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Dental Caries Vaccine: Eview Rticle
Dental Caries Vaccine: Eview Rticle
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Department of Preventive and Community Dentistry, 1 Department of Oral and Maxillofacial Pathology, Sharad Pawar Dental College and Hospital, Datta Meghe Institute of Medical Sciences (Deemed University), Sawangi (Meghe), Wardha Maharashtra, 442 004, 2 Department of Preventive and Community Dentistry, College of Dental Sciences, Davangere, Karnataka - 577 004, India
ABSTRACT
Dental caries is one of the most common diseases in humans. In modern times, it has reached epidemic proportions. Dental caries is an infectious microbiologic disease of the teeth that results in localized dissolution and destruction of the calcified tissue. Dental caries is a mulitifactorial disease, which is caused by host, agent, and environmental factors. The time factor is important for the development and progression of dental caries. A wide group of microorganisms are identified from carious lesions of which S. mutans, Lactobacillus acidophilus, and Actinomyces viscosus are the main pathogenic species involved in the initiation and development of dental caries. In India, surveys done on school children showed caries prevalence of approximately 58%. Surveys among the U.S. population showed an incidence of 45.3% in children and 93.8% in adults with either past or present coronal caries. Huge amounts of money and time are spent in treating dental caries. Hence, the prevention and control of dental caries is the main aim of public health, eventually the ultimate objective of public health is the elimination of the disease itself. Recently, dental caries vaccines have been developed for the prevention of dental caries. These dental caries vaccines are still in the early stages. Key words: Dental caries, dental caries vaccine, streptococcus mutans
Received : 26-10-07 Review completed : 27-10-07 Accepted : 09-08-08 PubMed ID : 19336869 DOI: 10.4103/0970-9290.49066
Dental caries is an infectious microbiologic disease of the teeth that results in localized dissolution and destruction of the calcied tissue.[1,2] Dental caries is one of the most common diseases in humans.[3,4] In modern times, it has reached epidemic proportions. The prevalence of dental caries in developed countries varies greatly and can reach over 90%. The rate of Caries has been increasing in developing countries with the increase in the popularity of highly refined sugars. The development of dental caries requires the presence of cariogenic bacteria that are capable of producing acid and a sugar present in the diet which favors the colonization of these bacteria to form acid.[3,5] Dental caries appears to be a major public health problem which if left untreated can cause considerable pain, discomfort, and treatment costs are very high. Dental caries results from the interaction between the host, the hosts diet, and the microora on the tooth surface bounded by the time factor.[6] A wide group of microorganisms are identied from carious lesions of which Streptococcus mutans ( S. mutans) , Lactobacillus acidophilus , and Actinomyces viscosus are the main pathogenic species involved in the initiation and development of dental caries.[7,8] S. mutans has been implicated as a causative organism of dental caries. [4,9] S. mutans accounts for seven distinct species isolated from animals and humans; Streptococcus cricetus, Streptococcus ferus, Streptococcus
Address for correspondence: Dr. Shivakumar KM, E-mail: kmshivakumar@rediffmail.com 99
macacae, Streptococcus rattus, Streptococcus downey, S. mutans, and Streptococcus sobrinus. S. mutans and Streptococcus sobrinus are exclusively isolated from humans and S. mutans is the most prevalent species.[10]
The traditional way of managing dental caries was by a surgical approach of drill and ll. This approach has slowly evolved into a more conservative mode. Various preventive measures have been implicated for the prevention of dental caries, among which is immunization of the population against the disease. [7] Many studies have been conducted on the development of an effective vaccine to prevent the occurrence of dental caries. A review of literature pertaining to a dental caries vaccine is presented.
