SUT) INTRODUCTION TO COMPUTERS For Sale in India, Pakistan, Nepal, Bangladesh, Sri Lanka and an puInformation contained in this work has baon obtained by Tata. McGraw-Hill, from sources believed to be rell- able. However, neither Tata McGraw-Hill nor its authors guarantee the accuracy or completeness of any infor- mation published herein, and neither Tata McGraw-Hill Aor its authors shall be responsible for any errors, omissions, or damages arising out of use of this Infor mation, This work is publisheet with the understanding that Tata McGraw-Hill and Its authors are supplying In- formation but are not attempting to render engineering or ather professional services. if such services ara re- Quired, the assistance of an appropriate professional should be sought. fata McGraw-Hill PETER NORTON'S® INTRODUCTION TO COMPUTERS Indian Adaptation dane by arrangement with the McGraw-Hill Companies inc., New York ‘Sales territories: tndia, Pakistan, Nepal, Bangladesh, Sri Lanka and Bhutan. Ninth reprint 2008 RYXDCDRXRBBYA Copyright © 2006 by The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved. No part of this publication may be reproduced or distributed in any form or by any means, or stored in a database or retrioval system, without the prior written consent of The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc., inciuding, but not limited to, in any network Or other electronic storage or transmission, or broadcast for distance learning, ‘Some ancillaries, inchuding electronic and print components, may not be avaliable to customers outside the United States. : PTB0A07A058174.9 007.0595 Published by the Tala McGraw-Hill Publishing Company Limited, 7 West Patel Nagar, New Delhi 110 008, typaset in Timas at Script Makers, 19, A1-B, DDA Market, Pashchim Vihar, New Delhi 110.083 and printed at Pashupati Printers, 1/420/16, Gali No. 1, Friends Colony, G.T. Road, Shahdara, Delhi 110 095 Cover Printor: SDA Printers Cover Dasign: Kap GuptaChapter 1: Introducing Computer Systems Lesson 1A: Exploring Computers and Their Uses Lesson 18: Looking Inside the Computer System Chapter 2: Interacting with Your Computer 2__Chapter 9: Working in the Online Warid Lesson 9A: Connecting to the Internet 330 331 24 Lesson 9B: Ooing Business in the Online World 345 48__ Chapter 10: Working with A lication Software 362 coma | Lesson 2A: Using the Keyboard and Mouse 49__Lesson 10A: Productivity Software 33 Lesson 2B: Inputting Data in Other Ways 68__Lesson 108: Graphies and Multimedia 33 ‘Chapter 3: Seeing, Hearing, and Printing Data 86 Chapter 11: Database Managoment oo Lesson 3A: Video and Sound 89 Lesson 11A: Database Management Systems 401 Lesson 3B: Printing 107 Lesson 118: Survey of Database Systems 20 ‘Chapter 4: Processing Data 124__Chapter 12: Software Programming Lesson 4A: Transforming Data into Information 125 and Development 438 Lesson 4B: Mariern CPUs 146 Lesson 12A: Creating Computer Programs 439 Lesson 128: Programming Languages and the 5: ed ramming Process 456 Lesson SA: Types of Storage Devices 168 . na Your Priva i " proving, Lesson 58: Measuring and Improvin voy Your Compute and Your Dat a6 3 Under: ir thes - Security Measures ant Chanter 6: Usin Lua Setar 204 Lesson 13B: Taking Protective Measures 497 Lesson GA: Operating System Basics 205 i: Survey of id Network Appendix A: Creating Your Own Web Page 518 Operating Systems 226 Appendix B: Buying Your First Computer 526 Appendix C: Computer Viruses 532 pter 7: sn. a Shapter 7: Networks 742 Anpendix D: History of Microcomputers 538 2a 558 Lesson 7A: Networking Basics Chapter 8: Presenting the Internet Lesson 8A: The Intemet and the World 267__Abpentix E: Self-Check Answers ze 8FEATURE ARTICLES. Atlssue Productivity Tip Computerized Disease Management 36 Choosing the Right Tool for the Job 12 Computer Voting—Is It a Good Thing? 62 Saving Time with Keyboard Shorteuts 60 + Bi i The Care and Feeding of Printers 114 Cyborgs among Us: Wearable Technology 134 Ow¥ou Need More BAM? __iio Digital Student Portfolios 192 Backing Up Your Data 174 Controlling Computers with the Mind 228 Do-it-Yourself Tech Support .||__244 Catching “Cyberslackers” on the Job 252 Stomping Out Spam. 316 Evaluating the Reliability of Search Results On the Beat with Techno-Caps 336 andWeb Sites ag Who Really Owns the Software on Your PC? 372 Sharing an Internet Connection 340 Ball! Baseball Enters the Information A\ 414 Automating Your Work with Macros 378 Hat and Oh-So-Coal: Technology Forecasts Database Mace 0h the Weather 450 Finding Faster Algorithms 448 Software Piracy 490 Keeping Your PC Up to Date 486 Norton Notebook Computers In Your Career The Merging of Media and Meaning 18 Using Computers Outside of the IT Industry 40 Speech Recognition 7% © Harchware Technician J ____omomnonm__ag Flat Video Ts Anything But 98 Computer Training Specialist 116 What [s a Computer Chip? 150 Computer Sales Professional 256 Looking Back, Moving Forward 180 Careers in Outsourcing 194 Changing Your PC's Operating System 198 Help Desk and Technical Support Specialists 236 Fighting Hackers 260 Careers in Networking 276 Intemet Time Travel: The Wayback Machine 294 Documentation and Online Help System Designer 322 Business, the Internet, and Everything 352 Career Opportunities and the Internet. 354 Why Own When You Can Rent? 390 Carers in Multimedia 392 DataWarchouses a Datahase Carers a Artificial Intelligence: Will Computers Ever Think? 466 Careers in Programming 468 Nexus: Converging Technologies 506 Computer Scientist 510CHAPTER 4:: Introducing Computer Systems Chapter Contents Exploring Computers and Their Uses Overview: Computers in Our World The Computer Defined Computers for Individual Users Desktop Computers ‘Workstations Notebook Computers Tablet PCs Handheld Pts ‘Smart Phanes Computers for Organizations Network Servers Mainframe Computers Minicomputers ‘Supercomputers Computers in Society Productivity Tip: Choosing the Right Tool forthe Job ‘Why Are Computers So Important? Health Care Norton Notebook: The Merging of Media and Meaning Lesson 14 Review Lesson 1B: Looking Inside the Computer System Overview: Dissecting the Ultimate Machine The Parts of a Computer System Hanbware Software . Qala The Information Processing Cycle Essential Computer Hardware Processing Devices B__ Memory Devices 3 Random Access Memory ead-Only Memor Input and Output Devices Storage Devices Mogoati¢ Storage Optical Storage System Software Application Software Computer Data At Issue: Computerized Disease Management Computer Users The Lser's Role “Usetless"” Computers Computers In Your Career: Using Computers 31 _ outside of the IT Industry Lesson 18 Review Chapter Skills Review Chapter Labs - - 35 Research and Report g___ Fthical Issues au 18_CHAPTER 2:; 18 Interacting with Your Computer 29 Chapter Contents 4 1 SSocemnw~nea amon 24 Overview: The Keyboard and Mouse 26 The Keyboard The Standard Keyboard Layout The Alphanumeric Keys 2 ihe Modifier Keys BEKERERBS BREBEREBE BREF BRBREBBRBEER eB BEREEEBSBxii The Numeric Keypod 51 Chapter Labs 84 The Function Keys. 51 Discussion Question: BS ‘The Guesar Movement 52 Research and Report 8S Speciat-Pumpese Keys 52 Ethical Toaues a How the Computer Accepts Input from the telieat! —_____3 CHAPTER 3:: ‘lina the Mowe s5 Seeing, Hearing, and Printing Data 86 Mouse Button Configurations gq thapter Contents __sg Variantsaf the Mouse Trackballs Trackpads 59 Pointers in the Keyboard 59 Productivity Tip: Saving Time With Keyboard ‘Shortcuts 2 Ergonomics and Input Devices 60 Repetitive Stress Injuries 61 Avoiding Keyhoard-Related Injuries 62 At Issue: Computer Voting—Is It a Good Thing? 