = V1 V2 = I1 R 1 I 2 R 2

R1
R2
E
E

R2 = E (
)
R1
R2 + R4
R1 + R 3 R 2 + R 4
R1 + R 3

--

rthW
rth
KEJ FrthBA
V
E

Vth

KVthEJ F

C
R

A
R

R
D

R
D

KrthEJ F
RRrth

K
RR

Wrth
--

rth =

R1 R 3
R R
+ 2 4
R1 + R 3 R 2 + R 4

EJ F
EJ F

KEJ F

R = k
E=V

R = k

RG =

R = k

B
R = k

KEJ FEJ F

WEJ FVth

Vth = E (

R1
R2
)

R1 + R 3 R 2 + R 4

1k
1.6 k
= 0.278V
Vth = 6

1 k + 3.5 k 1.6 k + 7.5 k

WEJ Frth
rth =

R1 R 3
R2 R4
+
R1 + R 3 R 2 + R 4

rth =

1 k 3.5 k 1.6 k 7.5 k

+
= 2.096 k
1 k + 3.5 k 1.6 k + 7.5 k

WEJ FIG
IG =

Vth
0.278 V
=
= 121.4 A
rth + R G 2.096 10 3 + 200

--

J J J

Slightly unbalanced Wheatstone Bridge

EJ F
W

R
E

Vth

B
R+R

KEJ F

WEJ FVthW
R1
R2

Vth = E
R1 + R 3 R 2 + R 4

R
R
R

= E
Vth = E

2 R + R
2 R + R
2
2R

EJ F

2 R + R

2R

Vth = E

2 (2 R + R )
2 (2 R + R )

EJ F

Vth = E
2 (2 R + R )

EJ F

RR
W

Vth = E
4R

EJ F

--

WEJ FrthW
rth =

R1 R 3
R2 R4
R R R (R + R )
+
=
+
R 1 + R 3 R 2 + R 4 R + R R + R + R

EJ F

rth =

R
R (R + R )
+
2
2 R + R

EJ F

WRR
rth =

R
R (R ) R
R
+
=
+
=R
2
2R
2
2

EJ F
EJ F

EJ F

K

EJ FEJ F

R1
R2

Vth = E
R1 + R 3 R 2 + R 4

500
500
= 0.122 V
Vth = 10 V

1000

1025

rth =

R1 R 3
R2 R4
+
R1 + R 3 R 2 + R 4
--

WW

rth =

500 500 500 525

+
= 506.1
500 + 500 500 + 525

IG =

Vth

rth + R G

IG =

0.122 V
= 193.3 A
506.1 + 125

WW
R

Vth = E
4
R

25
= 0.125 V
Vth = 10 V
4 500
rth = R = 500

IG =

Vth
0.125 V
=
= 200 A
rth + R G 500 + 125

Kelvin BridgeJ J

EJ F

K
K

--

Ra

Rlc

Rb
Rx

KEJ F
E F

K
ERa, RbF

K Rlc
K
Balance of Kelvin BridgeJ J J

W
R
R1
R
= 2 = a
R3
R4 Rb

EJ F

W
R
R
Rx
= 3 = b
R2
R1 R a
Rx =

EJ F

R2 R3 R2 Rb
=
R1
Ra

EJ F

--

EJ F
R=RbRaRx

K R 1 = 0.5 R 2

W R 1 = 0.5 R 2 R=
R2 =

R1
5
=
= 10
0 .5
0.5

R
Rx
= b
R2
Ra
Rx =

R 2 R b 10 1
=
= 0.01
Ra
1000

Digital readout BridgesJ J

KK

EJ FK
Amplifier

--

Rb
E

B
R

Rx

Amplifier
EF

Logic
circuits
)
(

Readout

KEJ F

J J

Microprocessor controlled Bridges

K
K

Applications on D.C Bridges J J

Murray LoopJ J J

K
K

K EJ F
--

K
R

R
E

La

Lb

Lx

EJ F

KRx Lx
Ra La

KRb-RxLb-Lx

WW

R 2 R a + (R b R x )
=
EJ F
R1
Rx

R 2 R x = R1 R a + R1 R b R1 R x
R 2 R x + R1 R x = R1 R a + R1 R b

R x (R 1 + R 2 ) = R 1 (R a + R b )
--

EJ F
EJ F
EJ F

Rx

R x =

R 1 (R a + R b )
EJ F
(R 1 + R 2 )

