DHARAMPAL COLLECTEDWRITINGS

VolumeIII

THEBEAUTIFULTREE

DHARAMPALCOLLECTEDWRITINGS

VolumeI IndianScienceandTechnologyintheEighteenthCentury VolumeII CivilDisobedienceinIndianTradition VolumeIII TheBeautifulTree:IndigenousIndianEducation intheEighteenthCentury VolumeIV PanchayatRajandIndiasPolity VolumeV EssaysonTradition,RecoveryandFreedom

THEBEAUTIFULTREE

IndigenousIndianEducationintheEighteenthCentury by Dharampal

OtherIndiaPress Mapusa403507,Goa,India

TheBeautifulTree ByDharampal FirstEdition(1983)byBibliaImpex Second Edition (1995) by Keerthi Publishing House and AVP PrintersandPublishers,Coimbatore This edition is published as part of a special collection of Dharampalswritings,by: OtherIndiaPress Mapusa403507,Goa,India. Copyright(2000)Dharampal CoverDesignbyOrijitSen

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Inmemory ofShriJayaprakashNarayan for hisunflagginginterestandguidance inthiswork.

...Thatdoesnotfinishthepicture.Wehavetheeducationofthis future state. I say without fear of my figures being challenged successfully,thattodayIndiaismoreilliteratethanitwasfiftyor a hundred years ago, and so is Burma, because the British administrators,whentheycametoIndia,insteadoftakingholdof thingsastheywere,begantorootthemout.Theyscratchedthe soilandbegantolookattheroot,andlefttherootlikethat,and the beautiful tree perished. The village schools were not good enough for the British administrator, so he came out with his programme. Every school must have so much paraphernalia, building, and so forth.Well, there were no such schools at all. There are statistics left by a British administrator which show that, in places where they have carried out a survey, ancient schoolshavegonebytheboard,becausetherewasnorecognition fortheseschools,andtheschoolsestablishedaftertheEuropean pattern were too expensive for the people, and therefore they couldnotpossiblyovertakethething.Idefyanybodytofulfilla programme of compulsory primary education of these masses insideofacentury.Thisverypoorcountryofmineisillableto sustainsuchanexpensivemethodofeducation.Ourstatewould revivetheoldvillageschoolmasteranddoteveryvillagewitha schoolbothforboysandgirls. (MAHATMAGANDHIATCHATHAMHOUSE,LONDON, OCTOBER20,1931)

...Ihavenotleftoffthepursuitofthesubjectofeducationinthe villagesduringthepreBritishperiod.Iamincorrespondencewith several educationists. Those who have replied do support my view but do not produce authority that would be accepted as proof. My prejudice or presentiment still makes me cling to the statement I made at Chatham House. I dont want to write haltinglyin Harijan.Youdontwantmemerelytosaythatthe proofIhadinmindhasbeenchallengedbyyou! (GANDHIJITOSIRPHILIPHARTOG,SEGAON, AUGUST,1939)

CONTENTS
Preface Introduction DOCUMENTS: A. SurveyofIndigenousEducationintheMadras Presidency182226 B. FraPaolinoDaBartolomeoonEducationofChildren inIndia,1796 C. AlexanderWalkeronIndianEducation,Literature, etc.,circa,1820 D. ExtractsfromW.AdamsStateofEducationin Bengal:183538 E. ExtractsfromG.W.LeitnersHistoryofEducationin thePunjabsinceAnnexationandin1882 1 7

89 256 262 270 343

F. CorrespondencebetweenSirPhilipHartogand MahatmaGandhiontheQuestionofIndigenous IndianEducationintheEarlyBritishPeriod, andotherpapers 348 G. ListofTanjoreTemplesReceivingRevenue Assignments ListofIndividualsinTanjorereceivingRevenue Assignments Index 386 413 421

Preface
Agreatdealofscholarlyworkhasbeenpublishedonthehistory ofeducationinIndia,especiallyduringthe1930s,and1940s.In fact, writings on the subject, initially by British officialscum scholars,startedtoappearasearlyasthemidnineteenthcen tury. Most of these histories, however, relate to the ancient period, sometimes going as far back as the tenth or twelfth century A.D. Others deal with the history of education during Britishruleandthereafter.Besidesdetailedscholarlyworkson specific ancient educational institutions (such as those at NalandaorTaxila),therearemoregeneralworkslikethatofA.S. Altekar1 ontheancientperiod.Forthelaterperiod,therehave beenseveralpublications:besidesthetwovolumesofSelections from EducationalRecords, published and recently reprinted by theGovernmentofIndiaitself,2theworkofS.NurullahandJ.P. Naik may be mentioned here.3 The latter work is interestingly describedbythetwoauthors(thusindicatingitstimeandmood) asanattemptatawelldocumentedandcomprehensiveaccount ofIndianeducationalhistoryduringthelastonehundredand sixtyyearsandtointerpretitfromtheIndianpointofview. 4 Reachingafarwideraudienceisthevoluminousworkof PanditSundarlal,firstpublishedin1939, 5 thoughperhapsless academic.The36thchapterofthiscelebratedworkentitled,The DestructionofIndianIndigenousEducation,runsinto40pages,

and quotes extensively from various British authorities. These spanalmostacentury:fromtheDispatchfromEnglandof3rd June1814totheGovernorGeneralinIndia,totheobservations of Max Mueller; and the 1909 remarks of the British labour leader,KeirHardie.However,giventheperiodinwhichthebook was written and the inaccessibility of the detailed manuscript records,itwasinevitablethattheauthorhadtobasehiswork entirely on existing printed sources. Nevertheless, as an introduction, this chapter of Bharat men Angreji Raj is a landmarkonthesubjectofindigenousIndianeducationinthe late18thandearly19thcenturies. Very little, however, has been written on the history, or stateofeducationduringthisperiod,startingwiththethirteenth centuryandupuntiltheearlynineteenthcentury.Undoubtedly, there are a few works like that of S.M. Jaffar 6 pertaining to Muslimeducation.Thereareachapterortwo,orsomecursory referencesinmosteducationalhistoriespertainingtotheperiod of British rule, and to the decayed state of indigenous Indian educationinthelateeighteenthandearlynineteenthcenturies. NurullahandNaiksbook7devotesthefirst43pages(outof643 pages) to discussing the state of indigenous education in the earlynineteenthcentury,andinchallengingcertainlaterBritish viewsaboutthenatureandextentofit. Most of the discussion on the state of indigenous Indian educationintheearlynineteenthcentury,andthedifferingview pointswhichgiverisetoit,useastheirsourcematerial(a)the muchtalkedaboutreportsbyWilliamAdam,aformerChristian missionary,onindigenouseducationinsomeofthedistrictsof Bengal and Bihar 18358,8 (b) published extracts of a survey madebytheBritishauthoritiesregardingindigenouseducation intheBombayPresidencyduringthe1820s, 9 and(c)published extracts from another wider survey of indigenous education made