62 Lesson 2AReview Lesson 2B: Inputting Data in Other War 68 Overview: Options for Every Need and Preference 68. Optical Input Devices n @arCode Readers 0 Image Scanners and Optical Character Lesson 3A: Mideo and Sound _____ OT Overview: Reaching Our Sen: Monitors 0 CIMonitors ng lat-Panel Monitors Other Types of Monitors 92 Comparing Monitors 93 Ergonomics and Monitors oT Eyestrain oT Norton Notebook: Flat Video Is Anything But 38 Electromagnetic Fields 98 Data Projectors 100 Sound ems 100 Sound Canfg 0 Headphones and Headsets 102 Atssue: Call of the Wild: Binaccoustic Research 102 Recognition (OCR. 72 esson 3A Revie 104 Norton Natebook: Speech Recognition 74 Audiovisual Input Devices 74 Lesson 3B; Microphones 74 Printing 107 Yigeo Input___T? Coramanty Used Printer; 108 DigitalCameras 0 iy Pri Computers In Your Career: Hardware Technician 78 Lesson 28 Review 00. Chapter Skills Review Contents Qot Matrix Printers InkJet Printers tt Laser Printers a All-in-One Peripherals 12Comparing Printers 12 Computer's Internal Clock 146 High-Quality Printers 3 The Bus 136 Photo Printers, 13 the Dato Bus ne ivity Tip: The Care and Feeding of Printers 114 The Address Burs BI ‘Thermal-Wax Printers 4 Sus Mendes ae Oye-Sublimation Printers us Cache Memany 28 Platters ‘ig Productivity Tip: Do You Need More RAM? 140 Computers In Your Career: Computer Training Lesson 4A Review 142 Specialist 116 Lesson 328 Review 11g besson 4B: ils nevi Modem CPUs: ‘Chapter Skills Review 122 pus Overview: The Race for the Desktop Chapter Labs 122 ‘The Race for the Desktoy . , dons 423 A.Lonk inside the Processor Research and Report 123 ‘Research and Report Ethical Issues 123 ‘Lntel Processors Advanced Micro Devices (AMD) Processors Eneeccale Processors CHAPTER 4:: TBM Processors Processing Data 124 comparing Processors Chapter Contents 14 book: What Is a Computer Chip? Lesson 4A: Processors Parallel Processing 146 a 4 we 48 a8 149 ug 150 150 ui ‘Transforming Data into Information 125 | 4 Overview: The Difference between Data Extending the Processor’s Power to Other Devices 182 and Information yay —-‘SMandand Computes Posts 1a How Computers Represent Data jog --“SesaL-anc Parallel Ports 3 Number Systems: 126 ” ‘SCS pita Bits and Bytes iz se ‘ts Text Codes, wz IEEE 120 (Fete) ‘es How Computers Process Data 128 igitat Interface (MEDI 18 Toe Conta nit 132. computers In Your Career: Computer Sales The Arithmetic Logic Unit 222 professional 156 Machine Cycles 10 Fe fo ie Memary it Plug and Play. uz Momvalaife Hemere 122 Lesson 4B Review 158 flesh Memon, 122 "chapter Skills Review isa Voteils Memory ne Factors Affecting Processing Speed rag haater Labs Me Reaisters ea Discussion Questions 13 AIssue: Cyborgs Among Us: Wearable Technotogy 134 Restarh and Report * Viemory and Computing Foner == Nea seus 163 3 3 z &At Issue: Digital Student Portfolios 192 Orive-Interface Standards ________192 StoringData_________ 164 Enhanced Integrated Drive Electronics {EIDE) 193 Chapter Contents 164 Small Computer System Interface (SCSI 193 Lesson 5A: USB and FireWire of Storage Devices 165 Computers In Your Career: Careers in Gutsourcing _194 Overview: An Ever-Growing Need 165 estan. $8 Review —_____196 Categorizing Storage Devices 165 Chapter Skills Review __|_200 Magnetic Storage Devices 166 Chapter Labs 200 How Data Is Stored om 2 Disk 66 Discussion Questions rat How Data Is Organized on a Magnetic Disk 168 ‘Research and Report 202 Trocts ond Sectors 168 Ethical Issue 202 How the Operatin: item Finds Data on a Disk 170 Diskettes (Floppy Disks 11 CHAPTER 6: Hani Disks ___________________173 Using Operating Systems. 204 Removable High-Capacity Magnetic Disks 173 Chapter Contents 204 ‘Tape Drives 4 Productivity Tip: Backing Up Your Data 174 Lesson GA: Optical Storage Devices 175 Operating System Basics 205 cooM 178 Overview: The Purpose of Operating Systems 208 byp-goM AF Types wf Operating Systems 205 Recordable Optical Technologies 178 Real-Time Gperating Systems 206 Solid-State Storage Devices 179 Single-User/Sinale-Tasking Operating Systems 206 Flash Memory 179 Single-User/Muttitasking Operating Systems 206 Norten Notebook: Looking Back, Moving Forward 180 ——Multi-User/Multitasking Operating Systems 207 ‘Smart Cards 180 Providing a User Interface 208 ‘Solid-State Disks RZ Graphical User Interfaces 208 Lesson 5A Review 183 Command-Line Interfaces 2 Running Programs 212 Lesson 5B: . Sharing Information 213 Measuring and Improving Drive Productivity Tig: Do-It-Yourself Tech Support 214 Performance ABT inc ardor Overview: The Need for Speed 187 Processing Interrupts 216 Average Access Time _____||__188 Working with Device Drivers 216 Oata Transfer Rate ________________488 Enhaneing an OS with Utility Software 216 Optimizing Disk Performance 189 Backup Utilities 217 Cleaning Up Uniieeded Files 183 Antivirus 2 Scanning a Disk for Errors 390 Firewall 207 Defragmenting a Disk 190 Tntrusion Detection 27 File Compression 190 screen Savers 2 ContentsNorten Notebook: Changing Your PC's Overview: Sharing Data Anywhere, Anytime 243 o inc m 218 f a Network 2h Lesson GA Review 220 Simultansous acces 244 ‘Shared Peripheral Devices 245 Lesson GB: Personal Communications 246 Survey of PC and Network Easier Data Backup 2a7 Operating Systems 224 common Types of Networks 248 Overview: Operating Systems Yesterday and Today 224 Local Area Networks (LANs) 248 PC Operating Systems 225 Wide Area Networks (WANS) 248 pos 228 Hybrid Networks 248 ‘Mlindowes NT Warkstatien. 225 Campus Area Networks (CANS) 2469 Windlowws 226 Metropolitan Area Netwarks (MANS) 209 Windows 2000 Professional 228 = Home Area Networks (HANS) 249 WindowsXP 2B Intranets and Extranets 249 intosh Operating System 229° How Networks Are Structured 2 NDX for the Desktop 229 Sprver-Based Networks 250 Linux for the Desktop 229 Client/Server Networks. 