Professional Documents
Culture Documents
Ege Reklam Basm Sanatlar San.Tic. Ltd. Sti. Esatpasa Mahallesi Ziyapasa Caddesi No:4 34704 Atasehir / ISTANBUL T. : +90 216 470 44 70 F.: +90 216 472 84 05 W. : www.egebasim.com.tr 2.Basm: stanbul / Ocak 2013
Those who want to read, download, and print this book free should write
"TURKISH GRAMMAR UPDATED ACADEMIC EDITION YKSEL GKNEL 2013"
TURKISH GRAMMAR
UPDATED ACADEMIC EDITION
YKSEL GKNEL
Vivatinell Bilim-Kltr Yaynlar 2013
Grafik Tasarm Uygulamalar Vivatinell Press Selami Burhan GKAY letiim:
Vivatinell Cosmopharmaceutics
Fetih Mah. Tunca Sk. No:2 34704 Ataehir / stanbul / TRKYE Tel: +90 216 470 09 44 Faks: +90 216 470 09 48
10
11
Negative Verb Compositions Some Example Sentences of the Verb Frames Adverbial Clauses (Postpositional Adverbial Phrases)
220 221 222 222 223 224 224 229 231 233 235 238 239 240 241 241 242 243 243 243 244 247 250 250 253 258 260 263 264 265 271 272 273 273 282 294 297 298 343
12
13
14
TURKISH GRAMMAR UPDATED ACADEMIC EDITION 2013 LOGICAL, MORPHEMIC, AND ORAL SEQUENCING
Noam Chomsky and Steven Pinker in their books assert that the human mind has an inborn logical ability which seperates a body of thought (a sentence) into two parts to produce sentences. A person thinks logically that a sentence should be about something or someone, and uses them as subjects, and uses all the information given about the subjects as predicates. Chomsky calls them Nominal Phrase and Verbal Phrase, in short "NP + VP". Additionally, the predicate part (VP) is also logically seperated into two parts as a verb, and an object 'V + NP'. These logical storages are empty before one starts learning his/her native language. When someone starts hearing the sounds of his language, he loads these sounds with meaning, and inserts them into these empty logical storages. Arranging these storages in a row is also learned while someone is being exposed to his native language. Therefore the order of the logical storages change from language to language. These logical storages and their learned order are called the logical sequence of a sentence. The so called storages are also flexible enough to hold the shortest and the longest language units. The word verb "V" covers a verb root, a verb stem, or a verb frame, and all the inflectional suffixes attached to them such as "ed", "ing", "s", and auxiliary verbs such as "must", "may", "might", "can", "could", etc. preceded by them. The verbs together with these inflectional suffixes and auxiliary verbs constitude a verb composition concept and called a verb "V". All subjects and objects, whether long or short, are Nominal Phrases. If a verb is intransitive, it does not need an object (NP), so the predicate part has only a verb, and some adverbs or adverbials. The predicates that have "be" verbs are also considered Verbal Phrases. The sentences described above are of three kinds: 1. A subject, a transitive verb, and an object: Jack killed a mouse.
subj NP V obj (NP) VP
15
am coming.
pred (VP)
um (ge*li*yo*rum)
subj (NP)
In Turkish, a personal concept is expressed by a personal suffix either attached to a verb at the end of a sentence, or expressed by both a pronoun in the beginning and a suffix at the end of a sentence. Using personal suffixes attached to the ends of the Turkish sentences (except the third person singular) is a grammatical necessity. Furthermore, the subject, verb, and object sequence of the English language differs in Turkish as subject (pronoun), object, verb, subject (suffix); or object, verb, subject (suffix): English: We are picking
V
flowers.
obj
subj (pron)
Turkish 1: Biz
subj (pron) obj
iek
obj
The reason why there may be two identical alternative sentences in Turkish is that one should compulsorily use a personal suffix attached to the verb in a sentence, but if he wants to emphasize the subject, he could also use a pronoun in the beginning of a sentence as well as a personal suffix representing the pronoun at the end. If we use a sentence without a personal suffix, the sentence becomes ungrammatical although it is understandable: *Ben yarn Ankara'ya gidiyor. (ungrammatical) (Ben) yarn Ankara'ya gidiyor-um. (grammatical) (Ben could be ignored.) *Ben sen-i seviyor. (ungrammatical) (Ben) sen-i veviyor-um. (grammatical) (Ben could be ignored.) As a general syllabication rule in Turkish, the single underlined consonants of the words or allomorphs detach from their syllables, and attach to the first vowels of the following morphemes as in the examples above. This
16
The boy who was walking along the street found a watch.
who what
The boy who was walking along the street found the watch that I lost.
who what
17
The parts that are not underlined in the sentences above are verbs. If someone wants to ask about these verbs he says, What did jack do?, and for the underlined parts he says, From where was Jack coming?, Where was Jack coming from?, Whom did Jack see?, etc. Consequently, it is possible to say that a person fills the subject and predicate logical storages using interrogative instruments. As in all natural languages, the Turkish language production system governs three groups of sequences. The first sequence is the logical sequence which governs the basic network of a sentence in which all sentences take form. The second sequence is the morphemic sequence which arranges the sequence of the morphemes in the Turkish words. The third sequence is the oral or phonological sequence, which arranges the syllables and the overall harmony of the allomorphs in a sentence.
18
r er ir
As one could see, the two diagrams look exactly like one another. All the words in the Turkish language follow either the first or the second harmony sequences. The words borrowed from other languages do not follow these sequences as expected, but the suffixes that attach to them follow the vowels of the last syllables of such words. Consequently, one could build
19
20
21
22
23
However, when pronouns are used in the possessor position, they are suffixed with the [im, in, un, im, in, n] allomorphs: ben-im (be*nim), sen-in (se*nin), o/n/-un (o*/n/un), biz-im (bi*zim), sizin (si*zin), o/n/-lar-n (o/n/*la*rn) Note: The single underlined consonants in the examples above show the consonants that detach from their syllables, and attach to the first vowels of the following allomorphs while the syllabication process is going on. Exception: su (su*/y/un). Example: (a*ra*ba*/n/n / h*z), (su*/y/un / h*z)
24
25
ev-cik (small house), kap-ck (small door), kpr-ck (small bridge), kutucuk (small box), eek-ik (small donkey), aa-k (small tree), kadn-ck (little woman), tosun-cuk (big and healthy newborn baby). [CE.IZ] allomorphs: [ce.iz, ca.z, e.iz, a.z] (innocence) kedi-ceiz (innocent cat), kz-caz (innocent girl), hayvan-caz (innocent animal), kpek-eiz (innocent dog), ku-az (innocent bird). [CE] allomorphs: [ce, ca, e, a] ngiliz-ce (English), Alman-ca (German), Trk-e (Turkish), Rus-a (Russian), spanyol-ca (Spanish), Japon-ca (Japanese), in-ce (Chinese), Arap-a (Arabic), Fransz-ca (French), talyan-ca (Italian), Rum-ca (Greek). MORPHEMES ATTACHED TO NOUNS TO PRODUCE ADJECTIVES [CL] allomorphs: [cil, cl, cl, cul, il, l, l, ul] ev-cil (domestic), insan-cl (humane), ben-cil (selfish), ot-ul (herbivorous)
26
27
28
29
[] allomorphs: [i, , , u]
diz-i (di*zi) (string, chain, serial, sequence ), yaz- (ya*z) (script, text), l- (l*) (measurement, size), ko-u (ko*u) (run), duy-u (du*yu) (sense), gez-i (ge*zi) (trip), a- (a*) (angle), yap- (ya*p) (building), tak- (ta*k) (jewelry, jewels), drt- (dr*t) (stimulus), tart- (tar*t) (scales), art- (ar*t) (plus), baar- (ba*a*r) (success), kork-u (kor*ku) (fear), sor-u (so*ru) (question), rt- (r*t) (any cloth covering), at- (a*t) (framework), yet-i (ye*ti) (mental power, faculty), yat- (ya*t) (overnight stay), l- (*l), (corpse), gm- (g*m) (treasure), kok-u (ko-ku) (scent, smell, aroma, perfume), bl- (b*l) (slash mark), dinlet-i (concert), gldr- (comedy) do-u (do*u) (east), bat- (ba*t) (west), arp- (cross, times), bl- (b*l)
30
31
32
33
[KN] allomorphs: [gin, gn, gn, gun, kin, kn, kn, kun]
se-kin (se*kin) (exclusive, choice), kes-kin (sharp), a-kn (astonished), ili-kin (concerning, connected), sus-kun (silent), pi-kin (well done, impudent), et-kin (functional), ger-gin (tight), az-gn (fierce), dz-gn (smooth), ol-gun (ripe, mature), sol-gun (faded), yay-gn (common), bit-kin (discouraged, depressed, exhausted), yor-gun (tired), bas-kn (unexpected attack (noun), dominant), ks-kn (offended), ge-kin (overripe), dur-gun (stagnant), dol-gun (plump), z-gn (original), say-gn (honorable), yay-gn (common, widespread), kz-gn (angry), bez-gin (wretched), uy-gun (suitable, convenient), z-gn (sorry), et-kin (effective), yat-kn (inclined to do)
34
35
36
O siz-i gr-d. O o/n/-lar- gr-d. In English: He saw me. He saw you. He saw him. He saw us. He saw them. Note: The single underlined consonants at the ends of the pronouns "ben-i", "sen-i", "biz-i", "siz-i", "o/n/-lar-" detach from their syllables and attach to the first vowels of the following morphemes in speech such as (be*ni), (se*ni), (bi*zi), (si*zi), (on*la*r). The /n/ consonant in (o*/n/u) is a glide produced by the oral system of the Turkish language to maintain the harmonic sequence of the language. The proper nouns in Turkish, contrary to English, have to be attached by one of the "i, , , u" allomorphs in accordance with the Turkish vowel harmony rules when they are used as objects: Ahmet Aye-/y/i gr-d. Fatma Hasan- bul-du. retmen Ahmet-i yakala-d.
object object object object object object
In English: Ahmet saw Aye. Fatma found Hasan. The teacher caught Ahmet. Note: The /y/ glide (semivowel), which is a product of the Turkish sound system, is inserted between two vowels to provide a harmonious linkage. As a general rule, when a definite noun, pronoun, or a nominal phrase is used in the object position in a sentence, one of the [i, , , u] allomorphs is compulsorily attached to them. If the common nouns are not definite, they may be preceded by some indefinite determiners as the ones in English: Ahmet Hasan- grd. Ahmet ben-i grd. Ahmet tavan- grd.
definite obj definite obj definite obj
37
[E] allomorphs: [e, a] When these allomorphs attach to nouns, pronouns, or nominal phrases (nominals), they signify the direction of an action, and change these nominals into adverbial phrases. These adverbial phrases are generally called adverbials. For instance: Aye mart-lar-a bakyor. Aye is looking at the seagulls.
adverbial prepositional phrase adverbial adverbial adverbial
Fatma biz-e bakyor. Fatma is looking at us. [DE] allomorphs: [de, da, te, ta] These allomorphs signify the place, the state of a pronoun, or a noun by changing their function into an adverbial: Ahmet ev-de. Ahmet is at home. Postac kap-da.The postman is at the door.
adverbial adverbial adverbial adverbial adverbial adverbial adverbial adverbial adverbial adverbial adverbial adverbial adverbial adverbial
Aye masa-da otur-u.yor Aye is sitting at the table. Her ey aklm-da. Evrything is in my mind. Jane mutfak-ta. Jane is in the kitchen. Kitap-n ben-de. Your book is with me. Onun ba- dert-te. He is in trouble. When the [de, da, te, ta] suffixes attach to nouns, pronouns or nominal phrases they function as adverbials in sentences. The same adverbials in English are structurally prepositionai phrases functioning as adverbials. [DEN] allomorphs: [den, dan, ten, tan] When one of the allomorphs of the [DEN] morpheme is attached to a noun, a pronoun or a nominal phrases, it signifies the starting point of an action, and changes the function of the nominal into an adverbial: Aye okul-dan geliyor. Aye is coming from school.
adverbial (prep phrs) adverbial
38
Ahmet Amerika-dan dnd. Ahmet came back from The U.S.A.. On-dan yirmi-/y/e kadar say. Count from ten to twenty.
adverbial adverbial postp adverbial adverbial
NOMINAL PHRASES
It is considered that the mind has a logical system which manages three rational storages to fill to produce a sentence. These storeges are out of order before someone is born. When he begins learning his native language, these orderless storages are arranged in a sequence according to one's native language. For an English speaking person his logical sequence is "subject + verb + object", but for a Turkish spaking person this sequence is "(subject) + object + verb-personal suffix". For instance: English sequence: I love you.
object subj verb
sen-i
seviyor-um.
In Turkish, using "ben", "sen", "o", "biz", "siz", "onlar" pronouns at the beginning of a sentence is optional. These pronouns are only used when they are stressed. However, using the personal suffixes representing these pronouns at the ends of the sentences is a grammatical rule. Therefore, these pronouns are showed in parentheses. However, although the third person singular has the pronoun "o", which means "he", "she", or "it", the sentences containing this pronoun does not need a personal suffix representing "o" pronoun. A sentence without a personal suffix at the end of a sentence means that the sentence is the third person singular. For instance the followig two Turkish sentences are identical: (O) sen-i seviyor. He, she, or it loves you. Sen-i seviyor. He, she, or it loves you. Although the sentenes given above are all simple sentences, the human mind uses the same flexible subject, verb, object storages to produce all the sentences in a language whether they are long or short. 1a: All pronouns can be used as subjects such as: "ben", "sen", "o", "biz", "siz", "o/n/-lar". (I, you, he, she, it, we, you, they)
39
40
Ahmet's coming to school late made the teacher angry. 4bb: The [me, me] infinitives can be used in noun compounds as objects: (Ben-im) baba-am (ben-im) futbol oyna-ma-am- istemiyor.
(noun compound) subj NP (nound compound-) object NP VP | verb
Definite noun compounds in Turkish are suffixed by possessor personal allomorphs both at the possessor and the possessed parts of a noun compound. As these two possessor personal allomorphs bear the same meaning, the possessor pronouns in the possessor parts of a noun compound could be ignored because the allomorphs attached to the possessed parts bear the same meaning as the allomorphs attached to the possessor parts of a compound. Namely, "baba-am" means, "ben-im baba-am", and "futbol oyna-ma-am" means, "ben-im futbol oyna-ma-am". The sentence above is generally said and written as follows: Baba-am
noun comp subj NP
41
(predicate) VP The players waited until the final whistle of the match. 4da: The [dik, dk, dk, duk, tik, tk, tk, tuk] infinitives can be used in noun compounds: "(ben-im) git-tik-im", "(sen-in) git-tik-in", "(o-/n/un) git-tik-i", "(biz-im git-tikim.iz", "(siz-in) git-tik-in.iz", "o/n/-lar-n git-tik-i". (be*nim / git*ti*im), (se*nin / git*ti*in), (o*nun / git*ti*i), "(ben-im) gr-dk-m", "(sen-in) gr-dk-n". "(biz-im / gr-dk-m.z)", etc. The noun compounds above can be used as objects: (Ben) (o-/n/un) iit-tik-i-/n/i sanmyorum. I don't think that he heard.
subj NP noun compound-i-/n/i | (object) NP verb (predicate ) VP
The same noun compounds can also be used as determiners: Ben-im gr-dk-m araba beyazd. The car that I saw was white.
(noun compound) noun | determined determiner determiner determined | subject subject predicate NP NP VP verb predicate VP
42
43
2. The birds were flying. that the birds were flying eat insects. the birds that eat insects
4. Birds eat insects. that birds eat insects 5. Birds eat insects. the insects that the birds eat 6. Roses are beautiful. the roses that are beautiful the beautiful roses 7. Roses are beautiful. that roses are beautiful The human mind can insert the nominalized phrases above into the "NP" segment of the phrase structure rules. The "VP" segment contains either an intransitive verb "Vi", which does not need an object, or a transitive verb "Vt" that needs a "NP" (an object). Therefore, a "NP + VP" base sentence producing logical pattern may be rewritten either as "NP + Vi" or "NP + Vt + NP" for an English speaking person. However, a person speaking Turkish uses a different sequence "NP + NP + Vt" in the "VP" segment of the "NP + VP" basic sentence-producing pattern. Moreover, adverbs and adverbials should also be included in a Verbal Phrase (predicate) because their function is to add some significant concepts to verbs. The following example sentences show how transformed nominalized sentences above are used as nominal phrases in the "NP + VP" logical pattern: 1. I saw the birds that were flying above my head
NP V NP VP adverbial
44
7. Everybody thinks that roses are beautiful. In general, as soon as thought is materialized in morphemes in a language, they are seperated into words, and placed into the linear logical phrase structure sequence. While this process is going on, the phonological rules of the language simultaneously divide the words into syllables and harmonze them in agreement with the general sound system of the language. The logical, morphemic, and oral (phonological) sequences behave independantly of one another in coordination to produce sentences. A morpheme that changes the meaning of a root or stem is called a derivational morpheme (yapm eki); the other one, which does not change the meaning of a stem, is called an inflectional morpheme (ekim eki). Both the derivational and inflectional morphemes are bound morphemes. Some morphemes (suffixes in Turkish) have different pronunciation variants that bear the same meaning as their morphemes. For instance, in English, when the plural [S] morpheme is attached to the noun book, it is pronounced as /s/; in boy-s as /z/; and in box-es as /iz/. As they are the different pronunciation variants of the same morpheme [S], they are named as the allomorphs of the morpheme [S]. Turkish sound system produce a lot more morphemes than English. This is because bound morphemes go through some vowel and consonant changes due to the vowel and consonant harmony rules of the Turkish language when they are attached to roots or stems, or to one another, and this process causes different allomorphs to arise. All the allomorphs of a certain morpheme carry the same meaning vocalizing differently, and therefore they do not change the meaning of the morphemes. The Turkish sound system functions independently of the Turkish morphemic system.
45
46
I bought a book
subj NP | verb det + noun object VP
In the sentence above, Ben and kitap are structurally and syntactically nouns. In the following sentences, however, the noun roots attached to [E], [DE], [DEN], or [LE] morphemes undertake the role of adverbs in sentences. Adverbial means a word or words that function as an adverb. Jack
noun subj
okul-a gitti.
noun-[E] adverbial V
Jack is at school.
noun subj V prep + noun prep phrrase adverbial
ev - e
otobs - le geldi.
V
The other transformed nouns and adverbs could be found in the transformation section.
47
48
49
50
51
52
53
54
55
onlar o/n/-lar-a (on*la*ra), o/n/-lar-da (on*lar*da), onlar-dan (on*lar*dan), onlar-la The infinitives that take the allomorphs of the morphemes above are as follows: bekle-mek beklemek-e (This form is not used; bekle-me/y/-e (bek*le*me*ye) is used insted.), bekle-mek-te (bek*le*mek*te), bekle-mek-ten (bek*le*mek*ten), al-mak-tan (a*l*mak*tan), bekle-mek-le (bek*le*mek*le)
56
The following interrogative adverbs which ask for the adverbials, and the adverbials themselves are some of the fundamental language concepts in all natural languages: Nere-/y/e? (nere*ye) (Where?); Nere-/y/e gitti? (nere*ye / git*ti) (Where did he go?); Okul-a (To school.); Nere-de? (Where?); O nere-de? (Where is he?); Okul-da. (In school.); Nere-den? (From where?); O nereden geli-yor? (Where is he comimg from?); Okul-dan. (From school.); Neden bk-tn? (What are you tired of?) (I am tired of waiting.); Kim-le? (kimle) (with whom?) Sinema-/y/a kim-le gittin? (With whom did you go to the cinema?; Ne/y/-le? (neyle) (How?) Ankara-/y/a ne/y/-le gittin? (How did you go to Ankara?) (By train.) As it is seen in the examples above, the [E], [DE], [DEN] and [LE] morphemes follow nouns contrary to English prepositions. Therefore, they are called postpositional allomorphs as all the suffixes of the Turkish language. Some language learners might not know the difference between form and function in a grammar. For instance, to school, until Sunday, at night, at the table expressions are structurally prepositional phrases in English. In other words, their forms are prepositional. However, when we consider what role they play in a sentence, we can see that their function in a sentence is either adverbial or determinative: They are playing in the garden. The boys in the garden.
adverbial determinative
57
58
(ah*met / va*zo*yu / ma*sa*ya / koy*du ) Ahmet put the vase on the table. (Sen) o-/n/u masa-/n/n st--/n/e koy.
subj obj noun comp-/n/e adverbial phrase V
(o*nu / ma*sa*/n/n / s*t*ne / koy) Put it on the table Fare (sen-in) yatak-n-n alt--/n/a sakla-an-d.
NP chain noun compound-/n/a adverbial phrase V
(fa:*re / ya*ta**nn / al*t*na / sak*lan*d ) The mouse hid under your bed. (reflexive) Jack kz-lar-a bak-.yor. (kzlar-a is an adverbial.) (jack / kz*la*ra / ba*k*yor ) Jack is looking at the girls. (Biz) siz-e yardm et-me-/y/e karar ver-di-ik.
NP adverbial adverbial V
(si*ze / yar*dm / et*me*ye / ka*rar / ver*dik ) We decided to help you. ("To help" is a prep phrase used as an adverbial.) Jack'le George otobs dura-/n/a ko-tu-lar. (Ko is intransitive, otobs dura is a noun compound, otobs dura-/n/a is an adverbial.) (jack*le / george~/ o*to*bs / du*ra**na / ko*tu*lar ) Jack and George ran to the bus stop. retmen bana bak-t. (Bak is intransitive, bana is an adverbial.) (*ret*men / ba*na / bak*t ) The teacher looked at me. ("At me" is a prep phrs used as an adverbial.)
59
(jack~ / mary*nin / ke*di*si*ne / bir / ta / at*t ) Jack threw a stone at Marys cat. retmen biz-e kz-d. (biz-e is an adverbial.) (*ret*men / bi*ze / kz*d ) The teacher got angry with us. O bana k. (Bana is used instead of *ben-e: adverbial.) (o / ba*na / a:*k ) She is in love with me. Biz Allah'a inan-r-z. (biz / al*la:*ha / i*na*n*rz ) We believe in God. Sana gven-i.yor-um. (sa*na / g*ve*ni*yo*rum ) I trust you. ("sana" is used instead of *"sen-e".) O bana akl ver-di. (o / ba*na / a*kl / ver*di) He advised me. (Vermek is a transitive verb, akl is its object, bana is an adverbial.) O bana cevap ver-me-di. (In this sentence cevap is the object of vermek.) ( o / ba*na / ce*vap / ver*me*di ) He didn't answer me. (Answer is transitive) He didnt reply to me. (Reply is intransitive.) Biz ehir-e yakla-t-k. (Yakla is intransitive in Turkish.) (ehre is an adverbial.) (biz / eh*re / yak*la*tk ) We approached the city. (Approach is transitive, so it does not need a preposition.)
60
61
62
63
64
65
66
67
68
All common nouns, infinitives, and transformed nominalized sentences can be used in the possessed parts of the noun compounds, such as:
ben-im okul-um
common N
The transformed nominalized sentences are used as subjects and objects, but the last noun + infinitive compound (ben-im git-tik-im) can be used both as subjects, objects, and as determiners in sentences: Onun al-tk--/n/ biliyorum.
nominalized phrs (obj) V D
onun al-tk-
nominalized phrs (det) noun
irket
noun
Posessor Personal Suffixes Attached to the Possessed Parts of the Compounds: (ben): [im, m, m, um, em, am]: (ben-im sepet-im), (ben-im baba-am) When the nouns end with consonants, these consonants detach from their syllables, and attach to the first vowels of the allomorphs following them, but when they end with vowels, they combine with the first vowels of the identical vowels of the following allomorphs, which are showed in bold face. (ben): [im, m, m, um, em, am]: ben-im sepet-im (be*nim / se*pe*tim); ben-im okul-um (be*nim / o*ku*lum); ben-im araba-am (be*nim / a*ra*bam); ben-im baba-am (ba*bam); ben-im gl-me-em (be*nim /gl*mem); ben-im bala-ma-am (ba*la*mam); ben-im turu-um (be*nim / tur*um); ben-im ene-em (be*nim / e*nem) (sen): [in, n, n, un, en, an]:
69
C-[in, n, n, un]; C-[i, , , u] . ..C-[in, n, n, un] V-[/s/i, /s/, /s/, /s/u] V-[/n/in, /n/n, /n/n, /n/un] C-[i, , , u] V-[/n/in, /n/n, /n/n, /n/un] V-[/s/i, /s/, /s/, /s/u]
In the table above, C represents a noun ending with a consonant; V represents a noun or a pronoun ending with a vowel. In the examples below, the identical vowels that combine are written in bold face, and the consonants that detach from their syllables and attach to the first vowels of the following morphemes are single underlined. o-/n/un kalem-i (o*nun / ka*le*mi); ky-n deli-/s/i (k*yn / de*li*si); ev-in kedi-/s/i (e*vin / ke*di*si); cmle-/n/in son-u (cm*le*nin / so*nu); okul-un ark-/s/ (o*ku*lun / ar*k*s); deli-/n/in gl-me-/s/i (de*li*nin / gl*me*si); al-ma-/n/n sonu-u (a*l*ma*nn / so*nu*cu); ala-ma-/n/n neden-i (a*la*ma*nn / ne*de*ni); kz-n gzel.lik-i (k*zn / g*zel*li*i) (biz): [im.iz, m.z, m.z, um.uz, em.iz, am.z]: biz-im okul-um.uz (bi*zim / o*ku*lu*muz); biz-im tencere-em.iz (bi*zim / ten*ce*re*miz); biz-im baba-am.z (bi*zim / ba*ba*mz); biz-im ky-m.z (bi*zim / k*y*mz); biz-im sorun-um.uz (so*ru*nu*muz), biz-im baheem.iz (bah*e*miz), biz-im anla-ma-am.z (an*la*ma*mz). (siz): [in.iz, n.z, n.z, un.uz, en.iz, an.z]: siz-in davul-un.uz (si*zin / da*vu*lu*nuz); siz-in araba-an.z (a*ra*ba*nz); siz-in kz-n.z (k*z*nz); siz-in kafa-an.z (ka*fa*nz), siz-in bahe-en.iz (si*zin / bah*e*niz); siz-in torba-an.z (tor*ba*nz); siz-in konu-ma-an.z (ko*nu*ma*nz). (onlar): [i, , , u] or ([ler-i, lar-]): o/n/-lar-n okul-u (on*la*rn / o*ku*lu); o/n/-lar-n iek-ler-i (on*la*rn /
70
71
72
73
74
75
This similarity could be seen in the following two sentences: Bu benim kitabm. This is my book. Bu kitap benim. This book is mine. Bu senin araban. This is your car. Bu araba senin. This car is yours. Sometimes the [K] morpheme, which does not follow the vowel harmony rules and consequently has no allomorphs, is attached to benim, senin, o-nun, Jackin possessor pronouns. This morpheme generally means this one among others: Bu anta benim-ki. (bu / an*ta / be*nim*ki ) This bag is mine (among others). u koltuk sizin-ki. (u / kol*tuk / si*zin*ki ) This seat is yours (among others). Bu masa Jackin-ki. This table is Jacks (among others). Bu araba Ouzun-ki. This car is Ouzs (among others).
76
77
(gen*le*rin / spor / yap*ma*s*nn / *ne*mi*nin / an*la*l*ma*s / ge*re*kir) It is necessary to understand the importance of the youngsters playing sports.
78
79
80
81
82
Dn kk bir ocuk ukur-un i-i-/n/e d-t. (dn / k*k / bir / o*cuk~ / u*ku*run / i*i*ne / d*t) Yesterday a little boy fell into the ditch. Top karyola-/n/n alt--/n/a git-ti. (top / kar*yo*la*nn / al*t*na / git*ti) The ball went under the bed. Masa-/n/n st-/n/-de dans-et-ti. (liaison) (ma*sa*nn / s*tn*de / dan*set*ti ) She danced on the table. Kedi, karyola-/n/n alt-/n/-da uyu-u.yor. (The /u/ drops.) (ke*di ~/ kar*yo*la*nn / al*tn*da / u*yu*yor ) The cat is sleeping under the bed. ocuklar, aalar-n alt-/n/-da oyna-u.yor.lar. (The /a/ drops.) (o*cuk*lar~/ a*a*la*rn / al*tn*da / oy*nu*yor*lar ) The children are playing under the trees.
83
(Ben) masa-/n/n st--/n/ temizle-di-im. I cleaned the upper side of the table.
NP noun compound (obj) NP V NP V noun compound (obj) NP
The [] and [i] are the allomorphs of the defining morpheme []. When the possessor part of a compound ends with a consonant, it takes one of the [in, n, n, un] allomorphs in agreement with the vowel harmony rules; but when it ends with a vowel, it takes one of the same allomorphs together with the glide /n/. Additionally, the single underlined consonants detach from their syllables, and attach to the first vowels of the following allomorphs if they start with vowels. Words ending with consonants: eker-in (e*ke*rin), dil-in (di*lin), hamal-n (ha*ma*ln), sakal-n (sa*ka*ln), gl-n (g*ln), kz-n (*k*zn), okul-un (o*ku*lun), somun-un (so*mu*nun), armut-un (ar*mu*dun), kitap-n (ki*ta*bn), sokak-n (so*ka*n), et-in (e*tin), st-n (s*tn), dert-in (der*din) Words ending with vowels:
84
When the possessed part of a compound ends with a consonant, it takes one of the allomorphs of [i, , , u] according to the vowel harmony rules; but if it ends with a vowel, it takes one of the same allomorphs together with the glide /s/: Words ending with consonants: i-i (i*i), ip-i (i*pi), sap- (sa*p), alt- (al*t), st- (s*t), kz- (*k*z), okul-u, torun-u, at-, kusur-u, eker-i, sepet-i, ay-, nefret-i, duman, hayran-, kurban-, tavan-, tavan-, rapor-u, teker-i, saman-, zaman-, kmes-i, motor-u, ot-u (o*tu) Words ending with vowels: Sevgi-/s/i, tencere-/s/i, atk-/s/, bask-/s/, sng-/s/, grg-/s/ korku-/s/u, koku-/s/u, kuku-/s/u, iki-/s/i, fke-/s/i, tatl-/s/, yavru-/s/u, kuzu-/s/u, denge-/s/i, uyku-/s/u, duygu-/s/u, oda-/s/, tapu-/s/u, boya-/s/, foya-/s/, dosya-/s/, al-ma-/s/, but exceptionally (su-/y/u) When the possessor and the possessed parts are used together, the compounds become as follows: dil-in u-u (di*lin / u*cu) (the tip of the tongue); hamal-n aka-/s/ (the joke of the porter); sakal-n boy-u (the length of the beard); kap-/n/n srg/s/ (the bolt of the door); masa-/n/n alt- (the underside of the table); kz-n boynuz-lar- (the horns of the ox); gece-/n/in karanlk- (ka*ran*l*) (the darkness of the night); gl-n koku-/s/u (the smell of the rose); dolap-n i-i (do*la*bn / i*i) (inside the cupboard); sorun-un nem-i (the importan of the problem); tartma-/n/n sonu-u (tar*t*ma*nn / so*nu*cu) (the result of the discussion); kedi-/n/in korku-/s/u (the fright of the cat). Generally, the last syllables of the compounds are stressed. However, when needed, the last syllables of the possessor parts of the compounds can also be stressed. As all of the examples above are the third person singular, the possessor adjectives should also be included in the examples above:
85
86
87
88
Jack is at school.
(prep phrs) adverbial (prep phrs) adverbial
Jack okul-a gitti. Jack went to school. jack deniz-e dt. Jack fell into the sea.
adverbial adverbial adverbial noun compound -/n/[a] adverbial noun comp - /n/[den] adverbial adverbial noun compound - /n/[den] adverbial (prep phrs) adverbial (prep phrs) adverbial (prep phrs) adverbial prep phrs adverbial prep phrs adverbial (prep phrs) adverbial prep phrs adverbial
Biz bulutlar-a baktk. We looked at the clouds. Jack okul-dan geldi. Jack came from school. Top masa-/n/n alt--/n/a gitti. The ball went under the table. Kpek it-in st-/n/-den atlad. The dog jumped over the fence. Tren tnel-den geiyor. The train is going through the tunnel. Jack anahtar delik-i/n/-den bakyor. Jack is looking through the key hole. Byk kamyon kpr-/n/n alt-/n/-dan geemedi.
noun compound - /n/[den] adverbial
In the examples above, the underlined English parts of the sentences are structurally prepositional phrases, but they are syntactically adverbials as they are in the Turkish sentences.
baka, gayr: noun or noun compound-[den, dan, ten, tan] + baka (determiner) Sen-den baka kimse ben-i anlayamaz.
determiner NP noun NP VP V
89
beri: noun or noun compound-[den, dan, ten, tan] + beri (adverbial phrase)
(Ben) sabah-tan beri alyorum.