VACCINES
Vaccines are an immuno-biological substance designed to produce specic protection against a given disease. It stimulates the production of a protective antibody and other immune mechanisms. Vaccines are prepared from live modied organisms, inactivated or killed organisms, extracted cellular fractions, toxoids, or a combination thereof.[11]
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animal or human, there is a latent period of induction of 3 to 10 days before antibodies appear in the blood. The antibody that is elicited rst is entirely of the IgM type. The IgM antibody titer rises steadily during the next 2 to 3 days, reaches a peak level, and then declines almost as fast as it developed. Meanwhile, if the antigenic stimulus was sufcient, the IgG antibody appears in a few days. IgG reaches a peak in 7 to 10 days and then gradually falls over a period of weeks or months. An important outcome of the primary antigenic challenge is the education of the reticuloendothelial system of the body. Both B and T lymphocytes produce what are known as memory cells or primed cells. These cells are responsible for the immunological memory that is established after immunization.[11,12]
surface. There is now sufcient evidence to postulate what may happen after subcutaneous immunization with S. mutans. The organism is phagocytosed and undergoes antigenic processing by macrophages. In the lymphoid tissue, T and B-lymphocytes are sensitized by the macrophages preventing the antigen HLA ClassII complex and releasing IL-I. This induces the CD-4 helper and CD-8 cytotoxic suppressor cell response with the activation of IL-2 receptors and the release of IL2. The interaction between the cells play an essential part in modulating the formation of IgG, IgA, and IgM classes of antibodies and B-lymphocytes.[3,15,16]
STUDIES
a) Animal studies
Rodents are attractive as experimental laboratory animals because they are inexpensive and easy to maintain. Rapid decay of their teeth can be induced by S. mutans when present during the provision of a sugar containing diet. The ability to establish large experimental groups and to arrive at an accurate diagnosis of caries by examination of the tooth surface also makes rodents a good choice for laboratory animals.[17] Immunization experiments with cells of S. mutans both in rats and monkeys have consistently resulted in a signicant decrease in dental caries. Puried components of S. mutans have been used only to a limited extent. Protection has been induced by immunization with GTF in rats. Recently, immunization with puried protein antigen I/II, which resides in the cell wall of S. mutans, has induced protection against caries. The latter utilizes only one subcutaneous injection of the antigen with adjuvant, unlike all other experiments, which have not been performed in rhesus monkeys and have used from 5 to 15 injections. Immunization with whole cells of S. mutans or with puried I/II antigen produces a reduction of about 70% in both smooth surface and ssure caries when compared with controls.[18] In gnotobiotic rats, ingestion of whole S. mutans selectively produces S-IgA. The appearance of S-IgA correlated with a reduced incidence of the caries vaccine.[17,19] The rst report of successful immunization of monkeys against caries was by Bowen who injected whole cells S. mutans into Macaca fascicularis monkeys.[7] Rats and monkeys have been largely used in immunization studies. The principal design in most of the experiments has been to rst immunize the animals with an antigen from S. mutans incorporated in an adjuvant as frequently as is necessary to attain high antibody levels, and follow this by implanting the same organism in the mouth and placing the animals on a high sucrose diet. Some of the experiments have been designed to aim for salivary immunity and others have been designed to aim for systemic immunity.[3] There have been reports of the successful use of GTF as an anticaries vaccine in rats and hamsters, but neither crude preparations, nor a highly puried GTF conferred any
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protection on monkeys.[20]
b) Human studies
As dental caries fullls the criteria of an infectious disease, the possibility of preventing it by vaccination has been pursued. The rationale is that immunization with S. mutans should induce an immune response, which might prevent the organism from colonizing the tooth surface, and thereby prevent decay. As a vaccine would be administered before the deciduous dentition has erupted at about 6 months of age, it would prevent the disease in children who show the greatest incidence of caries. The vaccine could be given at the same time as the vaccines against diphtheria and tetanus. Immunity could be boosted at intervals thereafter to provide life-long protection. The existing delivery system of immunization could be used, without any nancial burden being incurred.[3] Currently, clinical trials are underway to test the use of a pill of S. mutans for control of caries. There have been some conicting results thus far in human studies. Some workers have actually reported a negative correlation between S-IgA and caries prevalence. However, this result could be the result of the experimental design. It has been shown that ingestion of capsules containing S. mutans stimulates the production of S-IgA. Stimulation of serum immunoglobulin in humans has also produced mixed results and no correlation could be made between caries experience and serum immunoglobulin stimulation.[8,13]