WEJ F
QR =

L
a

EJ F
W
W
W L

W a

x Lx
R1
=
ax
R1 + R 2

a La b L b

+
a
ab
a

EJ F

W
L x =

R1
2 R 1L
(2 L ) =
R1 + R1
R1 + R1

EJ F
EJ F

EJ F

mK

--

Lx

KEJ FEJ F

L x =

2 R 1L
2 100 1760 m
=
= 880 m
R1 + R1
100 + 300

Alternating Current BridgesJ

KEEJ F F (detector)

.(Filters)(Amplifiers)(Oscillators)

K
--

a.c source

Z
a.c
detector

c
Z

KEJ F

Balance of A.C Wheatstone BridgeJ J

K balance

K c b
KEJ F

I
a.c source

Z
c

I Z

KEJ F

--

cb
abK
Wac

I1 Z1 = I 2 Z 2 EJ F

dcdb
W
EJ F

I3 Z3 = I 4 Z 4

Wbc
EJ F

I1 = I 3

EJ F

I2 = I4
I 1 Z1 I 2 Z 2
=
I 3 Z3 I 4 Z 4

WEJ FEJ F
EJ F
WEJ FEJ F

Z1
Z
= 2
Z3
Z4

EJ F
WEJ F
EJ F

Z1 Z 4 = Z 2 Z 3

WEJ FEJ F
Z11
Z
= 2 2
Z 3 3
Z 4 4

EJ F

(Z11 ) (Z 4 4 ) = (Z 2 2 ) (Z 3 3 ) EJ F

EJ F
W
Z1 Z 4 = Z 2 Z 3

EF

1 + 4 = 2 + 3 E)

--

EJ F

EJ F

EJ F
J F

WE

Z1 = 300 30
Z 2 = 150 0

Z 3 = 250 40

KZx

Z 2 = 150 0

Z1 = 300 30
b

a.c source

a.c
detector

Z4 = Zx

Z 3 = 250 40
d

KEJ FEJ F

WEEJ FF
Z1 Z 4 = Z 2 Z 3
Zx = Z4 =

Z 2 Z 3 150 250
=
= 125
Z1
300

WEEJ FF
4 = 2 + 3 1 = 0 + (40) 30 = 70

W
Z x = 125 70
--

W
Z x = 125 70 = 125 cos (70) + j125 sin (70)