NP postp adverbial phrs VP V
I have been working since morning. (Ben) sen-i (ben-im) ilk gr-dk-m-den beri seviyorum. NP NP (noun comp) nominal phrs postp V
postpositional adverbial phrs of time
(se*ni / ilk / gr*d*m*den / be*ri / se*vi*yo*rum ) I have been in love with you since I saw you first.
bu yana: noun or noun compound-[den, dan, ten, tan] + bu yana (adverbial phrase) Fiyat-lar geen ay-dan bu yana ykseliyor.
NP postp adverbial phrs VP V
(fi*yat*lar / ge*en / ay*dan / bu / ya*na / yk*se*li*yor ) The prices have been going up since last month. Ayak--/n/ incit-tik-i/n/-den bu yana Jack okul-a gidemiyor
noun comp-den postp postpositional adverbial phrase NP adverbial V
(a*ya**n / in*cit*ti*in*den / bu / ya*na~ / cek / o*ku*la / gi*de*mi*yor) Jack hasnt been able to go to school since he injured his foot.
(ge*en / haf*ta / di*na*zor*la*ra / da:*ir / bir / ki*tap / o*ku*dum ) I read an article about dinosaurs last week.
(sa*ba*ha / dek / u*yu*ya*ma*dm ) I couldnt sleep until morning. Koca-/s/-/n/n ev-e dn-me-/s/i-/n/e dek kaynana-/s//y/-la tartt
nominal phrs (noun comp)-/n/e postp postpositional adverbial phrase of time adverbial V
(ko*ca*s*nn / e*ve / dn*me*si*ne / dek~ / kay*na*na*sy*la / tar*t*t ) She had a row with her mother in law until her husband came back home.
(ev*de*dir / di*ye / ka*p*y / al*dm ) I knocked at the door thinking that he was at home. Aye telefon et-er diye (ben) ev-den ayrlmadm.
sentence used as a NP postp NP adverbial postpositional adverbial phrase sentence V
(ay*e / te*le*fon / e*der / di*ye / ev*den / ay*rl*ma*dm ) I didnt leave home hoping that Aye might telephone.
(pa*ra*y / *de*me*den / lo*kan*ta*dan / k*t ) He left the restauraunt without paying. Dar k! (d*a*r / k )
order
Go out!
We rowed towards the island. Baba-am-n ev-e gel-me-/s/i-/n/e doru anne-em sofra-/y/ hazrlad.
noun compound-/n/e postp postpositional adverbial phrase NP NP V
91
dolay: noun or noun comp-[den. dan, ten, tan] + dolay (postp adv phrs)
Youn trafik-ten dolay okul-a ge kaldm.
adj + noun-den postp adverbial postp adverbial phrs V
(yo*un / tra*fik*ten / do*la*y / o*ku*la / ge / kal*dm ) I was late for school because of the heavy traffic. (Ben-im) okul-a ge gel-me-em-den dolay mdr ben-i cezalandrd.
possessor adverbial adv possessed -den | noun compound-den postp postpositional adverbial phrase of cause NP NP V
(o*ku*la / ge / gel*mem*den / do*la*y~ / m*dr / be*ni / ce*za:*lan*dr*d) The principal punished me because of my coming to school late.
(sa*at / do*ku*zu / be / ge*e~ / ha*va / a*la*n*na / var*dm ) I got to the airport at five minutes past nine.
(bi*zim / e*vin / *n*ne~ / ku*le / gi*bi / bir / bi*na: / di*ki*yor*lar ) They are erecting a buiding like a tower in front of our house. (Sen) bir centilmen gibi davranmalsn.
NP postp adverbial phrs V
92
TURKISH GRAMMAR UPDATED ACADEMIC EDITION 2013 gre: noun or noun comp-[e, a] + gre (adverbial)
Kz karde-im-e gre kadn-lar erkek-ler-den (daha) yeteneklidir.
noun-e postp postp adverbial phrs NP advebial phrs adv adverbial phrs of comparison V
(kz / kar*de*i*me / g*re~ / ka*dn*lar / er*kek*ler*den / da*ha / ye*te*nek*li*dir ) According to my sister, women are more talented than men. Bana gre o ok iyimser.
postp adv phrs NP intens pred adj
(cek / fut*bol / hak*kn*da / bir / kom*po*zis*yon / ya*z*yor ) Jack is writing a composition about football.
(bi*zim / vo*ley*bol / ta*k*m*mz~ / i*yi / oy*na*d* / hal*de / ma* / ka*za*na*ma*d) Although our volleyball team played well, they couldnt win the game.
(ba*bam / be*nim / i*in / bir / bil*gi*sa*yar / al*d ) My father bought a computer for me. Herkes kralie-/y/i gr-mek iin ayaa kalk-t.
NP infinitive postp postp adverbial phrs V
93
(dev / ka*dar / bir / a*dam~ / gk*g*rl*t*s / gi*bi / gr*le*di) A man as big as a giant roared like thunder.
(ma~ / do*ku*za / ey*rek / ka*la / ba*la*d ) The game started at a qarter to nine.
(sen / *te*ki / kz*la*ra / na*za*ran / da*ha / g*zel*sin ) You are more beautiful compared to other girls.
94
(yat*ma*dan / n*ce / e*v*de*vi*mi / bi*tir*mi*tim ) (liaison) I had finished my homework before I went to bed.
(yor*gun / ol*ma*m*za / ra*men~ / a*l*ma*ya / de*vam / et*me*li*yiz ) We have to go on working although we are tired.
95
96
97
(ke*di / per*de*nin / ar*ka*sn*da ). The cat is behind the curtain. Gzlk-ler-im ayna-/n/n n-/n/-de. (ay*na*nn / *n) (gz*lk*le*rim / ay*na*nn / *nn*de ) My glasses are in front of the mirror. Terlikler-in karyola-/n/n alt-/n/-da. (kar*yo*la*nn / al*t) (ter*lik*le*rin / kar*yo*la*nn / al*tn*da ) Your slippers are under the bed. Ben-im ev-im bakkal-n bitiik-i/n/-de. (bak*ka*ln / bi*ti*i*i) (be*nim / e*vim / bak*ka*ln / bi*ti*i*in*de ) My house is next to the grocer. Sen-in dkkn-n bakkal-n kar-/s//n/-da. (bak*ka*ln / kar**s) (se*nin / dk*k*nn / bak*ka*ln / kar**sn*da ) Your shop is opposite (to) the grocer. stasyon sol-da. (is*tas*yon / sol*da ) The station is on the left. stasyon, bakkal-n sol-u/n/-da. (bak*ka*ln / so*lu) (is*tas*yon / bak*ka*ln / so*lun*da ) The station is on the left of the grocer. Kar-m ev-de. (ka*rm / ev*de ) My wife is at home. Ben, postane-/n/in n-/n/-de-/y/im. (pos*ta*ne*nin / *n) (ben / pos*ta:*ne*nin / *nn*de*yim ) I am in front of the post office. In the sentences above, there are no time morphemes attached to the words arkasnda, nnde, karsnda, evde, etc.The absence of these
98
(Sen) ev-de mi-sin? (ev*de / mi*sin ) Are you at home? (Siz) iyi mi-sin-iz? (i*yi / mi*si*niz) Are you all right? (Ben) deli mi-/y/im? (ben / de*li / mi*yim ) Am I crazy? Hazr deil mi-/y/iz? (ha*zr / de*il / mi*yiz ) Arent we ready?
.
When one of the allomorphs of the [DR] morpheme attaches to the last words of one of the sentences above, the sentences mean either perhaps" or "I am sure". This difference of meaning can be heard in speech. When a syllable printed in bold face is stressed, the sentence means, I am sure, when it is not, it means "perhaps". The allomorphs of this morpheme are [dir, dr, dr, dur, tir, tr, tr, tur]: (ka*r*mev*de*dir ) (perhaps); (ka*rm / ev*de*dir ) (I am sure) "Bura, "ura", "ora", bu, u, o could all be used as nouns. When these nouns are attached to the allomorphs of the [E], [DE], and [DEN] morphemes, they become adverbials; but if they are attached to the allomorphs of the phoneme [], they can be used in the object position in sentences: O bura-da (bur*da).
pred adverbial
99
(ben / bu*nu / an*la*ma*dm ) I didnt understand this. Ben bu/n/-lar- anla-ma-d-m. (ben / bun*la*r / an*la*ma*dm ) I didnt understand these. The same [DEN] morpheme can be used after bu and o preceded by the advers byle, nce and sonra to form postpositional phrases, which function as adverbials:
100
Ben (bir) retmen-im. (ben / bi*r*ret*me*nim ) (liaison) I am a teacher. Sen (bir) doktor-sun. (sen / bir / dok*tor*sun ) You are a doctor. O (bir) mimar. (o / bir / mi:*mar ) She is an architect.
101
102
103
104
THE PRESENT MODALS WITH THE VERB BE must be: (ol-ma.l) (certainty)
When ol-ma.l is used after nouns, adjectives, adverbials or postpositional phrases, it means must be:
105
106
TURKISH GRAMMAR UPDATED ACADEMIC EDITION 2013 cant be: (ol-a.maz) (impossibility)
To change the ol-ma.l sentences into the negative form, (ben) ol-a.maz-am (o*la*mam), (sen) ol-a.maz-sn (o*la*maz*sn), (o) "ol-a.maz (o*la*-maz), (biz) ola.ma-/y/z (o*la*ma*yz), (siz) ol-a.maz-sn.z (o*la*maz*-s*nz), (onlar) ol-a.maz(lar) (o*la*maz*lar) words are separately used. The double underlined "z" in ol-amaz-am drops, and the remaining a-a vowels combine, and the single underlined consonants detach from their syl-lables and attach to the first vowels of the following allomorphs: Kocam yorgun ol-a.maz. (ko*cam / yor*gun / o*la*maz ) My husband cant be tired. (impossibility) ocuk-lar bahe-de ol-ma.l. (o*cuk*lar / bah*e*de / ol*ma*l ) dren must be in the garden. (I am sure they are.)
The chil-
ocuk-lar bahe-de ol-a.maz. (o*cuk*lar / bah*e*de / o*la*maz ) The children cant be in the garden. (impossibility) Film ilin ol-ma.l. (film / il*gin / ol*ma*l ) The film must be interesting. (certainty) O film ilgin ol-a.maz. (o / film / il*gin / o*la*maz ) That film cant be interesting. (impossibility) Ben tembel ol-a.maz-am. (ben / tem*bel / o*la*mam ) I cant be lazy. (impossibility) Biz o saat-te okul-da ol-a.maz m-/y/z? (biz / o /sa*at*te / o*kul*da / o*la*maz / m-/y/z ) Cant we be at school at that hour. (Is it impossible?) Onlar hakl ol-a.maz m? (on*lar / hak*l / o*la*maz*(lar) ) Cant they be right. (Is it impossible?) (Sen) saat dokuz-da bro-da ol-a.maz m-sn? (sen / sa*at / do*kuz*da / b*ro*da / o*la*maz / m*sn ) Can't you be at the office at nine? (Isn't it possible?)
107
108
109
Simple Present:
(Ben) [mi-/y/im?, m-/y/m?, m-/y/m?, mu-/y/um?] (Sen) [mi-sin?, m-sn?, m-sn?, mu-sun?] (O) [mi?, m?, m?, mu?] (Biz) [mi-/y/iz?, m-/yz?, m-/y/z, mu-/y/uz] (Siz) [mi-sin-iz?, m-sn-z?, m-sn-z?, mu-sun-uz?] (Onlar) [(ler) mi?, (lar) m?] For instance: Ko-ar m-/y/m? Ko-ar m-sn? Ko-ar m? Ko-ar m-/y/z? Ko-ar m-sn-z? Koar-lar m? Bekle-er mi-/y/im? Bekle-er mi-sin? Ol-ur mu? Yz-er mi-/y/iz? Gel-ir mi-sin-iz?, Otur-ur mu-sun-uz?
Simple Past:
(Ben) [mi, m, m, mu], (Sen) [mi, m, m, mu]. (O) [mi, m, m, mu]. (Biz) [mi, m, m, mu], (Siz) [mi, m, m, mu], (Onlar) [mi, m, m, mu] For instance: Se-ti-im mi? Al-d-m m? Gr-d-m m? Bul-du-um mu? Kz-d-n m? -ti-in mi?, Sr-d-n m? Oku-du-un mu? Al-ma-d m? Gezme-di-ik mi? Ka-t-k m? l-t-k m? Gr-d-n-z m? Ol-du-un-uz mu?
Simple Future:
The same [M] structure is used as in the Simple Present: For instance: Gel.e.cek mi-/y/im? Al-a.cak m-sn? Sat-a.cak m? Bekle-/y/e.cek mi-/y/iz? Bitir-e.cek mi-sin.iz? A-a.cak m-sn.z? Hatrla-/y/a.cak-lar m?
Present Continuous:
The same [M] structure is used as in the Simple Present. For instance: Gl-.yor mu-/y/um? Sat-.yor mu-sun? Anla-.yor mu? Bekle-i.yor mu-sun.uz? Kal-.yor mu-/y/uz? Uyu-u.yor-lar m? al-ma-.yor mu-/y/uz? Gel-me-i.yor-lar m?
Past Continuous:
(Ben) [mu/y/-du-um], (Sen [mu/y/du-un], [(O) [mu/y/-du], (Biz) [mu/y/-du-uk], (Siz) [mu/y/-du-un-uz], (Onlar) [mu/y/-du-lar] or [m/y/-d]. For instance: Gl-.yor mu/y/-du-um? al-.yor mu/y/-du-un? Sat-.yor mu/y/-du? Gezi.yor mu/y/-du-uk? Bekle-i.yor mu/y/-du-un-uz? al-.yor-lar m/y/-d?
110
Past Perfect:
(Ben) [mi/y/-di-im, m/y/-d-m, m/y/-d-m, mu/y/-du-um] (Sen) [mi/y/-di-in, m/y/-d-n, m/y/-d-n, mu/y/-du-un] (O) [mi/y/-di, m/y/-d, m/y/-d, mu/y/-du (Biz) [mi/y/di-ik, m/y/-d-k, m/y/-d-k, mu/y/-du-uk] (Siz) [mi/y/-di-in.iz, m/y/-d-n.z, m/y/-d-n.z, mu/y/-du-un.uz] (Onlar) [mi/y/-di-ler, m/y/-d-lar, m/y/-d-ler, mu/y/-du-lar] For instance: Oku-mu mu/y/-du-um? Gr-m m/y/-d-n? al-m m/y/-d? At-m m/y/-d-k? Bala-m m/y/-d-n.z? or Bala-m-lar m/y/-d?
Perfect Modals:
The same [M] structures are used as in the Past Perfect: Bitir-me.li mi/y/-di-im? Bala-/y/a.bil-ir mi/y/-di-ik? Baar-a.maz m/y/-d-k? Bitirme-em-iz gerek-ir mi/y/-di? Cezalandr-l-a.bil-ir mi/y/-di-ik? Bitir-e.mez mi/y/-di-ler? Anla-a.maz m/y/-d-k? Gcen-e.bil-ir mi/y/-di-ler? Note: The single underlined consonants detach from their syllables and attach to the foollowing vowels. The consecudive vowels written in bold face combine.
111
(sa*at / do*kuz*da~ / o*kul*da / ol*mak / zo*run*da*ym) (They want me to be at school at nine. (This is the rule.) (external obligation) renci-ler alkan ol-mak zorunda. (*ren*ci*ler ~/ a*l*kan / ol*mak / zo*run*da ) Students have to be hardworking. (This is their duty.) (external obligation) (Ben) saat dokuz-da okul-da ol-mak zorunda deil-im. (ben~ / sa*at / do*kuz*da / o*kul*da / ol*mak / zo*run*da / de*i*lim ) I don't have to be (or neednt be) at school at nine tomorrow. (absence of external obligation) Saat dokuz-da okul-da ol-mak zorunda m-/y/z? (sa*at / do*kuz*da / o*kul*da / ol*mak / zo*run*da / m*yz ) Do we have to be at school at nine?
112
(Ben-im) saat dokuz-da okul-da ol-ma-am-a gerek yok. (be*nim / sa*at / do*kuz*da / o*kul*da / ol*ma*ma / ge*rek / yok ) I neednt be at school at nine. I dont have to be at school at nine. Note: The last [a] is one of the allomorphs of the morpheme [E]. (lack of external obligation) (Ben-im) yarn leden sonra bro-da ol-ma-am-a gerek yok. (be*nim / ya*rn / *le*den / son*ra / b*ro*da / ol*ma*ma /ge*rek / yok ) I neednt be at the office tomorrow afternoon. I dont have to be (Siz-in) hazr ol-ma-an-z gerek-i.yor. (ha*zr / ol*ma*nz / ge*re*ki*yor ) You have to be ready. You should be ready. You ought to be ready. (external obligation) (Onun) kayglan-ma-/s/-/n/a gerek yok. (o*nun / kay*g*lan*ma*s*na / ge*rek / yok ) She neednt be anxious. (Biz-im) yeni bir araba al-ma-am.z-a gerek yok.
noun compound-a adverbial phrase
(ye*ni / bir / a*ra*ba / al*ma*m*za / ge*rek / yok ) We neednt buy a new car. (Sen-in) kz-ma-an-a gerek yok. (kz*ma*na / ge*rek / yok ) You neednt be angry. (Sen-in) bar-ma-an-a gerek yok; sar deil.im. (ba*r*ma*na / ge*rek / yok ) (sa*r / de*i*lim ) You neednt shout; I am not deaf. Note: The noun compounds in the sentences above are all underlined.
113
TURKISH GRAMMAR UPDATED ACADEMIC EDITION 2013 THE SIMPLE PAST VERB BE
The past morpheme of [DR] is [D], which has eight allomorphs [di, d, d, du, ti, t, t, tu]. These allomorphs are naturally followed by personal allomorphs: (ben) (sen) (o) (biz) (siz) (onlar) : [im, m, m, um] : [in, n, n, un] : [] : [ik, k, k, uk] : [in.iz, n.z, n.z, un.uz] : [] [ler, lar]
Note: There are two kinds of first person plural personal morphemes "[Z] and [K]" attached to time morphemes in Turkish. The time morphemes ending with consonants attach to the [iz, z, z, uz] allomorphs such as git-eriz, "kal-r-z, ksr-r-z, gel-i.yor-uz, etc. However, when the past allomorphs [di, d, d, du, ti, t, t, tu], which end with vowels, attach to the personal allomorphs, the first person plural allomorphs [ik, k, k, uk] are used. As the last phonemes of the [di, d, d, du, ti, t, t, tu], and the first phonemes of the [ik, k, k, uk] are vowels, the vowels of the past allomorphs coinciding with the vowels of the [ik, k, k, uk] allomorphs combine and are verbalized as a single vowel such as: gel-di-ik (gel*dik), gr-d-k (gr*dk), yen-di-ik (yen*dik), anla-d-k (an*la*dk), l-d-k (l*dk). As the condition allomorphs [se] and [sa] also end with vowels, they take the [ek] and [ak] personal allomorphs, such as: al-sa-ak (a*l*sak), yr-seek (y*r*sek), anla-sa-ak (an*la*sak), bekle-se-ek (bek*le*sek), konusa-ak (ko*nu*sak), bala-sa-ak (ba*la*sak), dinle-se-ek, ezberle-se-ek Note: The glides "/n/, /s/, // and /y/" are the consonants (semivowels) produced by the phonological system of the Turkish language. These semivowels do not carry meaning. They only help to harmonize the speech production. Therefore, they are showed between slashes in the sentences in this book. Thee slashes are not used in ordinary writing. Follow the example sentences: Dn hasta/y/-d-m. (dn / has*tay*dm ) I was ill yesterday. (The /y/ is a glide.)
114
115
(onlar) : mi/y/-di-ler, m/y/-d-lar, m/y/-d-ler, mu/y/-du-lar The identical vowels that follow one another combine and are verbalized as single vowels: i-i i; - ; - ; u-u u; e-e e; a-a a Although these words follow the vowel harmony rule patterns when they are articulated and written, they are considered to be words, and so they are separately written. The /y/ consonants used above are all glides. Dn hasta m/y/-d-n? (dn / has*ta / my*dn ) Were you ill yesterday? Ma skc m/y/-d? (ma / s*k*c / my*d ) Was the match boring? ocuk-lar mutlu mu/y/-du-(lar)? (o*cuk*lar / mut*lu / muy*du*lar ) Were the children happy? Sorular zor mu/y/-du? (so*ru*lar / zor / muy*du ) Were the questions difficult? Onlar zengin mi/y/-di-(ler)? (on*lar / zen*gin / miy*di*ler ) Were they wealthy? Mutlu mu/y/-du-un? (mut*lu / muy*dun ) Were you happy? The [mi, m, m, mu] question allomorphs can also be used after the primarily stressed words: (dnm / has*tay*dn); muy*du ) (so*ru*larm / zor*du); (so*ru*lar / zor*-
In order to form negative questions, deil and the above mi/y/-di-im, mi/y/-di-in, mi/y/-di, mi/y/-di-ik, mi/y/-di-in.iz, mi/y/-di-ler words are separately used:
116
INTERROGATIVE WORDS
There are two kinds of interrogative words in Turkish: Simple interrogative words like "kim?" (who?), "ne?" (what?), "nasl?" (how?), "niin?" (why?), and the simple interrogative words that are followed by some inflectional morphemes such as "kim-sin?" (who?), "kim-im?" (who?), "kim-iz? (who?),
117
118
119
120
121
122
123
(ga*raj*da / sa:*de*ce / bir / a*ra*bam / var ) I have (got) only one car in the garage. (possess) Uak-ta on yolcu var. (u*ak*ta / on / yol*cu / var ) There are ten passengers on the plane. (exist) (Ben-im) iki kz-m var.
noun compound
(be*nim / i*ki / k*zm / var ) Ive (got) two daughters. (possess) (Sen-in) ka erkek karde-in var?
noun compound
(se*nin~/ ka / er*kek / kar*de*in / var) How many brothers have you? (Sen-in) ka para-an var?
noun compound
(se*nin / ka / pa*ran / var) How much money have you got? (possess) The negative of var is yok: Garaj-da hi araba yok. (ga*raj*da / hi / a*ra*ba / yok ) There arent any cars in the garage. (not exist) (Ben-im) araba-am yok.
noun compound
(be*nim / a*ra*bam / yok ) I havent got a car. (not possess) The past form of the above expression is var-d; there was, had got: Garaj-da sadece bir araba var-d. (ga*raj*da / sa:*de*ce / bir / a*ra*ba / var*d ) There was only one car in the garage. (exist) (Ben-im) ok para-am var-d. I had (got) a lot of money. (possess)
noun compound
Uak-ta on yolcu var-d. There were ten passengers on the plane. (exist)
124
I didnt have much money twenty years ago. (not possess) Mutfak-ta bir masa yok-tu. (mut*fak*ta / bir / ma*sa / yok*tu ) There wasnt a table in the kitchen. (not exist) Duvar-lar-da hi resim yok-tu. (du*var*lar*da / hi / re*sim / yok*tu ) There werent any pictures on the walls. (not exist) There were no pictures Onun hi ocuk-u yok-tu. (o*nun / hi / o*cu*u / yok*tu ) He didnt have any children. (not possess) He had no children. Garaj-da hi araba var m/y/-d? (ga*raj*da / hi / a*ra*ba / var / m/y/*d ) Were there any cars in the garage?
THERE MUST (MAY) (SHOULD) BE, THERE CANT BE, THERE IS GOING TO BE, THERE WILL BE
Ol-ma.l (ol*ma*l) (there must be); ol-a.maz (o*la*maz) (there cant be); ol-a.cak (o*la*cak) (there is going to be, there will be); "ol-a.bil-ir" (o*la*bi*lir) (there may be); ol-ma-/s/ gerek-ir (ol*ma*s / ge*re*kir) (there should be) expressions should also be included in the above sentence types:
125
126
127
WISH (stek)
To turn a verb root, stem or frame into the wish mood, [e, a] and the personal allomorphs are added: Al-a-/y/m. (a*la*ym ) Let me take. Bak-a-/y/m! (ba*ka*ym ) Let me see! (Let me have a look!) Git-e-/y/im. (gi*de*yim ) Let me go. All the verb roots used above end with consonants, but when they end with vowels, the /y/ glides are inserted between their last vowels and the [e, a] allomorphs: Bekle-/y/e-/y/im. (bek*le*ye*yim ) or (bek*li*ye*yim ) Let me wait.
128
129
When the verb roots, stems or frames ending with vowels are attached to the simple present tense allomorphs above, the first vowels of the simple present tense allomorphs coincide with the last vowels of the verbs, and therefore they combine and are verbalized as a single vowel. However, when they end with consonants, these consonants detach from their syllables and attach to the first vowels of the following time allomorphs: Bekle-er-im (bek*le*rim); bala-ar-m (ba*la*rm); yr-r-m (y*r*rm); koru-ur-um (ko*ru*rum); bekle-er-sin (bek*ler*sin); bala-ar (ba*lar); ye-er (yer); bekle-er-iz (bek*le*riz); bala-ar-sn.z (ba*lar*s*nz); yr-r-ler (y*rr*ler); u-ar (u*ar); gez-er (ge*zer); gel-ir (ge*lir); sat-ar (sa*tar) The coinciding vowels above written in bold face combine. The transplaced consonants are single underlined. This verb composition is formed as follows:
130
We take or buy.
131
(k*zm / sa*at / do*kuz*da / o*ku*la / gi*der ). My daughter goes to school at nine. (intransitive) Ben genellik-le yedi-de kalk-ar-m.
subj adverbial adverbial intr verb
132
(kar*de*im / her / sa*bah / o*da*s*n / ter*tip*ler ) My sister tidies her room every morning. (transitive) In Turkish, the order of a VP is different from that of an English VP. In English, its order is VP V + NP, but in Turkish, the order is VP NP + V. For instance: Ben elma sev-er-im.
NP NP VP V
I
NP
like apples
V VP NP
I read books.
NP V VP NP
As it is noticed, in the Turkish sentences above, the words elma and kitap are not in plural form as they are used in their English equivalents. This is because, if a common noun represents all of its own kind and covers all books or apples, these nouns do not need plural allomorphs "[ler] or [lar]" attached to them when they are used in the object or subject position. For instance: Benim kzm kitap okumaz. My daughter doesnt read books. Halbuki, kitap faydaldr. Books are useful, however. Gmlek-ler-im-i ben tle-er-im. I iron my shirts. In the last example above, the pronoun ben is not in the beginning of the sentence, which is its usual position. It is used after the object to emphasize the subject, and it is stressed in speech In English, which is done with myself". This sort of sequence is possible in Turkish by putting kendim after ben. However, if someone says, "Gmleklerimi ben kendim tlerim, you may think that he is boasting about his abilities. The subject + object + verb order of the same sentence, Ben gmlek-lerim-i (gm*lek*le*ri*mi) tlerim can also change places in poetry and literature. For instance, although, tlerim ben gmleklerimi., tlerim gmleklerimi ben., and Gmleklerimi tlerim ben. kinds of sentences are quite understandable and acceptable in Turkish, such sentences are generally used in poetry to rhyme a poem.
133
134
TURKISH GRAMMAR UPDATED ACADEMIC EDITION 2013 SOME NOUNS USED TOGETHER WITH ET, YAP, LE, OL, AL VERBS TO PRODUCE VERBS
In Turkish, some noun roots (which are generally borrowed words) are used together with the verbs et, ol, yap, al or ile to produce verbs:
et:
alay et (a*la*yet) (make fun of), affet (af*fet) (forgive), armaan et (ar*ma*ga*net) (present as a gift), ba et (ba*et) (manage, cope with), beraat et (be*ra*a*tet) (be acquitted), beyan et (be*ya:*net) (declare), buyur et (bu*yu*ret) (invite someone to), davet et (da:*ve*tet) (invite), dahil et (da:*hi*let) (include something in), daktilo et (dak*ti*lo / et) (type), dans et (dan*set) (dance), deli et (de*li / et) (make someone mad), dert et (der* det) (occupy oneself with problems), devam et (de*va:*met) (continue), dikkat et (dik*ka*tet) (pay attention to, be careful), dua et (du*a: / et) (pray, say ones prayers), elde et (el*de / et) (obtain), gayret et (gay*re*tet) (try hard, do ones best), g et (g*et) (migrate), haberdar et (ha*ber*da:*ret) (inform someone), hakaret et (ha*ka:*re*tet) (insult), hapset (hap*set) (put in prison, imprison), hareket et (ha*re*ke*tet) (act, behave, start), hata et (ha*ta: / et) (make a mistake), hayl et (ha*y:*let) (dream, imagine, picture in ones mind), hazmet (haz*met) (digest), hizmet et (hiz*me*tet) (serve, assist), idare et (i*da:*re* / et) (manage, control), iftira et (if*ti*ra: / et) (slander), ihanet et (i*ha:*ne*tet) (betray), ikram et (ik*ra:*met) (offer someone to eat or drink something), ihll et (ih*l:*let) (violate), ikna et (ik*na: / et) (convince, persuade), ihra et (ih*ra:*cet) (export, expel), ikaz et (i:*ka:*zet) (warn), Imza et (im*za: / et) (sign), iml et (i:*m:*let) (manufacture), intihar et (in*ti*ha:*ret) (commit suicide), iptal et (ip*ta:*let) (cancel), isabet et (i*sa:*be*tet) (hit the mark), israf et (is*ra:*fet) (vaste), istifa et (is*ti*fa: / et) (resign), istifade et (is*ti*fa:*de / et) (benefit from), istirahat et (is*ti*ra*ha*tet) (have a rest), itaat et (i*ta:*a*tet) (obey), ithl et (it*h:*let) (import), itiraf et (i:*ti*ra:*fet) (confess), iyi et (i*yi / et) (cure, do the right thing), iyilik et (i*yi*li*ket) (do a favor), kabalk et (ka*ba*l*ket) (be rude), kabul et (ka*bu:*let) (accept), kr et (k:*ret) (profit from), kavga et (kav*ga /et) (fight, quarrel), kontrol et (kon*tro*let) (check), koordine et (ko*or*di*ne / et) (coordinate), kfr et (kf*ret) (swear), mecbur et (mec*bu:*ret) (oblige), megul et (me*gu:*let) (occupy someone), memnun et (mem*nu:*net) (make someone happy), muhafaza et (mu*ha:*fa*za / et) (keep, preserve), mutlu et (mut*lu / et) (make happy), nefret et (nef*re*tet) (hate), niyet et (ni*ye*tet) (intend), nderlik et (n*der*li*ket) (lead), raz et (ra:*z / et) (persuade), sabret (sab*ret) (be patient), sakat et (sa*ka*tet)
135
yap:
alveri yap (do shopping), arama yap (carry out a search), by yap (cast a spell on someone), ay yap, kahve yap (make tea or coffee), cmle yap (make a sentence), elinden geleni yap (do your best), ev ii yap (do housework), giri yap (enter), hazrlk yap (get ready), hesap yap (calculate), i yap (do work, do business with), ibirlii yap (work together), iyilik yap (do a favour), kaza: yap (have an accident), konuma yap (make a speech), makyaj yap (do ones make up), dev yap (do homework), rejim yap (go on a diet), aka yap (make a joke), tatil yap (have a holiday, vacation), tica:ret yap (trade), toplant yap (hold a meeting), yanllk yap (make a mistake), yatak yap (make the bed), yemek yap (cook, do the cooking), yorum yap (comment on something). The other verbs that are used together with nouns are ol, ile, and kaydet. Their examples are as follows:
136
137
The negative form of the first person plural takes [me, ma] negation allomorphs followed by [/y/iz, /y/z] personal allomorphs: Ta-ma-/y/z. (ta**ma*yz ) We dont carry. A-ma-/y/z. (a*ma*yz ) We dont open. Ala-ma-/y/z. (a*la*ma*yz ) We dont cry. Dzenle-me-/y/iz. (d*zen*le*me*yiz ) We dont arrange. Ka-ma-/y/z. (ka*ma*yz ) We dont escape. Ka-n-ma-/y/z. (ka*n*ma*yz ) We dont avoid. (reflexive) Ertele-me-/y/iz. (er*te*le*me*yiz ) We dont postpone. -me-/y/iz. (i*me*yiz ) We dont drink. v-n-me-/y/iz. (*vn*me*yiz ) We dont boast. (reflexive) The negative form of the second person plural takes [mez, maz] allomorphs according to the vowel harmony rules: Gel-mez-sin.iz. Oku-maz-sn.z. al-maz-sn.z. Ta-maz-sn.z. (gel*mez*si*niz ) You dont come. (o*ku*maz*s*nz ) You dont read. (a*l*maz*s*nz ) You dont work. (ta**maz*s*nz ) You dont carry.