GLUCOSYLTRANSFERASE
S. mutans has three forms of glucosyltransferases (GTFs):
Water insoluble glucan synthesizing enzyme: GTF-I Water insoluble and water-soluble glucan synthesizingenzymes: GTF-S-I Water-soluble glucan synthesizing enzymes: GTF-S
The genes encoding GTF-I, GTF-SI, and GTF-S are called the GTF-B, GTF-C, and GTF-D genes, respectively. All three GTF genes are important for smooth surface caries formation in the pathogen-free rat model system. Streptococcus sobrinus produces a water insoluble glucan-synthesizing enzyme GTF-S. The GTF-I gene encoding GTF-I and the GTF-S and GTF-T genes encoding two GTF-S enzymes have been cloned.[21,23,24] S. mutans and Streptococcus sobrinus each synthesize several GTFs.[25] Glucan binding protein (GBP): S. mutans secretes at least three distinct proteins with glucan binding activity: GBP-A, GBP-B, and GBP-C. Of the three S. mutans GBPs, only GBP-B has been shown to induce a protective immune response to experimental dental caries. GBP-A has a sequence of 563 amino acids. The molecular weight is 59.0 Kda. The carboxy-terminal 2/3rd of GBP-A sequence has signicant homology with a putative glucan binding region of S. mutans GTFs. The C-terminal region contains 16 repeating units, which represent the full glucan-binding domain of this protein. GBP-A has a greater afnity for water soluble glucan than for water insoluble glucan. Dextranases: Dextran is an important constituent of early dental plaque. Dextranase is an enzyme produced by mutans Streptococcus. They destroy dextran and thus the bacteria can invade dextran-rich early dental plaque. Dextranase, when used as an antigen, can prevent the colonization of the organism in early dental plaque.[7]
ROUTES OF IMMUNIZATION
In general, 4 routes of immunization have been used with S. mutans: 1. Oral 2. Systemic (subcutaneous) 3. Active gingivo-salivary 4. Passive dental immunization
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constitutes the major immune component of major and minor salivary gland secretions. Many investigators have shown that exposure of an antigen to a mucosally associated lymphoid tissue in the gut, nasal, bronchial, or rectal site can give rise to immune responses not only in the region of induction but also in remote locations. This has given rise to the notion of a common mucosal immune system. Consequently, several mucosal routes have been used to induce protective immune responses to dental caries vaccine antigens.[22,26] 1. Oral route Many of the earlier studies relied on oral induction of immunity in the GALT to elicit protective salivary IgA antibody responses. In these studies, an antigen was applied by oral feeding, gastric intubation, or in vaccine containing capsules or liposome.[22] Killed S. mutans was administered to germ-free rats in drinking water for 45 days before implantation of live S. mutans and then throughout the experimental period. A signicant reduction in caries was related to an increased level of salivary IgA antibodies to S. mutans, as the serum antibody titer was minimal. Oral immunization with S. mutans did not induce signicant secretory IgA in monkeys. Daily administration of 10[11] cells of S. mutans in capsules produced a small increase in secretory IgA. The oral route failed to reduce caries signicantly, as compared with subcutaneous immunization. The rise in secretory antibodies produced was small and of short duration, even after secondary immunization. Experiments in humans of the ingestion of S. mutans in gelatins capsules resulted in an increase in secretory IgA antibodies in saliva, although for a limited time only. Immunological memory in secretory IgA responses is rather limited and this may curtail the value of oral immunization.[3] Although the oral route was not ideal for reasons including the detrimental effects of stomach acidity on antigen, or because inductive sites were relatively distant, experiments with this route established that induction of mucosal immunity alone was sufcient to change the course of infection with S. mutans and disease in animal models and in humans.[22,26-28] 2. Intranasal route More recently, attempts have been made to induce protective immunity in mucosal inductive sites that are in closer anatomical relationship to the oral cavity. Intranasal installation of the antigen, the nasal associated lymphoid tissue (NALT), has been used to induce immunity to many bacterial antigens including those associated with mutans Streptococcal colonization and accumulation. Protective immunity after infection with cariogenic mutans streptococci could be induced in rats by the intranasal route with many S. mutans antigens or functional domains associated with these components. Protection could be demonstrated with S. mutans Ag I/II, the SBR of Ag I/II, a 19-mer sequence within the SBR, the glucan binding domain of S. mutans, GBP-B, and mbrial preparations from
Indian J Dent Res, 20(1), 2009
