Jozef Korbicz Jan M. Koscielny Zdzistaw Kowalczuk Wojciech Cholewa (Eds.

Fault Diagnosis
Models, Artificial Intelligence, Applications
With 312 Figures

Springer

CONTENTS

PART I METHODOLOGY 1. Introduction W. Cholewa and J.M. Koscielny 1.1. Diagnostics of processes and its fundamental tasks 1.2. Main concepts 1.3. 1.4. 1.5. 1.6. 2. Aims of process diagnostics General description of the diagnosed object Basic concepts of process diagnostics Summary .

1 3 3 6 11 13 19 25 26 29 29 30 31 32 33 34 35 37 40 44 46 46 48 49 50 50 53 54 54

References Models in the diagnostics of processes J.M. Koscielny 2.1. 2.2. 2.3. Introduction Relations in diagnostics Models applied to fault detection 2.3.1. Physical equations 2.3.2. State equations of linear systems 2.3.3. State observers 2.3.4. Transfer functions of linear systems 2.3.5. Neural models 2.3.6. Fuzzy models Models applied to fault isolation and system state recognition 2.4.1. Models mapping the space of binary diagnostic signals into the space of faults or system states . . 2.4.1.1. Binary diagnostic matrix 2A.I.2. Diagnostic trees and graphs 2.4.1.3. Rules and logic functions 2.4.2. Models mapping the space of multi-value diagnostic signals into the space of faults or system states . . 2.4.2.1. Information system 2.4.2.2. Other models 2.4.3. Models mapping the space of continuous diagnostic signals into the space of faults or system states . . 2.4.3.1. Pattern pictures

2.4.

XTV 2.4.3.2. 2.4.3.3. 2.5. Summary References 3. Neural networks Fuzzy neural networks

Contents 55 55 55 56 59 59 59 60 61 62 64 66 67 68

P r o c e s s d i a g n o s t i c s m e t h o d o l o g y J.M. Koscielny .... 3.1. Introduction 3.2. Fault detection 3.2.1. Fault detection using system models 3.2.1.1. Generation of residuals on the grounds of physical equations 3.2.1.2. Generation of residuals on the grounds of system transmittance 3.2.1.3. Generation of residuals using state equations 3.2.1.4. Generation of residuals on the grounds of state observers 3.2.1.5. Generation of residuals using on-line identification 3.2.1.6. Residual generation with neural and fuzzy models 3.2.1.7. Algorithms for making a decision on fault detection using residual value evaluation 3.2.2. Fault detection using tests of simple relationships existing between signals 3.2.2.1. Application of hardware redundancy . . . 3.2.2.2. Application of feedback signals 3.2.2.3. Test of statistical relationships existing between process variables 3.2.2.4. Testing the relations existing between process variables 3.2.3. Methods of signal analysis and the testing of limits 3.2.3.1. Analysis of statistic signal parameters . . 1 3.2.3.2. Spectral analysis 3.2.3.3. Methods of limit checking 3.3. Fault isolation 3.3.1. Diagnosing based on t h e binary diagnostic matrix . 3.3.1.1. Rules of parallel diagnostic inference on the assumption about single faults . . 3.3.1.2. Rules of series diagnostic inference on the assumption about single faults . . . . 3.3.1.3. Inference with the inconsistency of symptoms

70 72 72 72 72 73 74 74 75 76 79 80 80 81 82

Contents 3.3.1.4. System states with multiple faults . . . . 3.3.1.5. Parallel inference on the assumption about multiple faults 3.3.1.6. Series inference on the assumption about multiple faults ., Diagnosing based on the information system . . . . 3.3.2.1. Parallel diagnostic inference based on the information system 3.3.2.2. Series diagnostic inference based on the information system Methods of pattern recognition Recognition of directions in the space of residuals . Other methods

XV 83 85 87 87 88 88 89 91 95 95 96 97 98 100 101 101 102 103 105 106 107 108 109 Ill 112 113 114

3.3.2.

3:3.3. 3.3.4. 3.3.5. 3.4.

Fault distinguishability 3.4.1. Fault distinguishability based on the binary diagnostic matrix 3.4.2. Distinguishability of system states based on the binary table of states 3.4.3. Fault distinguishability based on the information system 3.4.4. Fault distinguishability based on pattern recognition in the space of diagnostic signals . . . . 3.4.5. Fault distinguishability improvement by taking the dynamics of symptoms into account Methods of the structural design of the set of detection algorithms 3.5.1. Generation of secondary residuals based on physical equations 3.5.2. Choice of a structural set of residuals generated on the basis of parity equations 3.5.3. Banks of observers 3.5.4. Design of a structured set of detection algorithms based on partial models 3.5.5. Minimising the set of detection algorithms Fault identification 3.6.1. Residual equations 3.6.2. Residuals without the knowledge of the effect of faults Monitoring the system state Summary

3.5.

