Quantum Physics

The Wave Structure of Matter (WSM) and Spherical

Standing Wave Interactions explains Discrete Energy
States of Quantum Theory / Wave Mechanics). A
Simple Solution to the Particle / Wave Duality of
Light and Matter, EPR, Non Locality & Quantum
Entanglement.
On the one hand the quantum theory of light cannot be considered satisfactory since it
defines the energy of a light particle (photon) by the equation E=hf containing the
frequency f. Now a purely particle theory contains nothing that enables us to define a
frequency; for this reason alone, therefore, we are compelled, in the case of light, to
introduce the idea of a particle and that of frequency simultaneously. On the other hand,
determination of the stable motion of electrons in the atom introduces integers, and up to
this point the only phenomena involving integers in physics were those of interference
and of normal modes of vibration. This fact suggested to me the idea that electrons too
could not be considered simply as particles, but that frequency (wave properties) must
be assigned to them also. (Louis de Broglie, Nobel Prize Speech, Quantum Physics,
1929)

The development during the present century is characterized by two theoretical systems
essentially independent of each other: the theory of relativity and the quantum theory.
The two systems do not directly contradict each other; but they seem little adapted to
fusion into one unified theory. ... Experiments on interference made with particle rays
have given brilliant proof that the wave character of the phenomena of motion as
assumed by the theory do, really, correspond to the facts. ... de Broglie conceived an
electron revolving about the atomic nucleus as being connected with a hypothetical wave
train, and made intelligible to some extent the discrete character of Bohr's 'permitted'
paths by the stationary (standing) character of the corresponding waves. (Albert
Einstein, On Quantum Mechanics, 1940)

A careful analysis of the process of observation in atomic physics has shown that the
subatomic particles have no meaning as isolated entities, but can only be understood as
interconnections between the preparation of an experiment and the subsequent
measurement. Quantum theory thus reveals a basic oneness of the universe. It shows that
we cannot decompose the world into independently existing smallest units. As we
penetrate into matter, nature does not show us any isolated ‘basic building blocks’, but
rather appears as a complicated web of relations between the various parts of the whole.
(Fritjof Capra, The Tao of Physics, On Quantum Theory)
Introduction to Quantum Physics
Quantum Theory / Wave Mechanics
From 1900 to 1930 there was a revolution in the foundations of our understanding of
light and matter interactions. In 1900 Planck showed that light energy must be emitted
and absorbed in discrete 'quanta' to explain blackbody radiation. Then in 1905 Einstein
showed that the energy of light is determined by its frequency, where E=hf. Finally, in the
late 1920s, de Broglie and Schrodinger introduced the concept of Standing Waves to
explain these discrete frequency and energy states of light and matter (standing waves
only exist at discrete frequencies and thus energy states).

So it is clear that Waves are central to Quantum Physics and our understanding of the
structure and discrete energy states of Matter (which explains why Quantum Theory is
also called Quantum Wave Mechanics). As we shall explain, the problems and absurdities
of quantum theory have been caused by the continuing assumption of the discrete
'particle' concept for both light and matter, and thus the resulting paradox of the 'Particle /
Wave' duality.

As we are dealing with a scientific theory, it is necessary to begin by stating the central
Principles of the 'Metaphysics of Space and Motion and the Wave Structure of
Matter', which describe how Matter exists in Space as a Spherical Standing Wave and
interacts with other Matter in the Space around it. From this foundation we can then
deduce the solutions to many problems currently found in Quantum Theory caused by
this ancient concept that matter exists as 'particles'.

For example, the obvious solution to the paradox of the particle / wave duality of matter
is to realise that the Wave-Center of the Spherical Standing Wave causes the observed
'particle' effects of Matter (see wave diagram below). Likewise, the discrete 'particle'
properties of Light (quanta / photons) are caused by Standing Wave interactions which
only occur at discrete frequencies and thus energy states.