138
The /y/ phonemes above are all glides. Although these words follow the vowel harmony rules, they are considered words, and therefore, they are separately written: Bekle-er mi-/y/im? ksr-r m-/y/m? Bekle-er mi-sin? Gel-ir mi? Git-er mi-/y/iz? Yz-er mi-sin.iz? (bek*ler / mi*yim ) Do I wait? (k*s*rr / m*ym ) Do I cough? (bek*ler / mi*sin ) Do you wait? (ge*lir / mi ) Does he come? (gi*der / mi*yiz ) Do we go? (y*zer / mi*si*niz ) Do you swim?
139
140
141
142
143
144
145
146
147
148
TURKISH GRAMMAR UPDATED ACADEMIC EDITION 2013 THE VERBS THAT ARE NOT USED IN SIMPLE TENSES IN TURKISH
Some verbs that are not normally used in continuous tenses in English are especially used in continuous tenses in Turkish, and strange to say, these verbs are not generally used in simple tenses. These verbs are as follows: adore, appreciate, believe, care, desire, forgive, hate, hear, know, like, love, mean, mind, miss, recall, refuse, remember, see, smell, seem, think, trust, understand, want, wish. Consider and compare the following sentences: Sen-i affet-i.yor-um. (se*ni / af*fe*di*yo*rum ) I forgive you. (The /t/ changes into /d/.) Sen-i sev-i.yor-um. (se*ni / se*vi*yo*rum ) I love you. Sana tap-.yor-um. (sa*na / ta*p*yo*rum ) I adore you. Hepiniz-i hatrla-.yor-um. (he*pi*ni*zi / ha*tr*l*yo*rum ) I remember all of you. Ben-i hatrla-.yor mu-sun.uz? (be*ni / ha*tr*l*yor / mu*su*nuz ) Do you remember me? Ben-i sev-i.yor mu-sun? (be*ni / se*vi*yor / mu*sun ) Do you love me?
Hepiniz-e gven-i.yor-um. Bana gven-me-i.yor mu-sun? (he*pi*ni*ze / g*ve*ni*yo*rum ) (ba*na / g*ven*mi*yor / mu*sun ) I trust all of you. Don't you trust me? Siz-i anla-.yor-um. (si*zi / an*l*yo*rum ) I understand you. Siz-i an.la-ma-.yor-um. (si*zi / an*la*m*yo*rum ) I dont understand you. Siz ben-i anla-.yor mu-sun-uz? (siz / be*ni / an*l*yor / mu*su*nuz ) Do you understand me? Ben-i anla-ma-.yor mu-sun-uz? (be*ni / an*la*m*yor / mu*su*nuz ) Don't you understand me?
149
150
TRANSITIVE AND INTRANSITIVE VERB FRAMES Transitive verb frames are the verbs that take direct objects:
Annem her hafta ev-i temizler. Mother cleans the house every week.
subj adverbial obj tran verb subj tran verb obj adverbial phrs
swim
intr verb
in the river.
adverbial
Olum gn-de sekiz saat uyur. My son sleeps eight hours a day.
subj adverbial adverbial intr verb subj intr verb adverbial
151
152
153
154
155
156
157
158
159
160
161
162
Naturally, as all the allomorphs of the [D] morpheme [di, d, d, du, ti, t, t, tu] end with vowels, and the personal allomorphs [im, m, m, um; in, n, n, un; ik, k, k, uk; in.iz, n.z, n.z, un.uz] start with vowels, the first vowels of the personal allomorphs coincide with the allomorphs of the morpheme [D] and combine such as in di-im (dim), d-m" (dm), dm" (dm), du-um" (dum), ti-im (tim), "t-m" (tm), "t-m" (tm), "tu-um" (tum); "di-in" (din), "ti-in" (tin), "ti-ik" (tik), "di-in.iz" (di*niz), "ti-in.iz" (ti*niz). (Ben) iki saat nce i-im-i bitir-di-im. (ben / i*ki / sa*at / n*ce / i*i*mi / bi*tir*dim ) I finished my work two hours ago. (Ben) i-im-i bitir-di-im. (ben / i*i*mi / bi*tir*dim ) I have finished my work. (My work is ready now.) Onlar geen hafta sinema-/y/a git-ti. (on*lar / ge*en / haf*ta / si*ne*ma*ya / git*ti ) They went to the cinema last week. Onlar sinema-/y/a git-ti. (on*lar / si*ne*ma*ya / git*ti ) They have gone to the cinema. (They are at the cinema or on the way to the cinema.) O kitap- geen sene oku-du-um. (o / ki*ta*b / ge*en / se*ne / o*ku*dum ) I read that book last year. Kitap- oku.du-um. (ki*ta*b / o*ku*dum ) I have read the book. (I have finished reading it.)
163
negative:
The negation allomorphs [me, ma] are put after verb roots, stems or verb frames, and then they are followed by the [di, d] time allomorphs, which are followed by the personal allomorphs respectively. The other time allomorphs that are used in positive forms [d, du, ti, t, t, tu] are not used here as a result of the [me, ma] negation allomorphs: Fatma-/y/ pazar-dan beri gr-me-di-im. (fat*ma*y / pa*zar*dan / be*ri / gr*me*dim ) I havent seen Fatma since Sunday. Fatma-/y/ bir hafta-dr gr-me-di-im. (fat*ma*y / bir / haf*ta*dr / gr*me*dim ) I havent seen Fatma for a week. Fatma-/y/ geen hafta gr-me-di-im. (liaison) (fat*ma*y / ge*e*naf*ta / gr*me*dim ) I didnt see Fatma last week. Daha ev dev-im-i yap-ma-d-m. (liaison) (da*ha / e*v*de*vi*mi / yap*ma*dm ) I havent done my homework yet. Dn bu oda-/y/ temizle-me-di-ler. (dn / bu / o*da*y / te*miz*le*me*di*ler ) They didnt clean this room yesterday. Bu oda-/y/ gn-dr temizle-me-di-ler. (bu / o*da*y / / gn*dr / te*miz*le*me*di*ler ) They havent cleaned this room for three days Geen hafta futbol oyna-ma-d-k. (ge*en / haf*ta / fut*bol / oy*na*ma*dk ) We didn't play football last week.
164
positive question:
The question allomorphs [mi, m, m, mu], which are separately written, are used either after the verbs, or they may be used after the stressed words in sentences: Ahmet mi okul-a otobs-le git-ti? (ah*met / mi / o*ku*la / o*to*bs*le / git*ti ) Has Ahmet gone to school by bus? Ahmet okul-a otobs-le mi git-ti? (ah*met / o*ku*la~ / o*to*bsle / mi / git*ti ) Has Ahmet gone to school by bus? Ahmet otobs-le okul-a m git-ti? (ah*met / o*to*bs*le /o*ku*la / m / git*ti ) Has Ahmet gone to school by bus? Ahmet okul-a git-ti mi? (ah*met / o*ku*la / git*ti / mi ) Has Ahmet gone to school? (All of the sentences are yes-no questions.) If the last syllable in a sentence is used with a rising intonation (), the sentence means, I am surprised to hear it, or I could not hear you well. If it is used with a falling intonation (), the question is a yes-no question. Mektuplar- at-t-n m? (mek*tup*la*r / at*tn / m ) Have you posted the letters? Pazar gn futbol ma--/n/a git-ti-in mi? (pa*zar / g*n / fut*bol / ma**na / git*tin / mi ) Did you go to the football match on Sunday? Pazar gn futbol ma--/n/a m git-ti-in? (pa*zar / g*n / fut*bol / ma**na /m / git*tin) (I am surprised.) Did you go to the football match on Sunday?
165
166
167
168
169
170
171
O, al-ma-/y/a bala-ma-m bile. (o~/ a*l*ma*/y/a / ba*la*ma*m / bi*le ) They say he hasnt started working yet. (astonishment and complaint) Sen snav- ge-me-mi-sin. (sen / s*na*v / ge*me*mi*sin ) They say you didnt pass, or havent passed the examination. Olun dn okul-a git-me-mi. (o*lun / dn / o*ku*la / git*me*mi ) They say, or I heard that your son didnt go to school yesterday. Mektup-u at-ma-m. (mek*tu*bu / at*ma*m ) I heard that he hadn't posted the letter. Teklif-i kabul et-me-mi-ler. (tek*li:*fi / ka*b:I / et*me*mi*ler ) I heard that they hadnt accepted the proposal. Ben-im oul-um dn okul-a git-me-mi. (be*nim / o*lum / dn / o*ku*la / git*me*mi ) I heard that my son didnt go to school yesterday. This type of verb structure is also used to express surprise: Kedi papaan-m- ye-mi! (ke*di / pa*pa*a*n*m / ye*mi~) The cat has eaten up my parrot! (astonishment and anger) Kek yan-m! (kek / yan*m~) The cake has been burned (burnt)! (astonishment)
positive question:
In positive questions, [mi-/y/im, m-/y/m, m-/y/m, mu-/y/um]; [mi-sin, m-sn, m-sn, mu-sun]; [mi, m, m, mu]; [mi-/y/iz, m-/y/z, m-/y/z, mu-/y/uz]; [mi-sin.iz, m-sn.z, m-sn.z, mu-sun.uz] and [ler mi, lar m] words are separately used in accordance with the harmony rules:
172
negative question:
In negative questions, the [me, ma] negation allomorphs are attached to verb roots, stems or frames: Kap-/y/ kilit-le-me-mi-ler mi?! (ka*p*y / ki*lit*le*me*mi*ler / mi) Didn't they lock the door? (Im shocked to hear that.) Ben-i gr-me-mi mi? (be*ni / gr*me*mi / mi) Does he say that he didn't see me? (I can't believe!) (Incredible!) Ev dev-i-/n/i yap-ma-m m? (ev / *de*vi*ni~ / yap*ma*m / m) Does he say that he hasn't done his homework? (anger and astonishment) Daha kalk-ma-m m? (da*ha / kalk*ma*m / m) (surprise) Do you say that he hasnt got up yet? (How lazy he is!) Olun Trke bil-me-i.yor mu/y/-mu? (o*lun / trk*e / bil*mi*yor / muy*mu) Do you say that your son doesnt know Turkish? (I am surprised to hear that.) Ben-i tan-ma-.yor mu/y/-mu? Hayret bir ey! (be*ni / ta*n*m*yor / muy*mu) (hay*ret / bi*ey~) Does he say that he doesnt know me? Unbelievable! Ridiculous!
173
TURKISH GRAMMAR UPDATED ACADEMIC EDITION 2013 THE SIMPLE FUTURE AND BE GOING TO
Gelecek Zaman
The two different English time concepts above are expressed in [e.cek, a.cak] time allomorphs in Turkish. The personal allomorphs follow these two time allomorphs as usual such as: (ben) [im, m]; (sen) [sin, sn]; (o) []; (biz) [iz, z]; (siz) [sin.iz, sn.z]; (onlar) [] or [ler, lar] in Turkish. The same concepts can also be expressed in The Present Continuous Tense (imdiki Zaman), as well. Consider the following: Yeni bir araba satn al-a.cak-z. (ye*ni / bir / a*ra*ba / sa*tn / a*la*ca*z ) We are going to buy a new car. We will by a new car.
.
Bir gn ben-i anla-/y/a.cak-sn. (bir / gn / be*ni / an*la*ya*cak*sn ) You will understand me some day. (The /y/ glide is inserted between the successive /a/ vowels.) Param ol-un.ca sana yardm et-er-im. (pa*ram / o*lun*ca ~/ sa*na / yar*dm / e*de*rim ) I will help you when I have enough money. (The /t/ consonant changes into the voiced /d/.) (promise) Param olunca sana yardm et-e.cek-im. (pa*ram / o*lun*ca ~/ sa*na / yar*dm / e*de*ce*im ) I will certainly help you when I have enough money. (strong promise) The underlined /t/ and /k/ unvoiced consonants above change into the voiced /d/ and // consonants respectively. Baz hayvan-lar bir gn yok ol-a.cak. (liaison) (ba:*z / hay*van*lar / bir / gn / yo*ko*la*cak ) (liaison) Some animals will be extinct some day. (Kap-/y/) ben a-ar-m. (liaison) (ka*p*y / be*na*a*rm ) Ill open (the door). (One can use this form as soon as one hears the doorbell.)
174
negative:
The negation allomorphs of this tense are [me] or [ma], which are followed by [e.cek] or [a.cak] allomorphs. When "me-/y/e.cek" or "ma-/y/a.cak" allomorphs follow one another, the successive /e/ or /a/ vowels are linked by the /y/ glides to maintain the harmonious link between these vowels: Toplant-/y/a git-me-/y/e.cek-im. (top*lan*t*ya / git*me*ye*ce*im ), or impolitely, (git*miy*cem) I wont go to the meeting. (refusal)). The /y/ glide is inserted between the successive /e/ vowels, and the unvoiced consonant /k/ changes into the voiced form //. Onlar-n teklif-i-/n/i kabul et-me-/y/e.cek-iz. (on*la*rn / tek*li:*fi*ni / ka*bl / et*me*ye*ce*iz ) We wont accept their proposal. (The /n/ and /y/ are the glides inserted between the successive /i/ and /e/ vowels. The /k/ unvoiced consonant in ecek changes into the voiced //.) Yamur ya-ma-/y/a.cak. (ya*mur / ya*ma*ya*cak ) It is not going to rain. (The /y/ glide is inserted between the successive /a/ vowels.)
positive question:
In positive questions, mi-/y/im, mi-sin, mi, mi-/y/iz, mi-sin.iz, (ler)mi or their allomorphs are separately used: Bu mektup-lar- daktilo et-e.cek mi-sin? (bu / mek*tup*la*r / dak*ti*lo / e*de*cek / mi*sin ) Are you going to type these letters?
175
negative question:
In the negative question form, [me] or [ma] negation allomorphs follow the verb roots, stems or frames: Biz-im-le gel-me-/y/e.cek mi-sin? (bi*zim*le / gel*me*ye*cek / mi*sin ) Wont you come with us? (The /y/ glide links the successive /e/ vowels.) When the question words are involved, mi-/y/im, mi-sin, etc. are not used: Saat ka-ta ev-e dn-e.cek-sin? (sa*at / ka*ta / e*ve / d*ne*cek*sin ) What time will you come back home? Yarn nere-/y/e git-i.yor-sun? (ya*rn / ne re*ye / gi*di*yor*sun ) Where are you going tomorrow? (The /t/ changes into /d/.) Yarn hava nasl ol-a.cak? (ya*rn / ha*va / na sl / o*la*cak ) What is the weather going to be like tomorrow?
176
177
178
positive question:
The question allomorphs of this tense are [mi, m, m, mu]. Each one of these allomorphs may be separately used after any stressed word in a sentence: Ahmet okul-a otobs-le mi git-i.yor-du? (ah*met / o*ku*la / o*to*bsle*mi / gi*di*yor*du ) Was Ahmet going to school by bus? Ahmet otobsle okul-a m git-i.yor-du? (ah*met / o*to*bs*le / o*ku*la m / gi*di*yor*du ) Was Ahmet going to school by bus? Ahmet okul-a otobs-le git-i.yor mu/y/-du? (ah*met / o*ku*la / o*to*bs*le / gi*di*yor / mu/y/-du ) Was Ahmet going to school by bus? (Siz) uyu-u.yor mu/y/-du-un.uz? (u*yu*yor / muy*du*nuz ) Were you sleeping?
179
negative question :
The [me, ma] negation allomorphs are used in negative questions as usual: Onlar otobs-le git-me-i.yor mu/y/-du-lar? (on*lar / o*to*bs*le / git*mi*yor / muy*du*lar ) Werent they going by bus? The double underlined /e/ drops, the /m/ attaches to /i/ and the /y/ glide is inserted between [mu] and [du]. Instead of Gitmiyor muydular?, Gitmiyorlar myd? is often heard. When the question words are involved, the [mi, m, m, mu] allomorphs are not used, and the verbs are in positive form: Ne yap-.yor-du-un? (ne / ya*p*yor*dun) What were you doing? Sana kim yardm et-i.yor-du? (sa*na / kim / yar*dm / e*di*yor*du) Who was helping you? (The /t/ changes into the voiced /d/.) Nere-/y/e git-i.yor-du-un? (nere*ye / gi*di*yor*dun) Where were you going? The /t/ changes into the voiced /d/, and the /u-u/ vowels combine. Cadde-de bir kadn niin ko-u.yor-du? (cad*de*de / bir / ka*dn / niin / ko*u*yor*du) Why was a woman running along the street? The intonation patterns of the Turkish and English interrogative sentences are different when the question words are involved. In the Turkish sen-
180
181
USED TO
Geni Zamann Hikyesi
The equivalent of the expression of used to is used in Turkish as it is used in English. To form this expression, the simple present tense allomorphs of [R], [ir, r, r, ur, er, ar], are used followed by [di, d, d, du] past allomorphs; and finally, (ben) [im, m, m, um]; (sen) [in, n, n, un]; (o) []; (biz) [ik, k, k, uk]; (siz) [in.iz, n.z, n.z, un.uz]; (onlar) [lerdi, lar-d] personal allomorphs are added. The identical i-i, -, -, u-u vowels combine and are verbalized as single vowels: Onsekiz ya-m-da/y/-ken futbol oyna-ar-d-m. (on*se*kiz / ya*m*day*ken / fut*bol / oy*nar*dm ) I used to play football when I was eighteen.
182
negative:
The negation allomorph, which is used without the /z/ consonant for the first person in The Simple Present Tense (Geni Zaman) negative, is used with the phoneme /z/ in negative used to tenses, such as git-mez, oku-maz. After this, the allomorphs of the morpheme [D] and the personal allomorphs follow: Gen-ken basketbol oyna-maz-d-m. (gen*ken / bas*ket*bol / oy*na*maz*dm ) I didnt use(d) to play basketball when I was young. Okul-a otobs-le git-mez-di-ik. (o*ku*la / o*to*bs*le / git*mez*dik ) We didnt use(d) to go to school by bus. Babam gzlk-ler-i-/n/i tak-ma-am-a izin ver-mez-di. (ba*bam / gz*lk*le*ri*ni / tak*ma*ma / i*zin / ver*mez*di ) My father didnt use(d) to let me wear his eyeglasses.
positive question:
To produce a positive question, one of the Simple Present Tense allomorphs is attached to a verb root, stem or frame, and then, as a separate word, one of the question allomorphs [mi, m, m, mu], and one of the Simple Past Tense allomorphs [di, d, d, du] is linked to the question allomorphs by the /y/ glide, and finally a suitable personal allomorph follows them: Siz her gn ngilizce al-r m/y/-d-n.z?, or (alyor muydunuz?) (siz / her*gn / in*gi*liz*ce / a*l*r / my*d*nz ) Did you use(d) to study English every day? (The /y/ glide is inserted between [m] and [d].) Mutfak-ta anne-en-e her gn yardm et-er mi/y/-di-in? (mut*fak*ta / an*ne*ne / her / gn / yar*dm / e*der / miy*din ) Did you use to help your mother in the kitchen every day? Sen gen-ken kz-lar futbol oyna-ar m/y/-d? (sen / gen*ken / kz*lar / fut*bol / oy*nar/ m/y/*d ) Did girls use to play football when you were young?
183
184
185
When I arrived at the airport, the plane had already taken off. (O) (ben-im) hangi lke-ler-e git-tik-im-i ren-mek iste-di.
NP (noun compound) (object of renmek) NP inf V
He wanted to know which countries I had been to. Daha nce (kendi-/s/i-/n/in) ben-im-le karla-m ol-duk-u-/n/u syle-di. (da*ha / n*ce / be*nim*le / kar**la*m / ol*du*u*nu / sy*le*di ) He said that he had met me before. The /k/ phonemes in [dik, dk, dk, duk] change into the voiced // phonemes.
186
187
188
189
TURKISH GRAMMAR UPDATED ACADEMIC EDITION 2013 WHERE AND HOW THE INFINITIVES ARE USED
1 (a). The [mek, mak] infinitives can be used in the subject position in a sentence. They are timeless and have no personal possessor morphemes attached to them. Yz-mek salk iin yararl-dr. (yz*mek ~/ sa*lk / i*in / ya*rar*l*dr ) Swimming is good for health. Sigara i-mek zararl-dr. (si*ga*ra / i*mek ~/ za*rar*l*dr ) Smoking is harmful. Gnde sekiz saat uyu-mak salkl bir kii iin yeterlidir. (gn*de / se*kiz / sa*at / u*yu*mak~/ sa*lk*l / bir / ki*i / i*in / ye*ter*li*dir) Sleeping eight hours a day is enough for a healthy person. It is enough for.. Btn gn televizyon seyret-mek zaman kaybdr. (b*tn / gn / te*le*viz*yon / sey*ret*mek / za*man / kay*b*dr ) Watching television all day long is a waste of time. Onu ikna et-mek kolaydr. (o*nu / ik*na: / et*mek / ko*lay*dr ) To convince him is easy. It is easy to convince him. He is easy to convince
1 (b).The same [mek, mak] infinitives are used before yerine and iin postpositions:
Bahede al-mak yerine tenis oyna-d-k.
infinitive (noun) postp postp phrs (adverbial)
(bah*e*de / a*l*mak / ye*ri*ne~/ te*nis / oy*na*dk ) We played tennis instead of working in the garden. (Yerine is a postposition.) Televizyon seyret-mek yerine i-in-i yap. (te*le*viz*yon / sey*ret*mek / ye*ri*ne / i*i*ni / yap ) Do your work instead of watching television. Okul-a git-mek yerine sinema-/y/a git-ti-ler (o*ku*la / git*mek / ye*ri*ne~/ si*ne*ma*ya / git*ti*ler ) They went to the cinema instead of going to school.
190
191
192
193
(Sen-in) gerek-i syle-me-en-i iste-i.yor-um. (se*nin~ / ger*e*i / sy*le*me*ni / is*ti*yo*rum) I want you to tell the truth. senin gerei sylemen is a transformed nominalized sentence: (Sen) gerei sylersin. (sen-in) gerek-i syle-me-en (Sen) gerei sylyorsun (sen-in) gerek-i syle-me-en (Sen) gerei syledin. (senin) gerei sylemen (Sen) gerei sylerdin. (senin) gerei sylemen (Sen) gerei syleyeceksin. (sen-in) gerek-i syle-/y/e.cek ol-ma-an (Sen) gerei sylemitin. "(sen-in) gerek-i syle-mi ol-ma-an" As the pronouns with the possessor personal allomorphs, and the possessor allomorphs attached to the second parts of a noun compound mean the same person, the pronouns in the possessor parts can be ignored. (ben-im) git-me-em, (ben-im) al-ma-am, (ben-im) bekle-me-em (sen-in) git-me-en, (sen-in) al-ma-an, (sen-in) bekle-me-en (o-/n/un) git-me-/s/i, (o-/n/un) al-ma-/s/, (o-/n/un) bekle-me-/s/i (biz-im) git-me-em.iz, (biz-im) al-ma-am.z,(biz-im) bekle-me-em.iz (siz-in) git-me-en.iz, (siz-in) al-ma-an.z, (siz-in) bekle-me-en.iz (on.lar-n) git-me-/s/I, (onlar-n) al-ma-/s/, (onlar-n) bekle-me-/s/i All the identical e-e, a-a vowels combine, and the single underlined syllables detach from their syllables and attach to the first vowels of the following allomorphs. Note: In the first line above, all the pronouns together with the im, em, am and em possessor personal allomorphs mean my. In the following lines, the allomorphs in inverted comas mean your, his, her, its, our, your, and their. As the possessor personal allomorphs used in the possessed parts of a compound are enough to express the possessor adjectives (ben-im, sen-in,
194
syle-me-en-de,
syle-me-en-den,
My father wants me to study harder. A final rule to add to the previous explanations is that in Turkish certain verbs need certain morphemes such as [], [E], [DE], [DEN] or [LE] attached to nouns or pronouns. The allomorphs of these morphemes can also be attached to infinitives, or noun + infinitive (or infinitive + noun) compounds, which might be named as syntactic nouns or nominal phrases.
2 (b). The verbs that take noun + nfinitive compounds as objects: noun + infinitive - []
Yamur, (biz-im) zaman-n-da tiyatro-/y/a git-me-em.iz-i engelledi.
possessor adverbial adverbial possessed V noun + infinitive compound (object) NP (ya*mur / bi*zim / za*ma:*nn*da / ti*yat*ro*ya / git*me*mi*zi / en*gel*le*di ) NP
I dont understand your behaving like that. (Ben) (o/n/-dan) (Ben-im) siyah pantolon-um-u (o-/n/un) tle-me-/s/i-/n/i rica ettim.
NP adverbial possessor possessed possessor possessed noun comp + [] (obj of tle) noun comp + [] (obj of rica et) NP NP chain noun compound V
The mental development of this last sentence contains two simple sentences: 1 . O ben-im siyah pantolonum-u tlesin. 2. Ben ondan bu-/n/u rica ettim.
195
piyano
al-ma-/s/-/n/ seyrettim.
| V
(ma*ri*nin / pi*ya*no / al*ma*s*n / sey*ret*tim ) I watched Mary playing the piano. (The /n/, /s/ and /n/ glides are respectively used.) (Ben) (Sen-in) ev-e dn-me-en-i bekle-i.yor-um. (e*ve / dn*me*ni)
NP possessor adv possessed | noun compound (object) NP VP
I am waiting for your coming back home. O/n/un konu-ma-/s/-/n/ anla-ma-.yor-um. (o*nun / ko*nu*ma*s*n / an*la*m*yo*rum ) I dont understand his way of speaking. (The /n/, /s/ and /n/ glides are respectively used.) (Sen) (Ben-im) sana kahve getir-me-em-i iste-er mi-sin? (sa*na / kah*ve / ge*tir*me*mi / is*ter / mi*sin ) Would you like me to serve you coffee? (Ben-im) onun-la evlen-me-em imkn-sz.
possessor adverbial possessed noun compound (subject) V
(o*nun*la / ev*len*mem / im*kn*sz ) It is impossible for me to marry her. (Benim is optional.) (Ben) onu, (o-nun) bize yardm et-me-/s/i iin ikna et-ti-im. (ik*na: / et*tim)
subj obj noun + inf comp (object of iin) postp. postpositional phrase of purpose V
196
197
198
2 (c). The verbs that need noun + infinitive compounds followed by [e], or [a] allomorphs:
Baba-am, (ben-im) futbol ma--/n/a git-me-em-e izin ver-di. (git*me*me)
NP noun + infinitive compound - [e] (adverbial phrs) V
My father allowed me to go to the football match. Babam, kzkarde-im-in gece yalnz sinema-/y/a git-me-/s/i-/n/e kzd.
NP possessor adv adv adverbial possessed noun + infinitive compound + [e] = adverbial phrs V
My father got angry about my sisters going to the cinema alone at night. Babam, araba-/s/-/n/ (ben-im) kullan-ma-am-a hi izin ver-me-i.yor. (ba*bam / a*ra*ba*s*n / kul*lan*ma*ma / hi / i*zin / ver*mi*yor ) My father is never allowing me to use his car. (Complaint) (Benim is optional.) Babam (benim) balk tut-ma-/y/a git-me-em-e itiraz et-ti (kar durdu). (ba*bam~ / ba*lk / tut*ma*ya / git*me*me / i:*ti*ra:z / et*ti ) My father objected to my going fishing. (benim is optional)
My mother dislikes my (me) coming home late. There are two basic simpe sentences in the oral sentence above: 1. Ben eve ge geliyorum. 2. Annem bundan holanmyor.
199
her ey-i
anla-ma-/s//n/-dan korkuyorum.
V
possessor obj of anla possessed noun + infinitive compound nominal phrase-[DEN] adverbial phrs
I am afraid of her understanding everything. (The /s/ and /n/ glides are used.)
I am fond of listening to classical music. -im-i tamamla-ma-/y/a alyorum. (i*i*mi / ta*mam*la*ma*ya / a*l**yo*rum ) I am trying to complete my work. Dert-et-me-/y/e demez. (liaison) (der*det*me*ye / de*mez ) It is not worth troubling about. al-ma-/y/a devam etti. (a*l*ma*ya / de*va:*met*ti ) He went on (continued) working. Yamur ya-ma-/y/a balad. (ya*mur / ya*ma*ya / ba*la*d ) It began to rain (raining).
3 (a). The third kind of noun + infinitive compounds are made by adding
[i, , , u] allomorphs to verb roots, stems or frames such as: ben-im gl--m, sen-in bak--n, which means my way of smiling, your way of looking etc. When these compounds take [], [E], [DE] or [DEN] morphemes, they become adverbials:
200
4 (a). The following noun + infinitive compound is widely used in transforming simple sentences into syntactic nominal phrases or "determiners". The following example shows how a simple sentence is transformed into a noun + infinitive compound, and then how it is used as a syntactic nominal phrase in a sentence:
possessor noun + V - [dik, dk, dk, duk, tik, tk, tk, tuk] [personal possessor]
(ben-im)
possessor
yz-dk-m
possessed
Note: In the sentence above, the /k/ phoneme changes into the voiced //, and the last [] is the determiner that defines the nominal phrase benim denizde yzdk-m. The same noun + infinitive compound can also be used as a determiner: Ben okula gidiyorum. ben-im git-tik-im okul
determiner + noun nominal phrs
201
The possessed parts of the noun + infinitive compounds are also used as objects of postpositions (English prepositions): (Ben-im) her zaman okula ge geldik-im iin ngilizce gretmenim beni azarlad.
noun infinitive comp (object of iin) + postp postpositional adverbial phrase of cause NP (subj) NP (obj) V
A final note that should be added to the above explanations is that as the infinitives are made up of verbs, they can take objects like verbs when they are transitive, but if they are intransitive, they can take only adverbs or adverbials. The sentences that contain infinitives are produced as follows: 1. O beni beklesin. o-/n/un ben-i bekle-me-/s/i 2. Ben bu-/n/u istiyorum. If the first nominalized phrase is used in the place of bunu in the second sentence, we produce the following sentence containing a noun compound: (Ben) (o-/n/un) ben-i bekle-me-/s/i-/n/i iste-i.yor-um. (be*ni / bek*le*me*si*ni / is*ti*yo*rum ) I want him to wait for me.
202
203
MODALS
PRESENT MODALS While English modals are made of auxiliary verbs, Turkish modals are made either of morphemes, or of words, or of both. They convey nearly the same concepts as they do in English. Therefore, instead of giving detailed boring explanations of the Turkish modals, we prefer giving English equivalents of them, which we think, might be more useful. Moreover, the English sentences given as the equivalents of the Turkish modals can be considered more satisfactory and precise than detailed English explanations of them, which may lead to misunderstanding.
204
205
206
207
208
209
210
211
Finally, after the above pronoun + infinitive compounds gerekir is used as a separate word: (Sen-in) daha ok al-ma-an gerek-ir. (se*nin / da*ha / ok / a*l*man / ge*re*kir ) You should (ought to) study harder. (advice) Senin is optional, senin alman is a noun + infinitive compound, and daha ok is an adverbial. rencilerin yeni kelimeleri ezberle-me-/s/i (ezberle-me-ler-i) gerekir.
(noun compound) (subj) NP V
The students should memorize the new words. (The /s/ glide is used between /e/ and /i/.) (advice) (Sen-in) baba-a-/n/n t--/n/ (sen-in) iyi dn-me-en gerekir.
chain noun comp obj of dnmek NP noun comp subj V
(ba*ba*nn / **d*n / i*yi / d*n*men / ge*re*kir ) You should think well about your fathers advice. Snav sonu-lar--/n/n bekle-en-me-/s/i gerek-ir. (s*nav / so*nu*la*r*nn / bek*len*me*si / ge*re*kir ) The examination results should be waited. (passive)
212
213
PAST MODALS
Could
Could expresses ability in the past. To express the same concept in Turkish, V- [e.bil, a.bil]-[i.yor]-[du]-[pers] verb composition should be used: Yedi ya-m-da/y/-ken yz-e.bil-i.yor-du-um. (ye*di / ya*m*day*ken / y*ze*bi*li*yor*dum ) I could swim when I was seven years old. (ability in the past) Ahmet okul-a git-me-den nce oku-/y/up yaz-a.bil-i.yor-du. (ah*met / o*ku*la / git*me*den / n*ce~ / o*ku*yup / ya*za*bi*li*yor*du ) Ahmet could read and write before he went to school. The negative form of this modal is V-[e.me, a.ma]-[.YOR]-[du]-[pers], which expresses both the negative of "could" and "was able to": Ben okul-a git-me-den nce oku-/y/up yaz-a.ma-.yor-du-um. (ben / o*ku*la / git*me*den / n*ce~ / o*ku*yup / ya*za*m*yor*dum ) I couldn't read and write before I went to school. -im-i bitir-e.me-di-im. (i*i*mi / bi*ti*re*me*dim) I couldn't finish my work. (I wasn't able to finish my work.) Yeni ders-i anla-/y/a.bil-di-in mi? (ye*ni / der*si / an*la*ya*bil*din / mi) Were you able to understand the new lesson? Glk-ler-i a-a.bil-di-in.iz mi? (g*lk*le*ri / a*a*bil*di*niz / mi ) Were you able to overcome the difficulties? Tasar-/y/ bitir-e-bil-di-in.iz mi? (ta*sa*r*y / bi*ti*re*bil*di*niz / mi ) Were you able to finish the project?