250 At Issue: Controlling Computers with the Mind 230 Beer-to-Peer Networks 251 Network Operating Systems 230 at Issue: Catching “Cyberslackers™ on the Job 252 Windows NI Servey______231 Network Topologies and Protocols 83 UND forSeners Network Media 8S WimeBased Medig Weleda 2 Network Mardware 28 Linux for Servers 233 Network Interface fants (NICS) 256 Embedded Operating Systems 233 Network Linking Devices 288 Computers In Your Career: Help Desk and Gadling Equipment 2B Technical Support Specialists 234 ok: Fighting Hackers 260 Lesson 68 Review 236 ‘Protocols 261 ‘ Lesson 7AReview 8 Chapter Skills Review 240 33 Chaptertabs __ 22 Lesson 7B Chapter Contents Lesson 7A; NetworkingBasics 2A Data Communications 287 Overview: The Local and Global Reach of Networks 267 Qata Communications with Standard Telephone Lines and Modemg Modems UsecfaraModem Productivity Tip: The Telecommuter’s Checklist 270 ‘Using ital Data Connections 271 Groadband Connections 272 ContentsDSL Technologies 272 Cable Modem Cannertions aT aM ag ‘Wireless Networks 00]. Wireless: 802.22 00 Getting Help with Your Browser 299 Searching the Web 299 Using a Directory 301 sing a Search Engine 301 Using Boolean Operators ia Your Searches 302 Wireless Access Point 5 Using Advanced Search Options: 303 Wireless Adapter 275 Productivity Tip: Evaluating the Reliability of Computers in Your Career: Careers in Networking 276 Search Results and Web Sites 308 Lesson 78 Review 278 Using a Metasearch Engine 306 ‘Chapter Skills Review 282 Sponsored versus Nonspansored Links 306 Chapter Labs 292 Using Site-Specific Search Tools 307 Discusion Ouzath Lesson 8A Review 308 Research and Report _28} tesson SB: Ethical Issues E-Mail and Other Internet Services _312 Overview: Communicating Through the Internet 312 CHAPTER &: Using E-Mail 313 Presenting the Internet 284 Understanding E-Mail 313 Chapter Contents 284 EMail Addresses a Lisesery Systerns 314 Lesson. BA: Using an E-Mail Program 314 ‘The Internet and the World Wide Web 285 Creating 0 Message até Overview: What Is the Intemet? Pas Receiving ard Reading a Message a5 The Internet's History zag At Issue: Stomping Gut Spam _______316 The Beginning: A “Network of Networks” pg ‘Using Web-Based E-MailServices 317 Taday: Still Growing aye Ma Geaturet of the Cateye an The Internet's Major Services. eg News 5 Understanding the World Wide Web 288 FIP 319 How the Web Works 26g Internet Relay Chat (IRC) and Web-Based Chat___320 rowsers and HIME Te 9 —_Instant Messaging 321 Rls 201 Online Services 321 Helper Applications and Multimedia Content 292 Peer-to-Peer Services 322 Narton Notebook: Internet Time Travel: Computers In Your Career: Documentation and ‘The Wayback Machine 294 Online Help System Designer 322 Using Your Browser and the World Wide Web zo5 Lesson 8B Review a2 Launching Your Browser 296 Chapter Skills Review 328 Navigating the Web 296 Chapter Labs 328. Using URLs 296 Discussion Questions 329 Using Myperiinks 2987 Reasearch and Report 4329 Using the Browser’: Navigation Tools 298 Eahical Issues 329 Closing Your Browser 298 Contents,Security 354 Lesson 9B Review 0... 3B Working in the Online World 330 Chapter Contents 339 Chapter Skills Review _360 Chapter Labs 360 Lesson 9A: Discussion Questions 6 Connecting to the Internet 33. sarch and Repor 63 Overview: Joining the Internet Phenomenon 331 Ethical Lau a Connecting to the Intemet through Wires 332 Dial-up Connections 332 CHAPTER 10:: High-Speed Broadband Connections____332 working with Application Software _362 Integrated Services Digital Network (IDSN) Service 333 Digital Subscriber Line (DSL) Services gag Mhaoter Contents _a6t (able Modem Service 334 Lesson 140A: How PC Applications Access the Internet 36 Productivity Software 363, Connecting to the Internet Wirelessly 335. Overview: Software to Accomplish the Work of Life 363 Wireless WAN (HAN) Connections 335 At Issue: On the Beat with Techno-Cops 336 Satellite Services WLAN Connections 338 Productivity Tip: Sharing an Internet Connection 340 Lesson 9A Review 342 Lesson 9B: Boing Business in the Online World _345, Ovenviow:C a 345 E-Commerce at the Consumer Level _346 Online Shopping 346 Online Stores versus Physical Locations 387 Using Online Catalogs 387 Poying for Purchases 348 Getting Customer Service 349 Online Banking and Finance 349 Oniine Banking $50 Oniine Fiaange a ECommerce at the Business leyel 380 Business-to-Business (B2B) Transactions 350 Intranets and Extranete Norton Notebook: Business, the Internet and Everything 352 Telecommuters __352 Computers In Your Career: Career Opportunities and the Internet 356 Acquiring Software Commonrial Software Freewate and Public Domain Software ____ 344 Open-Source Software 365 Word Processing Programs 365 The Woudl Processar’s Interface 3 Entering and Editing Text 365 Formatting Text 367 Spreadsheet Programs 368 The Spreadsheet’s Interface 368 Entering Data in a Worksheet 369 Presentation Programs: 371 At Issue: Who Really Owns the Software emYourpe? 00 ‘The Presentation Program's Interface 372 Creating a Presentation 374 Presenting Slide Shows 375 Productivity Tip: Automating Your Work with Macs a Personal Information Managers: 376 Lesson 10A Review 87 Lesson 108: Graphics and Multimedia Overview: Graphics, Graphics Everywhere Understanding Graphics File Formats eee Contents xviiBitmap and Vector Graphics Ba, File Formats and Compatibility Issues 384 Getting Images into Your Computer 386 At Issue: Play Ball! Baseball Enters the Information Age 414 Lesson 12A Review 20 Graphics Software 386 Lesson 14B: Paint Prog 387 ean Survey of Database Systems 420 Draw Programs 387 Photo-Editing Programs 387 verview: When Applications Grow Hus 420 Computer-Aided Design Programs 3g Enterprise Software 4d . =a 329 ‘Meeting the Needs of Many Users 421 Norton Notebook: Why Own When You Can Rent? 390 Databases at Work 423, Multimedia Basics 399 Databases in Business 423 Computers In Your Career: Careers in Multimedia 392 Databases on the Intemet 425 Lesson 10B Review 39% Databases for Individuals. 428 Chapter Skills Review 397 Productivity Tip: Database Macros 426, Chapter tabs go7 Somtmon Conporate Database Management Systems 428 . Qaele a Discussion Questions 397 DB2 429 Research and Report 398 SQL Server 429 Ethical Issues 398 MySQL 429 Computers In Your Career: Database Careers 430 CHAPTER 11 [Lesson 11B Review 432 Database Management 400 Chapter Skilts Review 436 Chapter Contents 400 Chapter Labs 436 Discussion Questions 8 Lesson 11.0: Research and Report BT Database Management Systems oy “esearch and Report = Ethical Issues 0 Overview: The Mother of All Computer Applications 401 Databases and Database Management Systems 402 CHAPTER 12:: The Database 402 ; ; ‘Software Programming and Development 438 The ams [i ig Chapter Contents 438 Working with a Database 406 Lesson 12A: Creating Database Tables 407 Creating Computer Programs 439 Understanding Field Types AO a E — ioe pes #02 ‘Qverview: What Is a Computer Program? 