I think it is useful to end this quantum physics introduction with two very important
quotes. Firstly from Erwin Schrodinger;

What we observe as material bodies and forces are nothing but shapes and variations in
the structure of space. Particles are just schaumkommen (appearances). The world is
given to me only once, not one existing and one perceived. Subject and object are only
one. The barrier between them cannot be said to have broken down as a result of recent
experience in the physical sciences, for this barrier does not exist. (Erwin Schrodinger, on
Quantum Theory)

Because Schrodinger believed in real waves, he was never happy with Max Born's
statistical / probability interpretation of the waves that became commonly accepted (and
was actively promoted by Heisenberg and Bohr) in Quantum Theory / Mechanics.
Let me say at the outset, that in this discourse, I am opposing not a few special statements
of quantum mechanics / quantum theory held today (1950s), I am opposing as it were the
whole of it, I am opposing its basic views that have been shaped 25 years ago, when Max
Born put forward his probability interpretation, which was accepted by almost everybody.
(Schrödinger E, The Interpretation of Quantum Mechanics. Ox Bow Press, Woodbridge,
CN, 1995)

I don't like it, and I'm sorry I ever had anything to do with it. (Erwin Schrodinger talking
about quantum theory.)

And I very strongly agree with Schrodinger (and greatly respect him) when he writes;

The scientist only imposes two things, namely truth and sincerity, imposes them upon
himself and upon other scientists. (Schrodinger)

Secondly, David Bohm provides a clear account of how this incorrect 'particle'
conception of matter not only causes harm to the Sciences, but also to the way we think
and live, and thus to our very society and its future evolution.

The notion that all these fragments is separately existent is evidently an illusion, and this
illusion cannot do other than lead to endless conflict and confusion. Indeed, the attempt to
live according to the notion that the fragments are really separate is, in essence, what has
led to the growing series of extremely urgent crises that is confronting us today. Thus, as
is now well known, this way of life has brought about pollution, destruction of the
balance of nature, over-population, world-wide economic and political disorder and the
creation of an overall environment that is neither physically nor mentally healthy for
most of the people who live in it. Individually there has developed a widespread feeling
of helplessness and despair, in the face of what seems to be an overwhelming mass of
disparate social forces, going beyond the control and even the comprehension of the
human beings who are caught up in it.

1.1 Quantum Physics Foundations: Max Planck's Discovery of

Particle / Quantum Properties of Light (1900)

In 1900 Max Planck made a profound discovery. He showed (from purely formal /
mathematical foundations) that light must be emitted and absorbed in discrete amounts if
it was to correctly describe observed phenomena (i.e. Blackbody radiation).
Prior to then light had been considered as a continuous electromagnetic wave, thus the
discrete nature of light was completely unexpected, as Albert Einstein explains;

About fifteen years ago (1899) nobody had yet doubted that a correct account of the
electrical, optical, and thermal properties of matter was possible on the basis of Galileo-
Newtonian mechanics applied to molecular motion and of Maxwell's theory of the
electromagnetic field. (Albert Einstein, 1915)
Then Planck showed that in order to establish a law of heat radiation (Infra red light
waves) consonant with experience, it was necessary to employ a method of calculation
whose incompatibility with the principles of classical physics became clearer and clearer.
For with this method of calculation, Planck introduced into physics the quantum
hypothesis, which has since received brilliant confirmation. (Albert Einstein, 1914)

In the year nineteen hundred, in the course of purely theoretical (mathematical)

investigation, Max Planck made a very remarkable discovery: the law of radiation of
bodies as a function of temperature could not be derived solely from the Laws of
Maxwellian electrodynamics. To arrive at results consistent with the relevant
experiments, radiation of a given frequency f had to be treated as though it consisted of
energy atoms (photons) of the individual energy hf, where h is Planck's universal
constant. During the years following, it was shown that light was everywhere produced
and absorbed in such energy quanta. In particular, Niels Bohr was able to largely
understand the structure of the atom, on the assumption that the atoms can only have
discrete energy values, and that the discontinuous transitions between them are connected
with the emission or absorption of energy quantum. This threw some light on the fact that
in their gaseous state elements and their compounds radiate and absorb only light of
certain sharply defined frequencies. (Albert Einstein, 1940)