214
215
216
PERFECT MODALS
must have V - [mi, m, m, mu] + [ol-ma.l]-[pers]
This perfect modal verb composition conveys a past concept of certainty. Consider the following: Grev-i-/n/i bitir-mi ol-ma.l. (g*re*vi*ni / bi*tir*mi / ol*ma*l ) He must have finished his duty. (I am sure he (has) finished it.) Ev-den ayrl-m ol-ma.l. (liaison) (ev*den / ay*rl*m*ol*ma*l ) He must have left home. (I am sure he has left home.) Uak in-mi ol-ma.l. (liaison) (u*ak / in*mi*ol*ma*l ) The plane must have landed. (I am sure it has landed. ) Ben-i anla-m ol-ma.l-sn. (liaison) (be*ni / an*la*m*ol*ma*l*sn ) You must have understood me. (I am sure you (have) understood me.) O-/n/u bir yer-de gr-m ol-ma.l-/y/m. (liaison) (o*nu / bir / yer*de / gr*m*ol*ma*l*ym ) I must have seen her somewhere. (I am sure I saw her somewhere.) Both certainty and possibility concepts can also be conveyed by V-[M][DR] verb composition:
217
218
cant have
The verb chain above is used to form a verb composition to convey past impossibility. In doing this, when [a.maz] negation allomorph is attached to the first person personal allomorph [am], the /z/ consonant drops, the /a-a/ vowels combine and are verbalized as a single vowel: Gr-m ol-a.maz-am. (gr*m / o*la*mam ) Gr-m ol-a.maz-sn. (gr*m / o*la*maz*sn ) Gr-m ol-a.maz. (gr*m / o*la*maz ) Gr-m ol-a.ma-/y/z. (gr*m / o*la*ma*yz ) Gr-m ol-a.maz-sn.z. (gr*m / o*la*maz*s*nz ) Gr-m ol-a.maz-lar. (gr*m / o*la*maz*lar ) Example sentences: O-/n/u yanl anla-m ol-a.maz-am. (o*nu / yan*l / an*la*m / o*la*mam ) (o*nu / yan*l*an*la*m*o*la*mam ) (liason) I can't (couldnt) have misunderstood it. Sen-i yanl anla-m ol-a.maz m? (se*ni / yan*l / an*la*m / o*la*maz / m ) Isn't he likely to have misunderstood you? Sen-i iit-mi ol-a.maz. (se*ni / i*it*mi / o*la*maz ) (se*ni / i*it*mi*o*la*maz ) (liaison) He cant (couldnt) have heard you. Lastik-i patla-m ol-a.maz. (las*ti*i / pat*la*m / o*la*maz ) He cant (couldnt) have had a flat tire.
219
(ev / *de*vi*ni / yap*man / ge*re*kir*di ) You should (ought to) have done your homework. (But you didnt.) Bu araba-/y/ satn al-mak iin (sen-in) daha ok para biriktir-me-en gerek-ir-di. (bu / a*ra*ba*y / sa*tn / al*mak / i*in~ / da*ha / ok / pa*ra / bi*rik*tir*men / ge*re*kir*di ) You should have saved more money to buy this car. (But you didnt.) Snav-da (ben-im) daha dikkat-li ol-ma-am gerek-ir-di. (s*nav*da / da*ha / dik*kat*li / ol*mam / ge*re*kir*di ) I should have been more careful in the examination. (But I wasnt.) (Sen-in) dn bana telefon et-me-en gerek-mez mi/y/-di? (dn / ba*na / te*le*fon / et*men / ge*rek*mez / miy*di ) Shouldn't you have telephoned me yesterday? (Why didn't you telephone?) dev.in-i yap.ma-an gerek-mez mi/y/-di? (*de*vi*ni / yap*man / ge*rek*mez / miy*di ) Shouldn't you have done your homework? (You haven't done your homework. Why?) To change the above modal composition into the negative form, the [me] or [ma] negation allomorphs are put after the verb roots, stems or frames, and then the [me] or [ma] infinitive allomorphs follow them preceding the personal allomorphs: (Sen-in) ekmek al-ma-ma-an gerek-ir-di.
noun + infinitive compound
(se*nin / ek*mek / al*ma*man / ge*re*kir*di ) You shouldnt (neednt) have bought bread. (But you did.) (advice)
220
221
(ay*e*nin / a*ce*le / et*me*si*ne / ge*rek / yok*tu ) Aye neednt have hurried. (But she did.) (Sen-in) btn soru-lar-a cevap ver-me-en-e gerek yok-tu. (b*tn / so*ru*la*ra / ce*vap / ver*me*ne / ge*rek / yok*tu ) You neednt have answered all the questions. (But you did.) (Onlar-n) ma- ertele-me-ler-i-/n/e gerek yoktu. (on*la*rn / ma* / er*te*le*me*le*ri*ne / ge*rek / yok*tu ) They neednt have postponed the match. (But they did.)
222
(u*zun / za*man / bek*le*me*me / ge*rek / kal*ma*d ) I didn't need to wait for a long time. (Biz-im) okul-a yr-/y/e.rek git-me-em.iz-e gerek kal-ma-d. (o*ku*la / y*r*ye*rek / git*me*mi*ze / ge*rek / kal*ma*d ) We didnt need to walk to school. iek-ler-in sula-an-ma-/s/-/n/a gerek kal-ma-d. (i*ek*le*rin / su*lan*ma*s*na / ge*rek / kal*ma*d ) The flowers didnt need to be watered. (passive infinitive) (The /s/ and /n/ glides are used after [ma] and [] allomorphs respectively.) (Biz-im) bir araba kirala-ma-am.z-a gerek kal-ma-d. (bir / a*ra*ba / ki*ra:*la*ma*m*za / ge*rek / kal*ma*d ) We didnt need to hire a car. Toplant yap-ma-am.z-a gerek kal-ma-d. (top*lan*t / yap*ma*m*za / ge*rek / kal*ma*d ) We didnt need to hold a meeting. Yardm iste-me-em.iz-e gerek kal-ma-d. (yar*dm / is*te*me*mi*ze / ge*rek / kal*ma*d ) We didnt need to ask for help. (Biz-im) bekle-me-em.iz-e gerek kal-ma-d ) (bek*le*me*mi*ze / ge*rek / kal*ma*d ) We didnt need to wait.
223
224
You can see the boys (who are) swimming in the lake.
NP V NP (object of see)
The explanations above are grammatical explanations, but thought acts more inclusively while producing a sentence. When somebody has an item of thought, such as "article" in his mind, he may have had two simple sentence alternatives in store in his mind to convey his thought to his listener or reader. It may be a sentence that he uttered before such as "I read an article in a newspaper". If he has uttered this sentence before, he goes on conveying his thought by saying that "It was interesting". If he did not utter the same sentence, but he already has it in store in his mind (in his memory), he transforms the same sentence into a noun + determiner compound such as, "an article, which I read in the newspaper", and completes his sentence saying that "An article, which I read in the newspaper, was interesting. On the other side, the person who has heard what the speaker said may go on saying, "Yes, I saw it, or Yes, I saw the article that you read in the newspaper". This shows us that the logic transforms the simple sentences into nominal phrases so that they may be used as subjects or objects in the NP+VP sentence pattern.
225
Have you done your homework? whether I have done my homework Mother wants to know whether I have done my homework.
NP (obj)
Thieves stole a necklace. "A necklace was stolen by some thieves" "the necklace that was stolen by the thieves" The necklace that was stolen by the thieves hasn't been found yet.
NP (subj)
Transformational, phonological, and syllabication rules are specific for every language, which means that all languages have their own transformational, phonological, and syllabication rules. Without knowing these rules, one cannot produce sentences. To sum up, we can say that the semantic, the transformational, and the phonological rules in ones mind act in close coordination differently in different languages to produce sentences. Therefore, the same process in Turkish differs as follows: "Ben gazetede bir makale okudum." "O ilginti." (Ben-im) gazete-de oku-duk-um makale ilgin-ti.
noun + infinitive compound (determiner) NP noun VP
The sentences that contain only one finite verb (simple sentences) can be transformed into nominal phrases (noun compounds) to be used in the "NP + VP" sentence producing pattern as subjects, objects, and as objects of prepositions. Consider the following: Jane went to the supermarket by bus to buy some toys for her children last week.
who V where (adverbial) how (adverbial) why (adverbial) for whom (adverbial) when (adverbial)
The question words under the lines and the answers to them on the lines are the basic conceptual elements of thought of simple sentences in languages. Therefore, I avoid using the term kernel sentence in this book. For instance, when you hear the word went, you want to find answers in your mind to the questions who? and where? because only the word went does not convey satisfactory information. If you hear the sentence Jane
226
As it is seen, the nominalized sentences (nominal phrases) beginning with question words are not in the interrogative form. They are transformed, and nominalized oral phrases ready to occupy the places of nouns or pronouns that can be used as subjects, or objects of verbs as all nouns and pronouns can. I
S
know
V
it.
obj
What do I know?
I know that Jane went to the supermarket by bus to buy some toys for her children.
NP V VP NP (obj of know)
227
The same nominal phrases can be used as the objects of some prepositions, as well: It depends on what Jane says.
object of on
228
The interrogative simple sentences can also be nominalized: Have you done your work? whether I have done my work Mother asks me whether I have done my work.
NP (object)
Why didnt you come to the party? why I didnt come to the party Jane wonders why I didnt come to the party.
NP (object)
What am I interested in? what I am interested in You cant guess what I am interested in. NP (object) What is Jack doing? what Jack is doing Mother wants to know what Jack is doing. Are you ready? if I am ready Mother asks me if I am ready.
229
To determine the underlined girls, the girls that (who) is put in the beginning of the sentence, and the rest of it is added to it without being changed: the girls who were picking flowers in the garden" is constructionally a noun + determiner compound, but syntactically it is a syntactic nominal phrase that can be used as a subject or an object in a sentence: The girls who were picking flowers in the garden were my students.
D N D synt nominal phrase (subject) (NP) predicate (VP)
The same simple sentence can also be transformed so as the noun flowers could be determined by the rest of the sentence. To carry out this transformation activity, the flowers that (which) is used as the head of the transformed phrase, and the rest of the sentence is left unchanged. In this way, the transformed phrase the flowers that the girls were picking in the garden can be used in "NP+VP" logical sentence pattern as a NP. Incidentally, it is necessary to say that all the suffxes used in transforming sentences into nominal phrases in Turkish are inflectional. The flowers that the girls were picking in the garden were beautiful.
D N NP D predicate (VP)
I
NP
saw the flowers that the girls were picking in the fields.
V NP
The same process above can also be initiated to determine the noun garden: the garden in which (where) the girls were picking flowers
D N NP D
The garden in which the girls were picking flowers was not in good condition.
syntactic nominal phrase (NP) predicate (VP)
The same transformed phrases can be used in other parts of different sentences, as well: I
NP
dont know
V
230
The simple sentences with verbs be and have (got) are transformed as follows: The roses were red the roses that were red the red roses
sentence transformed phrase transformed phrase
There are some books on the table. the books that are on the table
sentence nominal phrase
I want
NP V
the books (that are) on the table. NP (obj of the infinitive) The books (that are) on the table are mine
NP (obj of want) nominal phrase (subject) (predicate) VP
to borrow
The car that I have got is a second-hand car. My car is a second-hand car.
231
Now, consider the following four simple sentences: 1. Jack caught a fish. 2. Mr. Brown cleaned it. 3. Mary fried it. 4. Jane ate it. To transform and combine these four thoughts in a complex (syntactic) sentence, we begin with the last one, and delete the repeated understandable others: Jane ate the fish that Mary fried that Mr. Brown cleaned that Jack caught.
NP V noun NP successive determiners
Contrary to the above sentence production, if we start with the first simple sentence, the complex sentence will become as follows: Jack caught the fish that Mr. Brown cleaned that Mary fried that Jane ate. If you try to understand the sentence above, it sounds funny, doesnt it? How can Jack catch the fish that Jane ate? A fish cannot be caught after it has been eaten. This example shows us that while producing complex sentences out of simple sentences, one should be careful about the sequence of the determiners. Furthermore, only the words that jack caught that Mr. Brown cleaned that Mary fried that Jane ate do not make sense without the words the fish, which complete the chain of determiners as a NP although the words the fish are in the beginning of the sentence. Therefore, one can say that all natural languages may be infinitely long as long as they are approved by the Phrase Structure rules, and so long as the human short-term memory can tolerate them. An example from a Turkish sentence may clarify the above explanation: Jackin yakalad, Mr. Brownn temizledii, Marynin piirdii (?) sequence of words do not make sense without the word balk, which is the final word of the NP in Turkish. Moreover, to complete this nominal phrase, a person has to add a verbal phrase to produce a grammatically well-formed acceptable sentence:
232
To sum up, we can say that whether sentences are infinitely long or short, they end up in NP + VP inborn logical sentence-producing system. A final point to add to the explanations above is that the final word in Turkish is at the end of a NP, but in English, it is in the beginning. The reason why we begin organizing the logical simple sentences beginning with the last simple sentence and going on to the first one in English is that the mind organizes the transformed phrases starting with the last one and going to the first. However, in Turkish, this process is just the opposite; the mind does not start with the last sentence, it starts with the first one, and goes on to the last because the final word balk, which binds the nominal phrase, is at the end of the NP.
when, while, before, after, as soon as, until, since, just as, where, wherever as, how as... as, not so ...as, the ... the, so long as, as long as adj (adv)-[ER] + than or more + adj (adv) + than because, as, since, for although, even though, even if, no matter how (who, when) so that, in order that, in case, lest so, so ... that if, unless
TIME
when:
233
where: wherever:
Put my dictionary back where you found it. I will remember you wherever I go.
MANNER
as:
as ... as: not so... as: the ... the: so ... as:
You should study as hard as you can. You are not so careful as you ought to be. The easier they rise, the harder they fall. You can stay here so long as you keep quite.
COMPARISON
than:
The bus arrived earli-er than we expected. Turkish is more complicated than English. Mary studies hard-er than her brother.
CAUSE
I cant help you now because Im busy watching television. As Im busy doing my homework, I cant help you right now. Since you are not interested in watching football, wed better go fishing. Mary cant drive, for she is only a baby. She is not ready yet, for she is stil doing her make up.
for:
234
although:
Although she studied hard, she couldnt succeed in the examination I have to go on working although I am madly in love with you. We cant get to the bus stop in time even if we hurry. While some people are poor, others are wealthy.
PURPOSE
so that: in case:
They ran to the bus stop so that they shouldnt miss the bus. Take an umbrella in case it rains. Ring the bell in case of fire.
RESULT
so... that:
The book was so boring that I was able to read only a few pages.
such... that:
The children were making such a lot of noise that I had to leave home. He didnt study hard, so he failed.
CONDITION
so:
if :
If you dont understand, please ask me. If you were a fish, a cat would eat you. If you had passed the examination, I would have bought you
a new car.
unless:
She wont speak to you unless you apologize to her. Don't sign the document unless you read it carefully.
235
When the whole sentence above is transformed into a syntactic nominal phrase (structurally into a noun compound), it results in as follows: Aye/n/in ocuk-lar--/n/a baz oyuncak-lar al-mak iin sabah-le.yin otobs-le supermarket-e git-me-/s/i or git-tik-i. (git*ti*i) As you notice, only the words Ayenin and git-me-/s/i or git-tik-i are different from Aye and gitti. The English equivalent of this transformed nominal phrase is the transformed nominal clause that Aye went to the supermarket by bus to buy some toys for her children in the morning. In English, only the word that is put in the beginning of the transformed nominal clause and the rest of the sentence is left unchanged. When Aye/n/in git-me-/s/i compound is considered, this transformation reminds us of the possessor + possessed noun compounds like Aye/n/in anta-/s/, okul-un kap-/s/, or Aye/n/in amca-/s/.These are structurally noun + infinitive compounds, but syntactically they are nominal phrases. A syntactic noun is a transformed simple sentence (nominal phrase) that can be used in any part of a sentence where nouns and pronouns can. These nouns and pronouns are the words like book, table, I, he, him, "it" and them. The units that are used between "Aye'nin" and "gitmesi", such as "ocuklarna", "baz oyuncaklar almak iin", "sabahleyin", "otobsle", "supermarkete" are all adverbials which are the answers to the basic interrogative adverbial concepts of for whom, why, how, where, when. Compare and consider the following sentences: (Ben) cevab- bil-i.yor.um. I know the answer.
subject object V S V object
(Ben) Aye/n/in okul-a git-tik-i-/n/i bil-i.yor-um. I know that Aye went to school.
NP NP (obj) VP V NP V VP NP (obj)
In the sentence above, Ayenin okula git-tik-i is structurally a noun+ infinitive compound, but syntactically it is a syntactic nominal phrase because it is a transformed simple sentence nominalized so as to be used in the NP+VP logial pattern as a NP. (A VP may contain a V and a NP). The phoneme changes in the above sentence are as follows: The /k/ changes into its voiced form //, the first [i] is the personal possessor allomorph [i], the /n/ is a glide, and the second [i] is the defining allomorph.
236
Ayenin gittii + okul is a determiner + noun compound, but when both parts of this compound is considered, it is a syntactic nominal phrase. In short, it is a NP. The reason why there are two different possessed infinitives in the end of the transformed phrases is that either git-tik-i or git-me-/s/i is used in accordance with the existence or nonexistence (absence) of the question words or the answers to them in the transformed phrases. In short, the compounds without question words can only be used when the compounds that have infinitives are used as the subject of a sentence. Some of the most frequently used question words that can be used in noun compounds are kim-in?, kim-i?, kim-e?, kim-de?, kim-den?, kimle?, kim iin?, ne zaman?, nasl?, nere-/y/i?, nere-/y/e?, nere-de?, ner(e)-den?, niin?, neden?, ne kadar?, ka para?, ne?, ne/y/-le?, ne-/y/in i-i/n/-den?, (alt-/n/-dan), kim-in arka-/s//n/-dan?, etc. Consider the following: Ayenin spermarkete otobsle git-me-si beni ilgilendirmez.
synt nominal phrs (noun compound) (subject) NP NP(obj) V
In the sentence above, no question words are used, and the noun compound is used as a subject. Kimin spermaket-e git-tik-i ben-i ilgilendirmez. (*Kimin gitmesi is not used.) (The question word kim-in is added.) Aye/n/in supermarket-e niin git-tik-i (git*ti*i) ben-i ilgilendirmez. (The question word niin is added.) Aye/n/in kim-e oyuncak al-mak iin spermarkete git-tik-i ben-i ilgilendirmez. (The question word kim-e is added.) Kim-in, niin, ne zaman, ne/y/-le, nere-/y/e, nasl git-tik-i ben-i ilgilendirmez. (Successive question words are added.)
237
Do you know that Aye goes to a football match every week? However, if a transformed noun compound is used as the subject of a sentence, a noun + V- [me-/s/i, ma-/s/] noun compound is used: Jackin basketbol oyna-ma-/s/ bizi ilgilendirmez.
NP (subj) NP (subj) NP(obj) V V NP(obj)
(Ben) onun beni sev-dik-i-/n/i tahmin ediyorum. I guess that she loves me.
NP NP VP V
When the Turkish simple sentences are nominalized, they are logically transformed into noun compounds, and used as Nominal Phrases in sentences. Although "(that) Jack likes pop music", and "(that) she loves me" subordinate English noun clauses do not look like physically transformed phrases, they can be considered as syntactically and mentally transformed phrases when they are used as Nominal Phrases.
238
239
240
241
The [u] allomorph is one of the allomorphs of the defining [] morpheme. (Ben-im) bir balk tuttuum kocaman bir yalandr. That I caught a fish is a big lie.
(subject) NP (predicate) VP (subj) NP VP
(be*nim / bir / ba*lk / tut*tu*um ~/ ko*caman / bir / ya*lan*dr ) The nominalization of the rest of the above tenses result in the same noun + infinitive compounds because all infinitives are timeless: The noun + infinitive compounds (syntactic nominal phrases) above can be used in the following sentences: Herkes ben-im balk tut-tuk-um-u bil-ir. Everybody knows that I catch fish
NP NP (obj) VP NP NP VP V NP V VP V NP V VP NP NP
(Sen) balk tut-tuk-um-u grmyor musun? Don't you see that I am catching fish?
(Ben-im) baba-am gel-in.ce (ben-im) balk tut-tuk-um-u gr-d. (ba*bam / ge*lin*ce ~/ ba*lk / tut*tu*u*mu / gr*d ) When my father came, he saw that I was catching fish. Her gn (ben-im) balk tut-tuk-um-u bil-i.yor-sun. (her / gn / ba*lk / tut*tu*u*mu / bi*li*yor*sun ) You know that I catch fish every day. ki saat-tir (ben-im) balk tut-tuk-um-u baba-am-a syle-me. (i*ki / sa*at*tir / ba*lk / tut*tu*u*mu / ba*ba*ma / sy*le*me ) Dont tell my father that I have been catching fish for two hours. The other three tenses are transformed as follows:
242
Ne zaman bitir-e.cek-im? ne zaman bitireceim (no structural change) (Ben) (Ben-im) onu ne zaman bitir-e.cek-im-i tahmin edemem.
NP (noun compound) (object) NP V
I
NP
cant guess
V
(Benim) onu ne zaman bitir-ecek-im kesin deil. (noun compound) (subject) NP VP When I will finish it is not certain.
(noun clause) (subj) NP VP
The (ben) and (benim) parts of the above compounds are optional. They are not used unless they are intentionally stressed.
Even I don't know when Ill have finished it. (Bile" is an intensifier.)
NP V (noun clause) (obj) NP
243
sen-in anne-en-in kitap--/n/n kapak--/n/n renk-i = NP (four possessors, and one possessed)
(sen-in) anne-en-in kitp--/n/n kapak--/n/n renk-i (se*nin / an*ne*nin / ki*ta*b*nn / ka*pa**nn / ren*gi ) the color of the cover of your mothers book Although a noun + noun compound is a finite sequence, one can turn it into an infinite sequence by using successive possessor nouns. When we
244
The last nonsense word ey-i ends the sequence and turns it into a NP. The possessor sequences that are not put into Nominal Phrases are incomplete chains of words. For instance that Jack built that Mary bought that Mr. Brown lived in is an incomplete infinite sequence of determiners if the house is not put in the beginning of the sequence. When this is done, the house that Jack built that Mary bought that Mr. Brown lived in becomes a NP suitable to be used in NP+VP logical sentence-producing system. In such English sequences, the noun that ends the infinite sequence of determiners is in the beginning of a NP contrary to a Turkish NP, where the final word is at the end. As it is seen in the meaningless chain, the infinite chain is ended with ey-i. All noun compounds, whether they are made up of two, three, or even more parts (chain noun compounds), they syntactically function as one single phrase (NP) in sentences: Ben onu hatrlyorum. I remember her.
NP NP V NP V NP
I
NP
I
NP
The underlined parts of the last two sentences are chain noun compounds that act as syntactic nominal phrases in sentences. In the last Turkish sentence, the /k/ consonant changes into the // voiced consonant, and the /n/ glide link the last two vowels.
245
Herkes (sen-in) doktor ol-duk-un-u biliyor. Everybody knows that you are a doctor.
The [u] allomorph in the sentence above is the defining [] morpheme. Btn kzlar gzeldir. btn kzlar-n gzel ol-duk-u- (ol*du*u)
sentence sentence NP NP
All girls are beautiful. that all girls are beautiful (Ben) btn kz-lar-n gzel ol-duk-u-/n/u dn-.yor-um.
NP NP (obj) V
(b*tn / kz*la*rn / g*zel / ol*du*u*nu / d**n*yo*rum ) I think that all girls are beautiful.
NP V NP (obj )
1. (O) (ben-im) kalem-im-i iste-di. (ka*le*mi*mi / is*te*di ) 2. (O) (ben-im) bekle-me-em-i iste-di. (bek*le*me*mi / is*te*di ) 3. (O) (ben-im) gel-i-im-i gzle-di. (ge*li*i*mi / gz*le*di ) 4. (O) (ben-im) gel-dik-im-i gr-me-di. (gel*di*i*mi / gr*me*di ) 5. (O) (ben-im) ala-dk-m- iit-me-di. (a*la*d**m / i*it*me*di ) As has already been stated, the single underlined consonants detach from their syllables and attach to the first vowels of the following allomorphs. Sen bir grei-sin. sen-in bir grei ol-duk-un (ol*du*un)
sentence sentence NP (subj) NP (subj) NP NP VP (predicate) VP (predicate)
You are a wrestler. that you are a wrestler Sen-in bir grei olduk-un nemli deil. That you are a wrestler is not important. (It is not important that ocuklar hazr m? Are the children ready? ocuklar hazr m? ocuklar-n hazr ol-up ol-ma-dk- (ol*ma*d*)
sentence sentence NP NP
When someone hesitates over whether the verb is positive or negative, olup olmad positive and negative successive infinitives (ol-duk-u-/n/u ya da ol-ma-dk--/n/) are used as whether is used in English:
246
(ben~ / o*cuk*la*rn / ha*zr / o*lup / ol*ma*d**n / bil*mi*yo*rum ) I dont know whether the children are ready (or not).
NP V NP (obj)
Karde-im nere-de? karde-im-in nere-de ol-duk-u (ol*du*u) Where is my sister? where my sister is Kardeimin nerede olduu-/n/u bilmiyorum. I dont know where my sister is. Ben kim-im? ben-im kim ol-duk-um (be*nim / kim / ol*du*um) Who am I? who I am (Sen) (ben-im) kim ol-duk-um-u tahmin edebilir misin?
NP NP V NP (obj) NP V
Can you guess who I am? The simple sentences containing verbs other than be are also nominalized using possessor + possessed noun compounds. As there are no clauses in Turkish, they lose their time concepts as usual when simple sentences are transformed into noun compounds. However, some others keep them when they are nominalized. The tenses that result in the same transformed nominal phrases are as follows: (Ben) ev-i temizle-er-im. (benim) ev-i temizle-dik-im-(i) (Simple Present) (Ben) ev-i temizle-i.yor-um. (benim) ev-i temizle-dik-im-(i) (Present continuous or Present Perfect Continuous) (Ben) ev-i temizle-di-im. (benim) ev-i temizle-dik-im-(i) (Simple Past or Present Perfect) (Ben) ev-i temizle-i.yor-du-um. (benim) ev-i temizle-dik-im-(i) (Past Continuous or Past Perfect Continuous) (Ben) ev-i temizle-er-di-im. (benim) ev-i temizle-dik-im-(i) (Used to) As one could understand, all the five different tenses (simple sentences) are transformed and nominalized using the same transformational composition: The verb composition above covers only the morphemes, therefore the allomorphs of these morphemes are given as follows:
247
You know that I clean the house everyday. (The last [i] is the defining [i] allomorph.) ocuk-lar bahe-de oyna-u.yor-du. ocuk-lar-n bahe-de oyna-dk- (Ben) ocuk-lar-n bahe-de oyna-dk--/n/ gr-d-m.
NP NP VP V
I
NP
(Ben) (ben-im) ev dev-im-i yap-.yor-um. ev dev-im-i yap-tk-m (Sen) (ben-im) ev dev-im-i yap-t-m- gr-.yor-sun.
NP NP (obj) V
You can see that I am doing my homework. Seyahat ettiini biliyorum. = I know that he travels; I know that he is traveling; I know that he has traveled; I know that he has been traveling; I know that he traveled; I know that he used to travel. As it is seen, all the six English sentences above are expressed in the same transformed Turkish nominal phrase. To avoid this time ambiguity, suitable adverbs of time should be added to the Turkish transformed phrases to make the meaning clearer. This is necessary because after the simple sentences are transformed and nominalized, they become noun + infinitive compounds. Like all infinitives, these compounds are timeless. u anda seyahat et-tik-i-/n/i biliyorum. I know that he is (you are) traveling right now.
248
That you travel every year is well known. Or "It is well-known that you travel every year." The Simple Future Tense allomorphs [e.cek, a.cak] are kept when such sentences are nominalized: (Ben) yarn eski araba-am- sat-a.cak-m. ben-im yarn eski araba-am- sat-a.cak-m
sentence NP (subj) sentence VP (predicate) NP (noun clause) NP
(Benim) yarn eski araba-am- sat.a.cak-m kesin deil. (sa*ta*ca*m) I will sell my old car tomorrow. that I will sell my old car tomorrow That I will sell my old car tomorrow is not certain. (It is not certain that NP (subj) (noun clause) VP (predicate)
249
(sen / be*nim / ya*rn / es*ki / a*ra*ba*m / sa*ta*ca**m / bil mi*yor / mu*sun) (astonishment) Dont you know that I will sell my old car tomorrow? (The /k/ consonants used in the satacak verbs change into the voiced //.) In The Past Perfect Tense, [M] and [D] morphemes are used one after the other. When the same tense is nominalized, the [M] morpheme is attached to the verb root, stem or frame, then the ol verb root is used atached to the [duk] allomorph, which is followed by a personal suffix.
Dn (sen) (ben-im) ev-i temizle-mi ol-duk-um-u gr-d-n. (dn / e*vi / te*miz*le*mi / ol*du*u*mu / gr*dn ) You saw that I had cleaned the house. NP V NP (obj) (Sen) (ben-im) ev-i temizle-mi ol-duk-um-u gr-.yor-sun.
NP NP (obj) V
(e*vi / te*miz*le*mi / ol*du*u*mu / g*r*yor*sun ) You (can) see that I have cleaned the house.
NP V NP (obj)
All nominal phrases can be used in the "NP + VP" = NP + NP + V syntactic pattern as Nominal Phrases.
250
(Sen) Jackin kim-i sev-dik-i-/n/i bil-i.yor mu-sun? (jac*kin / ki*mi / sev*di*i*ni / bi*li yor / mu*sun ) Do you know who Jack is in love with? (Ben) (o-/n/un) ne syle-dik-i-/n/i hatrla-ma-.yor-um. (o*nun / ne / sy*le*di*i*ni / ha*tr*la*m*yo*rum ) I dont remember what he said. (Sen) (ben-im) sana niin kz-dk-m- bil-i.yor mu-sun? (sa*na / ni* in / kz*d**m / bi*li yor / mu*sun ) Do you know why I am angry with you? (Ben-im) sen-i ne kadar zle-dik-im-i tahmin et-e.mez-sin. (se*ni / ne / ka*dar / z*le*di*i*mi / tah*min / e*de*mez*sin ) You cant guess how much I miss you. (Sen) (sen-in) ne ren-mek iste-dik-in-i bana akla. (ne / *ren*mek / is*te*di*i*ni / ba*na / a*k*la ) Explain to me what you want to learn. (Sen) (sen-in) ne kadar sre bekle-dik-in-i bana syle. (ne / ka*dar / s*re / bek*le*di*i*ni / ba*na / sy*le ) Tell me how long you have been waiting. (Ben) (o-/n/un) niin ala-dk--/n/ bil-me-i.yor.um. (o*nun / ni *in / a*la*d**n / bil*mi*yo*rum ) I dont know why she is crying. (Sen-in) ne satn al-dk-n- gr-d-m. (liaison) (se*nin / ne / sa*t*nal*d**n / gr*dm ) I saw what you bought.
251
(o*nun / na*sl / zen*gin / ol*du*u / bir / sr*dr ) How he became rich is a mystery.
NP (subj) VP
(be*nim / ne / d*n*d*m / se*ni / il*gi*len*dir*mez ) What I am thinking about doesnt concern you.
NP (subj) V NP
(The reason) why the questions were so difficult should have been explained by the teacher. (Sen-in) dolap-ta gr-dk-n bir iskelet ol-a.maz.