439 Entering Dota fn Table 808 hat is a Computer Program? 440 2 Viewing Records _4oe Hardware /Software Interaction S41 Sorting Records: 410 Code Querying a Database: 412 — -, Machine Code 442 Generating Reports 413 Pragrammming Languages 442 wviti ContentsCompilers and Interpreters 443 Planning a Computer Program Aaa How Programs Solve Problems 445; Program Control Flow 445 Algorithms 445; Heuristics 446 Productivity Tip: Finding Faster Algorithms 408 Structured and Object-Oriented Programming 448 Programming Structures 409 At Issue: Hot and Oh-So-Cool: Technology Chapter Contents Lesson 13: Understanding the Need for Security Measures Overview: The Need for Computer Security AIT Basic Security Concepts 478 Thieats 478 Degrees of Harm 428 Countermeacues a 416 Forecasts the Weather 450 Threats to Users 479 Object-Oriented Programming 450 Identity Theft 479 Lesson 124 Review 452 Loss of Privacy 480 Public Records on the Internet 8) Lesson 12B: Intemet Monitoring, Profiling, and Spyin 461 Programming Languages and the Ontine Spying Toots 481 Programming Process. 456 Cookie 4a ‘Overview: The Keys to Successful Programming 456 Meg Bugs ‘The Evolution of Programming Languages 4s? ‘Svingee___4g2 Categories of Programming Languages agp Spam 483 Machine and Assembly Languages 45g‘ Computer-Related Injuries AK Higher-Level Languages 45g Thwsats to Hardware ____484 Third-Generation Longuages 459 ~—«~Power-Related Threats 485 Fourth-Goneration Lon 469 ‘Theft and Vandalism 488 ‘Fifth-Generation Lengueges: 461 Natural Disasters 486 ‘World Wide Web Development Languages 461 Productivity Tip: Keeping Your PC Up to Date 486 Scripting Languages 464 Thveatsto ata _______aag The Systems Development Life Cycle for Programming 465 Malware, Viruses, and Malicious Programs _488 Norton Notebook: Artificial Intelligence: Cybercrime 488 Will Computers Ever Think? 466 Hacking 489 Computers In Your Career: Careers in imming 468 Common Hacking Methods: 489 Lesson 128 Review 470 At Issue: Software Piracy 400 Chapter Skills Review 474 Cyberterrorism 492 Chapter Labs g7q ¥esson.13A Review —___483 Discussion Questions 475 Lesson 19B: Research and keport 473 Taking Protective Measures 497 Ethical Issues 475 Overvie Keeping Your System Safe 497 Protecting Yourself 498 CHAPTER 13: Avoiding Identity Theft 498 tecting Your Privacy, Your Computer, Managing Your Papers 8 Guarding Personal Informetion Contents abeLooking at the Sig Picture 499 Lesson 13B Review Protecting Your Privacy 499 Chapter Skills Review Keeping Morketers ot 499 ‘Knowing Your Rights 500 Chanter Labs Managing Cookies, Spyware, and Other "Bugs" 502 ‘ussian.uestions Deoing with Cookies soy CES eo Report femaving Web Bugs ond Soymare 502 a eA. z ; Evading Spam soz Appendix A: Keeping Your Data Secure 593 Steating Your Own Web Page Restricting Access to Your System ste Appendix Be Limiting Physical Access soe Buying Your First Computer thing » Frewal sos Appendix @acking Up Data 505 Computer Viruses Morten Notebook: Nexus: Converging Technologies 505 Appendix Safeguarding Your Hardware 508 History of Microcomputers Using Automated Warnings 508 Appendix E: Handling Storage Media 508 SelfsCheck Answers ‘Storing Computer Equipment 509 Glossary Keeping Your Computer Clean 509 Photo Credits Computers In Your Career: Computer Scientist 510 Contents. B B EEREE ow y « BESEE 8PREREQUISITES What You Should Know Before Using This Book This book assumes that you have never used a computer before or that your com- puter experience has been very brief. Ifso, you may need to learn some basic com= puter skills before proceeding with this course. This Prerequisites section introduces basic skills, using illustrations to help you recognize and remember the hardware or software involved in each skill. Some of these skills are covered in greater detail in other units of this book. In such cases, you will find references that point you to more information, Equipment Required for This Book's Exercises >> IBM-compatible personal computer » Keyboard » ‘Two-button mouse » Windows 98 or higher » Internet connection >> Web browser Turning the Computer On and Off Turning the Computer On ‘As simple as it may sound, there is a right way to turn a computer's power on and off. If you perform either of these tasks incorrectly, you may damage the com- puter’s components or cause problems for the operating system, programs, or data files, 1. Before turning on your computes, make sure thar all the necessary cables (such. as the mouse, keyboard, printer, madem, etc.) are connected to the system unit, Also make sure that the system's power cords are connected to an ap- propriate power source. 2. Make sure that there are no diskettes in the computer's diskette drive, unl you must boot the system from a diskette. (The term booting means starting the computes) If you must boat the system from a diskette, ask your instruc- tor for specific directions. 3. Find the On/Off switch on each attached device (the monitor, printer, etc.) and place it in the ON position. A device's power switch may not be on the front panel. Check the sides and hack to find the On/Off switch if the switch is nor located on the front panel.ie 49en weit Glick Shut Gown to |= —— ‘tum off the computer, Prerequisites 4. Find the On/Off switch on the computer's system unit—its main box into which all other components are plugged—and place it in the ON position. ‘Most computers take a minute or two to start, Your computer may display messages during the start-up process. If one of these messages prompts you to per- form an action (such as providing a network user ID and password), ask your in- structor for directions. After the computer has started, the Windows desktop will appear on your screen. Turning the Computer Off In Windows-based systems, itis critical that you shut down properly, as described here. Windows creates many temporary files on your computer's hard disk when. running. By shutting down properly, you give Windows the chance to erate those temporary files and do other “housekeeping” tasks. If you simply turn off your computer while Windows or other programs are running, you can cause harm to your system, Note: The illustration shows the shut-down process in Windows 98, The process, menus, and dialog boxes are the same in all versions of Windows except __ Windows XP, as noted in the following instructions. 1. Remove any disks from the diskette and CD-ROM drives and make sure that all data is saved and all running programs are closed. (For help with saving data and closing programs, ask your instructor.) 