Chapter Two Literature Review

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2.1 Definitions for milk

According to Encarta World English Dictionary the milk is defined as the Nutritious fluid produced by mammals: a nutritious white fluid, rich in protein, fats, lactose, and vitamins and An opaque white fluid produced by cows, sheep, or goats and used by human beings as a drink, in cooking

According to Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia the milk is defined as Milk is an opaque white liquid produced by the mammary glands of mammals. It provides the primary source of nutrition for young mammals before they are able to digest other types of food

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According to dairy farmers of Washington Milk is defined as the lacteal secretion obtained by the complete milking of one or more mammalian animals.

Fresh milk is milk that is milked from cow, within a considerable time period before losing its natural richness it has to be able to consumed by people By the researcher

2.1.1 The History of Milk Consumption

Milk consumption is not started in recent times. It has a long history. To understand the History of milk consumption, it is necessary to look back into prehistory. According to Charlotte Mulcare,+ Plus Magazine, March 2008, Archaeologists believe that, as early as 7500 BCE, some groups of hunter-gatherers began to domesticate a series of plant and animal species. Excavations suggest that these early farmers were clustered around an arc of land known as the Fertile Crescent, which begins in Palestine, progresses through the Levant up to eastern Anatolia, then reaches down to the valley of the Tigris and Euphrates rivers. The transition from hunting and gathering to an agricultural lifestyle was associated with other developments, such as irrigation, weaponry, settlement and social stratification; a cultural package of change. The nature and scale of these changes in human development seem so extreme that the term agricultural revolution is sometimes used to describe them. It is commonly thought that in 7000 BCE farmers from the Fertile Crescent migrated westward across the plains of central Eurasia, across Europe and perhaps as far as Scandinavia. To what extent the archaeological record represents a movement of people as opposed to a transmission of cultural ideas remains controversial. Nevertheless, by 3000 BCE, farming had reached North-West Europe, and the domestication of animals, in particular cattle, can

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be found through excavation. Given the findings of pots with traces of milk protein, and images of art suggesting milking practice, it seems probable that the use of milk as food and drink was practised at this time.

According to the World Wide Web foodsci.uoguelph.ca/dairyedu/intro.html, Milk is as ancient as mankind itself, as it is the substance created to feed the mammalian infant. All species of mammals, from man to whales, produce milk for this purpose. Many centuries ago, perhaps as early as 6000-8000 BC, ancient man learned to domesticate species of animals for the provision of milk to be consumed by them. These included cows (genus Bos), buffaloes, sheep, goats, and camels, all of which are still used in various parts of the world for the production of milk for human consumption. Fermented products such as cheeses were discovered by accident, but their history has also been documented for many centuries, as has the production of concentrated milks, butter, and even ice cream. Technological advances have only come about very recently in the history of milk consumption, and our generations will be the ones credited for having turned milk processing from an art to a science. The availability and distribution of milk and milk products today in the modern world is a blend of the centuries old knowledge of traditional milk products with the application of modern science and technology. The role of milk in the traditional diet has varied greatly in different regions of the world. The tropical countries have not been traditional milk consumers, whereas the more northern regions of the world, Europe (especially Scandinavia) and North America, have traditionally consumed far more milk and milk products in their diet. In tropical countries where high temperatures and lack of refrigeration has led to the inability to produce and store fresh milk, milk has traditionally been preserved through means other than refrigeration, including immediate consumption of warm milk after milking, by boiling milk, or by conversion into more stable products such as fermented milks.

