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Gradient, Divergence
& Curl
Ph-1002 Eng. Physics II
Scalar and vector fields
Imagine a cooling system of a reactor
which is using fluid as the cooler medium
vb
va
Fluid
Tc
Td
2
FIELD is a description of how a physical
quantity varies from one point to another
in the region of the field (and with time).
(a) Scalar fields
Ex: Depth of a lake, d(x, y)
Temperature in a room, T(x, y, z)
x
3
At any point P, we can measure the
temperature T.
The temperature will depend upon
whereabouts in the reactor we take the
measurement. Of course, the temperature
will be higher close to the radiator than the
opening valve.
Clearly the temperature T is a function of
the position of the point. If we label the
point by its Cartesian coordinates ( x, y, z ) ,
then T will be a function of x, y and z, i.e.
T = T ( x, y , z )
.
This is an example of a scalar field since 4
• A field is a quantity which can be specified everywhere in
space as a function of position.
7
Physical examples of scalar fields:
+ −
10
x, y, z ctt
uuu
r
dr
grad
uuu
r
Physical meaning:grad dr is the local variation of Φ
along dr. Particularly, grad Φ is perpendicular to the line Φ =
ctt.
11
Gradient operator
12
,
If T(r) is a scalar field, its gradient is defined in Cartesian
coordinates by
∂T ∂T ∂T
grad T = i+ j+ k
∂x ∂y ∂z
∇
It is usual to define the vector operator
which is called “del”. We can write
∂ ∂ ∂
∇ = i + j + k grad T ≡ ∇T
.
∂x ∂y ∂z
In general,
16
Gradient Perpendicular to T constant surfaces
Surface of constant T,
These are called level surfaces. Surfaces of constant T
→ →
dl dl
So for any in the surface ∇T ⋅ =0
dl dl
Conclusion is that; grad T is normal to a surface of constant T.
17
Geometrical Interpretation of the Gradient
(1.5)
dT = ∇T • dl = ∇Tdl cos θ
where θ is the angle between ∇T and dl. Now, if we fix the
magnitude dl and search around in various directions (that is, vary
θ), the maximum change in T evidently occurs when θ =0 (for then
cos θ = 1). That is for a fixed distance dl, dT is greatest when I
move in the same direction as ∇ T .
18
In the above two images, the scalar field is in black
and white, black representing higher values, and its
corresponding gradient is represented by blue arrows.
19
Example 1
If φ(x,y,z) = 3x2y– y2z2, find grad φ and ∇φ
at the point (1,2,−1).
20
Solution
∂φ ∂φ ∂φ
grad φ = ∇φ = i + j +k
∂x ∂y ∂z
= 6 xyi + (3 x − 2 yz ) j + (−2 y z )k
2 2 2
21
Example 2
If r = x 2 +y 2 +z 2
Find out ∇r =?
→ ^ ^ ^
here r =x i +y j +z k
Q.Show that
(a) ∇( r 2 ) =2r
^
1 r
(b) ∇ =− 2
r r
Example 3
Find φ ( x, y ) , if
∇φ = y cos x i + (sin x + e y ) j
Given φ (0,0) = 0.
23
Solution
Since ∇ φ = y cos x i + (sin x + e y
) j , we have
∂φ
∂φ = sin x + e y .....(2)
= y cos x .....(1) ∂y
∂x
Integrating (1) and (2) w.r.t. x and y
respectively, we obtain
φ = ∫ y cos xdx = y sin x + f ( y ) .....(3)
φ = ∫ (sin x + e y )dy = y sin x + e y + g ( x) .....(4)
24
Comparing (3) and (4), we can conclude
that
f ( y ) = e y + C and g ( x) = C
where C is an arbitrary constant of integration
Hence, φ ( x , y ) = y sin x + e y
+C
To find constant C, use φ (0,0) = 0.
φ (0,0) = 0 sin 0 + e 0 + C = 0
1+ C = 0
∴ C = −1
Therefore, φ ( x, y ) = y sin x + e − 1
y
♣ 25
Example 4
Find φ ( x, y, z ) if
∇φ = ( y − 2 xyz )i + (3 + 2 xy − x z ) j + (4 z − 3 x yz )k
2 3 2 3 3 2 2
and φ (0,0,0) = −2 .