2. Using your mouse pointer, click the Start button, which is located on the taskbar. The Start menu will appear. On the Start menu, click Shut Down. (If you use Windows XP, click the Turn Off Computer option.) The Shut Down Windows dialog box will appear. (In Windows XP, the Turn Off Computer di- alog box will appear) Icons are pictures that 7 a ie —__Ciick the Start button to ‘open the Start menu.Windows will begin the shut-down process. Windows may display a message telling you that it is shutting down. Then it may display the message “It is now safe to turn off your computer.” When this message appears, turn off the power to your system unit, monitor, and printer. eitjecmt te mae | In some newer computers, the system unit will power down auto- | | matically after Windows shuts down. If your computer provides this iueceeynbammcos os | feature, you need to turn off only your monitor and other devices. | eer aon | | (ess] Eewet| 0 |) Using the Keyboard If you know how to type, then you can easily use a computer keyboard. The keyboard contains all the alphanumeric keys found on a typewriter, plus some keys that perform special functions. 1. In Windows, the ExTER key performs two primary functions. First, it lets you create paragraph (“hard”) re- turns in application programs such as word processors. Second, when a dialog Bo is open, pressing snr is ike $3, Teseytoads cnet cad clicking the ox button. This accepts [1isa500 2 “Using We Keyoas your input and closes the dialog box. 2. The SHIFT, CTRL (control), and ALT (al- temate) keys are called modifier keys. ‘You use them in combination with other keys to issue commands. In many programs, for example, pressing CTRL¢S {hold the CTRL key down while press- ing the $ key) saves the open document to disk. Used with all the alphanumeric and function keys, the modifier keys let you issue hundreds of commands. 3. In Windows programs, the Ec (escape) key performs one universal function, ‘That is, you can use it to cancel a command before it executes. When a dialog, box is open, pressing ESC is like clicking the CANCEL burton. This action closes the dialog box and ignores any changes you made in the dialog box. 4, Depending on the program you are using, the function keys may serve a variety of purposes or none at all, Function keys generally provide shortcuts to program features or commands. In many Windows programs, for example, you can press F1 to launch the online help system. 5. In any Windows application, a blinking bar—called the cursor or the insertion point—shows you where the next character will appear as you type. You can use the cursor-movement keys to mave the cursor to different ‘HEE BREE) BEE enapositions. As their arrows indicate, these keys let you move the cursor up, down, left, and right. 6, ‘The DELETE key erases characters to the right of the cursor. The BACKSPACE key erases characters to the left of the cursor. In many applications, the Hose and END keys let you move the cursor to the beginning or end of a line, or farther when used with a modifier key. PAGE UP and PAGE DOWN let you scroll quickly through a document, moving back or ahead one screen at a time. Using the Mouse ‘The mouse makes your computer casy to use. In fact, Win- dows and Windows-based programs are mouse-oriented, meaning their features and commands are designed for use with a mouse. 4. This book assumes that you are using a standard two- button mouse. Usually, the mousc’s left button is the pri- mary button, You click it to select commands and perform other tasks. The right button opens special “shortcut menus," whose Contents vary according t6 the program you are using. 2. You use the mouse to move a graphical pointer around ‘on the screen, This process is called pointing. 3. ‘The pointer is controlled by the mouse’s motions across your desktop’s surface. When you push the mouse for- ward (away from you), the pointer moves up on the screen. When you pull the mouse backward (toward you), the pointer moves down. When you mave the mouse to the left or right, or diagonally, the pointer ‘moves to the left, right, or diagonally on the screen. Q ...the rotiing mouse EE The mouse és covered in greater i ball spins the roles. etal n Lesson 24, ‘Using the i . f ‘The information from tho ‘Keyboard and ifouse. { 8 oe rollers is sent to \ ‘controls the pointer. Prerequisites. Ta click an object, such as an icon, point to it on the screen, then quickly press and release the left mouse button one time. Generally, clicking an object selects it, or tells Windows that you want to do something with the object. . To double-click an object, point to it on the screen, then quickly press and re- lease the left mouse button twice. Generally, double-clicking an object selects and activates the object, For example, when you double-click a program's icon on the desktop, the program launches so you can use it. . To right-click an object, point to it on the screen, then quickly press and re- lease the right mouse button one time. Generally, right-clicking an object opens a shortcut ment that provides options for working with the object. . You can use the mouse to move objects around on the screen, For example, you can move an icon to a different location on the Windows desktop. This procedure is often called drag-and-drop editing. To drag an object, point toi press and hold down the left mouse button, drag the object to the desired lo- cation, then release the mouse button. “lick” it Prerequisites vayEffective Learning Tools This pedagogieally rich book is de~ signed to make learning easy and enjoyable. It will help you develop the skills and critical thinking abil- ities that will enable you to under- stand computers and computer technology, troubleshoot prob- lems, and possibly lead you into an TT career, Each chapter includes ... >> Learning objectives that set measurable goals for lesson-by-lesson progress »® Illustrations that give you 2 clear picture of the technologies 3> More review materials at the end of each chapter ond lesson: Key terms quiz, multiple chaice questions, short answer review questions, lab activities, discussion questions, research and report assignments, and ethical issue discussions ~<—— Self-check quizzes keep || the students engaged and test their understanding af the lesson topics, Productivity Tips, Computers In Your Career, and ‘other feature articles offer students a more in-depth affects discussion of today's technology and how their everyday lives,> Self-check quizzes in each lesson (two per chapter) help students apply their knowledge as they work through the lesson Feature articles 3» Norton Notebooks offer insightful thoughts about emerging technologies and computers in our society, >» At Issue