3.6.

3.7. 3.8.

References

XVI 4.

Contents M e t h o d s of signal analysis W. Cholewa, J. Korbicz, W.A. Moczulski and A. Timofiejczuk 4.1. Introduction 4.2. Signal classification 4.3. Initial pre-processing of signals 4.3.1. Analogue-to-digital conversion of signals 4.3.2. Filtering 4.3.3. Smoothing 4.3.4. Averaging 4.3.5. Principal component analysis 4.4. Non-parametric methods of signal feature estimation . . . . 4.4.1. Scalar feature estimation 4.4.2. Spectral analysis 4.4.3. Higher order spectral analysis 4.4.4. Analysis with the use of the wavelet transform . . . 4.4.5. Analysis with the use of the Wigner-Ville transform 4.5. Parametric methods of signal estimation 4.6. Signal features estimated with respect to object properties . 4.7. Summary References

119 119 121 123 124 124 129 131 132 134 134 135 139 141 145 145 147 151 151

5.

Control theory methods in designing diagnostic s y s t e m s Z. Kowalczuk and P. Suchomski 155 5.1. Introduction 155 5.2. Transfer function approach 157 5.2.1. Residue generation 157 5.2.2. Properties of the system matrix 163 5.2.3. Non-homogeneous residual reaction models 167 5.2.4. Homogeneous residual reaction models 171 5.3. Parity space approach 173 5.4. Deterministic assignment of state estimation 177 5.4.1. Full-order observer 177 ' 5.4.2. Minimal-order observer 180 5.4.3. Observer matrix determination by pole placement . 186 5.4.4. Detection observers of the Luenberger type 191 5.5. Linear Kalman filters 198 5.5.1. Models of estimated processes 199 5.5.2. Linear Kalman filtering founded on innovations . . 200 5.6. Summary 207 Appendix 208 References 213

Contents 6. Optimal detection observers based on eigenstructure assignment Z. Kowalczuk and P. Suchomski 6.1. 6.2. 6.3. 6.4. Introduction System modelling Preliminary synthesis of residuals Conditions for disturbance decoupling 6.4.1. Necessary condition for decoupling 6.4.2. Sufficient conditions for decoupling

XVII

219 219 221 222 223 224 226

6.5.

Parameterisation of attainable eigensubspaces 227 6.5.1. Separate spectra of the observer and the object . . 229 6.5.2. Mutuality in the spectra of the observer and the object 229 6.5.3. Partial observer gain 231 Synthesis of a numerically robust state observer 232 6.6.1. Separate spectra of the observer and the object . . 234 6.6.2. Mutuality in the spectra of the observer and the object 235

6.6.

Synthesis of a numerically robust decoupled state observer . 236 6.7.1. Numerically robust attainable decoupling 237 6.7.2. Complete observer gain 238 6.8. Completely decoupled observers 238 6.8.1. Dead-beat design of residue generators 239 6.8.2. Residue generation using parity equations 242 6.9. Numerical example 242 6.9.1. Decoupled dead-beat residue generator 243 6.9.2. Properties of dead-bead observers 244 6.9.3. Properties of non-dead-bead observers 249 6.9.4. Robustness of dead-beat observers 251 6.10. Summary 251 Appendices 253 A. Observability of dynamic systems 253 1 B. Useful geometric relationships 254 References 7. Robust Hoo-optimal synthesis of FDI systems P. Suchomski and Z. Kowalczuk 7.1. Introduction 7.2. FDI design task as optimal filtering in H^ 7.2.1. Optimal filtering based on the basic modelling of generalised processes 257 261 261 263 264

6.7.

XVm 7.2.2. 7.2.3. 7.2.4. 7.2.5. 7.3. 7.4. 7.5.