26
Solution
We have ∂φ
= y 2 − 2 xyz 3 .....(1)
∂x
∂φ ∂φ
= 3 + 2 xy − x z .....(2)
2 3 = 4 z 3
− 3 x 2
yz 2
.....(3)
∂y ∂z
Integrating (1), (2) and (3) w.r.t. x, y and z
respectively, we obtain
φ = ∫ ( y − 2 xyz )dx = xy − x yz + f ( y, z ) .....(4)
2 3 2 2 3
φ = ∫ (3 + 2 xy − x 2 z 3 )dy = 3 y + xy 2 − x 2 yz 3 + g ( x, z ) .....(5)
φ = ∫ (4 z 3 − 3 x 2 yz 2 )dz = z 4 − x 2 yz 3 + h( x, y ) .....(6) 27
Comparing (4) with (5) and (6) we get
f ( y, z ) = 3 y + z 4 + C
Therefore
φ = xy − x yz + 3 y + z + C
2 2 3 4
28
Problem 5
→
Show that ∇φis a vector perpendicular
to the surface φ( x, y , z ) = k where k is const.
φ =φ( x, y , z ) = k
∂φ ∂φ ∂φ
dφ = dx + dy + dz = o
∂x ∂y ∂z
^
∂φ ∂φ ∂φ
i +j +k •(idx + jdy +kdz )
∂x ∂y ∂z
→ →
∇φ.d r = 0
29
Application of gradient:
Surface normal vector
A normal, n to a flat surface is a vector
which is perpendicular to that surface.
A normal, n to a non-flat surface at a point
P on the surface is a vector perpendicular
to the tangent plane to that surface at P.
n
z = f ( x, y )
30
Therefore, for a non-flat surface, the
normal vector is different, depending at
the point P where the normal vector is
located. n
z = f ( x, y )
P ( x0 , y0the
(iv) Hence, , z0 )unit normal vector at a point
∇φ ( x0 , y0 , z0 )
nˆ =
is ∇φ ( x0 , y0 , z0 ) 32
Example 5
Find the unit normal vector of the surface
at the indicated point.
(a) z = 6 − x 2 − y 2 at (−1,3,2)
(b) xe y
+ y 3
= z 2
at (1,0,−1)
33
Solution
(a) Rewrite z = 14 − x − y as
2
x 22
+ y 2
+ z 2
= 14
Thus, we obtain φ ( x , y , z ) = x 2
+ y 2
+ z 2
Then, ∇φ = 2 xi + 2 yj + 2 zk = 2( xi + yj + zk )
At the point (−1,3,2),
∇φ = 2(−i + 3 j + 2k ) and ∇φ = 2 (−1) 2 + 32 + 2 2 = 2 14
∇φ − i + 3 j + 2k
The unit normal vector is nˆ = =
∇φ 14
34
(b) Rewrite xe + y = z as xe + y − z = 0
y 3 2 y 3 2
Thus, we obtain φ ( x, y, z ) = xe + y − z
y 3 2
Then, ∇φ = e i + ( xe + 3 y ) j − 2 zk
y y 2
and ∇φ = 12 + 12 + 2 2 = 6
∇φ i + j + 2k
The unit normal vector is nˆ = =
∇φ 6
35
Divergence of Vector Fields
The divergence is an operator that
measures the magnitude of a vector field's
source or sink at a given point
The divergence of a vector field is a scalar
uu
r uu
r
V(x, y, z) V(x dx, y, z)
x x+dx 36
The divergence of a vector field
F ( x, y, z ) = F1 ( x, y, z )i + F2 ( x, y, z ) j + F3 ( x, y, z )k
is defined as
div F = ∇ ⋅ F
∂ ∂ ∂
= i + j + k ⋅ ( F1i + F2 j + F3k )
∂x ∂y ∂z
∂F1 ∂F2 ∂F3
= + +
∂x ∂y ∂z
37
Divergence
uu
r uu
r
V(x, y, z) V(x dx, y, z) ur
v(x, y, z) is a differentiable vector field
x x+dx
ur ur v vy vz
div v = v x uvu
x y z
2 – Physical meaning
ur
div v is associated to local conservation laws: for example, we
will show how that if the mass of fluid (or of charge) outcoming
from a domain is equal to the mass entering, then ur
ur div v 0
v is the fluid velocity (or the current) vectorfield 38
Geometrical Interpretation.