Z x = 42.75 j117.5

{
W X C = 117.5
X C = 117.5 =

C=

1
C

1
117.5

W Hz
C =

1
= 22.58
F
2 60 117.5

EJ F
KZxEJ F

R=

R=

E= V
F= kHz

L= mH

R=

C= F

B
Zx

KEJ FEJ F

--

W
WZ

EF

WZ

EF

Z1 = 400 + j0 = 400 0

Z 2 = R 2 + j L 2 = 200 + j 15.92 10 3

= 2 f = 2 1000 = 6283.19 rad / sec

WZ
Z 2 = 200 + j 6283.19 15.92 10 3 = 200 + j 100

Z 2 = 200 + j 100 = 223.6 26.6

WZ
Z3 = R 3 j

EF

1
1
= 300 j

C 3
6283.19 0.4 10 6

Z 3 = 300 j 400 = 500 53.13

WZ

WW

Zx = Z4 =

Z 2 Z 3 223.6 500
=
= 279.5
Z1
400

WW
4 = 2 + 3 1 = 26.6 + (53.13) 0 = 26.53

WZx
Z x = 279.5 26.53 = 250 j124.8

W{

--

X C = 124.8 =
C=

1
C

1
= 1.28 F
6283.19 124.8
Similar Angle BridgeJ J

WEJ F
WZ EF
EJ F

Z1 = R 1

WZ EF
EJ F

Z2 = R 2

WZ EF
EJ F

Z 3 = R 3 j X C3

WZ EF
EJ F

Z 4 = R x j X Cx

Rx
Cx

KEJ F
--

WEJ F
R 1 (R x j X Cx ) = R 2 (R 3 j X C3 )

EJ F

W
R 1 R x j R 1 X Cx = R 2 R 3 j R 2 X C3

EJ F

W
EJ F

R1 R x = R 2 R 3

Rx =

R2 R3
R1

EJ F
W
EJ F

j R 1 X Cx = j R 2 X C3

EJ F

R 1 X Cx = R 2 X C3

X Cx =

R 2 X C3
R1

EJ F
W

R2
1
=
C x
R 1 C 3
Cx =

EJ F
W

R 1C 3
R2

EJ F

--

EJ F
kHz
W

C 3 = 100 F & R 3 = 100 k R 2 = 50 k R 1 = 10 k

K

WEJ F
Rx =

R 2 R 3 50 k 100 k
=
= 500 k
R1
10 k

WEJ F
Cx =

R 1C 3 10 k 100 F
=
= 20 F
R2
50 k

Maxwell BridgeJ J
K

K
WEJ F

R
C

a.c source

Lx
Rx

KEJ F

--

WZ

j
jR 1

R 1

C 1
C 1
Z1 =
=
R 1 C 1 j
j
R1
C 1
C 1
Z1 =

EF

EJ F

jR 1
1
=
R 1C1 j 1
+ j C 1
R1

EJ F
WZ

EF

WZ

EF

WZ

EF

EJ F

Z2 = R 2

EJ F

Z3 = R 3

EJ F

Z 4 = R x + j X Lx

WEJ F

(R + j X ) = R R
Lx
2
3
1
x
+ j C 1

R1

(R x

R R

+ j X Lx ) = 2 3 + j R 2 R 3 C1
R1

EJ F

EJ F

W
Rx =

R2 R3
R1

EJ F
W
EJ F

j X Lx = j R 2 R 3 C1
--

W
EJ F

X Lx = R 2 R 3 C1

W
EJ F

L x = R 2 R 3 C1

EJ F

W
R 3 = 100 k & R 2 = 5.1 k C1 = 0.01 F R 1 = 470 k

WEJ FEJ F
WRxW
Rx =

R 2 R 3 5.1 k 100 k
=
= 1.085 k
R1
470 k

WLxW
L x = R 2 R 3 C1 = 5.1 k 100 k 0.01 F = 5.1 H

--

WEFRx EF

R = kR = kR =

R =
E

R = k

R = k

Rx

WRxEF EF
R = { kR = kR = k

R = k
E

R = k

R = k

Rx

WRxEF EF
R = R = kR = k
--

R = k
E

R = k

R =

Rx

R EF
K k
R = k
E

R = k

Rx

EF
K
R = k
E= V

R = k

R= k

R=
--

WRx EF
Ig={ A, Vth= mV

R = k
E= V

R = k

Rg=
R= k

Rx

K mm/A EF

R =
E= V

R =

G
Rg =

R = k

R =

WRx
Ra= , Ra=Rb, R=Rb & R={R

R
E

A
R

--

Ra
B
Rb
Rx

EF

Rlc

EF

{ /mb{ /maK

K Lb LaLx

R=
E= V

R=
B

La

Lb

Zx EF
K(R, L or C)