Contents Solution using the basic model Optimal filtering based on the dual modelling of generalised plants Solution using the dual model FDI filtering with the instrumental reference signal .... 267 272 274 280 283 286 290 291 291 292 293 294 295

Synthesis of primary and secondary residual vectors Numerical example Summary

Appendices A. Discrete-time models B. Norms and spaces C. Factorisation D. Discrete Riccati equation References

PART II ARTIFICIAL INTELLIGENCE 8. Evolutionary methods in designing diagnostic systems - A. Obuchowicz and J. Korbicz 8.1. Introduction 8.2. Evolutionary algorithms 8.2.1. Basic concepts of evolutionary search 8.2.2. Some evolutionary algorithms 8.3. Optimization tasks in designing FDI systems 8.4. Symptom extraction 8.4.1. Choice of the gain matrix for the robust non-linear observer via genetic programming 8.4.2. Designing the robust residual generator using multi-objective optimization and evolutionary algorithms 8.4.3. Evolutionary algorithms in the design of neural models 8.5. Symptom evaluation 8.5.1. Genetic clustering 8.5.2. Evolutionary algorithms in designing the rule base 8.5.3. Genetic adaptation of fuzzy systems 8.6. Summary References

299

301 301 302 303 305 308 309 309 312 314 323 324 325 327 329 329

Contents 9. Artificial neural networks in fault diagnosis K. Patan and J. Korbicz 9.1. 9.2. 9.3. Introduction Structure of a neural fault diagnosis system Neural models in modelling 9.3.1. Multi-layer perceptron . . 9.3.2. Recurrent networks 9.3.3. Neural networks of the GMDH type Fault classification using neural networks 9.4.1. Multi-layer perceptron 9.4.2. Kohonen network 9.4.3. Radial basic networks 9.4.4. Multiple network structure Selected applications 9.5.1. Two-tank laboratory system 9.5.2. Instrumentation fault detection 9.5.3. Actuator fault detection and isolation

XIX

333 333 334 337 337 339 347 352 352 352 354 356 357 357 365 369 375 376

9.4.

9.5.

9.6. Summary References

10. Parametric and neural network Wiener and Hammerstein models in fault detection and isolation A. Janczak . . . 381 10.1. Introduction 381 10.2. Wiener and Hammerstein models 10.3. Identification of Wiener and Hammerstein systems 10.4. Parametric and neural network Wiener and Hammerstein models 10.4.1. Parametric models 10.4.2. Neural network models 10.5. Fault detection. Estimating parameter changes 10.5.1. Definitions of the identification error i 10.5.2. Hammerstein system. Parameter estimation of the residual equation 10.5.3. Wiener system. Parameter estimation of the residual equation . . 10.6. Five-stage sugar evaporator. Identification of the nominal model of steam pressure dynamics 10.6.1. Theoretical model 10.6.2. Experimental models 10.6.3. Estimation results 382 384 386 387 388 389 390 393 396 402 402 403 404

XX 10.7. Summary References

>

Contents 407 407

11. Application of fuzzy logic to diagnostics J.M. Koscielny

and M. Syfert 11.1. Introduction 11.2. Fault detection 11.2.1. Wang and Mendel's fuzzy models 11.2.1.1. Construction of fuzzy models using Wang and Mendel's method 11.2.1.2. Modification of Wang and Mendel's method 11.2.1.3. Calculation of a residual on the basis of the fuzzy model 11.2.2. Fuzzy neural networks 11.2.2.1. Fuzzy neural networks with outputs in the form of singletons 11.2.2.2. TSK-type fuzzy neural networks 11.2.2.3. Fuzzy neural networks with outputs in the form of fuzzy sets 11.2.3. Example of fault detection 11.3. Fault isolation with the use of fuzzy logic 11.3.1. Fuzzy evaluation of residual values 11.3.2. Rules of inference 11.3.3. Fuzzy diagnostic inference 11.3.4. Example of fault isolation 11.3.5. Uncertainty of the diagnostic signals-faults relation 11.4. Fault isolation with the use of the fuzzy neural network . . 11.4.1. Realisation of fuzzy residual evaluation by the fuzzy neural network 11.4.2. Fault isolation in the fuzzy neural network 11.4.3. Example of fuzzy neural network application to fault isolation 11.5. Summary References 12. Observers and genetic programming in the identification and fault diagnosis of non-linear dynamic systems M. Witczak and J. Korbicz 12.1. Introduction ' 12.2. Identification of non-linear dynamic systems 12.2.1. Data acquisition and preparation

411 411 412 413 413 415 416 417 418 420 422 423 428 429 431 433 437 441 442 444 445 449 450 454