in the Madras Presidency (from Ganjam in the north to Tinnevellyinthesouth,andMalabarinthewest)during1822 25.10 Amuchlaterworkonthesubject,butmoreorlessofa similarnatureisthatofG.W.Leitnerpertaining toindigenous educationinthePunjab.11 Amongst the abovementioned sources, G.W. Leitners work,basedonearliergovernmentaldocumentsandonhisown survey,isthemostexplicitlycriticalofBritishpolicies.Itholds theBritishauthoritiesresponsibleforthedecay,andeventhe destruction of indigenous education in the Punjabthe area withwhichhisbookisconcerned.ThereportsofAdam,aswell as the reports of some of the collectors in the Madras Presidency12 referlikewisetothedecayofindigenouseducation intheareasofIndiawithwhichtheywereconcerned.Ofcourse, theydosomuchlessexplicitlyandinlanguagemoresuitedto British officers and gentlemen(Leitner, though a British official,wasnotanEnglishman).13 Mahatma Gandhis long address atthe RoyalInstitute of InternationalAffairs,Londonon20October,1931,statedthat literacyhaddeclinedinIndiainthepast50100yearsandheld theBritishresponsibleforit.Thestatementprovidedarealedge totheobservationsofAdam,Leitner,andothersandtotheview which Indians had held for decades. It was then that all the above sources relating to indigenous education in the earlier partofthenineteenthcenturyassumedtheirgreatimportance. Thepersonwho,perhapsnotonlyasanindividual,butalsoasa representativeofBritishruleinIndia,contestedwhatGandhiji hadsaidwasSirPhilipHartog,onetimevicechancellorofDacca University, and chairman of the auxiliary committee of the Indian Statutory Commission. He asked Gandhiji for precise referencestotheprinteddocumentsonwhichGandhijisstate ments were based.14 Not finding satisfaction (during much of thisperiodGandhijiandhiscolleagueswereinprison)Hartog, four

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yearslaterdeliveredaseriesofthreelecturesattheUniversityof London Institute of Education with the aim of countering Gandhijis statement. After adding three memoranda and necessaryreferences,Hartoggotthesepublishedinbookformin 1939.15 Countering Gandhiji and the earlier sources in this manner,SirPhilipHartogwasreallynotbeingoriginal.Hewas merelyfollowingawelltroddenBritishpathindefenceofBritish actsandpoliciesinIndia;apathwhichhadbeenchartedsome 125yearsearlierbyWilliamWilberforce,laterconsideredasthe fatherofVictorianEngland,intheBritishHouseofCommons. 16 Hartoghadbeenprecededinhisowntimeinasimilarenterprise by W.H. Moreland, who could not accept Vincent Smiths observation that the hired labourer in the time of Akbar and Jahangirprobablyhadmoretoeatinordinaryyearsthanhehas now.17SmithschallengeappearstohaveledMorelandfromthe lifeofaretiredseniorrevenuesettlementofficerintotheroleof aneconomichistorianofIndia.18Quiteunderstandably,atleast till the 1940s, and burdened as they were with a sense of mission, the British could not accept any criticism of their actions,deliberate,orotherwise,inIndia(orelsewhere)during thetwocenturiesoftheirrule. A major part of the documents reproduced in this book pertaintotheMadrasPresidencyIndigenousEducationSurvey. These were first seen by this writer in 1966. As mentioned above,anabstractofthissurveywasincludedintheHouseof CommonsPapersasearlyas183132.Yet,whilemanyscholars must have come across the detailed material in the Madras PresidencyDistrictRecords,aswellasthePresidencyRevenue Records (the latter incidentally exist in Madras as well as in London), for some unexplained reasons this materialseems to haveescapedacademicattention.TherecentMadrasUniversity doctoral thesis pertaining to the various Madras Presidency districtscoveringthisperiodalsodoesnotseemtohavemade anyuseofthisdata,despitethefactthatsomeofitdoescontain someoccasionalreferencetomattersofeducation. The Beautiful Tree is not being presented with a view to decryBritishrule.Rather,itisthecontinuationofaneffortto

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comprehend,totheextentitispossibleforthisauthor,through material of this kind relating to the late eighteenth and early nineteenthcenturies,therealityoftheIndiaofthisperiod:its society, its infrastructure, its manners and institutions, their strengthsandweaknesses.Thebooktouchesonanotheraspect ofthisIndiainmoreorlessthesamemannerastheauthors twoearlierbooksinthisfield, IndianScienceandTechnologyin the Eighteenth Century,19 and Civil Disobedience in Indian Tradition.20 Furthermore, an attempt has been made in the IntroductiontosituatetheinformationontheindigenousIndian educationoftheperiodinitstemporalcontextand,withthatin view,briefmentionismadeofthestateofeducationinEngland untilthebeginningofthenineteenthcentury. A number of friends have taken interest in this material andofferedmetheirvaluableadviceandopinionduringthepast severalyears.Iamgratefultoallofthem.Withouttheirsupport andencouragement,thisworkmayneverhavebeencompleted. Evenmoreso,IamgreatlyindebtedtotheUniversityofOxford for being kind enough to consult their University archives in ordertoanswersomeofmyqueriespertainingtotheacademic courses, etc., at Oxford at the beginning of the nineteenth century.Similarly,IammuchobligedtotheIndiaOfficeLibrary & Records (I.O.R.), and to Mr Martin Moir in particular, for supplyingmewithcopiesoftheHartogGandhicorrespondence. IamalsoobligedtotheA.N.SinhaInstituteofSocialStudies, Patna,forofferingmeaseniorfellowshipoftheinstituteduring 197273andtotheGandhianInstituteofStudies,Varanasi,the GandhiPeaceFoundation,NewDelhi,theGandhiSevaSangh, Sevagram,andtheAssociationofVoluntaryAgenciesforRural Development, New Delhi, for interest in and support to this venture,asoccasiondemanded. ThetextoftheMadrasPresidencymaterial(includedinthe Annexures),thoughfirstconsultedintheIndiaOfficeLibrary,is taken from the records in the Tamilnadu State Archives (pre viouslytheMadrasRecordOffice).Forthisfacility,andformuch kindnessandconsiderationshowntome,mythanksgotothe fairlyoverworkedstaffoftheArchives.ThenotebyAlexander Walker,alsoreproducedhere,isfromtheWalkerofBowland