Even the Greeks had already conceived the atomistic nature of matter and the concept
was raised to a high degree of probability by the scientists of the nineteenth century. But
it was Planck's law of radiation that yielded the first exact determination - independent of
other assumptions - of the absolute magnitudes of atoms. More than that, he showed
convincingly that in addition to the atomistic structure of matter there is a kind of
atomistic structure to energy, governed by the universal constant h, which was introduced
by Planck. This discovery became the basis of all twentieth-century research in physics
and has almost entirely conditioned its development ever since. Without this discovery it
would not have been possible to establish a workable theory of molecules and atoms and
the energy processes that govern their transformations. Moreover, it has shattered the
whole framework of classical mechanics and electrodynamics and set science a fresh
task: that of finding a new conceptual basis for all physics. Despite remarkable partial
gains, the problem is still far from a satisfactory solution. (Albert Einstein, 1950)

Albert Einstein (1905) used Planck's relationship to explain the results of the
photoelectric effect which showed that the energy E of ejected electrons was dependent
upon the frequency f of incident light as described in the equation E=hf. It is ironic that
in 1921 Albert Einstein was awarded the Nobel Prize for this discovery, though he never
believed in particles and acknowledged that he did not know the cause of the discrete
energy transfers (photons) which were contradictory to his continuous field theory of
matter!
In 1954 Albert Einstein wrote to his friend Michael Besso expressing his frustration;

All these fifty years of conscious brooding have brought me no nearer to the answer to
the question, 'What are light quanta?' Nowadays every Tom, Dick and Harry thinks he
knows it, but he is mistaken. (Albert Einstein, 1954)
Most importantly, Albert Einstein also suspected that Matter could not be described by a
continuous spherical force field;

I consider it quite possible that physics cannot be based on the field concept, i.e., on
continuous structures. In that case, nothing remains of my entire castle in the air,
gravitation theory included, [and of] the rest of modern physics. (Albert Einstein, 1954)

Albert Einstein's suspicions were well justified, for he had spent a lifetime trying (and
failing) to create a unified field theory of matter that explained both Quantum Theory /
Light and Relativity / Gravity.
In fact Matter, as a Spherical Standing Wave which causes the 'Field' effect, interacts with
other matter in discrete standing wave patterns, not with continuous force fields as he had
imagined, thus his task was ultimately impossible, as he sadly came to realise towards the
end of his life.

However, his work on the photoelectric effect confirmed that light energy was only
emitted and absorbed by electrons in discrete amounts or quanta. This quanta of light
energy soon became known as the 'photon' (i.e. discrete like a particle) and led to the
paradox that light behaved both as a continuous e-m wave (Maxwell, Albert Einstein) as
well as a discrete particle/photon (Planck, Albert Einstein). So we see that Albert Einstein
was partly responsible for the discovery of the particle/photon concept of light, though he
completely rejected the notion of discrete particles. He writes;

Since the theory of general relativity implies the representation of physical reality by a
continuous field, the concept of particles or material points cannot play a
fundamental part, nor can the concept of motion. (Albert Einstein)

Albert Einstein is correct that there are no discrete particles, and that the particle can only
appear as a limited region in space in which the field strength or the energy density are
particularly high. But it is the high Wave-Amplitude of the Wave-Center of a Spherical
Standing Wave in Space (not of a continuous spherical force field) that causes the particle
effect. Thus of three concepts, particles, force fields, and motion, it finally turns out that
Motion, as the spherical wave motion of space, is the correct concept, as it then explains
both particles and fields. (For further explanation see Article on Relativity)
It is most important to realise though that Albert Einstein was correct in imagining matter
as being spatially extended, as he explains;

I wished to show that space time is not necessarily something to which one can ascribe to
a separate existence, independently of the actual objects of physical reality. Physical
objects are not in space, but these objects are spatially extended. In this way the
concept empty space loses its meaning. (Albert Einstein)

It is certainly true that the particle and its forces / fields are very useful mathematical
concepts, unfortunately, they also cause many problems and paradoxes because they are
approximations to reality and do not physically exist.
We can now finally solve these problems by understanding the reason for these discrete
energy states, which are due to the fact that standing waves only exist at discrete
frequencies, like notes on the string of a guitar, thus while the Spherical Standing Wave
Structure of Matter predicts that energy exchanges will be discrete, as observed, the
continuous e-m wave does not anticipate this.
Thus the Spherical Standing Wave Structure of Matter explains Max Planck's (1900)
discovery that there are only certain allowed discrete energy states for electrons in
molecules and atoms, and further, that light is only ever emitted and absorbed by
electrons in discrete or 'quantum' amounts, as the electrons move from one stable
standing wave pattern to another. (This is explained in more detail in section 1.4)