NP (noun compound) (subj) VP (predicate)
(do*lap*ta / gr*d*n / bir / is*ke*let / o*la*maz ) What you saw in the cupboard cant be a skeleton.
NP (subj) VP (predicate)
(on*la*rn / ne / is*te*dik*le*ri / an*la**la*ma*d ) (The /k/ does not change.) What they wanted couldn't be understood. NP (subj) VP (passive) (O-/n/un) tm ye-dik-i sadece be sandvi-ti.
NP (subj) VP (predicate)
(o*nun / tm / ye*di*i ~/ sa:*de*ce / be / san*d*vi*ti ) All he ate was only five sandwiches. (O-/n/un) kim ol-duk-u polis tarafndan aratr-l-.yor.
NP (subj) (postp phrase) (adv) V (passive)
(o*nun / kim / ol*du*u / po*lis / ta*ra*fn*dan / a*ra*t*r*l*yor ) Who he is is being investigated by the police.
NP V (passive) adverbial
252
1. tarlalar-da iek topla-/y/an kzlar the girls who are picking flowers in the fields
determiner determiner determiner determined determined determined 2 3 1
2. kzlar-n iek topla-dk- tarlalar the fields where the girls are picking flowers 3. kzlar-n tarlalar-da topla-dk- iekler the flowers that the girls are picking in the fiels We can derive the following rules from the transformed nominal phrases above: 1. When someone intends to determine the subject of a simple sentence, he transforms the sentence into a determiner + noun compound by using V - [en, an] + noun composition. This composition is a nominal phrase that can be used in the NP + VP logical sentence pattern. If a verb ends with a consonant, it takes one of these allomorphs such as "konu-an" (ko*nu*an), a-an (a*an), "bek-le-en (bek*le*en). However, if a verb ends with a vowel, it needs the /y/ glide to link the verb to one of the following [en] or [an] allomorphs: bekle-/y/en, oku-/y/an, bala-/y/an. This transformational rule can be applied to the verbs in The Simple Present, The Simple Past, The Present Continuous, The Past Continuous Tenses and (imdiki Zamann Hikyesi) used to. However, the verbs in
253
2. ki kz mutfakta patates soyuyor. iki kz-n patates soy-duk-u mufak 3. ki kz mutfakta patates soyuyor. iki kz-n mutfakta soyduk-u patatesler As all the determiner + determined (Turkish), or determined + determiner (English) compounds are syntactic nominal phrases, they can be used in the NP + VP basic sentence pattern as Nominal Phrases: 1. Mutfakta patates soy-an iki kz ben-im kzlar-m-dr. (so*yan)
(subj) NP (subj) NP (subj) NP NP (object) (NP) VP V predicate VP predicate VP predicate VP
2. ki kz-n patates soy-duk-u mutfak ok geni-tir. (soy*du*u) 3. ki kz-n mutfakta soy-duk-u patates-ler ok kaliteli-dir. (soy*du*u) (Ben) mutfakta patates soy-an iki kz gr-d-m.
254
2. the kitchen where the two girls are peeling potatoes 3. the potatoes that the girls are peeling in the kitchen As all the determined + determiner compounds are syntactic nominal phrases, they can be used in the NP + VP basic sentence pattern as Nominal Phrases: The two girls that are peeling potatoes in the kitchen are my daughters.
NP NP NP VP VP VP NP VP
The kitchen where the two girls are peeling potatoes is very large. The potatoes that the girls are peeling in the kitchen are of good quality. I
NP
saw the two girls that were peeling potatoes in the kitchen.
V
As an exception, the sentences in The Simple Future and The Past Perfect Tenses are transformed as follows: (Ben) bir problem z-e.cek-im. (ben-im) z-e.cek-im problem
sentence sentence NP (subj) determined VP determiner determiner (NP) (subj) VP determined
I will solve a problem. the problem that I will solve (Benim) zeceim problem ok zor. The problem that I will solve is very difficult. (Ben) bir problem z-m-t-m. (ben-im) z-m ol-duk-um problem I had solved a problem. the problem that I had solved zm olduum problem ok zordu.
NP (subj) NP (subj) VP VP
255
The letter that she wrote yesterday has been lost. Annem her gn ev-i tertiple-er. anne-em-in her gn tertiple-dik-i ev Annemin her gn tertipledii ev karmakark.
NP (subj) VP (predicate)
(an*ne*min / her / gn / ter*tip*le*di*i / ev~ / kar*ma*ka*r*k ) The house, which my mother tidies every day, is in a mess.
NP (subj) VP (predicate)
ocuk-lar havuz-da model kayk-lar yzdr-.yor-du. ocuk-lar-n havuz-da yz-dr-dk- model kayk-lar = NP ocuklarn havuzda yzdrd model kayklar el yapmyd.
NP (subt) VP (predicate)
(o*cuk*la*rn / ha*vuz*da / yz*dr*d* / mo*del / ka*yk*lar~ / el / ya*p*my*d ) The modal boats that the children were sailing on the pond were handmade.
NP (subj) VP (predicate)
Parmak-m-a bir ine bat-t. parmak-m-a bat-an ine Parmama batan ine kck-t.
(NP) (subj) (NP) (subj) VP (predicate) VP (predicate)
The needle that stuck in my finger was very small. Bir problem z-me-/y/e al-.yor-dum. "z-me-/y/e al-tk-m problem" zmeye altm problem ok gt
(NP) (subj) VP (pred)
(z*me*ye / a*l*t*m / prob*lem / ok / g*t ) The problem that I was trying to solve was very difficult.
(NP) (subj) VP (predicate)
(dn / su*la*d*m / i*ek*le*rin / hep*si / sol*du ) All the flowers that I watered yesterday have faded.
NP (subj) VP
256
(ge*en / haf*ta / ba*na / al*d*n / cep / te*le*fo*nu*nu / kay*bet*tim ) I have lost the mobile telephone that you bought me last week. Amca-am patates yetitir-i.yor. amca-am-n yetitir-dik-i patates-ler Amcamn yetitirdii patatesler en st kalitedir.
(NP) (subj) VP (predicate)
The potatoes that my uncle grows are of top quality. When a simple sentence having a future tense is transformed, the [e.cek, a.cak] allomorphs do not change: Prof. Brown yarn niversite-de bir konuma yap-a.cak . yarn Prof. Brownn niversite-de yap-a.cak- konuma Yarn Prof. Brownn niversitede yapaca konuma-/y/ dinle-mek istiyor musun? Do you want to listen to the lecture that Prof. Brown is going to give at the university tomorrow? When someone wants to transform a simple sentence into a determiner that determines the subject, he begins the transformed phrase with the subject of the simple sentence using the above-mentioned Nr.1 kind of transformational rule: Mart-lar gkyz/n/-de uu-u.yor-lar. gkyz/n/-de uu-an mart-lar Gkyznde uuan martlar harikayd.
(NP) (subj) VP (predicate)
(gk*y*zn*de / u*u*an / mar*t*lar ~ / ha:*ri*kay*d) The seagulls that were flying about in the sky were fantastic.
(NP) (subj) VP (predicate)
renci-ler saat sekiz-den beri retmen-ler-i-/n/i bekle-i.yor-lar. saat sekiz-den beri retmen-ler-i-/n/i bekle-/y/en renci-ler" Saat sekizden beri retmenlerini bekle/y/en renciler sabrszlanyor.
NP (subject) NP (subject) VP (predicate) VP
The students who have been waiting for their teachers for an hour are being impatient. Kedi masa-/n/n alt-/n/-da kan-.yor. masa-/n/n alt-/n/-da kan-an kedi Masann altnda kanan kedi senin mi ?
(NP) (subj) VP (predicate)
(ma*sa*nn / al*tn*da / ka**nan / ke*di / se*nin / mi ) Is the cat (that is) scratching under the table yours?
(NP) (subj) VP
257
When the same sentence is transformed into the determiner+determined compound, the transformed phrases may change as follows:
258
noun + infinitive = noun comp = syntactic noun = NP noun + infinitive = determiner+noun = syntactic noun= NP noun + infinitive = noun comp = synt noun = NP
7. benim gitmi olduum noun + infinitive = noun comp = synt noun 9. benim gitmi olacam noun + infinitive = noun comp = synt noun
8. benim gitmi oldugum noun + infinitive = determiner + noun = synt noun = NP = NP 10.benim gitmi olacam noun + infinitive = determiner + noun = synt noun = NP In the examples above, only the first person is given; the other persons might have been given accordingly, which would not change the result. Nr.1 and Nr.2 compounds can only be used as noun compounds such as Benim oraya gitmem olanaksz. or Benim gidiim-i bekliyor Nr. 3 and 4; 5 and 6; 7 and 8; and 9 and 10 are used both as noun compounds and as determiners such as: Benim gittiim-i grd. (syntactic nominal phrase). However, Benim gittiim okul" is structurally a deter-
259
My going to Bursa last week to watch a football match made my wife mad. (Ben-im) geen hafta bir ift ayakkab almak iin gittiim dkkn ok kalablkt.
possessor adverbial adverbial of reason determiner NP possessed noun VP (predicate) determined
The shop where I went to buy a pair of shoes last week was very crowded. Benim ..gittiim-i grdn. = noun compound (object) = nominal phrase
noun compound
260
Davetiye-ler bas-l-.yor. (da:*ve*ti*ye*ler / ba*s*l*yor ) The invitations are being printed. imdi ne yap-l-a.bil-ir? (im*di / ne / ya*p*la*bi*lir ) What can be done now? Dn ne yap-l-d? (dn / ne / ya*pl*d ) What was done yesterday? Her ey bitir-il-di bile. (her*ey / bi*ti*ril*di / bi*le ) Everything has already been finished. Burada ttn sat-l-maz. (bu*ra*da / t*tn / sa*tl*maz ) Tobacco is not sold here. (Ben) aldat-l-d-m. (al*da*tl*dm ) I have been cheated. (Siz-in) araba-an.z onar-l-d. (a*ra*ba*nz / o*na*rl*d ) Your car has been repaired. Nehir kenar-/n/-da byk bir ev yap-l-.yor. (ne*hir / ke*na*rn*da / b*yk / bir / ev / ya*p*l*yor ) A large house is being built by the river. (Sen) cezalandr-l-a.bil-ir-sin. (ce*za:*lan*d*r*la*bi*lir*sin ) You may be punished.
261
262
263
264
TURKISH GRAMMAR UPDATED ACADEMIC EDITION 2013 A SHORT LIST OF VERB FRAMES
INTRANSITIVE TRANSITIVE CAUSATIVE PASSIVE REFLEXIVE RECIPROCAL
a ak
art
a akt al anla anlat ara artr as ar aykla at atlat azdr bas batr balat bayl bekle beklet besle bi bil bitir bktr boz bl bul bk caydr cotur al al(tr) arptr atlat ek iz
atr akttr aldr anlattr arat artrt astr art ayklat attr atlattr azdrt baktr bastr batrt balattr baylt beklet beklettir beslet bitir bildir bindir bitirt bktrt bozdur bldr buldur bktr caydrt coturt aldr altrt arptrt atlattr ektir izdir
bin bit bk
al aktl aln anlal anlatl aran artrl asl arl ayklan atl atlatl azdrl bakl basl batrl balatl bayltl beklen bekletil beslen biil bilin binil bitiril bkl bozul bln bulun bkl cayl aln altrl arpl atlatl ekil izil
al aln anla
at
bakn
bak
bozul bln
bozu bl bulu
265
PASSIVE rpl kertil zl daldrl dayatl dayanl damlatl denil deil deinil deitiril delin denen denetlen dengelen dikil dinlen dlan dourul dokun doldurul dondurul doyurul dkl dndrl dnl duyurul drtl drl dnl eklen ellen engellen ertelen estiril eitlen esnetil edil ezil
REFLEXIVE
RECIPROCAL
rp kert z daldr daya damlat de dedir dein deitir del dene denetle dengele dik dinle dila dour doku doldur dondur doyur dk dndr dndr duy drt dr dn ekle elle engelle ertele estir eitle esnet et ez
rptr kerttir zdr daldrt dayat damlattr dedirt dedirt deitirt deldir denet denetlet dengelet diktir dinlet dlat dourt dokut doldurt dondurt doyurt dktr dndrt dndrt duyurt drttr drt dndrt eklet ellet engellet ertelet estirt eitlet esnet ettir ezdir
dei
dolu
dkn dn
drt
d dn
elle
es esne
esnen
esne
266
gl
in sr
ile
ka kal kan
giy gr gster gldr hala hatrla hazrla hesapla i indir sr slat iit ilet inkr et it izle kar kandr kap kapat kapla karala kartr karlatr kas ka kat kaydet kayr
gstert gldrt halat hatrlat hazrlat hesaplat iir indirt srt slattr iittir ilettir inkr ettir ittir izlet kart kandrt kaptr kapattr kaplat karalat kartrt karlatrt kastr kat kattr kaydettir kayrt
kar karla
frlatl geil geril getiril gezdiril gsteril giril gidil giyil grl gsteril gln halan hatrlan hazrlan hesaplan iil indiril srl slatl iitil iletil inkr edil itil izlen karl kaln kandrl kapl kapatl kaplan karalan karl karlatrl kasl kan yaydedil kay()rl
gr
gl
hazrlan hesapla
slan
iti kan ka
kap kapan
kasl kan
267
kaz kes kr ky kz kzart kokla kondur konutur kopar korkut koru koy kur kurut kurula kustur kstr kurut kurula lekele oku onar oturt oy oyala oyna l de ldr p r rt ttr v patlat piir san sakla
oku otur
oyna
patla pi
kazdr kestir krdr kydr kzdr kzarttr koklat kondurt konuturt kopart korkut korut kotur koydur kurdur kuruttur kurulat kusturt kstrt kuruttur kurulat lekelet okuttur onart oturttur oydur oyalat oynat ltr det ldrt ptr rdr rttr ttrt vdr patlattr piirt saklat
kazl kesil krl kyl kzl kzartl koklan kondurul konuul koparl korkutul korun koul koyul kurul kurutul kurulan kusul ksl kurutul kurulan lekelen okun onarl oturul oyul oynan ll den ldrl pl rl rtl vl patlatl piiril sanl saklan
kesi kr kz kokla
korun kou
kurulan ks kurulan
saklan
268
sap sark
saptr sar sarkt sars sat say se sev seyret sez sdr
saptrt sardr sarkt(tr) sarstr sattr saydr setir sevdir seyrettir sezdir sdrt
saptrl sarl sarktl sarsl satl sayl seil sevil seyredil sezil sl
sarn sarsl
say
sevin sevi
sn
sn sv
sktr szdrt sildir sindirt souttur soldurt sordurt sorgulat soydur sktr sndrt svdr sylet
susturt srttr sslet szdr arttr iirt taktr tarat tart tat tattr temizlet tercih ettir tuttur
skl szdrl silin sindiril soutul soldurul sorul sorgulan soyul skl sndrl
sylen sunul susturul srtl sslen szl artl iiril takl taran tarl tan temizlen tercih edil tutul
skn
sk
soyun
sylen
sus
a i
tak
ta
tutu
269
uy
uyu uza
ya yan yaa
yerle yeti
yksel yr yz
uur um unut uydur uyar uygula uyut uzat fle tle z ver vur yadr yakala yak yaat yaz yedir yen yerletir yetitir y yka yldr yrt yut yor ykselt yrt yzdr
uurt unuttur uydurt uyart uygulat uyuttur uzattr flet tlet zdr verdir vurdur yadrt yakalat yaktr yaattr yazdr yedirt yerletirt yetitirt ydr ykat yldrt yrttr yuttur ykselttir yrttr yzdrt
uurul umul unutul uydurul uyarl uygulan uyutul uzatl flen tlen zl veril vurul yakalan yakl yaatl yazdrl yediril yenil yerleil yetiil yl ykan yldrl yrtl yutul yorul ykseltil yrtl yzl
uu
uyu
uyun uzan
vuru
270
Personal Allomorphs: (ben) (sen) (o) (biz) (siz) (onlar) : : : : : : [im, m, m, um, em, am] [sin, sn, sn, sun], [in, n, n, un, en, an] [] [iz, z, z, uz], [ik, k, k, uk] [sin.iz, sn.z, sn.z, sun.uz], [in.iz, n.z, n.z, un.uz] [], [ler, lar]
Time Allomorphs: Simple Present : Simple Past : [ir, r, r, ur, er, ar] [di, d, d, du, ti, t, t, tu] [i.yor, .yor, .yor, u.yor] [mi, m, m, mu] [e.cek, a.cak] [i.yor-du, .yor-du, .yor-du, u.yor-du] [e.cek-ti, a.cak-t] [mi-ti, m-t, m-t, mu-tu] *([di/y-di, d/y/-d, d/y/-d, du/y/-du, ti/y/-di, t/y/d, t/y/d, tu/y/-du])
271
I asked someone to wash my car. Araba-am- ykat-t-m. I had my car washed. (The doer of the verb is not mentioned.) As it is seen in the two sentences above, the two Turkish verb compositions are identical: ykattm. However, in the first sentence, the doer of the verb wash is mentioned, but in the second one, it is not. In English, when the
272
Hrsz kasa-/y/ bana a-tr-d. (hr*sz / ka*sa*y / ba*na / a*tr*d ) The thief made me open the safe. (causative) Kasa kim-e a-tr-l-d? (ka*sa / ki*me / a*t*rl*d ) Who was made to open the safe? (passive causative) Kasa bana a-tr-l-d. (ka*sa / ba*na / a*t*rl*d ) I was made to open the safe.
Double causative forms are rarely used in Turkish, therefore they are not put in the verb frames list above: Araba-am- ykat-trt-t-m. (a*ra*ba*m / y*kat*trt*tm ) I asked someone to have my car washed. (double causative)
SYLLABICATION
As it is explained in the article "Cognitive Psychology and Cognitive Neuroscience / Memory and Language, wikibooks.org/wiki/", the memory is divided into three parts: Sensory memory, Short-term memory, and Longterm memory. Sensory memory holds information for milliseconds and is separated into two components. The iconic memory is responsible for visual information, whereas auditory information is processed in the echoic memory.
273
274
275
276
Aye-/n/in araba-/s//y/-la geldi-ik. (ay*e*nin / a*ra*ba*sy*la / gel*dik) The allomorphs starting with vowels: Each morpheme, bound or free, has its own meaning stored up in ones memory. However, if we want to teach them or see them separately, we can syllabize them artificially as (ba*la*a*bil*ir*iz), (ko*nu*a*ma**yor*um). If one wishes, he can verbalize these two words as it is seen, but the Turkish syllabication system does not allow this sort of syllabication, and therefore, recomposes the morphemes keeping their meanings and forms while applying a different syllabication rhythm (code). In other words, the Turkish sound system recomposes morphemes in such a way that the syllables are articulated along with the morphemes in agreement with the general syllabication rules of the Turkish language so that they could be smoothly, fluently, and harmoniously articulated by the speech organs. Although the recomposed syllables do not have meanings on their own, they still carry the meanings and the forms of the morphemes although their last consonants detach and attach to the following allomorphs, and even though a vowel drops or two identical vowels combine, or link to one another with glides. When the last syllable of a word or a morpheme ends with a consonant, this consonant detaches from its syllable and attaches to the first vowel of the following allomorph. All the free and bound morphemes ending with consonants may detach their last consonants and attach them to the first vowels of the following allomorphs. This process can be checked while reading the underlined consonants in the example sentences in this book. The inflectional morphemes, especially those in the verb compositions, may follow one another in succession detaching the last consonant and attaching them to the first vowels of the following morphemes such as: Tut-un-a.bil-i.yor-uz. (tu*tu*na*bi*li*yo*ruz) Bitir-e.me-i.yor-um. (bi*ti*re*mi*yo*rum) One can easily detach the single underlined consonants from their morphemes and attach them to the following vowels if one follows the single underlined consonants in the example sentences. The morphemes given below are either derivational or inflectional. The inflectional allomorphs which have only one vowel are as follows: [i, , , u]: (inflectional)
277
[in, n, n, un]: (inflectional) gez-in-i.yor (ge*zi*ni*yor), ek-in-i.yor (e*ki*ni*yor), al-n-r (a*l*nr), dvn-e.cek (d*v*ne*cek), tut-un-a.bil-i.yor (tu*tu*na*bi*li*yor), sil-in-e.bil-ir (si*li*ne*bi*lir), bul-un-a.bil-ir (bu*lu*na*bi*lir), bil-in-ir (bi*li*nir)
278
[e.bil, a.bil]: (inflectional) baar-a.bil-ir (ba*a*ra*bi*lir), bitir-e.bil-ir (bi*ti*re*bi*lir), ol-a.bil-ir (o*la*bi*lir), konu-a.bil-i.yor (ko*nu*a*bi*li*yor), tart-a.bil-ir-iz (tar*t*a*bi*li*riz), ba-ar-a.bil-i.yor (ba*a*ra*bi*li*yor), gel-e.bil-ir-ler (ge*le*bi*lir*ler), bala/y/a-bil-ir-sin (ba*la*ya*bi*lir*sin), uyu-/y/a.bil-ir-im (u*yu*ya*bi*li*rim) [e.rek, a.rak]: (inflectional) gr-e.rek (g*re*rek), ko-a.rak (ko*a*rak), dn-e.rek (d**ne*rek), bulu-a.rak (bu*lu*a*rak), yz-e.rek (y*ze*rek), anla-/y/a.rak (an*la*ya*rak) [ir-ken, r-ken, r-ken, ur-ken, er-ken, ar-ken]: (inflectional) gel-ir.ken (ge*lir*ken), al-r.ken (a*lr*ken), otur-ur.ken (o*tu*rur*ken), ksrr.ken (k*s*rr*ken), ko-ar.ken (ko*ar*ken), uyu-ur-ken (u*yur*ken), bala-ar-ken (ba*lar*ken)
279
280
Dropping a vowel, inserting the /y/, /n/, /s/ or // glides between two vowels, changing the /p/, /t/, // or /k/ unvoiced consonants to the /b/, /d/, /c/ or // voiced consonants, detaching consonants from the last syllables and attach-
281
DIVIDING THE VERB COMPOSITIONS INTO SYLLABLES AND THE PRIMARILY STRESSED SYLLABLES
The Simple Present Tense positive verb "be": Although all the verb compositions in Turkish end with personal allomorphs such as "im, m, m, um"; "sin, sn, sn, sun; in, n, n, un"; "", "iz, z, z, uz; ik, k, k, uk"; "sin.iz, sn.z, sn.z, sun.uz; in.iz, n.z, n.z, un.uz"; and "", or "ler, lar", these allomorphs, as a syllable rule, have to turn into "c.v.c" (consonant . vowel . consonant) syllables in Turkish except for the third person singular and plural, whose personal suffixes are () morphemes. If these allomorphs are made up of "c.v.c" syllables, they do not need to borrow any consonants to form "c.v.c" syllables. However, the allomorphs that are formed of "v.c" syllables need another "c" to form a "c.v.c" syllable. Either in order to fill this consonant deficiency, the "v.c" allomorphs borrow the last consonants of the preceding syllables, or if the preceding syllables end with vowels, they fill up this gap with the /y/ glides. Although these are the rules, however, the native speakers do not learn them intentionally. They only hear people speaking around, and memorize them unconsciously and effortlessly as they memorize a piece of melody. Consider how the last syllables form in the following examples: retmen-im (*ret*me*nim). akn-m (a*k*nm). Giriken-iz (gi*ri*ke*niz). Duygusal-z (duy*gu*sa*lz). Ben-im (be*nim). Ev-de-/y/im (ev*de*yim). Hakl-/y/m (hak*l*ym). yi-/y/iz (i*yi*yiz). Sevinli-/y/im (se*vi*li*yim). Sokakta-/y/m (so*kak*ta*ym) Bekle-er-im (bek*le*rim). Tart.r-m (tar*t**rm). Gven.ir-im (g*ve*ni*rim). Destekle-er-im (des*tek*le*rim), unut-ur-um(u*nu*tu*rum) Okul-da-sn (o*kul*da*sn). Gzel-sin (g*zel*sin). yi-sin. (i*yi*sin) Toplant-da-sn.z (top*lan*t*da*s*nz). Bitir.ir-sin.iz (bi*ti*rir*si*niz). Temizle-er-sin (te*miz*ler*sin). Yaz-ar-sn (ya*zar*sn). Ko-ar-sn (ko*ar*sn). al-r-sn.z. (a*l*r*s*nz). Gl-er-sin.iz (g*ler*si*niz).
282
283
284
285
286
287
288
289
(fut*bol / oy*na*ya*maz*m*m) They say that I can't play football (top*lan*t*ya / git*me*me*liy*mi*iz) They say that we shouldn't go to the meeting. (ar*tk / fut*bol / oy*na*ya*bi*lir*mi*im) They say that I can play football from now on.
290
291
292
293
The Rumor Forms of the Simple Present, the Present Continuous, and the Simple Future Tenses
The verb compositions containing these tenses and the allomorphs of the [M] morpheme are as follows. Anla-ar-m-m. (an*lar*m*m) They say that I understand. Anla-ar-m-sn. (an*lar*m*sn) They say that you understand. Anla-ar-m. (an*lar*m) They say that he understands. Anla-ar-m-z. (an*lar*m*z) They say that we understand. Anla-ar-m-sn.z. (an*lar*m*s*nz) They say that you understand. Anla-ar-lar-m. (an*lar*lar*m) They say that they understand. al-.yor-mu-um. (a*l**yor*mu*um) They say that I am working. Bil-i.yor-mu-sun. (bi*li*yor*mu*sun) They say that you know. Din.le-i.yor-mu. (din*li*yor*mu) They say that he is listening. Bekle-i.yor-mu-uz. (bek*li*yor*mu*uz) They say that we are waiting. Bekle-i.yor-mu-sun.uz. (bek*li*yor*mu*su*nuz) They say that you are waiting. Uyu-u.yor-lar-m. (u*yu*yor*lar*m) They say that they are sleeping. Bitir-e.cek-mi-im. (bi*ti*re*cek*mi*im) They say that I will finish.
294
295
296
297
Gel-me-/y/e.cek-im. (gel*me*ye*ce*im), ko*nu*ma*ya*ca*m) Gel-me-i.yor-du-um. (gel*mi*yor*dum), (ko*nu*mu*yor*dum) Gr-me-mi-im. (gr*me*mi*im), (an*la*ma*m*m) Gr-me-mi-ti-im. (gr*me*mi*tim), (an*la*ma*m*tm) D-me-me.li-/y/im. (d*me*me*li*yim), (u*yu*ma*ma*l*ym) Gr-e.me-i.yor-um. (g*re*mi*yo*rum), (an*la*ya*m*yo*rum) Git-me-/y/e.cek-ti-im. (git*me*ye*cek*tim), (ba*la*ma*ya*cak*tm)
298
299
al, aln
Kitap- al-d-m. (ki*ta*b / al*dm ) I have taken (received, bought) the book. (transitive) Kitap- satn aldr-d-m. (ki*ta*b / sa*t *nal*dr*dm ) (liaison) I (have) had the book bought. (causative) Kitap- satn al-drt-t-m. (double causative) (ki*ta*b / sa*t*nal*dr(t)*tm ) (liaison) I asked someone to have the book bought. (double causative).