457 457 460 460

Contents

XXI

12.2.2. Model selection criteria 12.2.3. Input-output representation of the system 12.2.4. Tree structure determination using GP 12.2.5. State-space representation of the system 12.3. Unknown input observers 12.3.1. Preliminaries 12.3.2. Extended unknown input observer 12.3.3. Convergence of the EUIO 12.3.4. Increasing the convergence rate via genetic programming 12.3.5. EUIO-based sensor FDI 12.3.6. EUIO-based actuator FDI 12.4. Experimental results 12.4.1. System identification with GP 12.4.1.1. Vapour model 12.4.1.2. Apparatus model 12.4.1.3. Valve actuator model 12.4.1.4. State estimation and fault detection of an induction motor . . . 12.4.1.5. Sensor FDI with EUIO 12.4.1.6. Unknown input estimation and design of instrumental matrices 12.4.1.7. Threshold determination and fault detection 12.5. Summary References 13. Genetic algorithms in the multi-objective optimisation of fault detection observers Z. Kowalczuk and T. Bialaszewski 13.1. Introduction 13.2. Multi-objective optimisation 13.2.1. Formulation of multi-objective optimisation problems i 13.2.2. Multi-objective optimisation methods 13.3. Genetic algorithms 13.3.1. Genotype, phenotype and fitness of individuals . . 13.3.2. Basic mechanisms of GAs 13.3.3. Genetic niching : 13.3.4. Full cycle of the genetic algorithm with niching . . 13.4. Genetic algorithms in the multi-objective optimisation of detection observers 13.4.1. State observers in FDI systems

461 464 466 470 472 473 475 475 479 481 481 483 483 484 488 490 493 497 499 500 503 506 511 511 512 513 513 519 521 521 528 533 536 536

XXII 13.4.2. Design of residue generators 13.4.3. Detection observers for the lateral control system of a remotely piloted aircraft 13.4.4. Fault detector for a ship propulsion system 13.5. Summary References

Contents 537 542 547 553 554

14. Pattern recognition approach to fault diagnostics

A. Marciniak and J. Korbicz 14.1. Introduction 14.2. Classification in diagnostics 14.3. Symptom extraction with time-series analysis 14.4. Pattern recognition methods 14.4.1. Minimal-distance methods 14.4.1.1. Measures of distance in the multidimensional symptom space 14.4.1.2. Minimal-distance methods 14.4.2. Statistical methods 14.4.3. Approximation approach 14.5. Developing reliable classifiers through redundancy 14.5.1. Concept of software redundancy 14.5.2. Diversification of classifiers 14.5.3. Levels in the output information of classifiers 14.6. Evaluation of classifiers'accuracy 14.6.1. Introduction 14.6.2. Resubstitution method 14.6.3. Holdout method 14.6.4. Leave-one-out method 14.6.5. Leave-fc-out method 14.6.6. Bootstrapping methods 14.6.7. Comparison of classifiers' performance and confidence intervals 14.7. Some classification problems 14.7.1. Breast cancer diagnosis 14.7.2. Diagnosis of erythemato-squamous diseases 14.7.3. Fault diagnosis in a two-tank system 14.8. Summary References 557 557 558 559 561 562 562 565 568 571 574 574 576 . . . 577 578 578 579 579 580 580 580 581 582 583 584 584 587 589

....

Contents

XXm

15. Expert systems in technical diagnostics W. Cholewa . . 591 15.1. Introduction 15.2. Knowledge representation 15.3. Statements and rules 15.3.1. Statements 15.3.2. Rules 15.3.3. Inference schemes 15.3.4. Non-monotonic inference 15.3.5. OR functor 15.3.6. Context . . . 15.3.7. Production rules 15.3.8. Explanations 15.3.9. Sets of rules 15.4. Representation of approximate knowledge 15.5. Static and dynamic expert systems 15.5.1. Static expert systems 15.5.2. Dynamic expert systems 15.5.3. Blackboard 15.6. Inference in networks of approximate statements 15.6.1. Primary and secondary statements 15.6.2. Approximate value of the statement 15.6.3. Necessary and sufficient conditions 15.6.4. Approximate conditions 15.6.5. Approximate conjunction and alternative of statements 15.6.6. Equilibrium state in networks of approximate statements 15.7. Inference in belief networks 15.7.1. Probability calculus 15.7.2. Bayes' model 15.7.3. Belief networks 15.7.4. Possibilities of application 15.8. Integration of the computer environment . . . 15.8.1. Databases 15.8.2. Multi-layer software 15.8.3. Special languages 15.9. System testing 15.10.Summary References 591 595 597 597 598 599 600 601 601 603 603 604 605 606 606 607 609 611 611 612 612 613 614 614 615 616 617 618 620 621 622 625 626 628 629 630