1.2 Quantum Theory / Mechanics: de Broglie's Discovery of the Wave

Properties of Electrons (1927)

The next step was taken by de Broglie. He asked himself how the discrete states could
be understood by the aid of current concepts, and hit on a parallel with stationary
(standing) waves, as for instance in the case of proper frequencies of organ pipes and
strings in acoustics. (Albert Einstein, 1954)

It is with some frustration that I now read these quotes, as it is obvious in hindsight as to
their errors, and how simply they can now be solved! de Broglie's realisation that
standing waves exist at discrete frequencies and thus energies is obviously true and
important, yet he continued with the error of the particle concept and thus imagined
particles moving in a wavelike manner! Nonetheless, as he was close to the truth he had
considerable success with his theory, and these predicted wave properties of matter were
shortly thereafter confirmed from experiments (Davisson and Germer, 1927) on the
scattering of electrons through crystals (which act as diffraction slits). As Albert Einstein
confirms;

Experiments on interference made with particle rays have given brilliant proof that the
wave character of the phenomena of motion as assumed by the theory does, really,
correspond to the facts. (Albert Einstein, 1954)

So by 1927 the wave properties of matter had been predicted theoretically by de Broglie,
and then confirmed by experiment. But unfortunately these scientists continued to believe
in the existence of discrete particles, and thus they misinterpreted this most important
discovery of the standing wave properties of matter.

1.2.1 de Broglie's Interpretation of the Standing Waves as the Wave-

Like Motion of a Particle in Orbit (1927)

In 1913, Niels Bohr had developed a simple (though only partly correct) model for the
hydrogen atom that assumed; (Our further comments in brackets)

i) That the electron particle moves in circular orbits about the proton particle. (This is
nearly correct, they are not 'orbits' but complex Standing Wave patterns)
ii) Only certain orbits are stable. (This is nearly correct, only certain Standing Wave
patterns are resonantly stable)
iii) Light is emitted and absorbed by the atom when the electron 'jumps' from one allowed
orbital state to a another. (This is nearly correct, the electrons move from one stable
Standing Wave pattern to another. This is known as 'Resonant Coupling' and is explained
in Section 1.4.)

This early atomic model had some limited success because it was obviously created to
explain the discrete energy states of light emitted and absorbed by bound electrons in
atoms or molecules, as discovered by Planck in 1900.
de Broglie was aware of Bohr's model for the atom and he cleverly found a way of
explaining why only certain orbits were 'allowed' for the electron. As Albert Einstein
explains;

de Broglie conceived an electron revolving about the atomic nucleus as being connected
with a hypothetical wave train, and made intelligible to some extent the discrete character
of Bohr's 'permitted' paths by the stationary (standing) character of the corresponding
waves. (Albert Einstein, 1940)

Fig: 1.2.1 The allowed discrete orbits of the electron as imagined by de Broglie.

de Broglie assumed that because light had both particle and wave properties, that this
may also be true for matter. Thus he was not actually looking for the wave structure of
matter. Instead, as matter was already assumed to be a particle, he was looking for wave
properties of matter to complement the known particle properties. As a consequence of
this particle/wave duality, de Broglie imagined the standing waves to be related to
discrete wavelengths and standing waves for certain orbits of the electron particle about
the proton. (Rather than considering the actual standing wave structure of the electron
itself.)

