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BASIC HYDRAULICS
Fluid power systems have developed rapidly over the past 35 years. Today, fluid power technology is used in every phase of human existence. The extensive use of hydraulics to transmit power is due to the fact that properly constructed fluid power systems possess a number of favorable characteristics. They eliminate the need for complicated systems of gears, cams, and levers. Motion can be transmitted without the slack or mechanical looseness inherent in the use of solid machine parts. The fluids used are not subject to breakage as are mechanical parts, and the mechanisms are not subjected to great wear. The operation of a typical fluid power system is illustrated in Figure 1-1. Oil from a tank or reservoir flows through a pipe into a pump. An electric motor, air motor, gas or steam turbine, or an internal combustion engine can drive the pump. The pump increases the pressure of the oil. The actual pressure developed depends on the design of the system. The high-pressure oil flows in piping through a control valve. The control valve changes the direction of oil flow. A relief valve, set at a desired, safe operating pressure, protects the system from an overpressure condition. The oil that enters the cylinder acts on the piston, with the pressure acting over the area of the piston, developing a force on the piston rod. The force on the piston rod enables the movement of a load or device.

STATES OF

MA~ER

The material that makes up the universe is known as matter. Matter is defined as any substance that occupies space and has weight. Matter exists in three states: solid, liquid, and gas. Each has distinguishing characteristics. Solids have a defined volume and a definite shape. Liquids have a definite volume, but take the shape of their containing vessels. Gases have neither a definite shape nor a definite volume. Gases not

Fluid Power Dynamics

Figure 1-1 Basic hydraulic system.

only take the shape of the containing vessel, but also expand to fill the vessel, regardless of its volume. Examples of the states of matter are iron, water, and air. Matter can change from one state to another. Water is a good example. At high temperatures, above 212" Fahrenheit (OF), it is in a gaseous state known as steam. At moderate temperatures, it is liquid, and at low temperatures, below 32"F, it becomes ice, a solid. In this example, the temperature is the dominant factor in determining the state that the substance assumes. Pressure is another important factor that will affect changes in the state of matter. At pressures lower than atmospheric, 14.7 psi, water will boil and thus change to steam at temperatures below 212F. Pressure is also a critical factor in changing some gases to liquids or solids. Normally, when pressure and chilling are both applied to a gas, the gas assumes a liquid state. Liquid air,which is a mixture of oxygen and nitrogen, is produced in this manner. In the study of fluid power, we are concerned primarily with the properties and characteristics of liquids and gases. However, you should keep in mind that the properties of solids also affect the characteristics of liquids and gases. The lines and components, which are solids, enclose and control the liquid or gas in their respective systems.

DEVELOPMENT OF HYDRAULICS
The use of hydraulics is not new. The Egyptians and people of ancient Persia, India, and China conveyed water along channels for irrigation and other domestic purposes. They used dams and sluice gates to control the flow and waterways to direct the water to where it was needed. The ancient Cretans had elaborate plumbing systems. Archimedes studied the laws of floating and submerged bodies. The Romans constructed aqueducts to carry water to their cities.

Basic Hydraulics

After the breakup of the ancient world, there were few new developments for many centuries. Then, over a comparatively short period,beginning near the end of the seventeenth century, Italian physicist Evangelista Tomcelli, French physicist Edme Mariotte, and later Daniel Bernoulli conducted experiments to study the force generated by the discharge of water through small openings in the sides of t a n k s and through short pipes. During the same perid Blaise Pascal, a French scientist, discovered the fundamentallaw for the science of hydraulics. Pascals law states that an increase in pressure on the surface of a confined fluid is transmitted throughout the confining vessel or system without any loss of pressure. Figure 1-2 illustrates the transmission of forces through liquids. For Pascals law to become effective for practical applications, a piston or ram confined within a close tolerance cylinder was needed. It was not until the latter part of the eighteenth century that methods were developed that could manufacture the snugly fitted parts required to make hydraulic systems practical. This was accomplished by the invention of machines that were used to cut and shape the necessary closely fitted parts, and particularly by the development of gaskets and packing. Since that time, components such as valves, pumps, actuating cylinders, and motors have been developed and refined to make hydraulics one of the leading methods of transmitting power.

USE OF HYDRAULICS

The hydraulic press, invented by Englishman John Brahmah, was one of the first workable machines that used hydraulics in its operation. It consisted of a plunger pump piped to a large cylinder and a ram. This press found wide use in England because it provided a more effective and economical means of applying large, uniform forces in industrial uses. Today, hydraulic power is used to operate many different tools and mechanisms. In a garage, a mechanic raises the end of an automobile with a hydraulic jack. Dentists and

Figure 1-2 Transmission of forces.

Fluid Power Dynamics

barbers use hydraulic power to lift and position their chairs. Hydraulic doorstops keep heavy doors from slamming. Hydraulic brakes have been standard equipment on automobiles since the 1930s. Most automobiles are equipped with automatic transmissions that are hydraulically operated. Power steering is another application of hydraulic power. Construction workers depend upon hydraulic power for their equipment. For example, the blade of a bulldozer is normally operated by hydraulic power.
Operation of Hydraulic Components

To transmit and control power through pressurized fluids, an arrangement of interconnected components is required. Such an arrangement is commonly referred to as a system. The number and arrangement of the components vary from system to system, depending on the particular application. In many applications, one main system supplies power to several subsystems, which are sometimes referred to as circuits. The complete system may be a small, compact unit or a large, complex system that has components located at widely separated points within the plant. The basic components of a hydraulic system are essentially the same, regardless of its complexity. These seven components, which must be in every hydraulic system, are as follows:
Reservoir or receiver. This is usually a closed tank or vessel that holds the volume of fluid required to support the system. The vessels normally provide several functions in addition to holding fluid reserves. The major functions include filtration of the fluid, heat dissipation, and water separation. Hydraulic pump. This is the energy source for hydraulic systems. It converts electrical energy into dynamic, hydraulic pressure. In almost all cases, hydraulic systems utilize positive displacement pumps as their primary power source. These are broken down into two primary subclassifications: constant-volume or variable-volume. In the former, the pumps are designed to deliver a fixed output (i.e., both volume and pressure) of hydraulic fluid. In the latter, the pump delivers only the volume or pressure required for specific functions of the system or its components. Control valves. The energy generated by the hydraulic pump must be directed and controlled so that the energy can be used. There are a variety of directional and functional control valves that are designed to provide a wide range of control functions. Actuating devices. The energy within a hydraulic system is of no value until it is converted into work. Typically, this is accomplished by using an actuating device of some type. This actuating device may be a cylinder, which converts the hydraulic energy into linear mechanical force; a hydraulic motor, which converts energy into rotational force; or a variety of other actuators designed to provide specific work functions. Relief valves. Most hydraulic systems use a positive displacement pump to generate energy within the system. Unless the pressure is controlled, these

Basic Hydraulics

pumps will generate excessive pressure that can cause catastrophic failure of system components. A relief valve is always installed downstream of the hydraulic pump to prevent excessive pressure and to provide a positive relief should a problem develop within the system. The relief valve is designed to open at a preset system pressure. When the valve opens, it diverts flow to the receiver tank or reservoir.
Lines (pipe, tubing, or flexible hoses). All systems require some means to transmit hydraulic fluid from one component to another. The material of the connecting lines will vary from system to system or within the system. Hydraulic fluid. The fluid provides the vehicle that transmits input power, such as from a hydraulic pump to the actuator device or devices that perform work.