XXTV 16. Selected methods of knowledge engineering in systems diagnosis A. Ligqza 16.1. Introduction 16.2. Review and taxonomy of knowledge engineering methods for diagnosis 16.3. Modelling causal relationships in diagnosis

Contents

633 633 635 638 640 641 643 646 648 649 650 654 655 655 656 658 659 661 663 664 668 669 670 675 675 677 677 677 678

16.4. Consistency-based diagnostic reasoning 16.4.1. Introduction to logic and consistency-based reasoning 16.4.2. System model, system components and observations 16.4.3. Conflict sets 16.4.4. Theory of consistency-based diagnostic reasoning (Reiter's theory) 16.4.5. Generation of conflict sets and diagnoses - a constructive approach 16.4.6. Search for conflicts; potential conflict structures . . 16.4.7. Examples of application 16.4.8. CA-EN and TIGER systems 16.5. Logical causal graphs 16.5.1. AND I OR/ NOT graphs 16.5.2. Information propagation in logical causal graphs; the state of the graph 16.5.3. Diagnostic reasoning: abduction 16.5.4. Solution analysis and diagnoses verification . . . . 16.5.5. Extensions of the basic formalism 16.5.6. Example of application 16.6. Comparison of selected approaches . 16.7. Summary References 17. Methods of acqusition of diagnostic knowledge W. Moczulski 17.1. Introduction 17.2. Knowledge in technical diagnostics 17.2.1. Declarative knowledge 17.2.2. Procedural knowledge 17.3. Problem formulation

17.4. Selected methods of knowledge acquisition 679 17.4.1. Methods of acquiring declarative knowledge . . . . 679
4

Contents 17.4.1.1. Methods of acquiring of declarative knowledge from experts 17.4.1.2. Automated methods of acquisition of declarative knowledge 17.4.1.3. Methods of discovering declarative knowledge 17.4.1.4. Methods of assessing declarative knowledge 17.4.2. Methodology of knowledge acquisition from databases using machine learning 17.4.3. Method of acquisition of procedural knowledge 17.4.4. Scenario of the process of acquiring declarative knowledge

XXV

680 680 694 700 . 700 . . 702 703 703 704 706 708 709 709 709 711 712 713 715 717 719

17.5. Aiding means of the knowledge acquisition process 17.5.1. Data and knowledge base EMPREL 17.5.2. Means of acquiring diagnostic relationships from experts 17.5.3. System of the acquisition of declarative knowledge 17.5.4. Means of acquiring procedural knowledge 17.6. Examples of applications 17.6.1. Acquisition of declarative knowledge within the framework of the active experiment 17.6.2. Acquisition of declarative knowledge within the framework of the numerical experiment . . . . 17.6.2.1. Acquisition of knowledge for aiding the detection of imbalance 17.6.2.2. Discovery of knowledge for aiding the diagnosis of imbalance 17.7. Summary References PART III APPLICATIONS
f

18. State monitoring algorithms for complex dynamic systems J.M. Koscielny 721 18.1. Introduction 18.2. Practical problems 18.2.1. Dynamics of the occurrence of symptoms 18.2.2. Variation of the diagnosed system's structure and the set of measuring devices 18.2.3. Diagnosing time limit 721 722 722 725 725

XXVI 18.3. General strategy of the current diagnostics of industrial processes 18.4. Fault detection

Contents

726 727 728 729 735 738 738 738 740

18.5. Fault isolation on the assumption about single faults . . . . 18.5.1. DTS method 18.5.2. F-DTS method 18.5.3. T-DTS method 18.5.3.1. Expansion of the FIS definition 18.5.3.2. Fault distinguishability in the expanded FIS 18.5.3.3. Fault isolation using the T-DTS method . 18.6. Fault isolation on the assumption about multiple faults 18.6.1. DTS method 18.6.2. F-DTS method 18.8. Fault identification 18.8.1. DTS and T-DTS methods 18.8.2. F-DTS Method 18.9. Detecting a comeback to the normal state 18.10. Defining the weight of generated diagnoses 18.11. Examples of state monitoring 18.11.1. DTS method 18.11.2. F-DTS method 18.11.3. T-DTS method 18.12. Summary References 19. Diagnostics of industrial processes in decentralised structures J.M. Koscielny 19.1. Introduction 19.2. Decomposition of the diagnostic system 19.3. Diagnostics in one-level structures 19.4. Diagnostics in hierarchical structures 19.4.1. Hierarchical description of complex diagnostic systems 19.4.2. Diagnosing in hierarchical structures 19.5. Summary References