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successfully in monkeys and elicited predominantly serum IgG, IgM, and IgA antibodies. The antibodies nd their way into the oral cavity via gingival crevicular uid and are protective against dental caries. Whole cells, cell walls, and the 185 KD Streptococcal antigen have been administered on 2 to 4 occasions. A subcutaneous injection of killed cells of S. mutans in Freunds incomplete adjuvant or aluminium hydroxide elicits IgG, IgM, and IgA classes of antibodies. Studies have shown that IgG antibodies are well maintained at a high titer, IgM antibodies progressively fall and IgA antibodies increase slowly in titer. The development of serum IgG antibodies takes place within months of immunization, reaching a tire of up to 1:1280 with no change in antibodies being found in the corresponding sham-immunized monkeys. Protection against caries was associated predominantly with increased serum IgG antibodies.[3]
of a rat model. The immune whey brought a reduction in the caries level. This whey was also used in a mouth rinse, which resulted in a lower percentage of S. mutans in the plaque.[3,29] Egg-yolk antibodies The novel concept of using hen egg-yolk antibodies against the cell-associated glucosyltransferase of S. mutans was introduced by Hamada. Vaccines used were formalin killed whole cells and cell associated GTFs. Caries reduction has been found with both these treatments.[3] Transgenic plants The latest in these developments in passive immunization is the use of transgenic plants to give the antibodies. The researchers have developed a caries vaccine from a genetically modied (GM) tobacco plant. The vaccine, which is colorless and tasteless, can be painted onto the teeth rather than injected and is the rst plant derived vaccine from GM plants.[30] The advantages are listed below: The genetic material can be easily exchanged. It is possible to manipulate the antibody structure so that while the specicity of the antibody is maintained, the constant region can be modied to adapt to human conditions, thus avoiding cross reactivity. Large scale production is possible as it would be quite inexpensive.[29]
Passive immunization
As the name suggests, passive immunization involves passive or external supplementation of the antibodies. This carries the disadvantage of repeated applications, as the immunity conferred is temporary. Several approaches tried were: Monoclonal antibodies Monoclonal antibodies to S. mutans cell surface antigen I/ II have been investigated. The topical application in human subjects brought a marked reduction in the implanted S. mutans. Thus, by bypassing the system, less concern exists about the potential side effects.[3,29] Bovine milk and whey Systemic immunization of cows with a vaccine using whole S. mutans led to the bovine milk and whey containing polyclonal IgG antibodies. This was then added to the diet
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alone rarely results in elevated or sustained IgA responses. However, the addition of small amounts of CT or the closely related E. coli heat-labile enterotoxins (LT) can greatly enhance mucosal immune responses to intragastrically or intranasally applied mutans Streptococcal antigens or to peptides derived from these antigens. The coupling of the protein with the nontoxic unit of the cholera toxin was effective in suppressing the colonization of S. mutans.[22,24,29] Fusing with salmonella: The avirulent strains of salmonella are an effective vaccine vector; fusion using recombinant techniques have been used.[29] Microcapsules and microparticles: Combinations of antigens in or various types of particles have been used in an attempt to enhance mucosal immune responses. The microcapsules and microparticles made of poly lactide-co-glycolide (PLGA) have been used as local delivery systems because of their ability to control the rate of release, evade preexistent antibody clearance mechanisms, and degrade slowly without eliciting an inammatory response to the polymer.[29] Liposomes: Liposomes, which are bilayered phospholipids membrane vesicles manufactured to contain and deliver drugs and antigens, have been used to enhance mucosal responses to mutans Streptococcal carbohydrate and GTF. Liposomes are thought to improve mucosal immune responses by facilitating M cell uptake and delivery of antigen to lymphoid elements of inductive tissue.[22,29]
sub-unit vaccine for controlling dental caries has been the focus of intense research interest. Glucosyltransferase was also tested for cross-reactivity with human heart tissue and the results were negative.[21,33] Further research showed that the C-terminal part of Ag I/II contains an epitope, which is cross-reactive with human IgG and, although the clinical signicance of this observation is unknown, it appears that this potentially harmful epitope should be excluded from a caries vaccine. The human IgG cross-reactive region is also present in other mutans streptococci such as Streptococcus sobrinus as well as in non mutans streptococci.[33]
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caries-preventive methods. Therefore, it was thought that vaccination against dental caries could be of great value as a preventive adjunct in some societies and as a major public health measure in others. It ought to be stressed, however, that a thorough analysis of the need, cost benets, and riskbenets of a vaccine against dental caries in various societies and subgroups has to be performed.[31]
DISCUSSION
