Julian Felipe Guzman Ocampo M.N.

0000223014 Aerospace Engineering Second Faculty of Engineering Bologna University

The drag of a solar car wheel-cover model measured in a wind tunnel

The report of the laboratory of experimental aerodynamics

Forl, January 20th 2009

Abstract
This report is the result of the laboratory experience of experimental aerodynamic which has been performed into the laboratories of the second faculty of engineering. During the experience, we have taken steady measurements of data in the wind tunnel with incompressible flow. Those data will be useful for the design and development of a solar-powered vehicle. More specifically, the work was focused on the drag measurement of the forward part wheel-covered of the vehicle. The experiment is part of a bigger project. In this work, indeed, drag was measured on a single model, whereas the full work was focused on a comparative study between two different models (the first was a normal symmetric NACA airfoil 0018, the second a laminar airfoil) in order to understand which one would have given the best performances. In order to make the experiment, several instruments were used and the most important of them is a strain gauge balance designed and built previously by Eng. Tripoli. At the end of this work we will know the typical magnitude of aerodynamic drag, Reynolds number and drag coefficient for a small streamlined object in subsonic flow condition.

1. Introduction
The solar-powered vehicles are becoming an interesting alternative for the four-wheeled transport. There is a project within the University to build a new solar car which is going to participate in a competition. Since is very hard to obtain enough energy to power the car from small size solar panel systems, a good design of the whole car is fundamental. As to the aerodynamic system of the car, all the components of the bodywork must have a good aerodynamic shape in order the reduce the profile drag and hence the loss of energy. Therefore since the wheels of the car are outside the bodywork, its important to cover them with a streamlined object. After that a good shape for the wheel-cover has been found, the model of the aerodynamic component was built in order to make all the tests in the wind tunnel. The aim of this experiment is to measure the drag (D) and its correspondent coefficient (Cd) of a typical aerodynamic object, as the wheel-cover, for different flow speeds and hence different Reynolds numbers in a subsonic range. Therefore it will be interesting to see the trend of the drag and the drag coefficient for increments of the flow speed. The data which have been measured will help the engineers to improve the design of the vehicle and choose the best shape for the wheel-cover.

2. Theory
The drag is the component of the aerodynamic force in the direction of the free stream velocity. Normally, it is separated in different components, depending on its physic cause and the procedures used for its calculation. We could say that the total drag of a body is due to both types of stresses which act on the body surface due to an air flow: shear stresses and normal stresses. The shear stresses are bound up with the fluid viscosity and after they are integrated on the body surface they cause the so-called skin friction drag. Normal stresses cause the form drag. This is a pressure drag bound up with the viscosity presence; it could be demonstrated that the integral of the pressures in an inviscid fluid would have a zero component in the direction of the flow speed ( the well-known D'Alembert's paradox).

The sum of skin friction drag and form drag is called profile drag. In the case of streamlined bodies, skin friction drag is predominant, whereas form drag is less than 10% of the overall drag. The issue of the reduction of skin friction drag on a body is hard to solve. Generally it is based on the attempt to postpone as much as possible the transition of the boundary layer from laminar to turbulent. The amount of drag generated by an airfoil will vary greatly depending on the relative size of the object ( thickness and chord) and the speed of the air.

These values are related by using a parameter called Reynold's Number (Re). This is a dimensionless value which correlates fluid behaviour for different object sizes and flow speeds.

Re = (V d ) /

Where is the density of the air and its viscosity. Regardless of the physical size of an object and the speed of the air flowing past it, if two objects have a similar Reynold's number then the nature of the flow around them will be very similar. For a first calculation of the skin friction drag on airfoils it could be useful to refer to Blasius solution of the boundary layer equation of motion, which refers to a laminar boundary layer along a flat plate with incompressible flow. This can be a first approximation of the drag order of magnitude. D = V Swet Cd Where Swet is the body surface in contact with the flow. Cd is the skin friction coefficient and it could be determined by using the Fig 1.