41
da represents an infinitesimal element of
area; it is a vector , whose magnitude is
the area of the element and whose
direction is perpendicular ( normal ) to the
surfaces, pointing outward.
da1 = ( dy dz ) iˆ
is
42
on the right face, it would be
da 2 = ( dz dx ) ˆj
whereas for the bottom it is
( )
da3 = ( dx dy ) − kˆ
43
Problem 1
Q. Calculate the divergence of the following
vector functions?
(a ) v1 = x i + 3 xz j − 2 xzk
2 2
45
X
Curl of Vector Fields
Curl is a vector operator that shows a vector
field's rate of rotation, i.e. the direction of the
axis of rotation and the magnitude of the
rotation.
∇×v = 0
ur
curl v 0
46
47
The curl of a vector field
F ( x, y, z ) = F1 ( x, y, z )i + F2 ( x, y, z ) j + F3 ( x, y, z )k
is defined as
i j k
∂ ∂ ∂
curl F = ∇ × F =
∂x ∂y ∂z
F1 F2 F3
∂F3 ∂F2 ∂F3 ∂F1 ∂F2 ∂F1
= i − − j − + k −
∂y ∂z ∂x ∂z ∂x ∂y
48
Problem 1
Z
i j k
∂ ∂ ∂
∇ × v3 = y
∂x ∂y ∂z
−y x 0
( ) ( )
^ ^
u = x + e sin ( yz ) i + x + e cos( yz ) j
x x , find the angular velocity ω.
^ ^ ^
i j k
∂ ∂ ∂
ω = ∇×u =
∂x ∂y ∂z
u v w
For the field,
u = ( x + e sin ( yz ) ) i + ( x + e cos( yz ) ) j
^ ^
x x
, we obtain:
^ ^ ^
i j k
∂ ∂ ∂
ω = ∇×u =
∂x ∂y ∂z
x + e sin ( yz )
x
x + e cos( yz )
x
0
∂
∂
( ∂
) ( ) ∂
( ) ( ) k
^ ^ ^
=− x + e x cos( yz ) i + x + e x sin ( yz ) j + x + e x cos( yz ) − x + e x sin ( yz )
∂z ∂z ∂x ∂y
{ }
^ ^ ^
= e y sin ( yz ) i + e y cos( yz ) j + 1 + e cos( yz ) − ze cos( yz ) k
x x x x
Fundamental theorem of curl
The fundamental theorem for curls, which goes by the special name of Stokes’
theorem, states that
∫ ( ∇ × v ) ⋅ da = ∫ v.dl
surface boundary
line
The integral of a curl over a region (a patch of surface) is equal to the value of the
function at the boundary (the perimeter of the patch).
54
Example 6
Find both div F and curl F at the point
(2,0,3) if
F( x, y, z ) = ze i + 2 xz cos yj + ( x + 2 y )k
2 xy
55
Solution
∂F1 ∂F2 ∂F3
div F = ∇ ⋅ F = + +
∂x ∂y ∂z
∂ ∂ ∂
= ( ze ) + (2 xz cos y ) + ( x + 2 y )
2 xy
∂x ∂y ∂z
= 2 yze 2 xy − 2 xz sin y
[Notice that div F is a scalar!]
58
Properties of Del
If F(x,y,z) and G(x,y,z) are differentiable
vector functions φ(x,y,z) and ψ(x,y,z) are
differentiable scalar functions, then
(i) ∇(φ ±ψ ) = ∇φ ± ∇ψ
(ii) ∇(φψ ) = φ∇ψ +ψ∇φ
φ ψ∇φ − φ∇ψ
(iii) ∇ =
ψ ψ 2
59
(iv) ∇ ⋅ (F ± G ) = ∇ ⋅ F ± ∇ ⋅ G
(v) ∇ × (F ± G ) = ∇ × F ± ∇ × G
∂ 2
∂ 2
∂ 2
(vi) ∇ ⋅ (∇φ ) ≡ ∇ φ ≡ 2 + 2 + 2 φ
2
∂x ∂y ∂z
∂φ ∂φ ∂φ
2 2 2
= 2+ 2+ 2
∂x ∂y ∂z