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Papers in the National Library of Scotland, Edinburgh. My sincere thanks go to the National Library for permission and facilities to consult these and other papers, as also to the Scottish Record Office, the University of Edinburgh, and the UttarPradeshStateArchives,Allahabad,forsimilarpermission andfacilities. Finally, I am honoured by the Ashram Pratishthan, Sevagram,forextendingmeaninvitationtowritethisbookin theAshram,andforprovidingmethenecessaryfacilitiesandfor treatingmeasoneoftheirown.Completingthisworklivingnear Gandhijishuthasindeedbeenagreatprivilege. *** The title of this book has been taken from the speech which MahatmaGandhihadmadeatChathamHouse,London,on20 October,1931.Hehadsaid: ...the British administrators, when they came to India, insteadoftakingholdofthingsastheywere,begantoroot themout.Theyscratchedthesoilandbegantolookatthe root,andlefttherootlikethat,and the beautifultree per ished. The subtitle has also been chosen accordingly. Although theMadrasPresidencydatawhichformsthebulkofthisbook wascollectedduring182225,theeducationalsystemtowhich the data pertained was much older. It was still the dominant systemduringthe18thcentury,afterwhichitstarteddecaying veryrapidly.TheAdamReportsreflectthatdeclineinthefourth decadeofthe19thcentury. February19,1981. DHARAMPAL AshramPratishthan, Sevagram. Notes
1.A.S.Altekar:EducationinAncientIndia,2ndEd.,Benares,1944. 2. National Archives of India: Selections from the Educational Records, I:17811839, II:18401859 by H.Sharp and J.A. Richey 1920, 1922 (reprinted1965). 3.SyedNurullahandJ.P.Naik: HistoryofEducationinIndiaduringthe BritishPeriod,Bombay,1943. 4.Ibid,Preface. 5.BharatmeinAngrejiRaj (inHindi).Whileitsfirsteditionin1929was immediatelybannedbytheBritish,itwas again publishedin1939in threevolumes(1780pages),andhasnotonlybeenrepublishedagain, buthasbecomeaclassicofitskind,providingadetailedaccount(pri 6.S.M.Jaffar:EducationinMuslimIndia,Peshawar,1936. 7.HistoryofEducationinIndiaduringtheBritishperiod,1943.

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8.W.Adam:ReportsontheStateofEducationinBengal1835and1838 , editedbyAnathnathBasuandreprinted,Calcutta,1941. 9.HouseofCommonsPapers,183132,Vol.9. 10.Ibid.,pp.413417,500507. 11. G.W. Leitner: History of Indigenous Education in the Punjab since Annexation, and in 1882, 1883; (Reprint: Languages Dept., Punjab, Patiala,1973). 12.SeereportsofMadrasCollectorsreproducedinAnnexuresA(i)(xxx). 13.PhilipHartog: SomeAspectsofIndianEducationPastandPresent , OUP,1939.Preface,viii. 14.IndiaOfficeLibrary:MSSEURD551,HartogtoMahatmaGandhi 21.10.1931. 15.Hartog:op.cit. 16.Hansard:June22andJuly1,1813. 17.V.A.Smith:Akbar:TheGreatMogul,ClarendonPress,1917,p.394. 18.London:JournaloftheRoyalAsiaticSociety,1917,pp.815825. 19. Indian Science and Technology in the Eighteenth Century: Some ContemporaryEuropeanAccounts,OtherIndiaPress,Goa,2000. 20. Civil Disobedience in Indian Tradition: With some Early Nineteenth CenturyDocuments,OtherIndiaPress,Goa,2000.

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Introduction
Indianhistoricalknowledge,byandlarge,hasbeenderived,at leastuntilrecentdecades,fromthewritingsandaccountsleftby foreigners. This applies equally to our knowledge about the status of Indian education over the past five centuries. The universities of Taxila and Nalanda, and a few others until recently have been better known and written about primarily becausetheyhadbeendescribedcenturiesagobysomeGreek orChinesetraveller,whohappenedtokeepajournalwhichhad survived, or had communicated such information to his compatriotswhopasseditdowntoourtimes. Travellersandadventurersofanewkindbegantowander aroundpartsofIndiafromabout1500A.D.,andmoresofrom aboutthecloseofthe16thcentury.Sinceforcenturiestheareas theycamefromhadhadnodirectlinkswithIndia,andasthey hadcomefromwhollydifferentclimatesandsocieties,tothem most aspects of Indiaits manners, religions, philosophies, ancient and contemporary architecture, wealth, learning, and even its educational methodswere something quite different fromtheirownbackgrounds,assumptionsandexperience. Prior to 1770, (by which time they had become actual rulersoflargeareas),theBritish,onwhosewritingsandreports this book is primarily based, 1 had rather a different set of interests.Theseinterests,asinthesubsequentperiodtoo,were largely mercantile, technological, or were concerned with comprehending,andevaluatingIndianstatecraft;and,thereby, extending their influence and dominion in India. Indian religions,philosophies,scholarshipandtheextentofeducation notwithstandingwhatafewofthemmayhavewrittenonthe Parsis, or the Banias of Surathad scarcely interested them untilthen. Such a lack of interest was due partly to their different expectationsfromIndia.Themainreasonforthis,however,lay in

the fact that the British society of this periodfrom the mid sixteenthtoaboutthelaterpartoftheeighteenthcenturyhad fewsuchinterests.Inmatterslikereligion,philosophy,learning andeducation,theBritishwereintrovertedbynature.Itisnot that Britain had no tradition of education, or scholarship, or philosophyduringthe16th,17th,orearly18thcenturies.This period produced figures like Francis Bacon, Shakespeare, Milton, Newton, etc. It had the Universities of Oxford, Cambridge, and Edinburgh which had their beginnings in the 13th and 14th centuries A.D. By the later part of the 18th century, Britain also had around 500 Grammar Schools. However,thisconsiderablelearningandscholarshipwerelimited to a very select elite. This became especially marked after the midsixteenthcentury,whentheProtestantrevolutionledtothe closingofmostofthemonasteries;whilethestatesequestered theirincomesandproperties. BeforetheProtestantrevolution,accordingtoA.E. Dobbs, theUniversityofOxfordmightbedescribedasthechiefCharity SchoolofthepoorandthechiefGrammarSchoolinEngland,as wellasthegreatplaceofeducationforstudentsoftheology,of lawandmedicine2;andwhereinstructionwasnotgratuitous throughouttheschool,somearrangementwasmade,bymeans of a graduated scale of admission fees and quarterages and a system of maintenance to bring the benefits of the institution within the reach of the poorest.3 Further, while a very early statute of England specified: No one shall put their child apprenticewithinanycityorborough,unlesstheyhavelandor rentof20shillingsperannum:buttheyshallbeputtosuch labour as their fathers or mothers use, or as their estates require; it nonetheless also stated that any person may send theirchildrentoschooltolearnliterature.4 From about the mid16th century, however, a contrary trend set in. It even led to the enactment of a law that the English Bible should not be read in churches. The right of private reading was granted to nobles, gentry and merchants that were householders. It was expressly denied to artificers prentices, to journeymen and serving men of the degree of yeomenorunder,tohusbandmenandlabourerssoastoallay certainsymptoms

