Nodal analysis:

Step 1: Identify all the nodes in the circuit. Wisely choose a "reference node" and
assign a node voltage of "0 Volts".

Step 2: Write a KCL equation for each node (except for the reference node).
Remember that each term in a KCL equation is a "current" and not any other quantity.
Step 3: In general, resistor values and source values are given. Solve the set of
equations to determine the unknown quantities i.e. "node voltages".

Thevenin and Norton Equivalent Circuits

Step 1:
If the given circuit has no dependent sources { Determine the open-circuit voltage
V Zero the sources and find equivalent resistance R } else {Determine the open-
TH TH
circuit voltage V Determine the short-circuit current I } Step 2: Use the equation
TH SC
V = I *R to compute the remaining value.
TH SC TH
Step 3: Thevenin equivalent circuit consists of a voltage source V in series with
TH
R .
TH
Norton equivalent circuit consists of a current source I in parallel with R .
SC TH

1. It has 2 input terminals labeled 1 and 2. Terminal 1 is called inverting input

terminal and terminal 2 is non-inverting terminal.
2. Terminal 3 is the output terminal.
3. Basic function is given by V =A*( V - V ), where A is called open-loop gain.
0 2 1
4. OPAMP has infinite input impedance i.e. currents flowing into input terminals
are zero. By our notation, i = i = 0.
1 2
5. Because of lack of knowledge about internal details of the OPAMP, we
reserve our comments on current flowing into the output terminal.
6. For an ideal OPAMP in working condition, A → ∞ and V is finite. Therefore,
0
V - V = V /A≅0. This leads to V ≅ V , often referred to as “virtual
2 1 0 2 1
Phasor-Domain Analysis of RLC Circuits: Step-By-Step Approach short-circuit” condition.
Step 1: Express the given cosine voltage or current excitation in phasor form following
Very important Notes:
equations (1) through (4). Warning - If the given excitation is a “sine wave”, first
convert it into a “cosine wave” and then stick to the approach presented in this section. a. Conditions 4 and 6 together constitute the “summing-point constraint”.
Step 2: Characterize RLC elements in the circuit in terms of their impedances. b. Following 6, we pretend V = V in our analysis (virtually). But never short
2 1
Step 3: Using the excitation-phasor and complex-impedances of RLC elements, terminals 2 and 1 in reality.
carryout regular circuit analysis e.g. using KCL, KVL, nodal analysis, loop analysis etc.
Step 4: Convert the electrical quantity of interest that is currently in phasor notation, c. In view of 5, never write a KCL at the output node of an OPAMP. We do not
into its time-domain representation. “Ignore the imaginary part and take only the real have sufficient information.
part”, since the imaginary part is fictitious and introduced by us for mathematical
convenience. d. For OPAMP topic, it is suggested that standard results be memorized.
e. Any OPAMP with external circuitry can be easily analyzed using KCL and
ohm’s law.

The Ideal-diode model is defined as,

(a) If i >0, υ = 0 i.e. diode acts as a short-circuit. This is called “ON” state.
D D
(b) If υ >0, i = 0 i.e. diode acts as an open-circuit. This is called “OFF” state.
D D