R =
R =
E=
F= kHz

C = F
B

R =
C = F

Zx

WZx EF
Z1 = 400 0 , Z 2 = 300 40 , Z 3 = 100 20

--

Z
E= V
f = k HZ

a.c
detector

b
Z

Zx

KRx, Cx EF

R= k

R= k
E=V
f = kHZ

R= k

C= F

Rx
Cx

WRx, Cx EF

Z1 = 2000 0 , Z 2 = 15000 0 , Z 3 = 1000 50

Z
E=V
f = kHZ

Z
Rx
Cx
--

KLx, Rx EF

R=

R=

C= F

E=V
f = kHZ

R= k

Lx
Rx

Lx, Rx EF
W

Z1 = 153.8 75 , Z 2 = 100 0 , Z 3 = 1000 0

E=V
f = kHZ

--

Lx
Rx


]<gj]<]<j<^]<]

W
K

K
K

--

IntroductionJ

KK

General conceptsJ

J J

EF

EF

KEJ F

KEJ F

--

Classification of sensors and transducersJ J

Selection of sensors and transducersJ J

KW

EF

EF

EF
EF
EF

EF

EF

EF

K
K

--

Basic types of sensors and transducersJ

Resistive position transducerJ J

K
K

KEJ F

KEJ F

WKEJ F
.BAW

--

VT

VO

EJ F
W
I=

VT
R1 + R 2

EJ F

VO = I R 2 EJ F
VO
IR 2
R2
=
=
VT I(R 1 + R 2 ) R 1 + R 2

EJ F

VO
KAB

--

EJ F
inchesEJ F

KB{" VT = V k

KVO

"

"

R
VT = V
k
B

W
VO

KEJ FEJ F

WEJ FW
VO
R2
=
VT
R1 + R 2
R2 =

0 .9
5000 = 1500
3

VO 1500
=
VT 5000

VO = VT

1500
1500
= 5
= 1.5 volts
5000
5000

--

Strain guage transducerJ J

EJ F

KEJ F
F

E
W
EJ F

R = L a

WR

WL

Wa
W
--

KEF

EF

EF

W G L L
G =

L
EJ F
L

W K

R R
L L

K=

EJ F
K

(Stress)

(Modulus of Elasticity (E))(Strain)
W

E =

S
EJ F
G

W
WE

WS

WG
WS
S=

F
A

EJ F
W

kgWF
mWA
--

Gkg/m
Kkg/mWSE

KK

KEF
EJ F

K = 2
K R R 0 = 130 G = 1 10 6

WEJ F
K=2=

R R R R 0 R 130
=
=

L L
G
1 10 6

R = 2 130 1 10 6 = 260

EJ F

33000 kg 0.4 m 0.02 m

K L E = 2 1010 kg / m 2

W A
A=

d 2
= (0.02 )2 = 3.14 10 4 m 2
4
4

WEEJ F
E=

FL
S FA
=
=
G L L A L

L =

F L
33000 kg 0.4 m
=
= 2.1 10 3 m = 2.1 mm

4
10
A E 3.14 10 2 10

--

(Transducer)
K

Vo
E
KEJ F

Vo
R =

KEJ F

K

K
K

KEJ F
E FE HF

K
--

Vo

KEJ F
Inductive transducerJ J

K

KK
(Tachometer)J J J

EJ F

(Voltmeter)( mV/r.p.m)

--

North Pole

South Pole

EJ F

KEJ F

N
S

KEJ F

EF

n=

120 f
P

W
EJ F

--

W
(r.p.m.)Wn

cycle/sec = HertzWf

WP
J J J

Electro-magnetic transducer

EJ F

K v

EJ F

--

W
EJ F

E=BLv

(volts)WE

(Tesla = Weber/m)WB
(m/sec)LWv

K{ siemens/mE foot/secF

K
EJ F

{ cm =
K mV={ Tesla =

WEJ F

E=BLv
25 10 3
E
v=
=
=10 m / sec
B L 0.2 1.25 10 2

Wv

Capacitive transducerJ J

C
C=

kA 0
d

WEJ F
EJ F

(Farads)