of disorder occasioned by a free use of the Scriptures. 5 Accordingtothis new trend, itwas meetforthe ploughmans sontogototheplough,andtheartificerssontoapplythetrade ofhisparentsvocation:andthegentlemenschildrenaremeet to have the knowledge of Government and rule in the commonwealth.Forwehaveasmuchneedofploughmenasany otherState:andallsortsofmenmaynotgotoschool.6 Acenturyandahalflater(thatis,fromabouttheendof the 17th century), there is aslowreversalof the above trend, leading to the setting up of some Charity Schools for the commonpeople.Theseschoolsaremainlyconceivedtoprovide some leverage in the way of general education to raise the labouringclasstothelevelofreligiousinstruction;and,moreso inWales,withtheobjectofpreparingthepoorbyreadingand Bible study for the Sunday worship and catechetical instruction.7 Afterashortstart,however,theCharitySchoolmovement becameratherdormant.Around1780,itwassucceededbythe Sunday school movement.8 Popular education, even at this period, was still approached as a missionary enterprise. The maximwasthateverychildshouldlearntoreadtheBible. 9The hope of securing a decent observance of Sunday 10 led to a concentrated effort on the promotion of Sunday schools. After some years, this attention focussed on the necessity of day schools. From then on, school education grew apace. Nevertheless,even

aslateas1834,thecurriculuminthebetterclassofnational schoolswaslimitedinthemaintoreligiousinstruction,reading, writing and arithmetic: in some country schools writing was excludedforfearofevilconsequences.11 ThemajorimpetustotheDayschoolmovementcamefrom whatwastermedthePeelsActof1802.ThisActrequiredthe employer of young children to provide, during the first four years of the seven years of apprenticeship, competent instructioninreading,writingandarithmetic,andtosecurethe presence of his apprentice at religious teaching for one hour every Sunday and attendance at a place of worship on that day.12ButtheActwasunpopular,anditspracticaleffect...was not great.13 At about the same time, however, the monitorial method of teaching used by Joseph Lancaster (and also by Andrew Bell, supposedly borrowed from India) 14 came into practice and greatly helped advance the cause of popular education.Thenumberofthoseattendingschoolwasestimated ataround40,000in1792,at6,74,883in1818,and21,44,377 in1851.Thetotalnumberofschools,publicaswellasprivatein 1801 was stated to be 3,363. By stages, it reached a total of 46,114in1851.15 In the beginning, the teachers were seldom competent, andLancasterinsinuatesthatthemenwerenotonlyignorant but drunken.16 As regards the number of years of schooling, Dobbs writes that allowing for irregularity of attendance, the averagelengthofschoolliferisesonafavourableestimatefrom aboutoneyearin1835toabouttwoyearsin1851. 17 The fortunes of English Public schools are said to have fallenstrikinglyduringtheeighteenthcentury.InJanuary1797, the famous school at Shrewsbury, for instance, did not have above three or four boys. After some major reorganisation, it hadabout20pupilsayearlater.18 InpublicschoolslikeEton, teaching consisted of writing and arithmetic (a number of Englishand

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Latin books were studied); while those in the fifth form also learntancientGeography,orAlgebra.ThosewhostayedatEton longenoughalsowentthroughpartofEuclid. 19Howeveritwas not till 1851 that Mathematics became a part of the regular schoolworkandevenatthatdatethosewhotaughtthesubject were not regarded as persons of full standing on the staff of masters.20 School education, especially elementary education at the peoples level, remained an uncommon commodity till around 1800. Nonetheless, the universities of Oxford, Cambridge, and EdinburghwereperhapsasimportantforBritainas Taxilaand NalandawereinancientIndia;orplaceslikeNavadweepwereas lateasthelaterpartofthe18thcentury. 21Sincemanyofthose whobegantocometoIndiafromBritainespeciallyafter1773as travellers,scholars,orjudgeshadhadtheireducationinoneof these threeuniversities,22 it mayberelevanttoprovideherea briefaccountofthecoursesstudiedtogetherwiththenumberof students, in one of these universities around 1800. The universitychosenhereisthatofOxford,anditisassumedthat this information is also fairly representative of studies at CambridgeandEdinburghatthisperiod. ThegrowthoftheUniversityofOxford(followingEnglands rupture with Rome) may be indicated with the following chronological list of professorships created there from 1546 onwards:23 1546 5 Professorships founded by Henry VIII: 1.Divinity,2.CivilLaw,3.Medicine,4.Hebrew, 5.Greek Geometry,andAstronomy NaturalPhilosophy Moral Philosophy (but break between 1707 1829) AncientHistory(i.e.Hebrew,andEurope) Grammar, Rhetoric, Metaphysics (fell into disuse,replacedbyLogicin1839) Anatomy Music Arabic Botany Poetry ModernHistoryandModernLanguages ExperimentalPhilosophy CommonLaw ClinicalInstruction AngloSaxon(i.e.language,literature,etc.)

1619 1621 1621 1622 1624 1624 1626 1636 1669 1708 1724 1749 1758 1780 1795

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1803

Chemistry

In the beginning of the nineteenth century, there were nineteencollegesandfivehallsinOxford.Therewereabout500 fellowsinthecolleges,afewofwhomwereengagedinteaching in each college. In addition, there were nineteen professors in 1800.Thistotalhadincreasedto25by1854. Theologyandclassicswerethemainsubjectswhichwere studied at the beginning of the nineteenth century. Examinationsweresetinclassicsknownas LiteraeHumaniores. TheseincludedGreekandLatinlanguageandliterature,moral philosophy, rhetoric and logic, and the elements of the mathematicalsciencesandphysics. Lectures were also available on other topics, e.g. law, medicineandgeology. After 1805, there was an increase in the number of studentsenteringtheUniversity.Thenumberofstudentsonthe rolls rose from about 760 in the early nineteenth century to about1300in182024. The main sources of financial support of the colleges in Oxfordweretheirendowments,mainlyinland,andincomefrom students.Theproportionofincomefromeachsourcevariedfrom