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According to World Wide Web cyberspaceag.com/ farmanimals/ dairycattle/ dairyhistory.htm Milk is one of mankind's oldest and most essential foods. Dairy products have existed since the days of ancient Egypt when they could only be afforded by the royalty, the priests, and the very wealthy. Evidence indicates that a type of cattle apparently closely related to the Brown Swiss dairy breed of today existed during the Bronze Age in the area now known as Switzerland. The most common dairy breeds in North America today have their origins in Europe. Holsteins originated in what is now the Netherlands. Ayrshires originated in Scotland. Brown Swiss originated in Switzerland. Guernseys were developed on the Isle of Guernsey and Jerseys were developed on the Isle of Jersey, both small islands which are in the English Channel off the coast of France. In fact, the word "cattle" comes from the Old French word "chattle" which means possession. Originally, cattle served a triplepurpose: meat, milk, and labor. By the 5th century A.D. cows and sheep were prized for their milk in Europe. By the 14th century, whole herds of sheep were being milked in Europe but cow's milk soon became more popular than sheep's milk.

When European dairy cows arrived in America in 1611, they helped end severe starvation in the Jamestown Colony. The first ice cream parlor opened in New York City in 1776. Reportedly, George Washington liked ice cream so much he ran up a $200 bill for ice cream one summer. In 1812, Dolly Madison served ice cream at a White House inaugural ball. During Andrew Jackson's presidency, cheese makers presented the President with a large wheel of their finest cheddar cheese. He ordered it put on display in the White House for one year and then invited the citizens of Washington, D.C. to share in eating the cheese at the end of the year. The first regular shipment of milk by rail - to New York City - occurred in 1841. The first cheese factory in the United States was built in Oneida County, New York in 1851. Development of the first hand-cranked ice cream maker in 1846, the ice cream cone on September 22, 1846, and the waffle cone in 1904, added to the growing popularity of ice cream. After the New World was settled and markets began to develop for milk in America, dairy breeders began importing dairy cows from Holland.

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The first Ayrshires were imported into the United States around 1822. A Massachusetts breeder purchased one of the first Holstein cows from a Dutch sailing master at Boston in 1852. Jersey cows were brought into the United States in the 1850's while the first recorded Brown Swiss in America was imported in 1869 and 1870. Dairy cows were eventually kept in or near towns and cities - closer to the growing numbers of people. In the big cities in the early to mid-1800, dairy cows were often kept in dark unsanitary sheds, sometimes less than 10 feet from where milk, cream, and butter were sold to customers. In the 1880's and 1890's, Brown Swiss dairy cattle were taken to most parts of the United States by settlers and traders and the Brown Swiss breed had reached the Pacific Ocean by 1895. Discoveries by French scientist Louis Pasteur concerning food spoilage led to pasteurization (heat sterilization) of milk. Pasteurization made it possible to store and distribute milk. Commercial pasteurization machines were first introduced in 1895, while ultra-high temperature pasteurization was introduced in 1948. In the 20th Century, refrigerators replaced ice boxes (storage units cooled by a block of ice). Milk cans began to be replaced in 1938 with bulk tanks for on-farm milk storage. The dairy industry also evolved from small dairies with only a few cows to larger dairies. Advances in sanitary on-farm milk storage and efficient transportation to processing and packaging facilities allowed dairy producers to focus on the dairy herd's production.

2.1.2 Worldwide Milk Consumption and Production

The total milk consumption (as fluid milk and processed products) per person varies widely from highs in Europe and North America to lows in Asia. However, as the various regions of the world become more integrated through travel and migration, these trends are changing, a factor which needs to be considered by product developers and marketers of milk and milk products in various countries of the world.

Even within regions such as Europe, the custom of milk consumption has varied greatly. Consider for example the high consumption of fluid milk in countries like Finland, Norway and Sweden compared to France and Italy where cheeses have
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tended to dominate milk consumption. When you also consider the climates of these regions, it would appear that the culture of producing more stable products (cheese) in hotter climates as a means of preservation is evident. Table 1 illustrates milk per capita consumption information from various countries of the world. Table 2 shows the quantity of raw milk produced around the world. Table.2.1 Per Capita Consumption of Milk Various Countries, 2006 data Country Finland Sweden Ireland Netherlands Norway Spain (2005) Switzerland United Kingdom (2005) Australia (2005) Canada (2005) Liquid Milk Drinks (Litres) 183.9 145.5 129.8 122.9 116.7 119.1 112.5 111.2 106.3 94.7

European Union (25 countries) 92.6 Germany France New Zealand (2005) United States Austria Greece Argentina (2005) Italy Mexico 92.3 92.2 90.0 83.9 80.2 69.0 65.8 57.3 40.7

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China (2005)

8.8

Source: International Dairy Federation, Bulletin 423/2007.