Fig 1. Re vs. Cf plot for a flat plate with incompressible flow

The agreement between theoretical and experimental skin-friction coefficients extends to indefinite Reynolds numbers, as long as the boundary layer is laminar. However, at Reynolds number above about 2 x 105 , the boundary could be laminar or turbulent. The reason for this uncertainty is the circumstance that, at any Reynolds number above a certain minimum value, flow disturbances ( generated by surface roughness or free stream turbulence) can cause a transition from laminar to turbulent boundary layer. One result of this transition is the several fold increase in skin friction shown in figure (Kuethe, 1998). Form drag obviously depends on bodys geometry. It is known that the form drag is higher in bluff bodies compared to the one present in streamlined bodies. We could say that form drag increases very much when the separation of the boundary layer occurs, whereas it remains small when the boundary layer is in close proximity of body surface. It should be noted that bodies with round-shaped surfaces have a drag coefficient which depends on the Reynolds number. For bluff bodies with sharp edges, which cause inevitably the separation of the boundary layer, the drag coefficient doesnt depend on Reynolds number. To sum up, we could say that only by maintaining the laminar boundary layer as long as possible and avoiding the separation of the boundary layer from the bodies surfaces it is possible to contain the drag into satisfactory values for their use in high performances vehicles design, as the solar car object of this work. A good aerodynamic design is the best way to achieve this purpose.

3. Key ideas of the experiment

In this experiment the value of drag and drag coefficient for the wheel-cover of a solarpowered vehicle were measured. In order to measure the drag the strain-gauge balance was used. A sketch of the experiment is reported in Fig 2. Essentially, a pressure distribution acts on the model which has a resultant D in streamwise direction. This resultant is applied at some distance from the joint point and induce a bending moment on the balance. This moment is proportional to the drag force. Due to the sensor properties, which will be explained below, it is possible to trace the modulus and the point of application of the force.

Fig 2. Experiment schematization

In order to understand better the working principle, it is useful to schematize the modelbalance system as a cantilever beam ( Fig 3 ). It should be noted that in order to obtain the modulus of a force from measurements of the bending moment, two reading stations are necessary; indeed this is one of the properties of the balance used in the experiment.

Fig 3. schematization of the model-balance system as a cantilever beam

Drag measurement is based on the bending moment that the force D produces on the balance. The contribution of ML ( due to a possible component perpendicular to the drag) has to be properly subtracted.

Therefore by using two reading stations numbered with 1 and 2 it is:

M1 = D a + ML M2 = D b + ML

Subtracting member by member: M1 M2 = D ( a b )

And hence: D = (M1 M2) / (a b) Since we know the distance between the two reading point and after having calculated M1 and M2 from to the measurement of moments, the overall drag is easy to obtain from the last relation. Afterwards the application point of the drag can be determined:

b = M2 / D Finally, when the value of the drag is known and if the flow speed (U) and the body wet surface (S) are known too, it is easy to calculate the value of the drag coefficient Cd by using the following equation:

D= V Swet Cd Where is the density of air.

4. Experiment layout
The instruments used for the experiment are: Model Extension Balance ( and the strain gauges attached to it) Signal conditioner Acquisition board Computer

The layout of the experiment is the following:

Fig 4. Experiment layout

The model which was used for the test is a symmetric NACA airfoil (0018) spanwise tapered. The material used to its construction was wood. The most important geometrical characteristics which will be useful later in this work are the average length and the wet surface of the model. These are: Average length d = 0,315 m (characteristic size)

Wet surface S = 0.07 m

Fig 5 explains better its geometry.

Fig 5. Some pictures of the model

The extension, which wasnt estimated at the beginning, was necessary since there were some errors in the reading of small values of force. Thus it was necessary to increase the arm of the force in order to have more precise readings and to let the readings of two different small forces have a bigger gap between them. The dimensioning of the extension has been made considering that a strong moment could cause a plastic deformation of the material and then the balance would have been no longer usable. The Fig. 6 shows all the links between model, extension and balance.

Fig 6. The model-extension-balance system

The signal conditioner (Fig 7), which is necessary for the amplification of the signal, has 8 channels and its answer frequency is 110 KHz. Maximum excitation voltages of 10V could be set. Its commercial name is Vishay Micro-Measurements Model A2 Signal Conditioner and Amplifier System.

Fig 7. Signal conditioner

The acquisition board which digitalizes the signal and bring it to the computer is a National Instruments Bnc-2110. It was used the software LabView on the computer to create the graphic interface which let us to set the data for the experiment and to have as exit information all the desired values. In order to measure the free stream velocity within the test section of the wind tunnel a pressure transducer from Setra company, linked to a Pitot tube was used.