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collegetocollege.Takingawiderviewofalltheexpensesofa university course (including clothing and travelling), a parent whoclothedhissonandsupportedhimatuniversityaswellas duringthevacationcouldexpecttopayfrom600800forhis fouryearcoursearound1850.24 While the British, as well as the Dutch, the Portuguese, andtheFrench,directlyorinthenameofthevariousEastIndia Companies they had set up in the late 16th and early 17th centuries were busy extending their bases, factories, fortifications and the like, and wherever possible occupying wholeterritoriesintheIndianOceanarea,Europeanscholarson their part were trying to understand various aspects of the civilizationsexistinginthisarea.Prominentamongstthesewere members of several Christian monastic orders, the most well knownbeingtheJesuits,whowerespecialisinginthefieldsof the sciences, customs, manners, philosophies and religions. Thereweresomeotherswithinterestsofamorepolitical,his toricaloreconomicnature.Manyofthemtooktonarratingtheir ownadventures,andoccasionally,misfortunesinthefabulous andexoticEast.DuetothewidespreadinterestoftheEuropean elite, much of this writing was published in one or more Europeanlanguagessoonafter.Accountsanddiscussionswhich happened to be of a limited, but great scholarly or religious interest,werecopiedbyhandmanytimesover. 25

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II
This great accumulation of material, from about the mid18th century,ledtoseriousscholarlyattentionanddebateonIndia, andareasofSouthEastAsia,particularlywithregardtotheir politics, laws, philosophies and sciences, especially Indian astronomy. This contemporary European interest, (especially amongstmenlikeVoltaire,AbbeRaynalandJeanSylvainBailly) arousedasimilarinterestinBritain.Thiswasmoresoamongst those connected with the University of Edinburgh, like Adam Ferguson, William Robertson, John Playfair26 and A. Maco nochie. In 1775, Adam Ferguson recommended to his former student,John Macpherson(temporarilytobeGovernorGeneral ofBengalduring178485)tocollectthefullestdetailsyoucanof everycircumstancerelatingtothestateandoperationofpolicy inIndia...ThatyoumaythebetterapprehendwhatImeanbythe detail...selectsometownanditsdistrict.Procureifpossiblean accountofitsextentandnumberofpeople.Thedifferentclasses ofthatpeople,theoccupations,theresources,thewayoflifeof each.Howtheyarerelatedandtheirmutualdependencies.What contributions Government, or subordinate masters draw from thelabourerofanydenominationandhowitisdrawn.ButIbeg pardonforsayingsomuchofanobjectwhichyoumustknowso muchbetterthanIdo.ThemanwhocanbringlightfromIndia (i.e.ofitsmaterialresources,etc.)intothiscountryandwhohas addresstomakehislightbefollowedmayinafewyearshence makehimselfofgreatconsequenceandhereIshallconcludemy letter...27 A.Maconochieadvocated,ontheotherhand(firstin1783 28 andthenagainin1788),thetakingofsuchmeasuresbyour monarch,thesovereignofthebanksoftheGanges...asmaybe necessaryfordiscovering,collectingandtranslatingwhateveris extentoftheancientworksoftheHindoos.Hethoughtthatif theBritishprocuredtheseworkstoEurope,astronomyand

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antiquities, and the sciences connected with them would be advanced in a still great proportion. He observed further that the antiquities of thereligion andGovernment ofthe Hindoos arenotlessinterestingthanthoseoftheirsciences;andfeltthat the history, the poems, the traditions, the very fables of the Hindoos might therefore throw light upon the history of the ancient world and in particular upon the institutions of that celebrated people from whom Moses received his learning and Greeceherreligionandherarts.Prof. Maconochiealsostated thatthecentreofmostofthislearningwasBenares,whereall thesciencesarestilltaughtandwhereveryancientworksin astronomyarestillextant.29 Aroundthesametime,asimilarveinofthoughtandsome correspondingactionhadstartedamongstthosewhohadbeen entrustedwiththeexerciseofpoliticalpowerandthecarrying outofthepoliciesandinstructionsfromLondon,withinIndia. The more practical and immediate purposes of governance (followingAdam Ferguson)ledtothewritingofworksonHindu and Muslimlaw,investigations intothe rightsofpropertyand the revenues of various areas, and to assist all this, to a cultivationofSanskritandPersianamongstsomeoftheBritish themselves. Acquaintance with these languages was felt necessary so as to enable the British to discover better, or to discard,choose,orselectwhatsuitedtheirpurposemost.Inthe process some of them also developed a personal interest in SanskritandotherIndianliteratureforitsownsake,orforthe sort of reasons which Prof. Maconochie had in view. Charles Wilkins,WilliamJones,F.W.EllisinMadras,andLtWilford(the lattergotengagedinsomeveryexoticresearchatVaranasi)were amongstthemorewellknownmenofthiscategory. Three approaches (seemingly different but in reality complementarytooneanother)begantooperateintheBritish heldareasofIndiaregardingIndianknowledge,scholarshipand centresoflearningfromaboutthe1770s.Thefirstresultedfrom growing British power and administrative requirements which (inadditiontosuchundertakingsthatmenlikeAdamFerguson hadrecommended)alsoneededtoprovideagarboflegitimacy andabackgroundofpreviousindigenousprecedents(however

15

farfetched)tothenewconcepts,lawsandprocedureswhichwere being created by the British state. It is primarily this requirement which gave birth to British Indology. The second approach was a product of the mind of the Edinburgh enlightenment (dating back to around 1750) which men like Maconochierepresented.Theyhadafear,bornoutofhistorical experience, philosophical observation and reflection (the uprooting of entire civilizations in the Americas), that the conquestanddefeatofacivilisationgenerallylednotonlytoits disintegration, but the disappearance of precious knowledge associatedwithit.Theyadvocated,therefore,thepreparationof awrittenrecordofwhatexisted,andwhatcouldbegotfromthe learned in places like Varanasi. The third approach was a projection of what was then being attempted in Great Britain itself:tobringpeopletoaninstitutionalised,formal,lawabiding Christianity and, for that some literacy and teaching became essential. To achieve such a purpose in India, and to assist evangelicalexhortationandpropagandaforextendingChristian light and knowledge to the people, preparation of the grammarsofvariousIndianlanguagesbecameurgent.Thetask accordingtoWilliamWilberforce,calledforthecirculationofthe holy scriptures in the native languages with a view to the generaldiffusionofChristianity,sothattheIndianswould,in short become Christians, if I may so express myself, without knowingit.30 Alltheseefforts,joinedtogether,alsoledtothefoundingof afewBritishsponsoredSanskritandPersiancollegesaswellas tothepublicationofsomeIndiantextsorselectionsfromthem whichsuitedthepurposeofgovernance.Fromnowon,Christian missionaries also began to open schools. Occasionally, they wroteaboutthestateandextentofindigenouseducationinthe partsofIndiainwhichtheyfunctioned.However,Britishinterest wasnotcenteredonthepeople,theirknowledge,oreducation, or the lack of it. Rather, their interest in ancient texts served theirpurpose:thatofmakingthepeopleconformtowhatwas chosenforthemfromsuchtextsandtheirnewinterpretations. Theirotherinterest(till1813,thiswasonlyamongstasectionof the British) was in the christianisation of those who were considered ready for such conversions (or, in the British phraseology of the period, for receiving the blessings of Christian light and moral improvements). These conversions werealsoexpectedtoserveamorepoliticalpurpose,inasmuch asitwasfeltthatitcouldestablishsomeaffinityofoutlookand belief