Table.2.2 Cow milk production ('000 tonnes) in selected countries in the world (2006) United States India China Russia Germany Brazil France New Zealand United Kingdom Ukraine Poland Italy Netherlands Mexico Argentina Turkey Australia Canada 82,462 39,759 31,934 31,100 27,955 25,750 24,195 15,000 14,359 13,287 11,970 11,186 10,995 10,352 10,250 10,000 9550 7854

Source: International Dairy Federation, Bulletin 423/2007.

2.1.3 Importance of Milk

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Unprocessed milk, fresh from the cow, will separate itself into two parts after a few minutes - it will separate into a layer of cream and a layer of non-fat skim milk. The cream is actually the natural milk fat which has floated to the surface because it is lighter. But milk is much more complex than that. According to Dairy Farmers.com milk has following quality. Milk is mostly water, approximately 87 per cent, and if you removed all the water youd be left with what is called the solid component. This is made up of milk fat (cream), a natural milk sugar (lactose) and milk protein together with vitamins and minerals - and all of these elements can vary depending on the type of cow the milk came from, what the cow has been eating and the time of year. Milk fat (also known as butterfat) - this is present in milk in the form of small globules which differ in size, number and composition depending on the breed of cattle which produced the milk. The average proportion of fat in milk is 3.7 per cent, which makes milk a healthy low-fat product. Some Jersey and Guernsey cows produce milk with a higher fat content, often exceeding 5 per cent, which makes the milk taste richer and creamier. In milk approximately 60 per cent of milk fat is saturated fat and 40 per cent unsaturated. Milk fat contains more than 200 different fatty acids, which are believed to give the cream and butter its taste. Two of these fatty acids are essential fatty acids which the body cannot produce itself; therefore we have to ingest them in what we eat. These two acids, Linley and Arachidonic acids, are very important in controlling bio-chemical functions such as heart and blood circulation and in the way the body uses its fat stores. Milk fat also contains vitamins A, D, E and K (although vitamins D, E and K are not in significant levels). Protein - milk also contains 3.4 per cent protein on average. Protein is made up of building blocks called amino acids which are important to the body. They are used to maintain your blood, skin, hair and fingernails.There are essential amino acids just like there are essential fatty acids (see above). These cannot be made by the body and have to be supplied by our food. Milk is often called the complete food because it contains a surplus of all eight essential amino acids for adults. These are isoleucine, leucine, lysine, methionine, phenylalanine, threonine, tryptophan and valine and two additional amino acids for young children, histidine and arginine.

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Milk sugar (also known as lactose) - is a compound of two basic carbohydrates: glucose and galactose. Lactose is only found in milk and compared to sucrose (normal sugar) it is one sixth as sweet and far less soluble. Lactose is digested by the enzyme lactase which is formed naturally by the body. When this compound is broken down, lactic acid is formed in the intestines and this stimulates the absorption of calcium, phosphorous and other minerals. This may also help to balance out the growth of less desirable organisms and increase growth of some beneficial strains of bacteria. If the enzyme lactase is absent, the undigested lactose passes through the intestine to the large bowel. Natural bacteria then ferment the lactose, producing acid and gas which may cause abdominal pain, bloating or diarrhoea. This is generally what being lactose intolerant refers to, although true lactose intolerance is much rarer than generally thought. Calcium - is a key mineral and is found in high quantities of milk. It is not only needed for skeletal growth and maintenance, but it also assists in:

the contraction of muscle fibers blood coagulation for wound healing nerve impulses activation of enzymes (which help control the bodys metabolism)

The rate of absorption and therefore quantity of calcium needed by the body varies widely, depending on stages of growth, pregnancy and lactation. If calcium is in short supply, or leaches out of the body through inactivity, bones can be severely weakened and may result in a potentially fatal condition called osteoporosis. Thus it is very important to maintain an adequate supply of calcium throughout your adult life as well as doing some form of weight bearing exercise to prevent brittle bones. Phosphorous - another important mineral found in milk and is linked with calcium. The ratio of phosphorous to calcium is important in order to maximize the absorption of calcium. Phosphorous also plays a vital role in the bodys biochemical reactions.