"
300
anla:
Jack ders-i anla-d. (jack / der*si / an*la*d ) Jack understood the lesson. (transitive)
301
anlat:
Jack biz-e bir masal anlat-t. (jack / bi*ze / bir / ma*sa*lan*lat*t ) (liaison) Jack told us a story. (transitive) retmen masal- Ahmete anlat-tr-d. (*ret*men / ma*sa*l~/ ah*me*te / an*lat*tr*d ) The teacher made (had) Ahmet tell the story. (causative) Masal anlat-tr-d-m. (ma*sa*l / an*lat*tr*dm ) I had the story told. (causative) Masal dn anlat-l-d. (ma*sal / dn / an*la*tl*d ) The story was told yesterday. (passive) Masal Ahmete anlat-tr-l-d. (ma*sal~ / ah*me*te / an*lat*t*rl*d) Ahmet was made to tell the story. (passive causative) retmen bir konu anlat-.yor (retiyor). (*ret*men / bir / ko*nu / an*la*t*yor ) The teacher is teaching a subject. (transitive)
art:
Hz art-t. (hz / art*t) The speed increased. (intransitive)
302
bala:
Oyun bala-d. (o*yun / ba*la*d ) The game (has) started. (intransitive) Hakem oyun-u balat-t. (ha*kem / o*yu*nu / ba*lat*t ) The referee started the game. (transitive) Hakem oyun-u Ahmete balat-t. (ha*kem / o*yu*nu~ / ah*me*de / ba*lat*t ) The referee made Ahmet start the game. (causative) Oyun Ahmete balat-l-d. (o*yun / ah*me*de / ba*la*tl*d ) Ahmet was made to start the game. (passive causative) Oyun balat-l-d. (o*yun / ba*la*tl*d ) The game was started. (by someone) (passive)
303
bat:
kinci Dnya Sava-/n/da birok gemi bat-t. (i*kin*ci / dn*ya: / sa*va*n*da / bir*ok / ge*mi / bat*t ) A lot of ships sank during The Second World War. (intransitive) kinci Dnya Sava/n/da ok gemi batr-d-lar. (i*kin*ci / dn*ya: / sa*va*n*da / bir*ok / ge*mi / ba*tr*d*lar ) They sank a lot of ships during The Second World War. (transitive) Sava-ta birok gemi batr-l-d. (sa*va*ta / bir*ok / ge*mi / ba*t*rl*d ) A lot of ships were sunk during the war. (passive) (O), parmak--/n/a bir ine batr-d. (par*ma**na / bir / i*ne / ba*tr*d ) She stuck a needle into her figer. (transitive) Parmak-m-a ine batt. (par*ma**ma / i*ne / bat*t ) A needle stuck into my finger. (intransitive)
bul:
Yzk--/n/ bul-du. (y*z**n / bul*du ) She has found her ring. (transitive) Yzk--/n/ koca-/s/-/n/a bul-dur-du. (y*z**n / ko*ca*s*na / bul*dur*du ) She got her husband to find her ring. (causative) Yzk koca-/s/-/n/a bul-dur-ul-du. (y*zk / ko*ca*s*na / bul*du*rul*du ) Her husband was made to find the ring. (passive causative)
304
al:
Birisi o-/n/un anta-/s/-/n/ al-d. (bi*ri*si / o*nun / an*ta*s*n / al*d ) Somebody stole her handbag. (transitive) anta-/s/-/n/ al-dr-d. (an*ta*s*n / al*dr*d ) She had her handbag stolen. (causative) Geen hafta onun anta-/s/ al-n-d. (ge*en / haf*ta / o*nun / an*ta*s / a*ln*d ) Her handbag was stolen last week. (passive) Jack piyano al-a.bil-ir. (jack / pi*ya*no / a*la*bi*lir ) Jack can play the piano. (transitive) Hakem ddk--/n/ al-d. (ha*kem / d*d**n / al*d ) The referee blew his whistle. (transitive)
arp:
Top pencere-/y/e arp-t. (top / pen*ce*re*ye / arp*t ), or (top / pen*ce*re*ye / carp*t ) The ball hit the window.. (Turkish intransitive; English transitive) Klp-im sen-in iin arp-.yor. (kl*bim / se*nin / i*in / ar*p*yor ) My heart is beating for you. (intransitive)
305
al:
Almanyada al-.yor. (al*man*ya*da / a*l**yor ) He is working in Germany. (intransitive) Motor-u al-tr-a.ma-d. (mo*to*ru / a*l*t*ra*ma*d ) He couldnt start the engine. (transitive) Kar-/s/-/n/ al-tr-ma-.yor. (ka*r*s*n / a*l*tr*m*yor ) He doesnt let his wife work. (causative) Eskiden otomobil motor-lar- el-le al-tr-l-r-d. (es*ki*den~ / o*to*mo*bil / mo*tor*la*r~ / el*le / a*l*t*r*lr*d ) In the past car engines used to be manually started. (passive) Bu fabrika-da kask-sz al-l-maz. (bu / fab*ri*ka*da / kask*sz / a*l*l*maz ) It is forbidden (dangerous) to work without helmets in this factory. (passive shaped intransitive verb)
atla:
306
ek, ekin
Bu baca iyi ek-er. (bu / ba*ca / i*yi / e*ker ) This chimney draws well. (intransitive) Anne-/s/i-/n/e ek-mi. (an*ne*si*ne / ek*mi ) She seems to have taken after her mother. (intransitive) Araba-/y/ iki at ek-i.yor-du. (a*ra*ba*y / i*ki / at / e*ki*yor*du ) Two horses were pulling the cart. (transitive) Kl--/n/ ek-ti. (k*l*c*n / ek*ti ) He drew his sword. (transitive) (O) ac ek-i.yor. (a*c / e*ki*yor ) He is suffering. (transitive) Eskiden insan-lar kuyu-lar-dan su cek-er-di. (es*ki*den / in*san*lar ~ / ku*yu*lar*dan / su / e*ker*di ) People used to draw water from wells in the past. (transitive)
307
k:
Ev-den k-t. (ev*den / k*t ) He (has) left home. (intransitive) Ceket-i-/n/i kar-d. (ce*ke*ti*ni / *kar*d ) He took off his coat. (transitive) apka-am- kart-t. (ap*ka*m / *kart*t ) He made me take off my hat. (causative)
308
z:
Bir problem z-.yor. (bir / prob*lem / *z*yor ) He is solving a problem. (transitive) Problem-i baba-/s/-/n/a z-dr-d. (prob*le*mi / ba*ba*s*na / z*dr*d ) She got her father to solve the problem. (causative) Tm sorun-lar-m.z z-l-d. (tm / so*run*la*r*mz / *zl*d ) All our problems have been solved. (passive) Bu dm- z-e.me-i.yor-um. (bu / d**m / *ze*mi*yo*rum ) I can't untie this knot. (transitive)
daya:
Merdiven-i duvar-a daya-d. (mer*di*ve*ni / du*va*ra / da*ya*d ) He leaned the ladder against the wall. (transitive) Merdiven-i duvar-a dayat-t. (mer*di*ve*ni / du*va*ra / da*yat*t ) He had the ladder leaned against the wall. (causative) Merdiven duvar-a daya-an-d. (mer*di*ven / du*va*ra / da*yan*d ) The ladder has been leaned against the wall. (passive)
dayan:
309
dal:
Deniz-e dal-d. (de*ni*ze / dal*d ) He dived into the sea. (intransitive) El-i-/n/i su-/y/a dal-dr-d. (e*li*ni / su*ya / dal*dr*d ) He plunged his hand into the water. (transitive) Onu deniz-e daldrt-t. (o*nu / de*ni*ze / dal*drt*t ) He got him to dive into the sea. (causative)
dei:
Sen-i son gr-dk-m-den beri ok dei-ti-in (deimisin). (se*ni / son / gr*d*m*den / be*ri / ok / de*i*tin ) You have changed a lot since I last saw you. (intransitive) Ev-e gel-in.ce giysi-ler-i-/n/i dei-tir-di. (e*ve / ge*lin*ce~ / giy*si*le*ri*ni / de*i*tir*di ) He changed his clothes when he came home. (transitive) Eski lastik-ler-im-i dei-tirt-i.yor-um. (es*ki / las*tik*le*ri*mi / de*i*tir*ti*yo*rum ) I am having my old tires changed. (causative) Kirli masa rt-/s/ dei-tir-il-di. (kir*li / ma*sa / r*t*s / de*i*ti*ril*di ) The dirty tablecloth has been changed. (passive) Futbol kural-lar- degi-tir-il-e.cek. (fut*bol / ku*ral*la*r / de*i*ti*ri*le*cek ) The football rules are going to be changed. (passive)
310
do:
Ben Adanada do-du-um. (ben / a*da*na*da / do*dum ) I was born in Adana. (Turkish intransitive, English passive) Gne alt-da do-du. (g*ne / al*t*da / do*du ) The sun rose at six. (intransitive) Geen ay bir olan dour-du. (ge*en / ay / bir / o*lan / do*ur*du ) She gave birth to a son last month. (transitive) Ay da dou-dan do-ar. (ay / da / do*u*dan / do*ar ) The moon also rises in the east. (intransitive)
dol:
Okul hemen ocuk-lar-la dol-du. (o*kul / he*men / o*cuk*lar*la / dol*du ) The school soon filled with children. (intransitive) Sepet-i-/n/i elma/y/-la doldur-du. (se*pe*ti*ni / el*may*la / dol*dur*du ) She filled her basket with apples. (transitive) Sepet-i-/n/i bana elma/y/-la dol-durt-tu. (se*pe*ti*ni / ba*na / el*may*la / dol*durt*tu ) She made me fill her basket with apples. (causative) (onun) sepet-i elma/y/-la dol-dur-ul-du. (o*nun / se*pe*ti / el*may*la / dol*du*rul*du ) Her basked was filled with apples. (passive)
311
dn:
Tekerlek-ler yava yava dn-.yor. (te*ker*lek*ler / ya*va / ya*va / d*n*yor ) The wheels are turning slowly. (intransitive) Geri dn. (ge*ri / dn ) Turn back. (intransitive) Sa-a dn. (sa*a / dn ) (normal): (sa*a: ~ / dn ) (military order) Turn right. (intransitive) Sonbahar-da yaprak-lar sar-/y/a dn-er (sarar-r). (son*ba*har*da / yap*rak*lar / sa*r*ya / d*ner ), or (sa*ra*rr ) Leaves turn yellow in the autumn. (intransitive) Yz- kzar-d. (y*z / k*zar*d ) Her face turned red. She was ashamed. (intransitive) Kasa-/y/ a-mak iin anahtar- evir-di (dndrd). (ka*sa*y / a*mak / i*in / a*nah*ta*r / e*vir*di ) He turned the key to open the safe. (transitive)
d:
Kalem-im yer-e d-t. (ka*le*mim / ye*re / d*t ) My pen fell on the floor. (intransitive) Kalem-im-i dr-d-m. (ka*le*mi*mi / d*r*dm ) I dropped my pencil. (transitive) Ben-i dr-d. (be*ni / d*r*d ) He made me fall down. (causative)
312
ge, gein:
Araba-lar n-m-den ge-i.yor. (a*ra*ba*lar / *nm*den / ge*i*yor ) Cars are passing in front of me. (intransitive) Snav- ge-e.me-di-im. (s*na*v / ge*e*me*dim ) I couldnt pass the exam. (transitive) Onlar iyi gein-i.yor-lar. (on*lar / i*yi / ge*i*ni*yor*lar ) They are getting on well with each other. (reflexive) n-m-de.ki araba-/y/ ge-ti-im. (*nm*de*ki / a*ra*ba*y / ge*tim ) I overtook the car in front of me. (transitive)
gr, gr-n:
Yanllk- gr-me-di-im. (yan*l*l* / gr*me*dim ) I didnt (notice) see the mistake. (transitive) Yorgun gr-n-.yor-sun. (yor*gun / g*r*n*yor*sun ) You look tired. (reflexive) Bu teklif ilgin gr-n-.yor. ( bu / tek*lif / il*gin / g*r*n*yor ) This proposal sounds (looks, seems) interesting. (reflexive) mkn-sz gr-n-.yor. (im*kn*sz / g*r*n*yor ) It seems (sounds) impossible. (reflexive)
313
hatrla:
Onun ismi-/n/i hatrla-.yor-um. (o*nun / is*mi*ni / ha*tr*l*yo*rum ) I remember her name. (transitive) Kar-m k-lar- kapat-ma-am- hatrlat-t. (ka*rm / *k*la*r / ka*pat*ma*m / ha*tr*lat*t ) My wife reminded me to turn the lights off. (transitive) Bu eski fotograf bana bykannem-i hatrlat-.yor. (bu / es*ki / fo*tog*raf~ / ba*na / b*y*kan*ne*mi / ha*tr*la*t*yor ) This old photograph reminds me of my grandmother. (transitive) Bu zafer uzun sre hatrla-an-a.cak. (bu / za*fer / u*zun / s*re / ha*tr*la*na*cak ) This victory will be remembered for a long time. (passive)
hazrla:
314
i:
Annem her sabah bir bardak ay i-er. (an*nem / her / sa*bah / bir / bar*dak / ay / i*er ) Mother drinks a cup of tea every morning. (transitive) Annem bana her sabah iki bardak st i-ir-ir. (an*nem / ba*na / her / sa*bah / i*ki / bar*dak / st / i*i*rir ) Mother makes me drink two cups of milk every morning. (causative) Bu su i-il-ir. (bu / su / i*i*lir ) This water is drinkable. Literally (*This water is drunk.) (passive)
iit:
yi iit-e-bil-i.yor mu-sun? (i*yi / i*i*te*bi*li*yor / mu*sun ) Can you hear well? (intransitive) Onun Londrada olduk-u-/n/u iit-ti-im. (o*nun / Lon*dra*da / ol*du*u*nu / i*it*tim ) I heard that he is (was) in London. (transitive) Onun yalan syle-dik-i hi iit-il-me-di. (o*nun / ya*lan / sy*le*di*i / hi / i*i*til*me*di ) He has never been heard to tell a lie. (passive)
315
ka:
ki hkml hapis-ten ka-t. (i*ki / h*km*l / ha*pis*ten / ka*t ) Two prisoners (have) escaped from prison. (intransitive) ki kii be ya-n-da bir ocuk-u kar-d. (i*ki / ki*i / be / ya*n*da / bir / o*cu*u / ka*r*d ) Two men kidnapped a five year old child. (transitive.) Herkes gen kadn-n kar-l-dk--/n/ dn-.yor. (her*kes~ / gen / ka*d*nn / ka**rl*d**n / d**n*yor ) Everybody thinks that the young woman has been abducted. (passive) ocuk-lar- bahe-den kart-t. (o*cuk*la*r / bah*e*den / ka*rt*t ) He frightened the children away from the garden. (causative) Grev-in-i yap-mak-tan ka-n-ma-ma.l-sn. (g*re*vi*ni / yap*mak*tan / ka*n*ma*ma*l*sn ) You shouldnt avoid doing your duty. (reflexive) Herkes dei-ik ynler-e ka--t. (her*kes / de*i*ik / yn*le*re / ka**t ) Everybody ran to different directions. (reciprocal)
316
it:
Ben-i kenar-a it-ti. (be*ni / ke*na*ra / it*ti ) He pushed me aside. (transitive) Kenar-a it-il-di-im. (ke*na*ra / i*til*dim ) I was pushed aside. (passive) Araba-/s/-/n/ bana it-tir-di. (a*ra*ba*s*n / ba*na / it*tir*di ) She made me push her car. (causative) t-i-i.yor-lar. (i*ti*i*yor*lar ) They are pushing each other. (reciprocal) Ben-i kim it-ti? (be*ni / ki mit*ti ) (liaison) Who pushed me? (transitive)
kandr:
Adam ben-i kandr-d. (a*dam / be*ni / kan*dr*d ) The man cheated me. (transitive) Kandr-l-d-m. (kan*d*rl*dm ) I was cheated. (passive) Ben-i kandr-ma-/y/a al-ma! (be*ni / kan*dr*ma*ya / a*l*ma ) Don't try to deceive me! (transitive)
kap:
317
kapat:
Kap-/y/ kapat-t-m. (ka*p*y / ka*pat*tm ) I have closed the door. (transitive) Kap-/y/ bana kapat-tr-d. (ka*p*y / ba*na / ka*pat*tr*d ) She made me close the door. (causative) Bahe kap-/s/ hizmeti tarafndan kapat-l-d. (bah*e / ka*p*s / hiz*met*i / ta*ra*fn*dan / ka*pa*tl*d ) The garden gate was closed by the servant. (passive) Dkkn-lar saat yedi-de kapa-an-r. (dk*kn*lar / sa*at / ye*di*de / ka*pa*nr ) Shops close at seven p.m. (reflexive) (They close themselves.) Gen kadn kapa-an-d. (gen / ka*dn / ka*pan*d ) The young woman veiled herself. (reflexive) Hava kapa-an-d. (ha*va / ka*pan*d ) It has got cloudy. (reflexive)
karla:
Araba-/s/-/n/ ben-im-ki/y/-le karla-tr-d. (a*ra*ba*s*n~ / be*nim*kiy*le / kar**la*tr*d ) He compared his car with mine. (transitive)
318
ka:
Ba--/n/ ka-d. (ba**n / ka**d ) He scratched his head. (transitive) Srt--/n/ kar-/s/-/n/a kat-t. (sr*t*n / ka*r*s*na / ka*t*t ) He got his wife to scratch his back. (causative) Srt-m ka-n-.yor. (sr*tm / ka**n*yor ) My back is itching. (intransitive) Kpek ka-n-.yor. (k*pek / ka**n*yor ) The dog is scratching. (reflexive) (It is scratching itself.)
kr:
Vazo-/y/u sen kr-d-n, deil mi? (va*zo*yu / sen / kr*dn / de*il / mi ) You broke the vase, didnt you? (transitive) Vazo dn kr-l-d. (va*zo / dn / k*rl*d ) The vase was broken yesterday. (passive) Sen ben-i kr-d-n. (sen / be*ni / kr*dn ) You hurt my feelings. You refused me. You broke my heart. (transitive)
319
kz:
O bana kz-d. (o / ba*na / kz*d ) He got angry with me. (intransitive) O ben-i kz-dr-d. (o / be*ni / kz*dr*d ) He made me angry. (transitive.) (O) kz-dr-l-d. (kz*d*rl*d ) He was made angry. He was irritated. (passive) Bu-/n/a kz-l-maz. (bu*na / k*zl*maz ) This is not a matter to get angry. (passive shaped intransitive)
kzar:
Balk-lar kzar-.yor. (ba*lk*lar / k*za*r*yor ) The fish are frying. (intransitive) Balk kzart-.yor. (ba*lk / k*zar*t*yor ) She is frying fish. (transitive) Tm balk-lar- bana kzart-t. (tm / ba*lk*la*r / ba*na / k*zart*t ) She made me fry all the fish. (causative)
320
kok:
Bu balk bayat kok-u.yor. (bu / ba*lk / ba*yat / ko*ku*yor ) This fish smells stale. (intransitive) Bu ekmek dilim-i sarmsak kok-u.yor. (bu / ek*mek / di*li*mi / sa*rm*sak / ko*ku*yor ) This slice of bread smells of garlic. (intransitive) Her sabah gl-ler-i-/n/i kokla-ar. (her / sa*bah / gl*le*ri*ni / kok*lar ) She smells her roses every morning. (transitive) Bana yeni parfm--/n/ koklat-t. (ba*na / ye*ni / par*f*m*n / kok*lat*t ) She made me smell her new perfume. (causative) Kokla-.yor-lar. (kok*la**yor*lar ) They are smelling each other. (reciprocal) Bu balk kok-mu. (bu / ba*lk / kok*mu ~) This fish smells (rotten). (intransitive) (astonishment)
konu:
Onun-la yarn konu-a.cak-m. (o*nun*la / ya*rn / ko*nu*a*ca*m ) Ill talk (speak) to him tomorrow. (intransitive) Polis onu konu-tur-a-bil-ir. (po*lis / o*nu / ko*nu*tu*ra*bi*lir ) The police can make him talk. (causative)
321
kop:
p kop-tu. (ip / kop*tu ) The rope broke. (intransitive) Aa-n bir dal--/n/ kop-ar-d. (a*a*cn / bir / da*l*n / ko*par*d ) He broke a branch off the tree. (transitive) Aa-n dal-lar-/n/-dan bir-i-/n/i bana kopart-t. (a*a*cn / dal*la*rn*dan / bi*ri*ni ~/ ba*na / ko*part*t ) He made me break off one of the branches of the tree. (causative)
ko:
Baz ocuk-lar okul-a ko-u.yor. (ba:*z / o*cuk*lar / o*ku*la / ko*u*yor ) Some children are running to school. (intransitive) At--/n/ drtnal ko-tur-du. (a*t*n / drt*nal / ko*tur*du ) He made his horse run at a gallop. (causative) At- drtnal ko-tur-ul-du. (a*t / drt*nal / ko*tu*rul*du ) His horse was made to run at a gallop. (passive causative) ocuk-lar bahe-de ko-u-u.yor-lar. (o*cuk*lar / bah*e*de / ko*u*u*yor*lar ) The children are running about in the garden. (reciprocal) Bu tarla-da ko-ul-maz. (bu / tar*la*da / ko*ul*maz ) It is impossible to run in this field. (passive shaped intransitive)
322
oku:
Osmann baba-/s/ gazete-/s/i-/n/i oku-u.yor. (os*ma*nn / ba*ba*s / ga*ze*te*si*ni / o*ku*yor ) Osmans father is reading his newspaper. (transitive) Mektup-u bana okut-tu. (mek*tu*bu / ba*na / o*kut*tu ) He made (had) me read the letter. (causative) Btn hikye bana okut-ul-du. (b*tn / hi*k:*ye / ba*na / o*ku*tul*du ) I was made to read all the story. (passive causative) u ana kadar on sayfa oku-un-du. (u / a:*na / ka*dar / on / say*fa / o*kun*du ) Ten pages have been read up to now. (passive)
onar:
323
otur:
Onlar bir bank-ta otur-u.yor-lar. (on*lar / bir / bank*ta / o*tu*ru*yor*lar ) They are sitting on a bench. (intransitive) Kk ocuk-u masa-/y/a oturt-tu. (k*k / o*cu*u / ma*sa*ya / o*turt*tu ) He made (helped) the little boy sit on the table. (causative) O, ke-/y/e oturt-ul-du. (o~/ k*e*ye / o*tur*tul*du ) He was made to sit in the corner. (passive causative). Hl otur-u-u,yor-sun.uz. (h:*l: / o*tu*ru*u*yor*su*nuz ) You are still sitting and doing nothing. (reciprocal) (complaint) O, Kadkyde otur-u.yor. (o ~/ ka*d*ky*de / o*tu*ru*yor ) He lives in Kadky. (intransitive) Bu ev-de otur-ul-maz. (bu / ev*de / o*tu*rul*maz ) It is impossible to live in this house. (passive shaped intransitive)
oyna:
324
l:
O, 1920de l-d. (o~/ bin / do*kuz / yz / yir*mi*de / l*d ) He died in 1920. (intransitive) Onu yanl-lk-la ldr-d. (o*nu / yan*l*lk*la / l*dr*d ) He killed him by mistake. (transitive) O-/n/u o-/n/a ldrt-t. (o*nu~ / o*na / l*drt*t ) She made him kill her. (causative) O, ona ldrt-l-d. (o~/ o*na / l*dr*tl*d ) He was made to kill her. (passive causative)
325
rt:
Koltuk-lar- toz-dan koru-mak iin rt-t. (kol*tuk*la*r / toz*dan / ko*ru*mak / i*in / rt*t ) She covered the armchairs to protect them from dust. (transitive) Mobilya-/y/ bana rttr-d. (mo*bil*ya*y / ba*na / rt*tr*d ) She made me cover the furniture. (causative) Duvar-lar boya-an-ma-dan nce btn mobilya rtl-m-t. (du*var*lar / bo*yan*ma*dan / n*ce~/ b*tn / mo*bil*ya / r*tl*m*t ) All the furniture had been covered before the walls were painted. (passive) Ben-i gr-n.ce rt-n-d. (be*ni / g*rn*ce / r*tn*d ) She put on her scarf when she saw me. She covered her head with a scarf when she saw me. (reflexive)
t:
Ku-lar t-er. (liaison) (ku*la*r*ter ) (ku*lar / *ter ) (intransitive) Birds sing. Hakem ddk--/n/ t-tr-d (al*d). (ha*kem / d*d**n / al*d ) The referee blew his whistle. (transitive) O gzel ark syle-er. ( o / g*zel / ar*k / sy*ler ) She sings beautifully. (Turkish transitive; English intransitive). Ddk-m- t-trt-t. (d*d**m / t*trt*t ) He made (let) me blow my whistle. (causative) Ddk al-n-d. (d*dk / a*ln*d ) The whistle has been blown. (passive)
326
v:
O ben-i v-d. (o / be*ni / v*d ) He praised me. (transitive) O, kz karde-i-/n/i bana vdrt-t. (o~/ kz*kar*de*i*ni / ba*na / v*drt*t ) He made me praise his sister. (causative) O, karde-i tarafndan ok v-l-r. (o~ / kz*kar*de*i / ta*ra*fn*dan / ok / *v*lr ) He is praised a lot by his sister. (passive) Boyuna vn-.yor. (o / bo*yu*na / *v*n*yor ) He is always boasting. (reflexive) (He is praising himself.)
patla:
Bir su boru-/s/u patla-d ve ev su/y/-la dol-du. (bir / su / bo*ru*su / pat*la*d~/ ve / ev / suy*la / dol*du ) A water pipe burst, and the house filled with water. (intransitive) Bir bomba patla-d. (bir / bom*ba / pat*la*d ) A bomb exploded. (intransitive) Bir bomba patlat-t-lar. (bir / bom*ba / pat*lat*t*lar ) They exploded a bomb. (transitive) Bomba-/y/, ona patlattr-d-lar. (bom*ba*y / o*na / pat*lat*tr*d*lar ) They made him explode the bomb. (causative)
327
pi:
Yemek pi-i.yor. (ye*mek / pi*i*yor ) The meal is cooking. (intransitive) Anne-em mutfak-ta yemek pi-ir-i.yor. (an*nem / mut*fak*ta / ye*mek / pi*i*ri*yor ) Mother is cooking in the kitchen. (Turkish transitive; English intransitive.) Anne-em mutfak-ta bana yemek piirt-ti. (an*nem~ / mut*fak*ta / ba*na / ye*mek / pi*irt*ti ) Mother made me cook in the kitchen. (causative) Yemek piir-il-i.yor. (ye*mek / pi*i*ri*li*yor) (ye*mek / pi*i*ri*li*yor ) The meal is being cooked. (passive)
sakla:
ocuk, oyuncak-lar--/n/ dolap-n arka-/s/-/n/a sakla-d. (o*cuk ~ / o*yun*cak*la*r*n / do*la*bn / ar*ka*s*na / sak*la*d ) The boy hid his toys behind the cupboard. (transitive) Jack, yrtk gmlk-i-/n/i bana saklat-t. (jack~ / yr*tk / gm*le*i*ni / ba*na / sak*lat*t ) Jack made me hide his torn shirt. (causative) al-n-m mal-lar bir maara-/y/a sakla-an-d. (a*ln*m / mal*lar / bir / ma*a*ra*ya / sak*lan*d ) The stolen goods were hidden in a cave. (passive) Kedi koltuk-un arka-/s/-/n/a sakla-an-d. (ke*di / kol*tu*un / ar*ka*s*na / sak*lan*d ) The cat hid behind the armchair. (reflexive) (It hid itself.)
328
sars:
Patla-ma yer-i sars-t. (pat*la*ma / ye*ri / sars*t ) The explosion shook the ground. (transitive) Yer sars-l-d. (yer / sar*sl*d ) The ground was shaken. The ground shook. (Turkish and English are both passive and reflexive.)
sat:
Eski araba-/s/-/n/ sat-t. (es*ki / a*ra*ba*s*n / sat*t ) He has sold his old car. (transitive) Eski araba-/s/-/n/ bana sattr-d. (es*ki / a*ra*ba*s*n / ba*na / sat*tr*d ) He made me sell his old car. (causative) (Ben-im) eski araba-am sat-l-d. (es*ki / a*ra*bam / sa*tl*d ) My old car has been sold. (passive)
sev:
329
seyret:
Boyuna televizyon seyret.i.yor. (bo*yu*na / te*le*viz*yon / sey*re*di*yor ) She is always watching television. (transitive) (complaint) Anne-em bana televizyon izlet-tir-me-i.yor. (an*nem / ba*na~ / te*le*viz*yon / iz*let*tir*mi*yor ) Mother doesnt let me watch TV. (causative) (complaint) Byle televizyon program-lar- seyret-il-me-me.li. (by*le / te*le*viz*yon / prog*ram*la*r / sey*re*dil*me*me*li ) Such TV programs shouldnt be watched. (passive) (advice) Byle televizyon program-lar- ocuk-lar-a seyret-tir-il-me-me.li. (by*le / te*le*viz*yon / prog*ram*la*r~/ o*cuk*la*ra / sey*ret*ti*ril*me*me*li ) Children shouldnt be allowed to watch such TV programs. (passive) Baz televizyon program-lar- seyret-me-/y/e (izlenmeye) demez. (ba*z / te*le*viz*yon / prog*ram*la*r / sey*ret*me*ye / de*mez ) Some TV programs are not worth watching.
sinirlen:
330
sou:
Hava sou-du. (ha*va / so*u*du ) It became (turned) cold. (intransitive) -me-den nce limonata-an- sout. (i*me*den / n*ce / li*mo*na*ta*n / so*ut ) Cool your lemonade before you drink it. (transitive) Sou-du-um. (so*u*dum ) I have lost my interest or desire. (intransitive)
soy:
Patates soy-u.yor. (pa*ta*tes / so*yu*yor ) She is peeling potatoes. (transitive) Elma-lar soy-ul-u.yor. (el*ma*lar / so*yu*lu*yor ) The apples are being peeled. ( passive) Patates-ler-i hep bana soy-dur-u.yor. (pa*ta*tes*le*ri / hep / ba*na / soy*du*ru*yor ) She is always making me peel the potatoes. (causative) (complaint) Banyo yap-tr-mak iin bebek-i-/n/i soy-du. (ban*yo / yap*tr*mak / i*in / be*be*i*ni / soy*du ) She undressed her baby to bath him. (transitive)
331
syle:
(O) bana bir ey syle-me-di. (ba*na / bir / ey / sy*le*me*di) (ba*na / bi*ey / sy*le*me*di ) He didnt tell me anything. (transitive) Ne iste-dik-in-i bana syle. (ne / is*te*di*i*ni / ba*na / sy*le ) Tell me what you want. (transitive) Ona herey-i sylet-ti-ler. (o*na / her*e*yi / sy*let*ti*ler ) They made him tell everything. (causative) Byle ey-ler syle-en-mez. (by*le / ey*ler / sy*len*mez ) Such things are never mentioned. (passive) O boyuna syle-en-i.yor (homurdan-.yor). (o / bo*yu*na / sy*le*ni*yor ) He is always grumbling. (reflexive) (*He is talking to himself.) O-/n/a, o-/n/u tan-dk--/n/ syle-di. (o*na ~/ o*nu / ta*n*d**n / sy*le*di ) He told him that he knew her. (transitive) Polis ona herey-i sylet-ti. (po*lis / o*na / her*e*yi / sy*let*ti ) The police made him tell everything. (causative) Ona herey sylet-il-di. (o*na / her*ey / sy*le*til*di ) He was made to tell everything. (passive causative)
332
sus:
Sus-tu. (sus*tu ) He stopped talking or crying. (intransitive) retmen renci-ler-i sus-tur-du. (*ret*men / *ren*ci*le*ri / sus*tur*du ) The teacher made the students stop talking. (causative) O sus-tur-ul-du. (o / sus*tu*rul*du ) He was made to stop talking or crying. (passive causative) Bu kpek havla-ma-dan dur-a.maz. (bu / k*pek / hav*la*ma*dan / du*ra*maz ) This dog cant stop barking. Sus-ma-/y/a.cak-m. Susmycam. (sus*ma*ya*ca*m) (sus*my*cam ) I wont stop talkng. (refusal)
spr:
Kuru yaprak-lar- bahe-den spr-d-m. (ku*ru / yap*rak*la*r / bah*e*den / s*pr*dm ) I have swept the dry leaves out of the garden. (transitive) Anne-em bahe-/y/i bana sprt-t. (an*nem / bah*e*yi / ba*na / s*prt*t ) Mother made me sweep the garden. (causative) Oturma oda-/s/ henz spr-l-me-di. (o*tur*ma / o*da*s / he*nz / s*p*rl*me*di ) The living room hasnt been swept yet. (passive)
sr:
333
ssle:
ocuklar Christmas iin oturma oda-/s/-/n/ ssle-di. (o*cuk*lar / kris*mas / i*in / o*tur*ma / o*da*s*n / ss*le*di ) The children decorated the sitting room for Christmas. (transitive) Oda ssle-en-i.yor (dekore ediliyor). (o*da / ss*le*ni*yor ) The room is being decorated. (passive) Yeni ev-im.iz-i dekore et-tir-e.cek-iz. (ye*ni / e*vi*mi*zi / de*ko*re / et*ti*re*ce*iz ) We are going to have our new house decorated. (causative) Ssle-en-i.yor. (ss*le*ni*yor ) She is putting on her best dress and doing her make-up. (reflexive)
a:
Onun syle-dik-i sz-e a-t-m. (o*nun / sy*le*di*i / s*ze / a*tm ) I was astonished by what he said. (Turkish is intransitive, English is passive.)
art:
Syle-dik-i sz ben-i art-t. (sy*le*di*i / sz / be*ni / a*rt*t ) What he said surprised me. (transitive)
334
tara:
Sa--/n/ tara-.yor. (sa**n / ta*r*yor) She is combing her hair. (transitive) Sa--/n/ anne-/s/i-/n/e tarat-t. (sa**n / an*ne*si*ne / ta*rat*t ) She got her mother to comb her hair. (causative) Sa- tara-an-.yor. (sa* / ta*ra*n*yor ) Her hair is being combed. (passive) Tara-an-.yor. (ta*ra*n*yor ) She is combing herself. (reflexive)
tart:
Yal adam uyan-r uyan-maz altn-lar--/n/ tart-t. (ya*l / a*dam / u*ya*nr / u*yan*maz ~/ al*tn*la*r*n / tart*t ) The old man weighed his gold coins as soon as he woke up. unlar- tart-tr. (un*la*r / tart*tr ) Have these things weighed. Tart--.yor-lar. (tar*t**yor*lar ) They are discussing. They are having a row. (reciprocal)
ta:
Nehir ta-t. (ne*hir / ta*t ) The river overflowed. (intransitive)
335
ta:
Baz bcek-ler hastalk ta-r. (ba*z / b*cek*ler / has*ta*lk / ta*r ) Some insects carry disease. (transitive) Bebek-i-/n/i bana tat-t. (be*be*i*ni / ba*na / ta*t*t ) She made me carry her baby. (causative) Ar yk-ler kamyon-la ta-n-r. (a*r / yk*ler / kam*yon*la / ta**nr ) Heavy loads are carried by lorries. (passive) Ta-n-.yor-uz. (ta**n*yo*ruz ) We are moving house. (reflexive) (*We are carrying ourselves.)
temizle:
Anne-em buzdolab-/n/ temizle-i.yor. (an*nem / buz*do*la*b*n / te*miz*li*yor ) Mother is cleaning the refrigerator. (transitive) Anne-em ev-i temiz-let-e.cek. (an*nem / e*vi / te*miz*le*te*cek) Mother is going to have the house cleaned. (causative) Snf temizle-en-i.yor. (s*nf / te*miz*le*ni*yor ) The classroom is being cleaned. (passive)
tercih et:
Kzm, televizyon seyret-me-/y/i dev yap-ma-/y/a tercih et-er. (k*zm~ / te*le*viz*yon / sey*ret*me*yi ~ / *dev / yap*ma*ya / ter*ci:*he*der ) (liaison) My daughter prefers watching TV to doing her homework.