16

betweentherulersandtheruled.Aprimaryconsiderationinall Britishdecisions fromthe verybeginning, continued to be the aim of maximising the revenue receipts of Government and of discovering any possible new source which had remained exemptfrompayinganyrevenuetoGovernment.

III
Instructions regarding the collection of information about the extentandnatureofindigenousIndianeducation(includingits contemporary state) were largely the consequence of the long debateintheHouseofCommonsin1813.Thisdebatefocussed ontheclauserelatingtothepromotionofreligiousandmoral improvementinIndia.31Beforeanynewpolicycouldbedevised, theexistingpositionneededtobebetterknown.Butthequality and coverage of these surveys varied from Presidency to Presidency, and even from district to district. (This generally happensinthegatheringofanysuchinformation,andmoreso whensuchcollectionofdatawasafairlynewthing.) The information which is thus available today, whether published,orstillinmanuscriptforminthegovernmentrecords asistrueofthedetailsoftheMadrasPresidencyindigenous education surveylargely belongs to the 1820s and 1830s period.AnunofficialsurveymadebyG.W. Leitnerin1882for the Punjab compared the situation there for the years before 1850,withthatin1882. Beforehighlightingthemainpointsofinformationgivenby the surveys and then proceeding with its analysis, some preliminaryobservationsaboutthedataasawholeareinorder. The first observation concerns the largely quantitative nature of thedatapresentedand the factthat itconcentrates largelyontheinstitutionoftheschoolasweknowittoday.This, however,mayhelppropagatewrongimpressions. Itisimportanttoemphasizethatindigenouseducationwas carried out through pathshalas, madrassahs and gurukulas. Educationinthesetraditionalinstitutionswhichwereactually keptalivebyrevenuecontributionsbythecommunityincluding

17

illiteratepeasantswascalledshiksha(andincludedtheideasof prajna, shil and samadhi).Theseinstitutions were,infact,the watering holes of the culture of traditional communities. Therefore, the term school is a weak translation of the roles theseinstitutionsreallyplayedinIndiansociety. For this reason, the quantitative nature of the data presentedshouldbereadwithgreatcaution.Theincreaseinthe numbersofschoolsinEnglandmaynotnecessarilyhavebeena goodthing,asitmerelysignifiedthearrivaloffactoryschooling. On the other hand, the decline in the numbers of traditional educational institutions is to be intensely deplored, since this meant qualityeducation wasbeingreplacedbya substandard substitute.Theseaspectsmustalwaysbekeptatthebackofour mindswhenwecommenceanalysingthedataforsignificance. Beforewedothat,thehighlightsfirst. The most wellknown and controversial point which emerged from the educational surveys lies in an observation made by William Adam. In his first report, he observed that thereexistabout1,00,000villageschoolsinBengalandBihar around the 1830s.32 This statement appears to have been foundedontheimpressionsofvarioushighBritishofficialsand otherswhohadknownthedifferentareasratherintimatelyand overlongperiods;ithadnoknownbackingofofficialrecords. Similarstatementshadbeenmade,muchbeforeW.Adam,for areasoftheMadrasPresidency.MenlikeThomas Munro,had observed that every village had a school. 33 For areas of the newly extended Presidency of Bombay around 1820, senior officialslikeG.L. Prendergastnotedthatthereishardlyavil lage,greatorsmall,throughoutourterritories,inwhichthereis not at least one school, and in larger villages more. 34 Ob servations made by Dr G.W. Leitner in 1882 show that the spreadofeducationinthePunjabaround1850wasofasimilar extent.

18

Since these observations were made, they have been treatedverydifferently:bysome,withthesanctityreservedfor divineutterances;andbyothers,asblasphemous.Naturally,the first view was linked with the growth of a vocal Indian nationalism.Itsexponents,besidesprominentIndiansofthelate nineteenthandearlytwentiethcentury,havealsoincludedmany illustriousEnglishmen,likeKeirHardie,andacademicslikeMax Mueller. The second, the blasphemous view of them, was obviously held by those who were in the later period, in one capacityoranother,concernedwiththeadministrationofIndia; or those who felt impelled, sometimes because of their commitment to certain theoretical formulations on the developmentofsocieties,totreatallsuchimpressionsasunreal. Especially after1860,ithad become necessary toensure that menwhohadhadalongperiodofserviceintheBritishIndian administrationoritsancillarybranchesandwhoalsohad the ability to write, should engage in the defence of British rule, especiallyitsbeginnings,andconsequentlyattempttorefuteany statementswhichimpliedthattheBritishhaddamagedIndiain anysignificantmanner. Whilemuchinkhasbeenspiltonsuchacontroversy,little attempt is known to have been made for placing these state ments or observations in their contextual perspective. Leaving Leitners work, most of these statements belong to the early decades of the nineteenth century. For the later British administrator,thedifficultyofappreciatingthesubstanceofthe controversy is quite understandable. For England had few schoolsforthechildrenofordinarypeopletillabout1800.Even manyoftheolderGrammarSchoolswereinpoorshapeatthe time. Moreover, the men who wrote about India (whether concerning its education, or its industry and crafts, or the somewhat higher real wages of Indian agricultural labourers compared to such wages in England) 35 belonged to the late eighteenthandearlynineteenthcenturysocietyofGreatBritain. Naturally, when they wrote about a school in every village in Indiawhetherthatmayormaynothavebeenliterallytruein contrasttotheBritishsituation,itmusthaveappearedtothem so.Andthoughtheydidnotmuchmentionthiscontrastinso manywords,itmayreasonablybeassumedthat,asperceptive observers,itwastheverycontrastwhichledthemtomakesuch judgements. Thesesurveys,basednotonmereimpressionsbutonhard data,revealagreatdeal:thenatureofIndianeducation;its