2.1.4 Milk Composition

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The role of milk in nature is to nourish and provide immunological protection for the mammalian young. Milk and honey are the only articles of diet whose sole function in nature is food. It is not surprising, therefore, that the nutritional value of milk is high.

Table 2.3 Composition of Milk from Different Mammalian Species (per 100g fresh milk) Protein (g) Cow Human Water Buffalo Goat Donkey Elephant Monkey, rhesus Mouse Whale Seal 3.2 1.1 4.1 2.9 1.9 4.0 1.6 9.0 10.9 10.2 Fat (g) 3.7 4.2 9.0 3.8 0.6 5.0 4.0 13.1 42.3 49.4 Carbohydrate (g) 4.6 7.0 4.8 4.7 6.1 5.3 7.0 3.0 1.3 0.1 Energy (kcal) 66 72 118 67 38 85 73 171 443 502

Source: Webb, B.H., A.H. Johnson and J.A. Alford. 1974. Fundamentals of Dairy Chemistry. Second Ed. AVI Publishing Co., Westport, CT., Chap. 1.

Table: 2.4 Gross composition of milk of various breeds, g/100g Body Wt. Milk Yield Fat (kg) Holstein 640 (kg) 7360 (%) 3.54 Protein (%) 3.29 Lactose (%) 4.68 Ash (%) 0.72 Total Solids (%) 12.16

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Brown Swiss Ayrshire Guernsey Jersey Shorthorn

640 520 500 430 530

6100 5760 5270 5060 5370

3.99 3.95 4.72 5.13 4.00

3.64 3.48 3.75 3.98 3.32

4.94 4.60 4.71 4.83 4.89

0.74 0.72 0.76 0.77 0.73

13.08 12.77 14.04 14.42 12.9

Holstein: 12.16% T.S. x 7360 kg/lactation = 895 kg of total solids produced/lactation (140% of her body wt.!) Jersey: 14.42% T.S. x 5060 kg/lactation = 730 kg of total solids produced/lactation (170% of her body wt.!) Source: Webb, B.H. A.H. Johnson and J.A. Alford. 1974. Fundamentals of Dairy Chemistry. Second Ed. AVI Publishing Co., Westport, CT., Chap. 1.

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2.2 Theories related to the research subject

According to Richard J. Semenik promotion & integrated marketing communications,p.151, consumer behavior is defined as the complex process by which individuals acquire, use, and dispose of product or services to satisfy their needs and desire. This definition of consumer behavior include, not just the buying act itself but also the using and disclosing of product.

According USC Marshall University of Southern California, consumer behavior has been defined as "The study of individuals, groups, or organizations and the processes they use to select, secure, use, and dispose of products, services, experiences, or ideas to satisfy needs and the impacts that these processes have on the consumer and society. According to worldwide web the Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia Consumer, consumer behavior referred to as the study of when, why, how, where and what people do or do not buy products.