4.1 The Balance

Balances are the main instrument used in applied aerodynamic for the measurement of loads. There are both external and internal balances. The balance used in this experiment is internal and then we will focus on this. The more sophisticated ones are able to read 3 loads and 3 torques (on three perpendicular directions) and for this reason they are called 6-component balances. There are two types of transducers used on balances: strain-gauge end piezoelectric elements, even though the former are widely more common. The balance that we used for the experiment is an internal strain-gauce balance. The balance is made by a deformable metallic part (mechanical part) and by the strain gauges (electric part). Strain gauges( Fig 8 ), after they are positioned and fixed, could be considered integral with the frame and thus they are subjected to the same strains.

Fig 8. Strain gauge scheme

The working principle of the strain gauges is based on the measurement of electric resistance variation of the transducer in function of its strain. A strain gauge is characterized by two fundamental quantities: the resistance and the gage factor. The resistance is the characteristic of that part of wire which represents the sensible grid. The gage factor is the transduction factor, which represents the sensibility of the strain gauge. Because of the very small resistance variation, in order to measure it, the strain gauge is put within an electric circuit well-known as Wheatstone bridge (Fig 9). It is able to amplify the resistance variation.

Fig 9. Typical Wheatstone bridge

The balance is composed of load cells which are those sections where it is supposed to be the maximum stress and then where it is expedient to place the strain gauges. The shape and the location of the cells are not random. The cells, indeed, must be dimensioned in a way that allow the stresses and the moments due to drag to: provide enough strains for a good reading. respect a structural uncouplement. guarantee the total lack of plasticization even though the maximum loads are present. In Fig 10 it is possible to see the geometry and all the characteristic sizes of the balance, stated in millimetres. It should be noted that the parts for the drag measurement are extremely thin (3 mm).

Fig 10. Frontal and isometric view of the balance

As shown in Fig 11 , the strain gauges are positioned in the middle of every cell.

Fig 11. Strain gauges stuck in the middle of the cells

For each load cell there are four strain gauges which form the bridge. From each bridge the correspondent cable, which is plugged with a single channel of the signal conditioner, start. The balance is made of aluminium. Finally these are the main characteristics of the strain gauges used in the test: Resistance at 24C: 120 Ohm 0,3% Gage Factor at 24C: 2,095 0,5%

4.2 The wind tunnel

The wind tunnel used in the experiment is the one located within the Faculty laboratories (Fig 12). This is an open loop wind tunnel, 30 m long and with a rectangular test section of 1.2 x 0.6 x 0.8 m. The flow could reach the speed of 50 m/s.

Fig 12. Picture of the whole wind tunnel, taken from the exit of the diffuser. It should be noted the variation of the section along the tunnel

By using the characteristic size of the model (i.e. d=0.315 m), the maximum Reynolds number achievable within the test section is:

Re= V d / = 1,0825 x 106

Where

= 1,455 x 10-5 m/s is the air kinematic viscosity.

Effuser: it is used to decrease the section of the tunnel and thus to increase the air flow speed. It is also useful to decrease the level of turbulence and the thickness of the boundary layers. The pressure gradient within the effuser is negative, hence favourable, and there are no problems of boundary layer separation. This property let us have a quite quick narrowing of the section. Just before the beginning of the effuser there is a short length of constant section where the honeycombs are located. The honeycombs are small tubes coaxial

The wind tunnel is basically composed by the following parts:

with the duct, which is all covered by them. They are used to redress the flow in the ducts axis direction. (Fig 13) Test section: this is the place where the body object of study is put on. Inside this part the flow speed reaches its maximum value. This section has to be big enough to contain the body without incuring the problem of the blocking. The blocking is the ratio between the chamber section area and the maximum cross section of the model. Normal values of blocking are 0.1% ~ 5%. The test chamber of an open loop wind tunnel is closed and the pressure inside is lower than the pressure outside, this is due to the effuser compression. For this reason the test section must be sealed in order to avoid air infiltrations which could disturb the mainstream and the readings. Diffuser: it has a circular section and it is the place where the electrical motor is located. The fan is linked to the motor and is used to transfer the kinetic energy from the motor to the fluid. After the motor there is a final expansion of the flow and then it is expulsed into the exterior ambient. Obviously in the diffuser the flow speed decrease. Because of the positive pressure gradient, hence adverse, of this section, the divergence angle is very small to avoid the boundary layer separation phenomena (Fig 14).

