Foundations of Research

Challenge to the Researcher

The researcher must have the ability to identify the sources of information which is of high quality and value which will give the best results when a particular decision is made by the management
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SCIENTIFIC METHOD
The use of a set of prescribed procedures for establishing and connecting theoretical statements about events and for predicting events yet unknown.

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OVERVIEW OF THE SCIENTIFIC METHOD

Assess relevant existing knowledge

Formulate concepts & Propositions

Statement of Hypotheses

Design research

Acquire empirical data

Analyze & evaluate data

Provide explanationstate new problem

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The Essential Tenets of Science

Direct observation of phenomena Clearly defined variables, methods, and procedures Empirically testable hypotheses Ability to rule out rival hypotheses Statistical justification of conclusions Self-correcting process
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The Hall marks of Scientific Research

Purposiveness
There is a clear aim or purpose (ex: Organizational commitment)

Rigor
Good theoretical base and sound methodological design

Testability
Looks at the testability of hypotheses generated when data is available

Replicability
Same research in another circumstance

Precision and Confidence

Standard error of estimate and Probability of our estimation

Objectivity
No elements of subjectivity or emotions

Generalizability
Applicability of the findings to other settings

Parsimony
Simplicity versus complexity
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Deductive reasoning
The logical process of deriving a conclusion from a known premise or something known to be true.
We know that all managers are human beings. If we also know that John Smith is a manager, then we can deduce that John Smith is a human being.

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Inductive reasoning
The logical process of establishing a general proposition on the basis of observation of particular facts.
All managers that have ever been seen are human beings; therefore all managers are human beings.

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Induction/Deduction Process
Laws and Theories

INDUCTION

DEDUCTION

Facts from Observation

Explanation and Prediction

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Induction and Deduction

A
Observation/ Description

B
Analysis

C
Explanation/ Hypothesis/ Theory

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Deductive
Develop Theory
Develop hypothesis Collect and Analyze Data Accept/Reject hypothesis
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Inductive
Develop Theory
Formulate relationship Analyze pattern and themes Observe phenomenon

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Fundamentals of Theory Building

Concepts Definition Variables Proposition and Hypotheses Theory Model
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CONCEPT (OR CONSTRUCT)

A generalized idea about a class of objects, attributes, occurrences, or processes that has been given a name Building blocks that abstract reality leadership, productivity, and morale gross national product, asset, and inflation
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Concept
A concept is a bundle of meanings or characteristics associated with certain events, objects, conditions, situations, and behaviors Concepts have been developed over time through shared usage

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Concept and Construct

Most abstract Work Interest Construct (Components unknown) Language Skills Construct Vocabulary

Abstract Level

Syntax Spelling Presentation Quality Construct

Manuscript Errors Format Accuracy Typing Speed menaip

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Most
Concrete

A LADDER OF ABSTRACTION FOR CONCEPTS

Increasingly more abstract
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Vegetation Fruit Banana Reality

Importance of Concepts in Research

How clear is our conceptualization? To what extent others understand the concept which is used?

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Definition and Operational Definition

Definition is the process of clarifying the meanings of the main variables of the research in detail Operational definition on the other hand is the definition stated in a measurable manner or procedure
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Example
Concept Definition Operationalization
Score from the Score Organisational Commitment (Mowday, Steers & Porter, 1979) Score from the Job Diagnostic Survey (JDS) Questionnaire (Hackman & Oldham, 1975) Organizational A situation where the individual feels Commitment he is compatible with the organization and is willing to remain as a member to achieve the goal Job Satisfaction The attitude possessed by an individual towards his work, as a result of the perception about the compatibility between the individual and the organization

Attitude

The individuals feeling towards a person or an object

Answers from a series of questions based on Likert scale

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ABSTRACT LEVEL
Concepts abstract reality. Propositions are statements concerned with the relationships among concepts.

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Proposition at abstract level

Concept A
(Reinforcement)

Concept B
(Habits)

Hypothesis at Empirical level

Dollar bonus for sales volume over quota

Always makes four sales calls a day

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Hypotheses
A hypothesis is a proposition that is empirically testable. It is an empirical statement concerned with the relationship among variables. A variable is anything that may assume different numerical values.

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Types of Hypotheses
Descriptive Hypothesis
Eighty percent of the share holders of ABC Company agrees to an increase in the cash dividend payout

Relational hypotheses divided into correlational and causal:

Imported cars are perceived by Malaysian people possessing higher quality as compared to local cars An increase in family income leads to increased in the savings percentage of families
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Types of Hypotheses
Directional Non-directional

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The Role of the Hypothesis

Guides the direction of the study Identifies facts that are relevant Suggests which form of research design is appropriate Provides a framework for organizing the conclusions that result

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What is a Good Hypothesis?

A good hypothesis should fulfill three conditions:
Must be adequate for its purpose Must be testable Must be better than its rivals

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Theories
Theories are nets cast to catch what we call the world: to rationalize, to explain, and to master it. We endeavor to make the mesh ever finer and finer.
Karl R. Popper

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TWO PURPOSES OF THEORY

Prediction Understanding

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THEORY
A coherent set of general propositions used as principles of explanation of the apparent relationships of certain observed phenomena.

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THEORY BUILDING A PROCESS OF INCREASING ABSTRACTION

Theories Propositions Concepts Observation of objects and events (reality )

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Increasingly more abstract

Value of Theory to Research

Narrows the range of facts we need to study Suggests which research approaches will yield the greatest meaning Suggests a data classification system Summarizes what is known about an object of study Predicts further facts that should be found
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Model
Representation of a system developed to study a part or the whole system The difference between theory and model is that theory is for explanation purposes whereas the role of the model is to represent the theory in a graphical or schematic way
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Variables
Independent Dependent Moderating Intervening

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Theoretical Framework
Conceptual model of how a researcher formulates the relationship amongst the variables identified as a function of
Past researches Logic and belief

Helps in the process of understanding and testing of the variables

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Developing a Research Model

Identify Concept

Operationalize Concept

Define Concept

Explore relationship between concepts

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The Characteristics of a Good Theoretical Framework

The main variables are identified and labeled Explain the relationship between 2 or more variables based on a theory If there are previous research about the phenomenon then the positive or negative relationship must be posited Explain why the posited relationship exists A schematic diagram must be presented so that the readers can visualize the relationship
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Exercise 1
A manager believes that good supervision and training will increase the production level of the workers

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Exercise 2
A manager finds that off-the-job training has a great impact on the productivity of the employees in his department. However, he also observes that employees above 50 years do not seem to derive much benefit and do not improve from such a training.

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Exercise 3
The manager of the ABC Company observes that the morale of employees in her company is low. She thinks that if the working conditions, pay scales, and the vacation benefits of the employees are bettered, the morale will improve. She doubts, though, that the pay scales is going to raise morale of all employees. Her guess is that those who have good side incomes will be happy with the increased pay and their morale will improve.
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