2.2.1 Factors affecting Consumer Behavior

According to Philip Cotler, Gary Armstrong, Principle of Marketing, p.155, consumer decisions blends elements from psychology, sociology, social psychology, anthropology and economics. It attempts to understand the buyer decision making process, both individually and in groups. It studies characteristics of individual consumers such as demographics and behavioral variables in an attempt to understand people's wants. It also tries to assess influences on the consumer from groups such as family, friends, reference groups, and society in general. Customer behavior study is based on consumer buying behavior, with the customer playing the three distinct roles of user, payer and buyer. Relationship marketing is an influential asset for customer behavior analysis as it has a keen interest in the re-discovery of the true meaning of marketing through the re-affirmation of the importance of the customer or buyer. A

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greater importance is also placed on consumer retention, customer relationship management, personalization, customization and one-to-one marketing. Social functions can be categorized into social choice and welfare functions. Each method for vote counting is assumed as a social function but if Arrows possibility theorem is used for a social function, social welfare function is achieved. Some specifications of the social functions are decisiveness, neutrality, anonymity, monotonocity, unanimity, homogeneity and weak and strong Paretooptimality. No social choice function meets these requirements in an ordinal scale simultaneously. The most important characteristic of a social function is identification of the interactive effect of alternatives and creating a logical relation with the ranks. Marketing provides services in order to satisfy customers. With that in mind, the productive system is considered from its beginning at the production level, to the end of the cycle, the consumer

2.2.2 Consumer buying behavior model

According to Philip Cotler, Gary Armstrong, Principles of Marketing, p 136, Table 2.5 Black Box Model ENVIRONMENTAL FACTORS Marketing Stimuli BUYER'S BLACK BOX BUYER'S Environmental Buyer Stimuli Characteristics RESPONSE Decision Process

Problem recognition Product choice Product Price Place Promotion Economic Technical Political Cultural Attitudes Motivation Perceptions Personality Lifestyle Information Alternative evaluation Purchase behavior Post-purchase search Brand Purchase decision timing Purchase amount choice Dealer choice

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The black box model shows the interaction of stimuli, consumer characteristics, and decision process and consumer responses. It can be distinguished between interpersonal stimuli (between people) or intrapersonal stimuli (within people). The black box model is related to the black box theory of behaviorism, where the focus is not set on the processes inside a consumer, but the relation between the stimuli and the response of the consumer. The marketing stimuli are planned and processed by the companies, whereas the environmental stimulus is given by social factors, based on the economical, political and cultural circumstances of a society. The buyers black box contains the buyer characteristics and the decision process, which determines the buyers response.

The black box model considers the buyers response as a result of a conscious, rational decision process, in which it is assumed that the buyer has recognized the problem. However, in reality many decisions are not made in awareness of a determined problem by the consumer.

2.2.3 Consumer buying decision process

According to Philip Kotler, Gary Armstrong, Principles of Marketing, p. 155, there are Six Stages to the Consumer Buying Decision Process (For complex decisions). Actual purchasing is only one stage of the process. Not all decision processes lead to a purchase. All consumer decisions do not always include all 6 stages, determined by the degree of complexity. The 6 stages are:
1.

Problem Recognition (awareness of need)-difference between the desired

state and the actual condition. Deficit in assortment of products. Hunger--Food. Hunger stimulates your need to eat. Can be stimulated by the marketer through product information--did not know you were deficient? I.E., see a commercial for a new pair of shoes, stimulates your recognition that you need a new pair of shoes.
2.

Information search-o

Internal search, memory.

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External search if you need more information. Friends and relatives

(word of mouth). Marketer dominated sources; comparison shopping; public sources etc. A successful information search leaves a buyer with possible alternatives 3. Evaluation of Alternatives--need to establish criteria for evaluation, features the buyer wants or does not want. Rank/weight alternatives or resume search. May decide that you want to eat something spicy, Indian gets highest rank etc. If not satisfied with your choice then return to the search phase. Can you think of another restaurant? Look in the yellow pages etc. Information from different sources may be treated differently. Marketers try to influence by "framing" alternatives. 4. Purchase decision--Choose buying alternative, includes product, package, store, method of purchase etc. 5. Purchase-May differs from decision, time lapse between 4 & 5, product availability. 6. Post-Purchase Evaluation--outcome: Satisfaction or Dissatisfaction. Cognitive Dissonance, have you made the right decision. This can be reduced by warranties, after sales communication etc.

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