From de Broglie's perspective, and from modern physics at that time, this solution had a
certain charm. It maintained the particle - wave duality for BOTH light and matter, and at
the same time explained why only certain orbits of the electron (which relate to whole
numbers of standing waves) were allowed, which fitted beautifully with Niels Bohr
model of the atom. de Broglie further explains his reasoning for the particle/wave duality
of matter in his 1929 Nobel Prize acceptance speech;

On the one hand the quantum theory of light cannot be considered satisfactory since it
defines the energy of a light particle (photon) by the equation E=hf containing the
frequency f. Now a purely particle theory contains nothing that enables us to define a
frequency; for this reason alone, therefore, we are compelled, in the case of light, to
introduce the idea of a particle and that of frequency simultaneously.
On the other hand, determination of the stable motion of electrons in the atom introduces
integers, and up to this point the only phenomena involving integers in physics were
those of interference and of normal modes of vibration. This fact suggested to me the idea
that electrons too could not be considered simply as particles, but that frequency (wave
properties) must be assigned to them also. (de Broglie, 1929)

The solution to their problems was first found by Wolff (1986). He discovered two things
(both of which deserve a Nobel prize in their own right);

Firstly, from reading Feynman's PhD thesis (see reference, Feynman and Wheeler, 1945)
he was aware of Feynman's conception of charged particles which 'somehow' generated
Spherical Electromagnetic In and Out Waves (Feynman called them advanced and
retarded waves), but Wolff realised that there are no solutions for spherical vector
electromagnetic waves (which are mathematical waves which require both a quantity of
force and a direction of force, i.e. vector). Wolff had the foresight to try using real waves,
which are Scalar (defined by their Wave-Amplitude only).
And this then led to a series of remarkable discoveries.

He realised that spherical In and Out-Waves removed the need for a separate particle, as
the Wave-Center of the Spherical Waves created the particle effect.
He then discovered that when one spherical standing wave was moving relative to
another the Doppler shifts gave rise to BOTH the de Broglie Wavelength AND the Mass
increase of Albert Einstein's Relativity. (i.e. Wolff demonstrated that when two charged
particles (Wave-Centers of two SSWs) are moving relative to one another they gives rise
to beats of interference (caused by the Doppler shifting of the In and Out Waves due to
relative Motion) which were identified in experiments as the de Broglie wavelength
y=h/mv, and also gave rise to the frequency increases and thus energy/mass increases (as
E=hf =mc2) of Special Relativity.

Thus in the one equation he had deduced, with mathematical certainty, the two observed
phenomena due to relative motion, which respectively found central parts of both
Quantum Theory and Albert Einstein's Special Relativity. (Thus for the first time uniting
these two theories from one common theoretical foundation!)
This then led to his further work on resonant coupling which finally solved the puzzle of
the 'photon' and explained why light energy is only ever emitted and absorbed in discrete
amounts. (See Section 1.4)

Unfortunately for modern physics, and ultimately for human knowledge, this obvious
solution was never considered by de Broglie, Albert Einstein, Bohr, Schrodinger,
Heisenberg, Dirac, Born, Feynman, etc. etc. Thus the now obvious solution of realising
that matter was a Spherical Standing Wave that causes the point particle effect at the
Wave-Center remained unknown and ignored, and instead, the confusing and paradoxical
concept of the particle / wave duality was retained.
1.3 Quantum Theory: The Compton Wavelength 2.43*10-12m of the
Electron Y=h/mc (1923)

As stated, in hindsight there were many clues as to the Wave Structure of the Electron.
Another obvious clue being that the electron itself has a 'Compton' wavelength (named
after American experimental physicist Holly Compton who discovered this from
experiments with electron beams). But unfortunately they had come to accept the particle
/ wave duality of matter and simply continued to assume that somehow this paradoxical
conception of matter was true, and thus beyond human comprehension. (So they stopped
looking for an obvious solution!)

So let us briefly explain the Compton Wavelength. Experiments show that Energy is
directly related to both Frequency and Mass (this is true since we now realise that they
are ALL caused by Wave-Motion). As we know from experiment the energy E and mass
m of the electron, and the velocity of light c, we can calculate the Compton Wavelength Y
of the Electron as follows; E=hf=mc2 and f=c/Y, thus hc/Y= mc2 resulting in Y=h/mc
which for the Electron = 2.43*10-12m.

Fig: 2.3 The Compton Wavelength (Y) of the Electron - While this wavelength
is related to the actual Wavelength of the Spherical Standing Wave, it is more complex
than this. As the Spherical In-Wave flows in towards the Wave-Center, both its Wave-
Amplitude and Wave-Density increase, thus the velocity and wavelength will also
change. (Thus there is still a substantial amount of mathematical analysis required on
how the Wavelength of the Electron changes with distance from the Wave-Center.)