19

content;thedurationforwhichitordinarilylasted;thenumbers actually receiving institutional education in particular areas; and,mostimportantly,detailedinformationonthebackground ofthosebenefitingfromtheseinstitutions. Theideaofaschoolexistingineveryvillage,dramaticand picturesque in itself, attracted great notice and eclipsed the equallyimportantdetails.Themoredetailedandhardfactshave receivedhardlyanynoticeoranalysis.Thisisbothnaturaland unfortunate. For these latter facts provide an insight into the nature of Indian society at that time. Deeper analysis of this dataandadequatereflectionontheresultsfollowedbyrequired furtherresearchmayhelpsolveeventheriddleofwhathasbeen termedthelegendofthe1,00,000schools. 36 Accordingtothis harddata, in termsofthe content, the andproportionofthoseattendinginstitutionalschooleducation, the situation inIndia in 1800iscertainlynot inferior to what obtained in England then; and in many respects Indian schooling seems to have been much more extensive (and, it should be remembered, that it is a greatly damaged and disorganised India that one is referring to). The content of studieswasbetterthanwhatwasthenstudiedinEngland.The duration of study was more prolonged. The method of school teachingwassuperioranditisthisverymethodwhichissaidto have greatly helped the introduction of popular education in EnglandbutwhichhadprevailedinIndiaforcenturies.School attendance,especiallyinthedistrictsoftheMadrasPresidency, even in the decayed state of the period 182225, was proportionately far higher than the numbers in all variety of schools in England in 1800. The conditions under which teaching took place inthe Indianschools were less dingy and morenatural;37and,itwasobserved,theteachersintheIndian schools were generally more dedicated and sober than in the Englishversions.Theonlyaspect,andcertainlyaveryimportant one,whereIndianinstitutionaleducationseemstohavelagged behindwaswithregardtotheeducationofgirls.Quitepossibly, girlschoolingmayhavebeenproportionatelymoreextensivein England in 1800, and was definitely the case, a few decades later.AccountsofeducationinIndiadooftenstate(thoughitis difficulttojudgetheirsubstantiveaccuracyfromthedatawhich issofarknown),that

20

theabsenceofgirlsinschools wasexplained,however,bythe factthatmostoftheireducationtookplaceinthehome. It is, however, the Madras Presidency and BengalBihar datawhichpresentsakindofrevelation. Thedatarevealsthe backgroundoftheteachersandthetaught.Itpresentsapicture whichisinsharpcontrasttothevariousscholarlypronounce ments of the past 100 years or more, in which it had been assumed that education of any sort in India, till very recent decades, was mostly limited to the twiceborn 38 amongst the Hindoos, and amongst the Muslims to those from the ruling elite.Theactualsituationwhichisrevealedwasdifferent,ifnot quitecontrary,foratleastamongsttheHindoos,inthedistricts of the Madras Presidency (and dramatically so in the Tamil speakingareas)aswellasthetwodistrictsofBihar.Itwasthe groupstermedSoodras,andthecastesconsideredbelowthem 39 who predominated in the thousands of the then stillexisting schoolsinpracticallyeachoftheseareas. Thelastissueconcernstheconditions andarrangements whichalonecouldhavemadesuchavastsystemofeducation feasible: the sophisticated operative fiscal arrangements of the preBritish Indian polity. Through these fiscal measures, substantial proportions of revenue had long beenassigned for theperformanceofamultiplicityofpublicpurposes.Theseseem to have stayed more or less intact through all the previous political turmoils and made such education possible. The collapse of this arrangement through a total centralisation of revenue,aswellaspoliticsledtodecayintheeconomy,social life,education,etc.Thisinference,ifatallvalid,warrantsare examination of the various currently held intellectual and political assumptions with regard to the nature of preBritish Indiansociety,anditspoliticalandstatestructure. Beforediscussingthislastissueanyfurther,however,itis necessaryfirsttounderstandthevariousaspectsoftheeduca tional data, and the controversy it gave rise to in the 1930s. Since the detailed data of the Madras Presidency is the least knownandthemostcomprehensive,weshallexamineitfirst.

21

IV
The available papers connected with this survey include the instructionsofGovernment,thecircularfromtheBoardofReve nuetothedistrictcollectorsconveyingtheinstructionsandthe prescribedformaccordingtowhichinformationhadtobecom piled,therepliesofthecollectorsfromallthe21districtsofthe Presidency, the proceedings of the Board of Revenue on the informationreceivedwhilesubmittingittoGovernment,andthe Madras Governments proceedings on it. These are all reproducedasAnnexureA(i)(xxx).Itwouldhavebeenusefulfor amorethoroughanalysis,andforbetterunderstandingofthe situationifthedetailsfromwhichthecollectorscompiledtheir reports could be found. A reference to the records of a few districts, preserved in the Tamilnadu State Archives does not, however, indicate any additional material having survived in them.IfanyTalukarecordsstillexistforthisperioditisquite possibletheymaycontainmoredetaileddataaboutparticular villages,towns,collegesandschools. Inadditiontotheinstructions conveyedintheMinuteof the GovernorinCouncil, and the text of the letter from GovernmenttotheBoardofRevenue(bothofwhichweresentto thecollectors),theprescribedformrequiredfromthemdetailsof the number of schools and colleges in the districts, and the number of male and female scholars in them. The number of scholars, male as well as female were further to be provided under the following categories: (i) Brahmin scholars, (ii) Vysee scholars, (iii) Soodra scholars, (iv) scholars of all other castes and(v)Mussalmanscholars.Thenumbersunder(i)to(iv)were tobetotalledseparately.Tothesewereaddedthoseunder(v), thus arriving at the total number of Hindoo and Mussalman scholars,inthedistrict,orsomepartofit.Thecategoryallother castes,asmentionedearlier,evidentlyseemstohaveimpliedall such castes considered somewhat below the SatSoodra category. This included most such groupings which today are listedamongthescheduledcastes. Itmaybenotedfromthedocumentsthatwhileareplywas receivedfromthecollectorofCanara,hedidnotsendanydata aboutthenumberofschools,andcolleges,oranyestimationof thenumberofthosewhomayhavebeenreceivinginstructionin the district, through what he termed private education. Apart fromthestatementthattherearenocollegesinCanara,etc.,