articles spotlight trends in information technology and offer a compelling look at how technology is used to help people enhance their lives. >> Computers In Your Career offer | '\- students a “human face” into IT professions by providing IT ‘interviews and ideas for where an IT ‘career might take today’s students. >» Productivity Tips cover topics such as adding RAM, printer maintenance, and sharing Interet connections. Each chapter contains two <1 essons—each lesson offers end-of-chapter quizzes that engage students in the topics This book is full of detailed 1T concepts and current photographs of the latest technatogies. Narton Ontine sidebars point students to the new Norton web site accompanying this —. textbook where os students can find more information on TT-specific topics. Important Technology Concepts Information technology (IT) offers many career paths leading to occu pations in such Fields as PC repair network administration, telecom- ‘iunieations, Web development, graphic design, and desktop sup- port. To become competent in any IT field you need certain basic ‘computer skills. Peter Norton's In- troduction to Computers, 6e, builds 2 foundation for success in the IT field by introducing you to funda- mental technology concepts and giving you essential computer skills, ‘Your IT career starts here!Introduction to ComputersIntroducing Computer Systems CHAPTER CONTENTS. This chapter contains the following lessons: @ Lesson 1A 8 Exploring Computers and Their Uses » The Computer Defined ‘Computers for Individual Users ‘Computers for Organizations > Computers in Society mar We Lesson 1B: Looking Inside the Computer System 2 The Parts of a Computer System The Infarmation Processing Cycle Essential Computer Hardware Software Brings the Machine to Life Computer Data Computer UsersOverview: Computers in Our World ‘Consider this sentence: “Computers are everywhere.” Docs it sound like an overstatement? A cliché? No matter how you perceive the im- pact of computers, the statement is true. Computers are everywhere. In fact, you can find them in some pretty unlikely places, including your family car, your home appliances, and even your alarm clock! In the past two decades, computers have reshaped our lives at home, work, and school. The vast majority of businesses now use computer- ized equipment in some way, and most companies are networked both internally and externally. More than half of all homes in the United States have at least one computer, and most of them are connected to the Internet, Workers who ance had little use for technology now inter- act with computers almost every minute of the workday. ‘This lesson examines the many types of camputers that are in com- mon use today, Although this class will facus an personal compurers (the ones that scem to sit on every desktop), you will first learn about ‘the wide variety of computers that people use, and the reasons they use them, As your knowledge of compurers grows, you will understand that all computers—repardless of their size or purpose—are basically similar. That is, they all operate on the same fundamental principles, are made from the same basic components, and need instructions to make them run, Exploring Computers and Their Uses OBJECTIVES :: In basic terms, define the word computer. Discuss various ways computers can be categorized. Identify six types of computers designed for individual use, Identify four types of computers used primarily by organizations. Explain the importance of computers in today's society. Describe how computers are used in various sectors of our society, s Material@ The Computer Defined ONLINE basic terms, a computer is an electronic device that pracesses data, converting: it into information that is useful to people. Any computer—regardless of its type—is controlled by programmed instructions, which give the machine a pur- pose and tell it what to do. ‘The computers discussed in this book—and which are everywhere around you— For more lntormation on wight and the history of comptes, vist Bips ore nita com are digital computers (see Figure 1A.1), As you will learn in Chapter 4, “Processing paeaereirtaa, Data,” digital computers are so called because they work “by the numbers.” That is, they break all types of information inte tiny units, and use numbers to represent those pieces of information. Digital computers also work in very strict sequences of imne steps, processing cach unit of information individually, according to the highly or- ganized instructions they must follow. A lesser-known type of computer is the analog computes, which warks in a very different way from digital computers, The carliest computers were analog systems, and today’s digital systems owe a great deal t0 their analog ancestors, Analog and digital computers differ in many respects, but the most important distinction is the way they represent data. Digital systems represent data as having one distinct value or another, with no other possibilities. Analog systems, however, represent data as variable points along a continuous spectrum of values. This makes analog computers somewhat more flexible than digital ones, but not nec~ essarily more precise or reliable. Early analog computers were mechanical devices, weighing several tons and using mators and gears to perform calculations (see Fig- ure LA.2). A more manageable FIGURE 14.4 The personal computer oa digital compute ‘type of analog computer is the old-fashioned slide rule (see fi) FIGURE 14.2 Figure 1A.3). ‘Computers can be catego rized in several ways. For ex- ample, some computers are designed for use by one per: son, some are meant to be used by groups of people, and some are not used by people at all. They also can be catego- rized by their power, which we means the speed at which they operate and the types of tasks they can handle. Within a sin- gle category, computers may be Atough analog computers have largely + Ee ean ad ae been forgoten, many of today's ps the kinds of software they computer scientists grew up using sige: ean run, and so on. rules —a simple knot anaiog commputer, This early analog computer, creaied by Vanna Bush inthe late 1920s, was called a “deferential anabyzer, "it used alectic mores, gears, and other meving parts fo sotve equations nf) FIGURE 14.3 Ft 4 Chapter 2Computers for individual Users Most computers are meant ro be used by only one person at a time, Such computers are often shared by several people (such as those in your schoa!’s computer lab), but only one user can work with the machine at any given moment (see Figure 1A.4). The six primary types of computers in this categary are » Desktop computers > Workstations » Notebook computers » Tablet computers » Handheld computers 2 Smart phones ‘These systems are all examples of personal computers (PCs|— a term that refers te any computer system that is designed for use by a single per- son. Personal computers are also called microcomputers, because they are among the smallest computers created for people to use. Note, however, that the term personal computer ot PC is most often used to describe al 4 desktop computers, which you will learn about | : in the following section. ie Although personal computers are used by |} = individuals, they also can be connected to- gether to create networks (sce Figure 14.5). In fact, networking has become one of the most important jobs of personal computers, and 1 even tiny handheld computers can now be con- b) , nected to networks, You will learn about com- puter networks in Chapter 7, “Networks,” Desktop Computers ‘The most common type of personal computer is the desktop computer—a PC that is designed to sit on (or under) a desk or table. These are the systems you see all around you, in schools, homes, and offices, and they are the main focus of this book. Today's desktop computers are far more powerful than those of just a few years ago, and are used for an amazing array of tasks, Not only do these ma- chines enable people to da their jobs with greater case and efficiency, but they can be used to communicate, produce music, edit photographs and videos, play sophisticated games, and much more. Used by everyone from preschoolers to nuclear physicists, desktop computers are indispensable for learning, work, and play (see Figure 14.6). computers, especialy portable sysiens home een when they ara traveling that ONLINE 1re information on Fo dasktop computers, ist biti: //aweev. me corn? petemoctan, FIGURE 10.6 = Introducing Computer Systems 5FIGURE 1A.7 7 | As its name implies, a desktop com- | | a puter is a full-size computer that is too big This ek fltes the traditional | to be carried around. The main compo- design, wih Be monte stacked en op nent of a desktop PC is the system unit, ofthe system ut which is the case that houses the computer's critical parts, such as its processing and stor- age devices. There are two common designs for desktop computers. The more traditional desktop model fea- tures a horizontally oriented system > unit, which usually lies lat on the top of the user's desk, Many users place their monitor on tap of the system unit (see Figure 14.7). Vertically oriented tower models GumlsLee ce have become the more popular style i Se ne ELE af desktop system (see Figure ETN ae tke \\ zg IAS). This design allows the user tf to place the system unit next te or under the desk, if desired. 2s | QURE ARS Workstations A workstation is a specialized, single-user computer that typically has more power and fearures than a standard desktop PC (sce Figure LA.9). These machines are pop- ular among scientists, engineers, and animators whe need a system with greaterthan-average speed and the power to perform sophisticated tacks, Workstations often have large, resolution monitors and accelerated graphics huandling capabilities, making them suitable for advanced archi- tcctural or engiucering design, modeling, animation, and video editing. This desktop PC fs a “tower dasign witha system unt tha its upright an can ba placed on either te de, or te tor, @ tcme Hl temeteoinn aD workstations, vi bnttpet mew. mitine. com petemorton. Notebook Computers Notebook computers, as their name implies, approximate the shape of an 8.5-by-L1-inch notebook and casily fit inside a briefcase, Because people fre- quently set these devices on their lap, they are also called laptop computers. Notebook computers can operate on alternating current or special bat- co | FIGURE 14.9 Werkstatin computers are favored by engineers and designers wo need a hig performance system, 7 wriesy’These amazing devices gener- @ Nor FOR NE ally weigh less than eight pounds, and some even weigh less than three pounds! During use, the computer's ld is raised to L1 Fee mec information on reveal a thin monitor and a keyboard. When not in use, the device folds up far easy rctebook computers, it storage. Natchooks are fully functional microcomputers; the people who use them tps murine. comd need the power of a full-size desktop computer wherever they go (see Figure petermarton, 1A.10). Because of their portability, notebook PCs fall into a category of devices 6 Chapter 1called mobile computers—systems small enough to be carried by their user Some notebook systems are designed to be plugged into a docking station, which may include a large monitor, a full-size keyboard and mouse, or ather devices (see Figure 14,11), Dacking stations also pro- vide additional ports that enable the note- book computer to be connected to different devices or a network in the same manner as a desktop system. Tablet PCs ‘The tablet PC is the newest development in portable, full-featured computers (sce Figure 14.12). Tablet PCs offer all the functionality of a notebook PC, but they are lighter and can accept input from a special pen—called a stylus or a digital pen—that is used ta tap or write dircetly on the screen. Many tablet PCs also have a built-in microphone and special soft- ware that accepts input from the user's voice. A few models even have a fold-out keyboard, so they can be transformed into a standard notebook PC. Tablet PCs run specialized versions af standard programs and can be connected to a net- work, Some models also can be connected to a keyboard and a full-size monitor. Handheld PCs Handheld personal computers are com- puting devices small cnaugh to fit in your hand (see Figure 1A.13). A popular type of handheld computer is the personal digital assistant (PDA). A PDA is no larger than a small appointment book and is normally used for special applica- tions, such as taking notes, displaying telephone numbers and addresses, and keeping track of dates or agendas. Many PDAs can be connected to larger com purers to exchange data, Most PDAs come with a pen that lets the user write on the screen. Some handheld computers feature tiny built-in keyboards or micro- phones that allaw voice input. Many PDAs let the user access the Internet through a wireless connection, and several models offer features such as cellular telephones, cameras, music players, and slabal positioning systems. Smart Phones Some cellular phones double as miniature PCs (see Figure 1A.14). Because these phones offer advanced features not typically found in. cellular phones, they are sometimes FIGURE 74.10 Hd Notebook computers have the pow ane features of desktop PCs but ae Eght and portable. NOUSHLINE @ For more information on a tablet PCS, visit http://wwwembhe.com/ eternorton. FIGURE 14.14 ‘Adocking station ca maka a notback cena