Fig 13. Beginning of the effuser and honeycombs

Fig 14. Effuser and fan of the motor

5. Procedure
Firstly, all the instrumentation were checked. Small pieces of wool were attached to the model in order to detect possible separations of the boundary layer and turbulent flows. After the model was linked to the extension and to the balance, the whole system was put into the test chamber of the wind tunnel. Then the chamber was completely sealed. All the system was aligned with the main stream; this means that the balance was positioned so that the load cells designed to measure the drag were perpendicular to the air flow direction. All the parameters of the test were set through LabView software. These were: Characteristic size Temperature Atmosphere pressure

The last two parameters were used by the software to calculate the value. The calibration matrix of the balance was already set. Then, after the motor has been started, the frequency of the motor was increased in order to reach the first value of the flow speed in which we were interested: 5 m/s. The software provided the results in the screen ( Fig 16 ). These were: . The same procedure was repeated for each speed from 5 m/s to 40 m/s, with gaps of 5 m/s. For each speed the same parameters were noted down. Once the velocity of 40 m/s was reached, it was decreased to 5 m/s again, with the same gaps. Density Reynolds number Drag Lift ( possible) Drag coefficient Mainstream velocity

Fig 16. Screen display provided by LabView

6. Results and discussion

These are the values that has been noted down during the experiment (Tab 1), where the drag signed with D1 have been obtained by increasing the flow speed, while the drag signed with D2 has been obtained when the flow speed was decreased.

V (m/s) 5 10 15 20 25 30 35 40

Re D1 D2 Cd1 Cd2 108000 0,048 0,06 0,043 0,06 229000 0,165 0,168 0,0373 0,0428 327000 0,347 0,356 0,037 0,0378 435000 0,604 0,605 0,0367 0,0359 544000 0,96 0,92 0,0365 0,0346 652000 1,36 1,27 0,0364 0,0335 760000 1,8 1,7 0,0352 0,033 867000 2,21 0,0334

Tab 1. Data readings of the experiment

First of all we can note Reynolds number values. Re of this order of magnitude (i.e. 105) are typical for laminar flow, although there was the risk of some separation, especially for the highest values. Fig 17 plots the free stream speed vs. drag. According to the equation D= V S Cd , it should be noted the quadratic trend of drag for speed increments.

Fig 17. Graphical display of V vs. D

The figure below shows how the drag coefficient changes due to Reynolds number growth, Re is logarithmical expressed here.

Fig 18. Graphical display of Re vs. Cd

We expected a fairly constant trend, which is normal in airfoils for this range of Reynolds numbers, and we achieved this purpose Moreover no turbulent flow was detected during the experiment by checking the behaviour of the little pieces of wool put on the model. It has been a signal of a good laminar boundary layer well-attached to the model. Just for the highest speed (40 m/s) there were a little signal of turbulent boundary layer at the very top-rear edge of the model.

7. Conclusion
The values of aerodynamic drag that we have found through the experiment were as expected according to the typical drag magnitude for streamlined bodies in subsonic flow. The shape of the airfoil chosen to cover the wheel is not too bad and it represents a good starting point for the development of the streamlined body. Indeed, the drag coefficient is fairly small. However the results of this test have some limitations. The first one is the wind tunnel used which has limited dimensions and performances. The model should be tested for different configurations and the interaction with the rest of the vehicle should be considered. Thus it should be used a model of the whole vehicle and it would be too small (i.e. a scale about 1:12). This issue combined with the limited reachable speed in the wind tunnel doesnt let us simulate the condition in which the real vehicle will race. Another limitation is the balance used in the experiment, which has been constructed within the Faculty Laboratories. The balance is a unique piece, it is hard to calibrate precisely and the readings obtained with it are not enough accurate for a more advanced design. Finally it should be also considered the interaction between the model and the ground, and it is possible only inside a wind tunnel designed for road-vehicles applications.

References and Bibliography

1. G Buresti, AERODINAMICA, course notes. Pisa University. 2. Arnold M. Kuethe and Chuen Yen Chow, FOUNDATIONS OF AERODYNAMICS, 5th ed., John Wiley & Sons Inc.,, 1998. 3. E.L. Houghton and P.W. Carpenter, AERODYNAMICS FOR ENGINEERING STUDENTS, 5th ed., Elsevier B-H, 2003. 4. Stefano Maglio, personal communications. 5. Ing. Enrico Proli, personal communications. 6. http:// www.wikipedia.com 7. http:// www.aero.polimi.it 8. http:// www.ing.unipi.it