. . 742 742 744 745 746 746 747 748 748 749 749 754 757 760 761

18.7. Modification of the set of available diagnostic signals . . . .

763 763 764 766 769 769 774 778 778

Contents

XXVII

20. Detection and isolation of manoeuvres in adaptive tracking filtering based on multiple model switching Z. Kowalczuk and M. Sankowski 781 20.1. Introduction 781 20.2. Model of the measurement process 20.2.1. Sampling period 20.2.2. Radar measurements 20.2.3. Measurement equation 784 785 785 786

20.3. Modelling the target movement trajectory 787 20.3.1. Kinematic model of the planar curvilinear motion . 787 20.3.2. Basic assumptions 789 20.3.3. Model of the uniform motion 790 20.3.4. Model of the uniform speed change 792 20.3.5. Model of the standard turn 793 20.4. State estimation during uniform motions 20.4.1. Base Kalman filter 20.4.2. Initiation of the tracking filter 795 795 796

20.5. Identification of the control signal 797 20.5.1. Input estimation method 797 20.5.2. Basic properties of the input estimation method . . 800 20.6. Detection and isolation of manoeuvres 20.6.1. Detection of manoeuvres 20.6.2. Isolation of manoeuvres 20.6.3. Identification of manoeuvre model parameters . . . 800 801 803 806

20.7. Evaluation of the proposed methods 808 20.7.1. Properties of models of the standard turn 808 20.7.2. Simulation tests 809 20.7.3. Parametric identification of manoeuvre models . . . 810 20.7.4. Manoeuvre recognition 812 20.7.5. Manoeuvre detection 813 20.7.6. Optimal window length of the IE/NIE estimator . 815 '20.8. Summary 816 References 817 21. Detecting and locating leaks in transmission pipelines Z. Kowalczuk and K. Gunawickrama 21.1. Introduction 21.2. Transmission pipeline process 21.2.1. Pipe instrumentation 21.2.2. Technical parameters of the pipe 821 821 824 824 825

XXVm 21.2.3. Technological effects of leaks on pipeline measurements 21.2.4. Physical model of fluid flow in the pipe

Contents

826 828 829 830 830 831 833 834 835 837 839 845 846 850 853 856 861 862 865 865

21.3. Analytical leak detection and isolation methods for pipelines 21.3.1. Volume balancing approach 21.3.2. Fault-sensitive and fault model approaches 21.4. Fault-sensitive approach 21.4.1. Model of the transmission pipeleg 21.4.2. Residue generation via nonlinear state observation 21.4.3. Leak parameters 21.4.4. On-line estimation of the friction coefficient . . . . 21.4.5. Exemplary monitoring with the use of the FSA-LDS 21.5. Fault model approach 21.5.1. Mathematical model of the pipeleg 21.5.2. Determining the leak size and location 21.5.3. Minimisation of modelling errors via the extended Kalman filtering 21.5.4. Exemplary monitoring through the FMA-LDS . . . 21.6. Summary References 22. Models in the diagnostics of processes J.M. Koscielny, M. Bartys, M. Syfert and M. Pawlak 22.1. Introduction

22.2. Fault diagnosis of the steam-water line of the power boiler . 866 22.2.1. System description 866 22.2.2. Fault detection of the water-steam line of the power boiler 869 22.2.3. Fault isolation of the water-steam line of the power boiler 871 22.3. Fault diagnosis of the evaporation station in a sugar factory 22.3.1. System description 22.3.2. Fault detection of the evaporator 22.3.3. Fault isolation in the evaporator 22.4. Fault diagnosis of the pneumatic actuator-positioner-control valve assembly 22.4.1. Introduction - the aims of the diagnostics of final control elements 875 875 878 882 883 883

Contents 22.4.2. Fault detection of the final control element 22.4.3. Fault isolation of the final control element 22.5. Fault diagnosis of the condensation power turbine controller tolerating instrumentation faults 22.5.1. Condensation turbine controller 22.5.2. Diagnostics of instrumentation 22.6. Summary References

XXIX 885 888 893 893 895 900 900

23. Diagnostic systems J.M. Koscielny, P. Rzepiejewski and P. Wasiewicz 23.1. Introduction 23.2. Alarm systems in control systems 23.3. Diagnostic systems for industrial processes 23.4. DIAG system for diagnosing industrial processes 23.5. Diagnostic systems for actuators 23.6. V-DIAG diagnostic system for actuators 23.7. Summary . References

903 903 904 905 908 912 914 918 918