fl Ihe a Gasktop system, by adnga full-size monty, keyboard, ad ‘ther features. Novi Sic —| Fer mee information on handheld PCS, vist Iittputwevamihhe.comy petemorton, ‘ | Nove cINe @ | ‘For more information on — ‘dent phones, visit Inttpdwarveminne.com peternorton, FIGURE 14.12 Tablet PC are gaining in popularity amang provessicnals who need 0 taka fos of notes and deal with hand -drn documents, such as areitects Introducing Computer Systems 7FIGURE 18.13 ONLINE FIGURE 14.15 desktop 5 shared computer, Chapter'4 called smart phones. These features can include Web and c-mail access, special software such as personal organizers, or special hardware such as digital cameras or music players. Some models even break in half to reveal a miniature keyboard. Computers for Organizations Some computers handle the needs of many rf users ar the samte time, Thése powerful systems are most often used by organizations, such as businesses or schools, and are commonly found at the heart of the organization's network. Generally, each user interacts with the computer through his or her own de- ¢, freeing people from having to wait their turn at a single keyboard and mon~ itor (see Figure 1.15), The largest organizational computers support thousands of individual users at the same time, from thousands of miles away. While some of these large-scale systems are devoted to a special purpose, enabling users to perform only a few specific tasks, many organizational computers are general- purpose systems that support a wide variety of tasks. Network Servers Today, most organizations’ networks are based on personal computers. Individ- ual users have their own desktop computers, which are connected to one or more centralized computers, called network servers, A network server is usually a powerful personal computer with special software and equipment that enable it to function as the primary computer in the net work, ased networks and servers offer companies a great deal ty: For example, large organizations may have dozens or hundreds of individual servers working together at the heart of their network (sce Figure 1A.16). When set up in such groups— sometimes called clusters or server farms—network servers may not even resemble standard PCs, For example, they may be mounted in large racks or reduced to small units called “blades,” which can be slid in and out of a case. In these lange networks, differ- ent groups of servers may have different pur poses, such as supporting a certain sct of users, handling printing tasks, enabling Inter- net communications, and so on. A PC-based server gives users flexibility to do different kinds of tasks (see Figure LA.17), This is because PCs are general-purpose machines, designed to be used in many ways. For example, some users may rely on the server for e-mail access, some may use it to perform accounting tasks, and others may use it to perform word-processing or database+ management jobs. The server can support these processes, and many others, while storing information and programs for many people ro use,Depending on how the network is set i 2 FIQURE 14.16 up, users may be able to access the server in multiple ways. Of course, mest users Large comorata networks can use have a standard desktop PC on their desk that is permanently connected to the net- work. Mobile users, hawever, may be able to connect a notebook PC or a handheld device to the network by wireless means. When they are away from the office, users may be able to use the Internet as.a means of connecting to the company’s network servers (see Figure 14.18), Mainframe Computers Mainframe computers are used in large organizations such as insurance compa- nies and banks, where many people fre= quently need ta use the same data. In a traditional mainframe environment, each user accesses the mainframes resources through a device called a terminal (see Figure 1.19). There are two kinds of ter- minals. A dumb terminal does not process or store data; it is simply an input/output (WO) device that functions as a window into a computer located somewhere else. ‘An intelligent terminal can perform some processing operations, but it usually does not have any storage. In some mainframe environments, however, workers can use a standard personal computer to access the mainframe, ‘Mainframes are large, powerful sys- tems (sce Figure 1.20). The largest main- frames can handle the processing needs of thousands of users at any given moment. But what these systems offer in power, they lack in flexibility. Most mainframe systems are designed to handle only 2 specific set of tasks. In your state's Department of Motor Vehicles, for example, a mainframe system is prab- ably devoted to storing information about drivers, vehicles, and driver's licenses, but little or nothing else. By limiting the number of tasks the system must per- form, administrators preserve as much power as possible for eequired operations. You may have interacted with a mainframe system with: out even knowing it. For exam- ple, if you have ever visited an es Web site to reserve a t, you probably conducted a transaction with a mainframe computer. rrasndeame¢ btwn ni peternorton. FIGURE 10.17 FIGURE 14.18 (ea access thet tion's natok na ra ey 9. Introducing Computer Systems 9FIGURE 18.19 Huncreds, even thousands, of maintrame ‘users may uss terminals ta wate wth the ‘ental compute, ‘alone in special racrns, away from Bioir sas, @ NOrtSWLINE For more information on minicommputrs, visit http://www mhbe-corn petemnarton. SELF-CHECK :: Circle the correct answer for each question. 41. Any computer is cantrlied by a hardware such as engineers? ‘a. workstation Vehicles? a. smaft phone 10 Chapter. b. information 2. Which of these is a powerful type of personal computer, favored by professionals bi, notebook 3. Which type of computer wil you mast tkely encounter atthe Department of Mator b, maintrame Minicomputers First released in the 1960s, minicomputcrs got their aame because of their small size compared co other computers of the day. The capabilities of a minicomputer are somewhere berween those of mainframes and personal computers. For this reason, minicompurers are often called midcange computers, Like mainframes, minicomputers can handle much more input and output than personal computers can. Although some “minis” are designed for a single user, the most powerful minicomputers ccan serve the input and ourpur needs of hundreds of users at a time. Users can access a central minicomputer through a terminal or a standard PC. 6. instructions c. mainframe Supercomputers Supercomputers are the most powerful computers made, and physically they are some of the largest (see Figure 1A.21). These systems can process huge ¢. supercomputer