Loesche[34] stated that dental caries is one of the most widespread diseases of mankind. S. mutans is the primary etiologic agent of dental caries that are transmissible. It is also said that a strong association exists between the level of colonization with S. mutans and dental caries, although other organisms such as Lactobacilli have also been implicated in this disease. Adding to this, the studies conducted by Caueld, et al.[35] stated that under normal circumstances of diet, children become permanently colonized with S. mutans between the middle of the 2nd year and the end of the 3rd year of life. This period is called the window of infectivity. Many studies were conducted on active immunization. Childers, et al.[36] immunized adults orally by using enteric coated capsules lled with crude Streptoccoccus mutans Gs-5 GTF antigen preparation contained in liposome, resulting in the production of parotid salivary IgA antibodies. Similarly, the studies by Childers, et al.[37] have shown that nasal immunization with dehydrated liposome containing GTRF preparation induced significant IgA antibody response in nasal washes. However, the studies by Smith, et al.[38] reported that mucosal immunization with GTF could influence the re-emergence of mutans Streptococci in adults after a dental prophylaxis. Although the oral route was not ideal for reasons such as the detrimental effects of stomach acidity on antigens or because inductive sites were relatively distant, experiments with this route established that induction of mucosal immunity alone was sufcient to change the course of mutans Streptococci infection and disease in animal models by Michalek, et al.[39] and humans by Smith, et al.[38] Most recently, attempts have been made to induce protective immunity in mucosal inductive sites closes to the oral cavity. Studies conducted by Katz, et al.[40] have demonstrated that intranasal immunization of rats with AgI/II - CTB induced a protective salivary immune response, which was associated with a reduction in Streptococci mutans colonization and Streptococci mutans induced caries. The studies by Brandtzaed[41] have shown that tonsillar application of antigens to the palatine tonsils i.e., nasopharyngeal tonsils may contribute precursor cells to mucosal effectors sites such as salivary glands. The experiments performed by Schroeder, et al.[42] have shown that Streptococcus sobrinus GTF was topically administered on the lower lips of young adults and suggested that this route may have potential for dental caries vaccine delivery. Kleanthous, et al.[43] conducted experiments through rectal immunization with non oral bacteria antigens such as
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H. pylori resulting in secretory IgA antibodies in distant salivary sites. Filler, et al.[44] conducted experiments on passive immunization and showed that passive immune protection can be achieved with antibodies to GTF or GBPs mouth rinses containing bovine milk or hen egg yolk . Childers, et al.[45] reported that the antibody to S. mutans cells lead to a modest, short-term decrease in the number of Streptococci mutans in saliva or dental plaque.
CONCLUSION
Clearly, there is strong evidence that S. mutans and Streptococcus sobrinus are closely associated with dental caries. Fluoride treatment used abroad has successfully limited caries progression, but was not sufcient to control this infectious disease even when used together with professional tooth cleaning and dietary counseling in populations highly exposed to these cariogenic microbiota. Active and passive immunization strategies, which target key elements in the molecular pathogenesis of mutans Streptococci, hold promise. Integrating these approaches into broad-based public health programs may yet forestall dental caries disease in many of the worlds children, among whom those of high risk might derive the greatest benet. Despite the encouraging decline in dental caries observed in recent years in many populations, millions of children remain at risk of experiencing extensive tooth decay and it is particularly distressing that many of those suffering will be among the least likely to obtain satisfactory treatment. Along with established methods of caries prevention, caries vaccines have the potential of making a highly valuable contribution to disease control. In the meantime, basic research on the mode of action of caries vaccine and the search for new, more effective, and possibly polyvalent vaccines must continue if we are to fully explore their potential for helping us in the struggle against dental caries. Regardless of the mechanism by which immune protection against dental caries is achieved, further advances to make immunization against caries practical will depend upon clinical trials aimed at establishing whether the ndings from animal experiments can be transferred to humans. Particular goals for such studies include determining whether appropriate immune responses can be safely generated in humans, especially in susceptible age groups and whether such responses will afford desirable levels of protection. Although several methods such as topical or systemic use of uorides, ssure sealants, and dietary control have been developed to prevent dental caries, the efcacy of these methods is not enough to eradicate dental caries in humans; however, there are a few studies on the efcacy of caries vaccines in humans.
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How to cite this article: Shivakumar KM, Vidya SK, Chandu GN. Dental caries vaccine. Indian J Dent Res 2009;20:99-106. Source of Support: Nil, Conict of Interest: None declared.
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