336
unut:
Ik-lar- sndr-me-/y/i unut-ma. (*k*la*r / sn*dr*me*yi / u*nut*ma ) Dont forget to turn off the lights. (transitive) Mektup-u atma-/y/ unut-tu. (mek*tu*bu / at*ma*y / u*nut*tu ) He forgot to post the letter. (transitive) la--/n/ al-dk--/n/ unut-tu. (i*l*c*n / al*d**n / u*nut*tu ) He forgot taking his medicine. (transitive) Mutlu gn-ler hi unut-ul-maz. (mut*lu / gn*ler / hi / u*nu*tul*maz ) Happy days are never forgotten. (passive) Bana onun doum gn-/n/ unut-tur-ma. (ba*na~ / o*nun / do*um / g*n*n / u*nut*tur*ma ) Dont let me forget her birthday. (causative)
uy:
Bu ceket bana uy-ma-u.yor. (bu / ce*ket / ba*na / uy*mu*yor ) This coat doesnt fit (become) me. (transitive) Gmlek-in sana iyi uy-u.yor (yakyor). (gm*le*in / sa*na / i*yi / u*yu*yor ) Your shirt fits ( becomes) you well. (intransitive)
uyu:
Ml ml uyu-u.yor. (m*l / m*l / u*yu*yor ) She is sleeping soundly. (intransitive)
337
tle:
Pantalon-um-u tle-di-in mi? (pan*to*lo*nu*mu / *t*le*din / mi) Have you ironed my trousers? (transitive) Sabah-tan beri t yap-.yor. (sa*bah*tan / be*ri / *t / ya*p*yor ) She has been ironing since morning. (Turkish is transitive, English is intransitive.) Giysi-ler-i-/n/i hep kzkarde-i-/n/e tlet-i.yor. (giy*si*le*ri*ni / hep / kz*kar*de*i*ne / *t*le*ti*yor ) He is always making his sister iron his clothes. (causative) (complaint) Gmlek-ler-in tle-en-i.yor. (gm*lek*le*rin / *t*le*ni*yor ) Your shirts are being ironed. (passive)
z:
338
yakala:
Kaleci top-u yakala-d. (ka*le*ci / to*pu / ya*ka*la*d ) The goal-keeper caught the ball. (transitive) Son-u/n/-da tavan yakala-an-d. (so*nun*da / tav*an / ya*ka*lan*d ) The rabbit was caught at last. (passive) retmen ben-i kopya ek-er.ken yakala-d. (*ret*men / be*ni / kop*ya / e*ker*ken / ya*ka*la*d ) The teacher caught me cheating. (transitive) Halk hrsz- polis-e yakalat-t. (halk~/ hr*s*z / po*li*se / ya*ka*lat*t ) The people had (helped) the police catch the thief. (causative)
yan:
Kuru odun kolay yan-ar. (ku*ru / o*dun / ko*lay / ya*nar ) Dry wood burns easily. (intransitive) Mutfak-ta yemek piir-ir-ken parmak-lar--/n/ yak-t. (mut*fak*ta / ye*mek / pi*i*rir*ken~ / par*mak*la*r*n / yak*t ) She burnt her fingers while cooking in the kitchen (transitive) Tepe-de bir ate yak-t-lar. (te*pe*de / bir / a*te / yak*t*lar ) They lit a fire on the hill. (transitive)
339
yap:
Zarf-a pul yap-tr-ma-/y/ unut-tu-um. (zar*fa / pul / ya*p*tr*ma*y / u*nut*tum ) I forgot to stick a stamp on the envelope. (transitive) Bu pul yap-ma-.yor. (bu / pul / ya*p*m*yor ) This stamp doesnt stick. (intransitive) Anne-em bana yatak oda-am-n kap-/s/-/n/a bir uyar yap-trt-t. (an*nem / ba*na~/ ya*tak / o*da*mn / ka*p*s*na / bir / u*ya*r / ya*p*trt*t ) Mother made me stick a notice on my bedroom door. (causative) Duvar-lar-a birey yap-tr-l-ma-sn. (du*var*la*ra / bir*ey / ya*p*t*rl*ma*sn ) Nothing should be stuck on the walls. (passive)
yat:
Saat 11de yat-t-m. (sa*at / on*bir*de / yat*tm ) I went to bed at 11 p.m. (intransitive) Anne-ler-i onlar- saat 10da yat-r-r. (an*ne*le*ri / on*la*r / sa*at / on*da / ya*t*rr ) Their mother makes them go to bed at 10 p.m. (causative) Bebek-i yatak--/n/a yatr-d. (be*be*i / ya*ta**na / ya*tr*d ) She laid the baby in her bed. (transitive) Onu gr-dk-m-de, yer-de yat-.yor-du. (o*nu / gr*d*m*de~ / yer*de / ya*t*yor*du ) When I saw her, she was lying on the floor. (intransitive)
340
yaz:
Mary bir mektup yaz-.yor. (ma*ry / bir / mek*tup / ya*z*yor ) Mary is writing a letter. (transitive) rertmen snav-da biz-e bir kompozisyon yaz-dr-d. (*ret*men / bi*ze / s*nav*da / bir / kom*po*zis*yon / yaz*dr*d ) The teacher made us write a composition in the examination. (causative) Mektup yaz-l-d bile. (mek*tup / ya*zl*d / bi*le ) The letter has already been written. (passive)
ye:
Saat kata akam yemek-i ye-er-sin.iz? (sa*at / ka*ta / ak*am / ye*me*i / yer*si*niz ) What time do you eat dinner? (transitive) Bebek-i ye-dir-i.yor. (be*be*i / ye*di*ri*yor ) She is feeding the baby. (transitive) Bu hamburger yen-(il)-mez. (bu / ham*bur*ger / yen*mez ) This hamburger is not edible. (passive) (It cant be eaten.) Akam yemek-i yen-i.yor. (ak*am / ye*me*i / ye*ni*yor ) Dinner is being eaten. (passive) Anne-em bana iki tabak sebze ye-dir-di. (an*nem / ba*na / i*ki / ta*bak / seb*ze / ye*dir*di ) Mother made me eat two plates of vegetables. (causative)
yka:
Kz karde-im bulak-lar- yka-.yor. (kz*kar*de*im / bu*la*k*la*r / y*k*yor ) My sister is washing the dishes. (transitive)
341
yor:
Btn gn bahe-de al-mak ben-i yor-du. (b*tn / gn / bah*e*de / a*l*mak / be*ni / yor*du ) Working in the garden all day long tired me. (transitive) Yor-ul-du-um. (yo*rul*dum ) Ive got tired. (I feel tired.) (reflexive) Sen-in sama sapan soru-lar-n-dan bk-t-m. (se*nin / sa*ma / sa*pan / so*ru*la*rn*dan / bk*tm ) I am tired of your nonsense questions. (intransitive)
yksel:
Balon gk-te yksel-i.yor. (ba*lon / gk*te / yk*se*li*yor ) The balloon is rising in the sky. (intransitive). iddet-li yamur-dan sonra nehir yksel-di. (id*det*li / ya*mur*dan / son*ra / ne*hir / yk*sel*di ) The river rose after the heavy rainfall. (intransitive) Gne dou-dan do-ar ve bat-dan bat-ar. (g*ne / do*u*dan / do*ar / ve / ba*t*dan / ba*tar ) The sun rises in the east, and sets in the west. (intransitive) Soru-/y/a cevap ver-mek iin el-i-/n/i kaldr-d. (so*ru*ya / ce*vap / ver*mek / i*in / e*li*ni / kal*dr*d ) He raised his hand to answer the question. (transitive)
342
yr:
Ona rasla-dk-m-da cadde-de yr-.yor-du-um. (o*na / ras*la*d*m*da / cad*de*de / y*r*yor*dum ) I was walking along the street when I met him. (intransitive) Otobs-e yeti-mek iin ben-i hz-la yrt-t. (o*to*b*se / ye*ti*mek / i*in / be*ni / hz*la / y*rt*t ) She made me walk fast to catch the bus. (causative) Hzla yrt-l-d-m. (hz*la / y*r*tl*dm ) I was made to walk fast. (passive causative) Bu yolda yr-n-mez. (bu / yol*da / y*rn*mez ) It is impossible to walk in this street. (passive shaped intransitive) yz: Anne-em deniz-de yz-.yor. (an*nem / de*niz*de / y*z*yor ) Mother is swimming in the sea. (intransitive) Onlar gl-de model kayk-lar yz-dr-.yor-lar. (on*lar / gl*de / mo*del / ka*yk*lar / yz*d*r*yor*lar ) They are sailing model boats on the lake. (transitive) Kpek-i-/n/i gl-de yz-dr-d. (k*pe*i*ni / gl*de / yz*dr*d ) He made (let) his dog swim in the lake. (causative) Frtna var-ken deniz-de yz-l-mez. (fr*t*na / var*ken / de*niz*de / y*zl*mez ) It is impossible to swim in the sea when there is a storm. (passive shaped intransitive) Snav-lar- ge-mez-se-em baba-am deri-im-i yz-e.cek. (s*nav*la*r / ge*mez*sem / ba*bam / de*ri*mi / y*ze*cek) My father will skin me if I don't pass the examinations.
343
TIME
BEFORE This time concept is expressed in V - [me-den] or [ma-dan] + nce in Turkish. Ev dev-im-i yap-t-m. Sonra okul-a gel-di-im. I did my homework. Then I came to school. One can understand from these sentences that the time of the first sentence is before the time of the second one. To furnish the first English sentence with a previous time concept, The Past Perfect Tense may be used to convey this time difference, and the conjunction before is put in the beginning of the second sentence without its order (the simple sentence structure) being changed: I had done (or did) my homework
sentence (NP + VP)
before
I came to school.
Although the normal order of the English sentence is like the sentence above, the regular order of the Turkish sentence is Before I came to school, I had done my homework. If we think about how this sentence is produced,
344
Ben eve gideceim + nce ben ev-e git-me-den nce (Ben) ev-e git-me-den nce biraz meyve al-a.cak-m.
subj NP infinitive-den postp postp adverbial phrase VP | (object) NP | V
I will go home + before before I go home I will buy some fruit before I go home.
NP V NP VP adverbial clause
In the sentence above, the [me, ma] allomorphs are a cause of confusion in Turkish. They are considered either as the allomorphs of an infinitive morpheme [me, ma] or the allomorphs of the negation morpheme [me, ma]. Therefore, Turkish students tend to build up English sentences like *"I had done my homework before I didn't come to school*. This is because the syllable stress in speech is generally used on the verb root or stem (gel*me*den), not on the [den, dan] allomorphs, which misleads the learners of English. In fact, these are the infinitive allomorphs; if they were not, the [den, dan] allomorphs would not be attached to them. The sentence order above may also change as follows: (Ben) ev dev-im-i, okul-a gel-me-den nce yap-m-t-m.
subj NP obj NP inf-[den] + postp postpositional phrs of time VP | V
(ben / e*v*de*vi*mi~/ o*ku*la / gel*me*den / n*ce / yap*m*tm ) This sentence order above is used when the adverb of time is stressed.
345
git-mi-ti
|
This sentence is like the English sentence, The train had left before my arriving at the station. In this sentence, ben-im istasyon-a var-ma-am is a noun + infinitive compound. stasyon-a is an adverbial which is composed of a noun-[E]. Ben-im istasyon-a var-ma-am is a nominal phrase. As all nouns can be followed by [], [E], [DE], [DEN], and [LE] morphemes, this nominal phrase can be followed by a [dan] allomorph. nce is a postposition used after a noun-[DEN] such as: le-den nce, okul-dan nce, sen-den n-ce, yemek-ten nce, sen gel-me-den nce. Therefore, benim istasyon-a var-ma-am-dan nce is a noun compound-dan + nce, which is a postpositional phrase functioning as an adverbial of time. istasyon-a var-ma-dan nce
adverbial inf + [DEN] postp postpositional phrase of time
346
347
348
He went to bed after he had done (he did) his homework. ocuk-lar zil al-dk-tan sonra futbol oyna-mak iin dar-/y/a k-a.cak
NP inf - [DEN] + postp postp adverb phrs of time infinitive postp | postp adverb phrs of cause adverbial VP | V
to play football
Bitir-dik-ten sonra kompozisyon-um-u teslim et-ti-im. (bi*tir*dik*ten / son*ra / kom*po*zis*yo*nu*mu / tes*lim / et*tim ) After I had finished my composition, I handed it in. Onlar k-tk-tan sonra al-ma-/y/a bala-d-m. (on*lar / k*tk*tan / son*ra / a*l*ma*ya / ba*la*dm ) I began to study after they (had) left.
349
350
Besides the [N.CE] morpheme, there are two more adverbial alternatives that can convey the concept of when: V - [DK] - [possessor personal morpheme] + zaman, or V - [DK] - [possessor personal morpheme] - [de, da] Okula git-in.ce retmenini greceksin. (gi*din*ce) Okula git-tik-in zaman retmenini greceksin. (git*ti*in / za*man) Okula git-tik-in-de retmenini greceksin. (git*ti*in*de) The meaning of all the three sentences above is You will see your teacher when you go to school, and the expressions printed in bold face are the equivalents of the English coordinating conjunction when. We can explain how this mental composition is transformed as follows: Sen onu greceksin + zaman "sen onu gr-n.ce, or sen onu grdk-n zaman, or sen onu gr-dk-n-de O beni grd + zaman o beni gr-n.ce, or o beni grdk- zaman, or o beni gr-dk-n-de (gr*d*n*de). You will see him + when when you see him The basic English simple future sentence structure above transforms into The Simple Present vocalized adverbial clause. 1. (Sen) okul-a git-in.ce (senin) retmen-in-i gr-e.cek-sin.
NP adverbial of time (noun comp-i) NP VP V
(o*ku*la / gi*din*ce / *ret*me*ni*ni / g*re*cek*sin ) You will see your teacher when you go to school. 2. Okul-a git-tik-in zaman retmen-in-i gr-e.cek-sin. (o*ku*la / git*ti*in / za*man / *ret*me*ni*ni / g*re*cek*sin ) You will see your teacher when you go to school.
351
352
353
Jack was going to school + duration while Jack was going to school Jack found a purse of gold coins while he was going to school,.
| NP V NP VP adverbial clause of time
Consider the example sentences below: Oul-um bahe-de oyna-ar-ken eski bir para buldu. (The /u/ drops, and the /l/ attaches to /u/.) (o*lum / bah*e*de / oy*nar*ken ~/ es*ki / bir / pa*ra / bul*du) My son found an old coin while he was playing in the garden. Ben ev-de/y/-ken btn ev i-ler-i-/n/i kendim yap-ar-m. (liaison) (ben / ev*dey*ken ~/ b*tn / e*vi*le*ri*ni / ken*dim / ya*pa*rm ) I do all the housework myself when I am at home. Biz ocuk-ken televizyon seyret-e.me-i.yor-du-uk, nk televizyon daha kefet-il-me-mi-ti. (biz / o*cuk*ken ~/ te*le*viz*yon / sey*re*de*mi*yor*duk / n*k~ / te*le*viz*yon / da*ha / ke*fe*dil*me*mi*ti ) We couldnt watch television when we were children because it hadnt been invented yet. Ev dev-in-i ben bura-da/y/-ken yap. (ev / *de*vi*ni / ben / bu*ra*day*ken / yap ) Do your homework while (when) I am here. Ben yeni szck-ler-i ret-ir-ken Fatma pencere-den dar bak-.yor-du. (ben / ye*ni / sz*ck*le*ri / *re*tir*ken~ / fat*ma / pen*ce*re*den / d*a*r / ba*k*yor*du ) While I was teaching the new words, Fatma was looking out of the window.
354
355
As soon as the bell rang, the students went out to play in the garden. The places of adverbs and nouns are arranged in sentences in accordance with the importance given to these units. Therefore the following alternatives of the sentence above may also be produced as follows: renciler, zil alar almaz bahede oynamak iin diar ktlar. renciler, bahede oynamak iin zil alar almaz dar ktlar. Zil alar almaz, bahede oynamak iin renciler dar ktlar. *Dar ktlar renciler zil alar almaz bahede oynamak iin.
356
357
As an alternative to the above adverbial phrase V- [in.ce-/y/e, n.ca-/y/a, n.ce-/y/e, un.ca-/y/a] + kadar form can also be used: Boya kuru-/y/un.ca-/y/a kadar (kuru-/y/a-/n/a kadar) duvar-lar-a dokun-ma. (bo*ya / ku*ru*ya*na / ka*dar / du*var*la*ra / do*kun*ma ) Dont touch the walls until the paint dries.
358
359
I
NP
If a simple sentence is needed to be transformed, V - [e.ne, a.na] + kadar structure is used in the adverbial phrase section of a sentence. The logical process of this transformation is as follows: Annem eve dnecek + o zamana kadar annem ev-e dn-e.ne kadar Mother will come back home + by the time by the time mother comes back home (Ben) annem ev-e dn-e.ne kadar i-im-i bitir-mi ol-a.cak-m.
NP postpositional phrase of time VP NP V
(an*nem / e*ve / d*ne*ne / ka*dar~ / i*i*mi / bi*tir*mi / o*la*ca*m ) I will have finished my work by the time my mother comes back home.
| NP | | V | | NP prep phrs V adv | adverbial clause of time NP adv
VP
360
o*la*cak*lar)
They will have eaten up all the cake by the time you arrive home. SINCE If single nouns or determiner + noun compounds such as dokuz, sabah, le, dn, "geen hafta", "geen ay", "geen yl" are chosen to express, a noun-[den, dan] + beri or a possessor + possessed [den, dan] + beri postpositional phrase structure is used to express since nine, since morning, "since last year", since last summer, or since you went away expressions. The word beri is a postposition. The function of these phrases is adverbial: (Ben) onu geen hafta-dan beri gr-me-di-im.
NP NP postp adverbial phrs of time VP V
I
NP
havent seen
V
her
NP
Saat dokuz-dan beri bekle-i.yor-um. (sa*at / do*kuz*dan / be*ri / bek*li*yo*rum ) I have been waiting since nine. As dokuz, sabah. len, etc. are nouns, a noun + infinitive" - [DEN] + beri can also be used in their places: (Ben) seni grdm + den beri (ben-im) sen-i gr-dk-m-den beri I saw you + since since I saw you (ben-im) sen-i grdk-m - den beri = since I saw you
noun compound - [DEN] + postp postpositional adverbial phrase of time
361
Sen-i ilk gr-dk-m-den beri sev-i.yor-um. (se*ni / ilk / gr*d*m*den / be*ri / se*vi*yo*rum ) I have been in love with you since I saw you first. (Sen-in) stanbuldan ayrl-dk-n-dan beri sen-den bir mektup al-ma-d-m. (is*tan*bul*dan / ay*rl*d*n*dan / be*ri / sen*den / bir / mek*tup / al*ma*dm ) I havent received a letter from you since you left stanbul. (Ben) (sen-in) evden k-tk-n-dan beri birsey yap-ma-d-m. (ev*den / k*t*n*dan / be*ri / bir / ey / yap*ma*dm ) I havent done anything since you left home. (Ben-im) sen-i son gr-dk-m-den beri (sen) ne yap-.yor-sun? (se*ni / son / gr*d*m*den / be*ri / ne / ya*p*yor*sun ) What have you been doing since I saw you last? Kz-lar-dan baz-lar- snf-a gir-dik-ler-i/n/-den beri gl--p konu-u.yor-lar. (kz*lar*dan / ba*z*la*r / s*n*fa / gir*dik*le*rin*den / be*ri / g*l*p / ko*nu*u*yor*lar ) Some of the girls have been chatting and giggling since they came into the classroom. Sen-(in) bura-/y/a gel-dik-in-den beri ne kadar oldu? or Sen bura-/y/a gel-e.li ne kadar ol-du? (sen / bu*ra*ya / ge*le*li / ne / ka*dar / ol*du) How long is it (has it been) since you came here? Biz-im komu-/n/un u aptal kopek-i ben ev-e gel-dik-im-den beri havla-.yor. (bi*zim / kom*u*nun / u / ap*tal / k*pe*i ~/ ben / e*ve / gel*di*im*den / be*ri / hav*l*yor) That stupid dog of our neighbors has been barking since I came home. Otobs- kar-dk-m-dan beri bura-da bekle-i.yor-um. (o*to*b*s / ka*r*d*m*dan / be*ri / bur*da / bek*li*yo*rum ) I have been waiting here since I missed the bus. Yamur bala-dk-/n-dan beri otobs durak-/n/-da bekle-i.yor-um. (ya*mur / ba*la*d*n*da*dan / be*ri / o*to*bs / du*ra*n*da / bek*li*yo*rum ) I have been waiting at the bus stop since it started raining.
362
CAUSE OR REASON
As, since or because subordinating conjunctions are used in English to express cause or reason. In Turkish, in place of as or since, iin postposition is used. Since all postpositions follow nouns in Turkish, iin can also follow a noun, a pronoun, an infinitive, or a noun + infinitive compound. All noun + infinitive and determiner + noun compounds are syntactic nominal phrases. Follow the simple sentences below: Ben eve ge geldim + iin (ben-(im) ev-e ge gel-dik-im iin I came home late + as as I came home late As the (ben-im) parts in the noun compounds are generally ignored, only the possessed parts of the noun compounds are used as gel-dik-im and ge gel-dik-im. Since these parts are the possessed parts of the noun compounds, they are also nouns, and so, they can be followed by the postposition iin: (onlar) (ben-im) okul-a ge gel-dik-im iin ben-i cezalan-dr-d-lar.
NP noun + inf comp + postp postpositional phrase of cause VP | NP | V
Note: (Ben-im) and (onlar) are not generally used; they are put there so that the noun compounds should be well understood. The personal suffixes at the end of the verb compositions are enough to express the pronouns. (Ben-im) okul-a ge gel-dik-im iin = As I came to school late,
noun + inf compound + postp postpositional phrase of cause adverbial clause of cause
ben-i cezalandr-d-lar
sentence
they punished me
sentence
Okul-a ge gel-dik-im iin ben-i cezalandr-d-lar. (o*ku*la / ge / gel*di*im / i*in~ / be*ni / ce*za:*lan*dr*d*lar ) They punished me as I came to school late. Soru-lar g ol-duk-u iin (onlar-n) ok-u-/n/a cevap ver-e.me-di-im. (so*ru*lar / g / ol*du*u / i*in~ / o*u*na / ce*vap / ve*re*me*dim ) As the questions were difficult, I couldnt answer most of them.
363
364
Note: The /s/ and /n/ are glides. "Kendisinin" and "o" are put here to help the learners understand the deleted parts of the compounds. They are not used in current Turkish because "kendisinin" and "o" can be understood from the personal allomorphs. The mental production of this sentence is as follows: (O) ok alt + ramen (kendi-/s/i-/n/in) ok alma-/s/-/n/a ramen" He studied hard + although although he studied hard He couldnt succeed although he studied hard
NP V adverbial clause of contrast adv VP
Although Ahmet has got a car, he comes to school by bus. Yorgun ol-ma-am-a ramen al-ma-/y/a devam et-me.li-/y/im. (liaison) (yor*gun / ol*ma*ma / ra*men~ / a*l*ma*ya / de*va:*met*me*li*yim ) I must go on working although I am tired. ki kez oku-ma-am-a ramen ders-i anla-/y/a.ma-d-m. (i*ki / kez / o*ku*ma*ma / ra*men~ / der*si / an*la*ya*ma*dm ) I couldnt understand the lesson although I read twice.
365
366
PURPOSE
In order to compose an adverbial phrase of purpose, one should use a simple sentence containing wish mood (dilek kipi) without structurally changing it, and by doing so, the wish simple sentence becomes a nominal phrase to be used preceding the postposition diye to compose a postpositional phrase of purpose: eri gir-e-/y/im. eri gir-e-sin. eri gir-sin. eri gir-e-lim. eri gir-e-sin.iz. eri gir-sin-ler. Let me go in. I wish you to go in Let him go in. Let us go in. I wish you to go in. Let them go in.
367
eri gir-e.bil-e-/y/im. eri gir-e.bil-e-sin. eri gir-e.bil-sin. eri gir-e.bil-e-lim. eri gir-e.bil-e-sin.iz. eri gir-e.bil-sin-ler.
Let me be able to go in. I wish you to be able to go in. I wish him to be able to go in. Let us be able to go in. I wish you to be able to go in. I wish you to let them be able to go in.
1. V - [e.bil, a.bil]-[e-/y/im, e-sin, sin, e-lim, e-sin.iz, sin-ler] + diye 2. V - [e-/y/im, a-/y/m], [e-sin, a-sn], [sin, sn, sn, sun], [e-sin.iz, a-sn.z], [sin-ler, sn-lar] + diye Follow the examples: (o) (Ben) ieri gir-e-bil-e-/y/im diye
NP sentence used as a noun postp postpositional phrase of purpose VP | V | NP | adverbial clause of purpose VP
kap-/y/ a-t.
| NP | V
retmen ben-i daha iyi gr-e.bil-sin diye gzlk-ler-i-/n/i tak-t. (*ret*men / be*ni / da*ha / i*yi / g*re*bil*sin / di*ye~ / gz*lk*le*ri*ni / tak*t ) The teacher put on her glasses so that she could see me better. Herkes gr-e.bil-sin diye onu daha byk iz. (her*kes / g*re*bil*sin / di*ye / o*nu / da*ha / b*yk / iz ) Draw it larger so that everybody can see it. eri gir-sin diye kenar-a ekil-di-im. (i*e*ri / gir*sin / di*ye ~ / ke*na*ra / e*kil*dim ) I stepped aside so that she might come in. Kimse bul-a.ma-sn diye para-/s/-/n/ dikkat-le sakla-d. (kim*se / bu*la*ma*sn / di*ye~ / pa*ra*s*n / dik*kat*le / sak*la*d ) He hid his money carefully so that nobody could find it. (In negatives, [e.me, a.ma] are used in place of [e-bil, a-bil])
368
(ge*le*cek / di*ye / bek*le*dim) I waited hoping that he would come. Herkes anla-m-tr diye szm-e devam et-ti-im. (liaison) (her*kes / an*la*m*tr / di*ye ~/ s*z*me / de*va:*met*tim ) (liaison) I went on talking thinking that everybody must have understood me. Ertesi gn pazar diye ge vakte kadar otur-du-uk. (er*te*si / gn / pa*zar / di*ye / ge / vak*te / ka*dar / o*tur*duk ) We sat up late knowing that the following day was Sunday. Otobs kalabalk diye bin-me-di-im. (o*to*bs / ka*la*ba*lk / di*ye / bin*me*dim ) Seeing that the bus was crowded, I didn't get on. Kedi dar k-sn diye kap-/y/ a-t-m. I opened the door to let the cat go out. (I opened the door so that the cat could go out.) All the underlined parts of the sentences above are sentences that are used as nominal phrases. If the concept of ability is ignored, the [e.bil, a.bil] are omitted, and the se-
369
(hi / yan*l*lk / yap*ma*sn / di*ye~ / o*nu / dik*kat*le / yaz*d ) He wrote it carefully so that he shouldnt make a mistake. Gzel gr-n-sn diye yeni elbise-/s/i-/n/i giy-di. (g*zel / g*rn*sn / di*ye / ye*ni / el*bi*se*si*ni / giy*di ) She put her new dress on so that she might (should) look beautiful. Ka-ma-sn diye at-m- bir aa-a bala-d-m. (ka*ma*sn / di*ye / a*t*m / bir / a*a*ca / ba*la*dm ) I fastened my horse to a tree so that it shouldnt escape. Hi parmak iz-i brak-ma-sn diye hrsz eldiven tak-m-t. (hi / par*mak / i*zi / b*rak*ma*sn / di*ye~/ hr*sz / el*di*ven / tak*m*t ) The thief wore gloves so that he shouldnt leave any fingerprints. ngilizcemi uygula-/y/m diye baba-am ben-i ngiltere/y/e gtr-e.cek. (in*gi*liz*ce*mi / uy*gu*la*ym / di*ye / ba*bam / be*ni / in*gil*te*re*ye / g*t*re*cek) My father will take me to London so that I could practice my English. If the subject of the main clause, and that of the adverbial phrase are the same, an infinitive + iin postpositional phrase can be used: Gzel gr-n-mek iin yeni elbise-/s/i-/n/i giy-di. (g*zel / g*rn*mek / i* in / ye*ni / el*bi*se*si*ni / giy*di ) She put on her new dress to look beautiful. Hrsz parmak iz-i brak-ma-mak iin eldiven tak-m-t. (hr*sz / par*mak / i*zi / b*rak*ma*mak / i*in / el*di*ven / tak*mi*t ) The thief wore gloves not to leave any fingerprints. Snav--/n/ ge-mek iin Ahmet ok al-.yor. (liaison) (s*na*v*n / ge*me*ki*in~ / ah*met / ok / a*l**yor ) Ahmet is studying hard to pass his examination. Kpek-e at-mak iin yer-den bir ta ald. (liaison) (k*pe*e / at*ma*ki*in~/ yer*den / bir / ta*al*d ) He picked up a stone to throw at the dog.
370
PLACE
To produce an adverbial concept of place in Turkish, one can use istedik-in yer-e (to the place where you wish), or nere-/y/e istersen (where you wish) expressions. (Sen) istedik-in yer-e git-e.bil-ir-sin. You can go (to the place) where you wish.
NP determiner noun -[e] adverbial V NP V prep phrase determiner adverbial clause of place
yer-e koy.
V
(You) put the book (in the place) where you found it.
NP V prep phrs (adv) determiner adverbial clause of place
Nere-/y/e git-er-sen (git) ngilizce konu-a.bil-en bir-i-/s/i-/n/i bul-a.bil-ir-sin. (ne*re*ye / gi*der*sen / git ~/ in*gi*liz*ce / ko*nu*a*bi*len / bi*ri*si*ni / bu*la*bi*lir*sin ) You can find someone who can speak English wherever you go. Nasrettin Hoca eek-i-/n/i kaybet-tik-i yer-de bul-du ve bu onu ok mutlu etti. Nasrettin Hoca found his donkey where he had lost it, which made him very happy. Been-dik-in (herhangi bir) yer-e otur-a.bil-ir-sin. (be*en*di*in / ye*re / o*tu*ra*bi*lir*sin ) You can sit wherever you like.
371
MANNER
To transform a simple English sentence into an adverbial clause of manner, the conjunction as is put in the beginning of a sentence. In Turkish, gibi postposition is used after a noun + infinitive compound: AS The mental development of an adverbial phrase of manner is as follows: Ben sana dyledim + gibi ben-im sana dyle-dik-im gibi" I told you + as "as I told you" (Sen) onu, (ben-im) sana syle-dik-im gibi yap.
NP | NP noun compound + postp postp adverbial phrase of manner VP | V
/ gi*bi / ya*za*rm)
| V
Gel-dik-ler-i gibi git-er-ler. (Mustafa Kemal Atatrk) (gel*dik*le*ri / gi*bi ~/ gi*der*ler) They will go as they came. (Biz) onu, (onun) biz-e sylen-dik-i gibi yap-t-k. (o*nu~ / bi*ze / sy*len*di*i / gi*bi / yap*tk ) We did it as we had been told The words in brackets above are used to make the meaning understandable for the learners. They are not necessary in current Turkish. For instance, instead of saying "(Sen) (ben-im) karde-im-i gr-d-n m? people say "Karde-im-i gr-d-n m?" because the pronoun Sen, and the personal
372
In Turkish, it is impossible to use only the pronoun without using the personal suffix at the end of a sentence. One has to say either Ben gelecek hafta Ankaraya gidiyor-um, or Gelecek hafta Ankaraya gidiyor-um. It is incorrect to say *Ben Ankaraya gidiyor, or *Ben Trke bilmiyor. AS IF (AS THOUGH) V - [time]- [mi, m, m, mu] - (pers) + gibi verb structure is used to express as if in Turkish. The mental development of "as if" is as follows: "Sen bir soru soracaksn" + gibi "sen bir soru sor-a.cak-m-(sn) gibi" "You are going to ask a question" + as if as if you are going to ask a question (Sen) bir soru sor-a.cak-m-(sn) gibi grn-.yor-sun.
NP sentence used as a nominal phrase postp postpositional adverbial phrase of manner VP | V
373
Dont talk to me as if I were a child. (I am not a child.) (Onun) koca-/s//y/-m-m gibi bana bar-.yor. (ko*ca*sy*m*m / gi*bi / ba*na / ba**r*yor ) She shouts at me as if I were her husband. (I am not her husband.) (Onun) hizmeti-/s/i/y/-mi-im gibi bana emir ver-i.yor. (hiz*met*i*siy*mi*im / gi*bi / ba*na / e*mir / ve*ri*yor ) She orders me round as if I were her servant. (I am not her servant.)
374
RESULT
In place of so or therefore, byle-ce, bu yzden, bu nedenle, bu sa:yede, or bu ekilde conjunctions may be used to supply a simple sentence with a result concept: Sabah-le.yin erken kalktm, ve byle-ce ev dev-im-i bitir-e.bil-di-im. (sa*bah*le*yin / er*ken / kalk*tm ~/ ve / by*le*ce / e*v*de*vi*mi / bi*ti*re*bil*dim ) I got up early, and so I was able to finish my homework. ok a-m, bu yzden sandvi bile ye-/y/e.bil-ir-im. I am very hungry; therefore, I can eat even three sandwiches. Yamur ok iddet-li ya-.yor-du, bu neden-le bir yer-e sn-mak zorunda kal-d-k. It was raining heavily; therefore, we had to shelter somewhere. Gne-li bir sabah-t, bu yz-den kr-da yr-/y/-e k-ma-/y/a karar verdik. It was a sunny morning, so we decided to go for a walk in the country.
375
SO THAT
SUCH THAT
Such result clauses are formed by an o kadar + adjective (adverb) [time] + ki + sentence structure in Turkish as it is used in English. Consider the following: Sorular o kadar g-t ki sadece birka renci cevap ver-e.bil-di
NP adverbial VP V conj adv adj NP noun NP VP sentence of result V
The questions were so difficult that only few students were able to answer.