--

KEJ F
W

(Farad)WC
Wk
(m)WA
(m)Wd

L Permittivity W
( 0 = 8.854 10 12 Farad / m)

K
K
Rotational movement transducerJ J J

KEJ F

KEJ F

--

Linear movement transducer J J J

KEJ F

KEJ F
Pressure transducerJ J J

KEJ F

Kdd

KEJ F
--

EJ F
W

5 10 3 m 2 =
1 10 3 m =

WEJ F

C=

C=

kA 0
(Farads)
d
(1) (5 10 3 m 2 ) (8.854 10 12 F / m)

1 10

= 44.25 10 12 F

C = 44.25 pF

Piezoelectric TransducerEFJ J
ERochelle saltquartzF

KEJ F

KEJ F
--

J J

KResistance thermometer

EF

KThermo Couple

E
F

KThermistor

E
F

K
J J J

R = R 0 [1 + t ]

EJ F

t W R
E 20 C F W R
W t
W

R K
KEJ F

--

Vo

R =

KEJ F

Thermo-coupleJ J J

K
Copper
(mV)Constantan
K

Operational Amplifier

KEJ F

EF

KEJ F

--

W
E = c (T1 T2 ) + k (T12 T22 )

EJ F

mV

K W

Wkc

EFEF W T
EFEF W T
EJ F

k = 4.5 10 5 c = 3.75 10 2

K T2 = 0C W
T1 = 100 C W


WEJ F

E = c (T1 T2 ) + k (T12 T22 )

mV

E = 3.75 10 2 (100 0) + 4.5 10 5 (100 2 0 2 ) = 4.2 mV

ThermistorJ J J

K


EJ FK

K

--

1000000
100000

( )

10000
1000
100
10
1
-100

100

300

500

( )

KEJ F

KEJ FK 75 M 0.5

EJ F

Photo Electric Transducers J J

J J J

K (Cathode)

--

(Electrodes) (Anode)(Photo Cathode)

(Dynodes)
+

KEJ F
+ V

+ V

KEJ F

E
F
E
F

KEmAAF
J J J

EEJ FF

EF
EF

KEJ F
--

EJ F

KEJ F

EJ F

--

1000000

( )

100000

10000

1000

100

10
1

10
100
(ft-c)

1000

EJ F
J J J
EF

K
KEF

--

K EF
EF

K EF
K EF

K EF
K EF
K EF

K EF
K EF
K EF

K EF
K EF

K EF
K EF

K EF

--

EI F

EIIF
EF inch EF

WX V
Vo = V EF
Vo= V EF
Vo= V EF
"
A

VT
A

W
R

inches EF
W V
Vo = V EF
Vo = V EF
Vo = V EF
Kk = EF

G = R =
K

K
k = EF
{ inches inches

R = K

R = EF
Kk =

--

R = EF
G={ R = {
A=

Kk

Wd= m

(k = )

(k = )

EF

EF

E
F

EF

K EF
K E
F
Kk E
F

{ m

K{ m/sec { Tesla

EF

K
{ m EF

{ Tesla
KK{ V

T=C EF
K k = 5 10 5 { mV/C

EF

k = 5 10 5 c = 4 10 2
K

--

(References)
[] "Electronic Instruments And Measurements."
Larry D. Jones, A. Foster Chin.
Prentice-Hall, Inc.
A Division of Simon & Schuster
Englewood Cliffs, New Jersey, .
[] "Electrical Measurements and Calibration: Fundamentals
Applications."
Lawrence M. Thompson
Instrumentation System & Paperback June .
[] "The Measurements, Instrumentation and Sensors Handbook."
J. G. Webster
Spring -Verlag Berlin and Heidelberg GmbH & Co. KG
Hardcover- December .
[] "Sensors for Measurement and Control."
Peter Elgar
Longman
Paperback January .

- -

and

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EF

GOTEVOT appreciates the financial support provided by BAE SYSTEMS