NP VP conj adv adj NP noun V NP (inf) VP
sentence of result
Yk o kadar ar-d ki, iki at bile araba-/y/ ek-e.me-di. (yk / o*ka*dar / a*r*d / ki ~ / i*ki / at / bi*le / a*ra*ba*y / e*ke*me*di ) The load was so heavy that even two horses could not pull the cart. O kadar hzl konu-ur ki onu anla-/y/a.maz-sn. (o*ka*dar / hz*l / ko*nu*ur / ki~ / o*nu / an*l*ya*maz*sn ) She speaks so fast that you cant understand her. Otobs ofr- o kadar hzl sr-.yor-du ki tm yolcu-lar kork-tu. (o*to*bs / o*f*r / o*ka*dar / hz*l / s*r*yor*du / ki ~/ tm / yol*cu*lar / kork*tu ) The bus driver was driving so fast that all the passengers were frightened. Sokak-lar o kadar kaygan ki kay-p d-e.bil-ir-sin. (so*kak*lar / o*ka*dar / kay*gan / ki ~/ ka*yp / d*e*bi*lir*sin ) The streets are so slippery that you may slip and fall down. Oda o kadar karanlk-t ki birbir-ler-i-/n/i gr-e.me-di-ler. (o*da / o*ka*dar / ka*ran*lk*t / ki ~/ bir*bir*le*ri*ni / g*re*me*di*ler ) The room was so dark that they couldnt see each other.
376
ok yal-/y/m.
| V
377
378
DEGREE
COMPARATIVE DEGREE (COMPARISON OF INEQUALITY) To compare something with another, at least two nominals should exist in a sentence. These nominals may be nouns, pronouns, infinitives or noun compounds. To add comparison to a sentence noun / noun - [den, dan, ten, tan] + daha (az) + adjective (adverb) + V structure is used. Follow the example sentences: (Ben) sen-den (daha) yal-/y/m.
NP comparative adverbial VP comparative adverbial VP adj -V
I am
NP V
than you.
pron
Besides nouns and pronouns, noun compounds and infinitives can be compared: Otobsle seyahat etmek uakla seyahat etmek-ten (daha) ucuz-dur.
infinitive (noun) NP infinitive + [DEN] =comparative adverbial VP adj - V
Traveling by bus is cheaper than traveling by air. Ben-im araba-am sen-in araba-an-dan (daha) iyi. (be*nim / a*ra*bam~ / se*nin / a*ra*ban*dan / da*ha / i*yi ) My car is better than your car. Ben-im ta-dk-m sen-in ta-dk-n-dan daha ar-d. (be*nim / ta**d*m~ / se*nin / ta**d*n*dan / da*ha / a*r*d ) What I carried was heavier than what you did.
379
380
SUPERLATIVE DEGREE
The superlative degree of an adjective or an adverb is made by putting the intensifier adverb en before an adjective or an adverb: Ben-im araba-am ehir-de-ki en ekonomik araba-dr. (be*nim / a*ra*bam~ / e*hir*de*ki / en / e*ko*no*mik / a*ra*ba*dr ) My car is the most economical car in town. Fatma dnya/n/n en gzel kadn--dr. (fat*ma ~/ dn*ya:*nn / en / g*zel / ka*d*n*dr ) Fatma is the most beautiful woman of the world. ita dnya-da-ki en hzl hayvan-dr. (i*ta~ / dn*ya:*da*ki / en / hz*l / hay*van*dr ) The cheetah is the swiftest animal in the world. ita en hz-l ko-ar. (i*ta / en / hz*l / ko*ar ) The cheetah runs the swiftest. (Ben-im) kar-m hep en iyi-/s/i-/n/i se-er. (ka*rm / hep / en / i*yi*si*ni / se*er ) My wife always chooses the best. Jack okul-da-ki en yakkl ocuk-tur. (jack / o*kul*da*ki / en / ya*k*k*l / o*cuk*tur ) Jack is the most handsome boy in school.
381
ok
intens
hzl
adv VP
A cat can run as fast as a dog. Kar-m ben-im (yz-dk-m) kadar hzl yz-e.bil-ir.
NP noun compound + postp postp phrase of comparison VP | adv | V
My wife can swim as fast as I can (swim). As all noun compounds are nominal phrases NP, the last sentence above can be written as NP + NP + kadar + adv + V. Jack kz karde-i kadar
NP noun comp + postp postp phrs of comparison VP
akll-dr.
| V
Jack is as clever as her sister is. Ben sen-in san-dk-n kadar akll deil-im. (san*d*n)
NP (noun comp) NP postp postp adv phrs of comparison VP | adj- V
I am not so (as) clever as you think. Bir Jeep kullan-mak normal bir araba kullan-mak kadar ekonomik deil. Driving a Jeep is not as economical as driving an ordinary car. Bir masal kitap- oku-mak bir ansiklopedi oku-mak kadar retici deil-dir. Reading a storybook is not as instructive as reading an encyclopedia. (Sen) soru-lar-a (sen-in) el-in-den gel-dik-i kadar dikkatli cevap ver-me.li-sin. You must answer the questions as carefully as you can. (gel-di-i)
382
adj-V
Hava dn-k (hava) kadar souk deil. (ha*va~ / dn*k / ka*dar / so*uk / de*il ) It is not as cold as it was yesterday. Kz ocuklar, erkek ocuklardan daha fazla anne ve babalarna dkndr. Daughters are more devoted to their parents than sons.
Ne kadar erken kalk-ar-sa-an o kadar iyi. (ne*ka*dar / er*ken / kal*kar*san ~/ o / ka*dar / i*yi ) The earlier you get up, the better. nsan-lar ne kadar kolay yksel-ir-ler-se, o kadar kt d-er-ler. (in*san*lar / ne / ka*dar / ko*lay / yk*se*lir*ler*se~ / o / ka*dar / k*t / d*er*ler ) The easier they (the people) rise, the harder they fall. Ne kadar ok al-r-sa-an, o kadar iyi sonu-lar al-r-sn. (ne / ka*dar / ok / a*l*r*san ~/o/ ka*dar / i*yi / so*nu*lar / a*lr*sn ) The harder you work, the better results you (will) get. Ne kadar erken yol-a kar-lar-sa o kadar erken var-r-lar. (ne / ka*dar / er*ken / yo*la / *kar*lar*sa ~/ o*ka*dar / er*ken / va*rr*lar ) The earlier they leave, the sooner they will arrive.
383
WISH
WISH + WOULD The expression above is used when the speaker wishes something to happen, or when he is complaining about the present situation. I wish is generally translated into Turkish as keke, which may sometimes be misleading when it is used with would. In Turkish, this sort of expression is called dilek kipi, which means, wish mood". The structure of this expression is as follows: V-([me, ma])- [se, sa]- [pers] or V - [e.bil, a.bil]- [se, sa]-[pers]: Compare and consider the following sentences: u adam eki grlt-/s/-/n/ bir durdur-sa! (u / a*dam / e*ki / g*rl*t*s*n / bir / dur*dur*sa~) I wish that man would stop hammering. Biri-/s/i u televizyon-un ses-i-/n/i bir ks-sa! (bi*ri*si / u / te*le*viz*yo*nun / se*si*ni / bir / ks*sa~) I wish someone would turn down that TV. Biri-/s/i u telefon-a cevap ver-se! (bi*ri*si / u / te*le*fo*na / ce*vap / ver*se~) I wish someone would answer this telephone call. Bir-i-/n/iz bana yardm et-se, nasl ol-ur? (bi*ri*niz / ba*na / yar*dm / et*se~ / nasl / o*lur) I wish one of you would help me.
384
385
386
CONDITIONAL SENTENCES
There are two parts in a conditional sentence: if clause and the main clause. In an if clause, the supposition is either real or unreal. These real and unreal suppositions in Turkish are also classified according to their times: 1 (a): present real supposition. 1(b): present unreal supposition. 2 (a): past real supposition. 2 (b): past unreal supposition. 1 (a): If the supposition is real at present, V - [ir, r, r, ur, er, ar][se, sa]-[pers] verb composition is used in the condition part, and The Simple Present (Geni Zaman) is used in the result part of a conditional sentence. 1 (b): If the supposition is unreal at present, V-[se,sa]-[pers] verb structure is used in the condition part, and used to (Geni Zamann Hikyesi) is used in the result part of a conditional sentence. 2 (a): If the supposition is real in the past, V-[di/y/, d/y/, d/y/, du/y/, ti/y/, t/y/, t/y/, tu/y/]-[se, sa]-[pers] is used in the condition part, and V - [mi, m, m, mu]- [tir, tr, tr, tur] verb composition is used in the result part of a conditional sentence. 2 (b): If the supposition is unreal in the past, V - [se/y/, sa/y/]-[di, d][pers] verb structure is used in the condition part, and used to (imdiki Zamann Hikyesi) is used in the result part of a conditional sentence.
387
yamur ya-ar-sa
ev-de
otur-ur-uz.
| V
(ya*mur / ya*ar*sa ~ / ev*de / o*tu*ru*ruz ) If it rains, we will stay at home. We will stay at home if it rains.
388
389
a-ar-d.
| V
(o / ka*p*y / ev*de / ol*sa ~ / a*ar*d ) If he were at home, he would open the door. (He is not at home now.) (Ben) cevap- bil-se-em (ben) sana syle-er-di-im. (ce*va:*b / bil*sem ~/sa*na / sy*ler*dim ) If I knew the answer, I would tell you. (I don't know the answer.)
390
If we want to add certainty to the result part of the conditional sentence above, ve use verb-[mi, m, m, mu]-[tir, tr, tr, tur] verb composition: Parise git-ti/y/-se, Eyfel Kulesi/n/i gr-m-tr. (pa*ri*se / git*tiy*se ~ / ey*fel / ku*le*si*ni / gr*m*tr ) If he went to Paris, he must have seen the Eiffel Tower. (I think he went to Paris, and certainly he saw The Eiffel Tower.) Yeter-in.ce ok al-t/y/-sa, baar-m-tr. (ye*te*rin*ce / a*l*ty*sa / ba*ar*m*tr ) If he worked hard enough, he must have succeeded. (I believe he worked hard enough, and consequently he succeeded.)
391
(ka*p*y / al*d*n*da / ev*de / ol*say*d ~ / a*ar*d ) If he had been at home when you knocked at the door, he would have opened it. (He was not at home, so he didnt open the door.) Yarn tatil ol-sa sinema-/y/a git-er-di-ik. (ya*rn / ta:*til / ol*sa ~/ si*ne*ma*ya / gi*der*dik ) If tomorrow were a holiday, we would go to the cinema. (unreal) Bugn tatil ol-sa sinema-/y/a git-er-di-ik. (bu*gn / ta:*til /ol*sa ~/ si*ne*ma*ya / gi*der*dik ) If today were a holiday, we would go to the cinema. (unreal) Dn tatil ol-sa/y/-d sinema-/y/a git-er-di-ik. (dn / ta:*til / ol*say*d~ / si*ne*ma*ya / gi*der*dik ) (unreal) If yesterday had been a holiday, we would have gone to the cinema. (Yesterday was not a holiday, so we didnt go.) Dn onu gr-se/y/-di-im, onunla konu-ur-du-um. (dn / o*nu / gr*sey*dim / o*nun*la / ko*nu*ur*dum ) If I had seen him yesterday, I would have talked to him. (I didnt see him, so I didnt talk to him.)
392
393
394
395
POLITE REFUSALS
To accept an offer or a request is easy. You may just say Evet, memnuniyet-le (e*vet / mem*nu:*ni*yet*le) (Yes, with pleasure); Bayl-rm (ba*y*l*rm ) (Yes, Id love to), or Elbet-te (el*bet*te) (Certainly). When you have to refuse a request or an offer, however, you have to be politer than ever in order not to offend the person who asks for permission: Televizyon-u a-a.bil-ir mi-/y/im? Can I turn on the TV? A-ma-sa-an iyi ol-ur; nk bir i mektup-u zeri/n/-de odaklan-ma-/y/a al-.yor-um. (a*ma*san / i*yi / o*lur / n*k / bir / i / mek*tu*bu / *ze*rin*de / o*dak*lan*ma*ya / a*l**yo*rum ) Youd better not because Im trying to concentrate on a business letter. Oda-an.z- imdi temizle-/y/e.bil-ir mi-/y/im? Can I clean your room now? Temizle-me-se-en (yapmasan) iyi ol-ur, nk bu oda-da yap-a.cak bir sr i-im var. Id rather you didnt because I have got a lot of things to do in this room. ste-er-se-en ma-a git-e.li-im. Lets go to the match, if you wish. Kork-ar-m git-e.me-em; ev dev-im-i bit-ir-mek zorunda-/y/m. Im afraid I cant because I have to finish my homework.
OFFERS
To make an offer in Turkish V - [e.li, a.l] - [pers] verb composition is used:
396
397
398
399
400
aslnda : in fact
Mary ev iini kendisinin yaptn syyor. Ama aslnda, iin ounu kocas yapyor. Mary says that she does the housework herself. In fact, her husband does most of the housework.
baka bir deyile: in other words, bilhassa: in particular, particularly, specifically, above all bir yandan: on the one hand bu amala: for this purpose bu dorultuda: accordingly
retmen rencilere sessiz olmalarn syledi, ve onlar da bu dorultuda davrandlar. The teacher told the students to be quiet, and the students acted accordingly.
401
nk : because
Televizyonu kapatsan iyi olur, nk iime devam edemiyorum. You had better turn off the TV because I cant go on with my work.
402
en nihayet : after all esasen: in fact, as a matter of fact fakat: but, yet, however
Btn yl alt fakat bir araba satn almak iin yeterince para biriktiremedi. He worked hard all the year long, but he could not save enough money to buy a car.
genel anlamda : generally speaking genel hatlar (izgileri) ile : in general terms genellikle: as a rule, on the whole, generally gsterildii gibi: as has been indicated, as has been noted halbuki, oysa, ne var ki : whereas, but, however
403
hari: excluding, except for, apart from hatta, stelik : even, moreover, besides, even more, furthermore
Kzm be yl nce evlendi; hatta (stelik) iki olu bile var. My daughter got married five years ago; besides, she has two sons.
Her ey gz nne alnd takdirde : all things considered ile (le, la): and
Ahmetle Mehmet ayn brada alyorlar. Ahmet and Mehmet work in the same office.
ki: that
Korkarm (ki) pastan kedi yedi. Im afraid (that) the cat has eaten up your cake. nanrm (ki) haklsn. I believe (that) you are right.
ksaca : in short, in brief, briefly madem (ki): since, seeing that, considering that, as
Madem (ki) ok altn, snav geebilirsin. Seeing that you have studied hard, you can pass the exam.
404
rnein: for example, for instance te yandan: on the other hand yle bile olsa : even so yleyse: in that case, if so, then
Uykulu hissettiini sylyorsun. yleyse, git bir fincan kahve i. You say you are feeling sleepy. If so, go and have a cup of coffee.
405
sonra: then
Eve geldi, sonra mutfaa dald ve yemek hazrlamaya balad. She came home, then hurried into the kitchen, and started preparing dinner.
sonu olarak: as a result, as a consequence sonuta: in conclusion stelik : furthermore, in addition, what is more, even, besides,
moreover En kolay problemleri bile zemiyor; stelik kendini bir dh sanyor. He cant solve even the simplest problems, besides he thinks he is a genius.
phesiz ki: undoubtedly tam aksine: in contrast tam tersine: on the contrary tm bunlara ramen: for all that tmyle: on the whole ve: and velhasl: after all, in conclusion ve saire: etc. veya: or ya ya (da): either or
Ya beni dinle, ya da snf terket. Either listen to me, or leave the classroom.
406
INTENSIFIERS
Intensifiers are the adverbs that are used before adjectives or adverbs to strengthen or weaken their meanings. Besides these words, there are some prefixes, which are the only ones in Turkish that are attached to adjectives, nouns, and adverbs to strengthen their meanings: St ok scak. (st / ok / s*cak ) The milk is very hot. Sorular biraz gt. (so*ru*lar / bi*raz / g*t ) The questions were rather difficult. Sen tamamen haklsn. (sen / ta*ma:*men / hak*l*sn ) You are quite right. Baz kelebekler son derece gzeldir. (ba:*z / ke*le*bek*ler / son / de*re*ce / g*zel*dir ) Some butterflies are extremely beautiful. renciler sorulara ok dikkatli cevap verdiler. (*ren*ci*ler / so*ru*la*ra / ok / dik*kat*li / ce*vap / ver*di*ler ) The students answered the questions very carefully. Ev olduka iyi. (ev / ol*duk*a / i*yi ) The house is pretty good.
407
408
409
410
REPORTED SPEECH
itilen Szn Bakasna letilmesi When a speaker or writer wants to report someone what he heard, he can use two sorts of structures both in English and in Turkish: 1: In English and Turkish, one can report what one heard without transforming it: Mary said, I dislike boring people. NP V (sentence) NP (obj) Mary, Ben skc insan-lar-dan holan-ma-am de-di.
NP (sentence) NP (obj) V
411
"Come back home before it gets dark," Mary's father said to her.
(sentence) NP NP adverbial NP (sentence) NP (obj) VP V adverbial V
2: In both English and Turkish, one can report what one heard by transforming it: Mary said that she disliked boring people.
NP V noun clause NP VP (infinitive) NP (obj of syle) VP V
Mary's father warned her to come back home before it gets dark.
NP V NP prep phrs of reason VP adverbial clause of time
412
Denge-le-/y/e.me-i.yor-um: "denge" is a noun root, "le" is a derivational allomorph, "denge-le" is a verb stem. "e.me", "i.yor" and "um" are the inflectional allomorphs following the verb stem "denge-le". As the roots and stems are the basic elements of words, the term "stem" is sometimes used both for the "root" and "stem" in this book to avoid ambiguity. When we attach transitive, causative, passive, reflexive, or reciprocal inflectional allomorphs to verb roots or stems, we create verb frames, which are used before the other inflectional allomorphs: Bala-an-.yor-uz: "Ba-la" is a verb stem. "Ba" is a root, "la" is a derivtional suffix; "an" is a passive making inflectional allomorph, ".yor" and
413
RATIONAL SEQUENCING
The best way to see whether a proposal, a plan, or a theory is applicable is to put it into practice. Thinking that Chomsky's Transformational Generative theory is the best approach to describe the grammar of a language, I dared to write this Turkish Grammar. Chomsky asserts that natural languages have two levels of representations, a deep logical structure, and a verbal structure, which function together with the vocal organs. The deep structure represents the logical production of a sentence in which thought is shaped and separated into two logical components called subject and predicate (NP + VP). The mind also separates the predicate (VP) into two components called verb and object (V + NP). If the verb is intransitive, it does not have an object, so the VP (predicate) is composed of only a verb, and adverbs and adverbials. The sequencing of these logical parts of a sentence is learned through the experiences of an individual because their sequencing changes from language to language. All these activities are rationally performed by the mind. The mind inserts these rational phrases into a sentence according to the learned sequence of an individual. This shows us that subject, verb, and object components innately exist in a person's mind, but these components are arranged in a sequence by the mind appropriate to a learned sequence. There exist three kinds of sentences in a language: 1. A subject, a transitive verb, and an object: Jack killed a mouse.
S NP V Obj VP
The language producing system of the mind uses two different systems to produce meaningful sentences. One of these systems is the inherent logical system of the mind called phrase structures symbolized with "NP + VP" (subject and predicate) initials in which thought, whether long or short, take form. For instance, "Birds fly" and "Birds eat insects" sentences are com-
414
415
416
However, if the same person knows Turkish, he arranges and places his morphemized set of thought into a different sentence pattern and words: ocuk-lar le-den sonra okul bahe-/s/i/n/-de futbol oyna-u.yor-lar-d.
subject adverbial of time adverbial of place object inflected verb
The morphemized simple sentences above can be transformed into nominal phrases (nominalized) so that they could be used in the basic logical phrase structure pattern NP + VP. If you imagine a person who has no people living around and talking to each other, you should admit that he cannot learn a language, but as he innately has the ability of learning a language, and the ability of thinking, he will start learning a language when he is exposed to the phonemes and morphemes of a language. As soon as he learns some words and stores them in his memory, he begins to express his thoughts using several words instead of shouting, murmuring or crying when he wants to communicate with other people. This useful device is called language. All languages are learned skills. Nobody is born speaking a language, but all human beings are born with the faculty of learning a language, which possesses some fundamental common patterns upon which all natural languages are built. Additionally, the mind possesses a number of speech intentions, which influence language production. The words and the intonation patterns that a speaker chooses to express him reveal his spiritual condition, as well. When we hear a person speak, we can guess whether he is angry, happy, nervous, bored, sad, and even whether he is kind, polite, rude, bossy, or affectionate. Although all animals can hear people well, and store some words in their memories, they cannot systemize what they hear and use them as humans do. The mind of a human being is capable of composing the set of thought written above in a linear logical structure, transforming them into the morphemes, words and some other specific rules of a target language, and producing vocalized sentences.
417
418
419
2.
420
The Turkish nominalized phrases above can be used in the "NP + VP" phrase structure pattern as a "NP" as follows: 1a. (Ben) ocuk-lar-n leden sonra okul bahesinde futbol oyna-dk-lar--/n/ gr-d-m.
NP (subj) NP (object) verb
1b. ocuk-lar-n leden sonra okul bahesinde fuybol oyna-ma-/s/ kimse-/y/i ilgilen-dir-mez. 2. leden sonra okul bahesinde futbol oynayan ocuklar benim rencilerimdir. 3. ocuklarn leden sonra okul bahesinde oynadklar futbol izlemeye deerdi. 4. ocuklarn leden sonra futbol oynadklar okul bahesi futbol oynamaya uygun deildi. 5. ocuklarn okul bahesinde futbol oynamalarnn zaman okul mdrn kzdrd. 6. Kim-ler-in leden sonra okul bahesinde futbol oyna-d- hl bilinmiyor. 7. Kimlerin leden sonra nerede futbol oynadn bilmiyorum. 8. ocuklarn oleden sonra okul bahesinde niin futbol oynadklarn tahmin edebilir misin? 9. ocuklarn leden sonra okul bahesinde ne yaptklarn biliyor musun? 10. ocuklarn leden sonra okul bahesinde futbol oynayp oynamadklarn bilmiyorum. The nominalizations of the simple Turkish sentences seem more difficult than nominalizing the English ones. This difficulty arises when someone whose native language is different from Turkish begins learning Turkish as a second language because while he is trying to learn the transformational rules of a second language, the transformational rules of his/her native language always interfere with the rules of the second language. Therefore, when teaching a second language, this difficulty should be taken into account by the second language teachers. While a child is learning his native tongue, however, he does not have to overcome such difficulty because transformational rules are learned through the experiences of a person.
421
MORPHEMIC SEQUENCING
Morphemes are defined as the smallest meaningful units that cannot be divided into smaller meaningful parts in a language. These morphemes are of two kinds; the free morphemes that carry meaning by themselves, the bound morphemes that can carry meaning only when they are attached to free morphemes. The bound morphemes are also two kinds: derivational morphemes and inflectional morphemes. When derivational morphemes attach to free morphemes they produce new words or change the part of speech that they belong. However, when the inflectional morphemes attach to free morphemes or words, they create changes in the function of these free morphemes or words in sentences. Turkish harmonic system produces allomorphs for both derivational and inflectional morphemes. A list of the derivational morphemes and their allomorphs can be seen at page 22. The term morpheme represents the meaning of a word root or a suffix. All the suffixes of the Turkish language have alternative variants called allomorphs created by the Turkish harmonic system. Therefore, when articulating the allomorphs of these morphemes, they are vocalized according to the harmonic system of the Turkish language. The inflectional allomorphs attach to both nouns and verbs in Turkish:
422
[i, , , u]
ev-i the house, arslan- the lion, gz- the eye, okul-u the school, renci-/y/i the student, sorun-u the problem, uyku-/y/u the sleep, onun bize kzmas-/n/ his getting angry with us, oda-/n/n kap-/s/-/n/ the door of the room, o-/n/un gel-dik-i-/n/i that he came
[e, a]
ev-e to the house, ay-a to the moon, gz-e to the eye, at-a to the horse, oda-/y/a to the room, biz-e to us, onlar-a to them, o-/n/un anne/s/i-/n/e to his mother.
[le, la]
otobs-le by bus, benim-le with me, balta/y/-la with an axe, acele/y/-le hastily, sayg/y/-la with respect, eki-le with a hammer, dikkat-le carefully, tela-la in a hurry, istek-le eagerly, fke/y/-le angrily
[ler, lar]
sepet-ler baskets, ku-lar birds, kitap-lar books, eekler donkeys, balk-lar fish, ocuk-lar children, adam-lar men, kadn-lar women
The possessor personal allomorphs attached to both parts of the possessor + possessed noun compounds:
ben-im baba-am, sen-in anne-en, o-/n/un teyze-/s/i, Ahmet-in araba-/s/, okul-un kap-/s/, biz-im ev-im.iz, siz-in okul-un.uz, onlar-n bahe-/s/i, Hasan-n git-tik-i okul, Aye-/n/in okul-a ge gel-me-/s/i.
423
TURKISH GRAMMAR UPDATED ACADEMIC EDITION 2013 THE INFLECTIONAL ALLOMORPHS ATTACHED TO ACTION VERBS
Most of the auxiliary verbs and some inflectional morphemes of the English language are all used as inflectional allomorphs in Turkish:
The [ir, r, r, ur, er, ar] allomorphs indicate the simple present:
gel-ir-im, kal-r-m, yr-r-m, otur-ur-um, bekle-er-im, bak-ar-m gel-ir-sin. kal-r-sn, yr-r-sn, otur-ur-sun, bekle-er-sin, bak-ar-sn gel-ir, kal-r, yr-r, otur-ur, bekle-er, bak-ar gel-ir-iz, kal-r-z, yr-r-z, otur-ur-uz, bekle-er-iz, bak-ar-z gel-ir-sin.iz, kal-r-sn.z, yr-r-sn.z, otur-ur-sun.uz, bekle-er-sin.iz, bak-ar-sn.z gel-ir-ler, kal-r-lar, yr-r-ler, otur-ur-lar, bekle-er-ler, bak-ar-lar
The allomorphs [i.yor, .yor, .yor, u.yor] indicate the present continuous:
gel-i.yor-um, kal-.yor-um, yr-.yor-um, otur-u.yor-um, bekle-i.yor-um gel-i.yor-sun, kal-.yor-sun, yr-.yor-sun, otur-u.yor-sun, bekle-i.yor-sun gel-i.yor, kal-.yor, yr-.yor, otur-u.yor, bekle-i.yor gel-i.yor-uz, kal-.yor-uz, yr-.yor-uz, otur-u.yor-uz, bekle-i.yor-uz gel-i.yor-sun.uz, kal-.yor-sun.uz, yr-.yor-sun.uz, bekle-i.yor-sun.uz gel-i.yor-lar, kal-.yor-lar, yr-.yor-lar, otur-u.yor-lar, bekle-i.yor-lar The double underlined e and vowels drop, and the single underlined consonants preceding them attach to the first vowels of the following allomorphs.
424
425
The allomorphs [e.cek-ti, a.cak-t] indicate future in the past (was ging to):
gel-e.cek-ti-im, bitir-e.cek-ti-im, sor-a.cak-t-m, bekle-/y/e.cek-ti-im gel-e.cek-ti-in, ka-a.cak-t-n, sor-a.cak-t-n, anla-/y/a.cak-t-n gel-e.cek-ti, sat-a.cak-t, dene-/y/e.cek-ti, kuru-/y/a.cak-t, dur-a.cak-t gel-e.cek-ti-ik, bitir-e.cek-ti-ik, sat-a.cak-t-k, yr-/y/e.cek-ti-ik gel-e.cek-ti-in.iz, a-a.cak-t-n.z, bekle-/y/e.cek-ti-in.iz, sor-a.cak-t-n.z gel-e.cek-ler-di, bul-a.cak-lar-d, tara-/y/a.cak-lar-d, uyu-/y/a.cak-lar-d
426
The inflectional time allomorphs [di, d, d, du, ti, t, t, tu] are attached to nouns, pronouns, adjectives, and adverbials to indicate simple past. O ben-di-im. Ma geyecanl/y/-d. O-/n/un orap-lar- masa-/n/n st-/n/de/y/-di. retmen-in gz- ben-de/y/-di. (Biz) hazr-d-k. O bir kahramand. (Biz) zgn-d-k. Ahmet snav iin hazrlkl m/y/-d?
The inflectional allomorphs [e.cek] or [a.cak] attach to the verb ol to indicate simple future:
Yarn hava gzel ol-a.cak. (Ben) yarn sekiz-de bro-da ol-a.cak-m. (Sen) saat ka-ta ev-de ol-a.cak-sn? (Sen) adam ol-ma-/y/a.cak-sn! Her ey sen-in iste-dik-in gibi ol-a.cak.
subj NP noun compound postp adjectival phrase predicate VP | verb
The [mi, m, m, mu] allomorphs may also be attached to [e.cek, a.cak] allomorphs to comvey rumor:
Hava yarn gzel ol.acak-m. They say that it will be fine tomorrow. Herkes hazr ol-a.cak-m. They say that everybody will be ready.
[me.li, ma.l]
The inflectional allomorphs [me.li, ma.l] indicate obligation imposed by the speaker when they are used with action verbs, and they indicate certainty or necessity when they are used with the verbs be:
427
Bu kz lgn ol-ma.l. This girl must be crazy. (I am certain that she is crazy.)
subj NP adjective verb predicate VP subject NP verb adj predicate VP
Hemen hazr ol-ma.l-sn. You must be ready soon. (obligation) ok al-ma.l-sn. You must work hard. (obligation) If the verbs are negative when [me.li, ma.l] allomorphs are used, they indicate prohibition: Yalan syle-me-me.li-sin. (ya*lan / sy*le*me*me*li*sin) You mustnt tell lies.
[e.bil, a.bil]
The inflectional allomorphs [e.bil, a.bil] indicate ability and permission: Mary piyano al-a.bil-ir. Mary can play the piano. (ability) Dar-/y/a k-a.bil-ir-sin. You can (may) go out. (permission) (Ben) siz-e yardm et-e.bil-ir mi-/y/im? Can I help you? (permission) Th negative forms of [e.bil, a.bil] allomorphs are [e.me(z), a.ma(z)] allomorphs, which indicate impossibility, inability or prohibition: (ben) toplant-/y/a gel-e.me-em. I cant come to the meeting. (impossibility) Mary piyano cal-a.maz. Mary cant play the piano. (inability) Bu saat-te diar-ya k-a.maz-sn. You cant go out at this hour.(prohibition) Fatma ev-de ol-a.maz. Fatma cant be at home. (impossibility) The [mi, m, m, mu] allomorphs may also be attached to the [e.bil, a.bil], and [e.me(z), a.ma(z)] allomorphs to indicate rumor: Ahmet biz-e yardm et-e.bil-ir-mi. They say that Ahmet can help us. (O) toplant-/y/a gel-e.mez-mi. They say that he cant come to the meeting. The time inflectional modal allomorphs [di], [ir-di], [ir-mi] can follow the [e.bil, a.bil], [e.mez, a.maz], [me.li, ma.l]. [me.me.li, ma.ma.l] modal inflectional allomorphs:
[e.bil-di, a.bil-di]
The [e.bil-di, a.bil-di] allomorphs indicate a past success: (Biz) ma- kazan-a.bil-di-ik. We were able to win the match. (Ben) baar-a.bil-di-im. I was able to succeed. (Biz) baar a.ma-d-k. We couldnt succeed. (We werent able to succeed.)
428
[e.bil-ir-di, a.bil-ir-di]
(Biz) ma- kazan-a.bil.ir.di-ik. We could have won the match. (Ben) baar-a.bil-ir-di-im. I could have succeeded. (Sen) bir kaza yap-a.bil-ir-di-in. You might have had an accident. (biz) bir yanllk yap-a.bil-ir-di-ik. We might have made a mistake. (Onlar) ma- ertele-/y/e.bil-ir-ler-di. They might have postponed the match. (Biz) bir yanllk yap-a.bil-ir-mi-iz. He says that we might have made a mistake. (O) biz-e kz-a.bil-ir-mi. He says that he might be angry with us.
[e.me(z)-di, a.ma(z)-d]
(Biz) ma- kazan-a.maz-d-k. It was impossible for us to win the match. (Ben) i-i bitir e.mez-di-im. I couldnt have finished the work.
[me.li/y/-di, ma.l/y/-d]
(Bz) ma- kazan-ma.l/y/-d-k. We should have won the match. (Sen) hzl sr-me-me.li/y/-di-in. You shouldnt have driven fast. (Onlar) ma- ertele-me-me.li/y/-di-ler.They shouldnt have postponed the match. (Biz) ok soru sor-ma-ma.l/y/-m-z. He says that we shouldnt ask so many questions.
429
430
431
432
433
434
*c.v.c*
syntactic conditional Verbal Phrase Nominal Phrase predicate sentence determiner verb root ,stem, frame, or verb composition a verb that ends with a consonant a verb that ends with a vowel consonant. vowel. consonant
435
436
437
438
439
440
441