22

hewasoftheviewthatteachinginCanaracouldnotbetermed public education; as it was organised on a somewhat discontinuous basis by a number of parents in an area by gettingtogetherandengagingtheservicesofateacher(s)forthe purposeofteachingtheirchildren.Themajordifficultyforthe collector, however, seemed to be that the preparation of the necessaryinformationwouldtakeupaconsiderabletime;and, that even if it were collected, no just criterion of the actual extentofschoolsasexistinthiszillahcouldbeformeduponit. Hehoped,therefore,thathisletteritselfwouldbeconsideredas a satisfactory reply. It may be added here that Canara (from about1800onwards,andtillatleastthe1850s),evenmorethan thenorthernareasofcoastalAndhra,wasthesceneofcontinual oppositionandpeasantresistancetoBritishrule.Besides,italso generallyhappenedthatwheneveranysuchdatawasorderedto be collected (and this happened quite often) on one topic or another, thequalityand extentofthe information suppliedby the collectorsvariedagreatdeal.Tosomeextent,suchdiffer ences in these returns arose from the varying relevance of an enquiryfromdistricttodistrict.Amoreimportantreason,per haps,wasthefactthatbecauseofthefrequentchangeofcollec torsandtheirEuropeanassistants,manyofthem(atthetime suchinformationwasrequired)werenotveryfamiliarwiththe districtundertheircharge.Furthermore,quiteanumberwere for various reasons, too involved in other more pressing activities, or, mentally much less equipped to meet such continualdemandsforinformation. Theinformationfromthedistricts,therefore,variesagreat dealindetailaswellasquality.Whilethedatafromabouthalf thedistrictswasorganisedtalukawise,andinsomeevenparga nawise,fromtheotherhalfitwasreceivedforthedistrictasa whole.ThreedistrictsVizagapatam,MasulipatamandTanjore addedonefurthercategorytotheprescribedformprovidedby Government, viz. the category of Chettris or Rajah scholars betweenthecolumnsforBrahminandVyseescholars.Further, while some of the collectors especially of Bellary, Cuddapah, Guntoor and Rajahmundry sent fairly detailed textual replies, someotherslikeTinnevelly,VizagapatamandTanjoreleftitto thedatatotellthestory.Afewofthecollectorsalsomentioned thebooksusedintheschoolsandinstitutionsofhigherlearning intheirdistricts.ThecollectorofRajahmundry,beingthemost detailed,providedalistof43booksusedinTeluguschools.He also identified some of those used in the schools of higher learning,aswellasintheschoolsteachingPersianandArabic.

23

TOTALSCHOOLS,COLLEGESANDSCHOLARS
Table 1 gives the total number of schools and institutions of higherlearning,alongwiththenumberofstudentsinthemin their districts. The data is taken from the reports of the collectors. Incidentally, the collectors of Ganjam and Vizagapatam indicated that the data they were sending was somewhatincomplete.Thismightalsohavebeentrueofsomeof theotherdistrictswhichwerewhollyorpartlyunderZamindary tenure. Two of the collectors also sent detailed information pertaining to those who were being educated at home, or in someotherprivatemanner.ThecollectorofMalabarsentdetails of 1,594 scholars who were receiving education in Theology, Law,Astronomy,Metaphysics,EthicsandMedicalScienceinhis districtfromprivatetutors.ThecollectorofMadras,ontheother hand,reportedinhisletterofFebruary1826that26,963school levelscholarswerethenreceivingtuitionattheirhomesinthe areaunderhisjurisdiction.Morewillbesaidaboutthisprivate educationsubsequently. The reports of the collectors were ultimately reviewed by theGovernmentofthePresidencyofMadrason10March1826. TheGovernor,SirThomasMunro,wasoftheviewthatwhilethe institutionaleducationoffemalesseemednegligible,thatofthe boysbetweentheagesof5to10yearsappearedtobealittle morethanonefourthoftheboysofthatageinthePresidency asawhole.Takingintoconsiderationthosewhowereestimated asbeingtaughtathome,hewasinclinedtoestimatetheportion ofthemalepopulationwhoreceiveschooleducationtobenearer toonethirdthanonefourthofthewhole.

CASTEWISEDIVISIONOFMALESCHOOLSTUDENTS
Themoreinterestingandhistoricallymorerelevantinformation, however,isprovidedbythecastewisedivisionofstudents.This is true not only as regards boys, but also with respect to the rathersmallnumberofgirlswho,accordingtothesurvey,were receiving education in schools. Furthermore, the information becomes all the more curious and pertinent when the data is grouped into the five main language areasOriya, Telugu, Kannada, Malayalam and Tamil. These constituted the Presidency of Madras at this period, and throughout the nineteenth century. Table 2 gives the castewise number of schoolgoingmalestudentsineachdistrictofthefivelanguage areas.

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It has generally been assumed that the education of any kind in India, whether in the ancient period, or just at the beginningofBritishrulewasmainlyconcernedwiththehigher andmiddlestrataofsociety;and,incaseoftheHindoos(whoin the Madras Presidency accounted for over 95% of the whole population), it was more or less limited to the twiceborn. However, as will be seen from Table 2, the data of 182225 indicate more or less an opposite position. Such an opposite viewisthemostpronouncedintheTamilspeakingareaswhere thetwicebornrangedbetween13%inSouthArcottosome23% inMadras,theMuslimsformlessthan3%inSouthArcotand Chingleputto 10%inSalem, while the Soodras and the other castesrangedfromabout70%inSalemandTinnevellytoover 84%inSouthArcot. To make the foregoing tabulation more easily comprehensible the castewise data may be converted into percentages of the whole for each district. Table 3 shows the resultofsuchconversion. In Malayalamspeaking Malabar, the proportion of the twicebornwasstillbelow20%ofthetotal.Becauseofalarger Muslim population, however, the number of Muslim school students went up to nearly 27%; while the Soodras, and the other castes accounted for some 54% of the school going students. InthelargelyKannadaspeakingBellary,theproportionof thetwiceborn(theBrahminsandtheVysees)wentupto33%, whiletheSoodras,andtheothercastesstillaccountedforsome 63%. ThepositionintheOriyaspeakingGanjamwassimilar:the twiceborn accounting for some 35.6%, and the Soodras and othercastesbeingaround63.5%. Itis onlyinthe Teluguspeakingdistricts thatthe twice bornformedthemajorproportionoftheschoolgoingstudents. Here, the proportion of Brahmin boys varied from 24% in Cuddapahto46%inVizagapatam;oftheVyseesfrom10.5%in Vizagapatamto29%inCuddapah;oftheMuslimsfrom1%in Vizagapatamto8%inNellore;andoftheSoodrasandother

25

castesfrom35%inGuntoortoover41%inCuddapahand Vizagapatam.

SCHOOLSCLASSIFIEDACCORDINGTOTHELANGUAGE OFINSTRUCTION
Some of the districts also provided information regarding the languageinwhicheducationwasimparted,andthenumberof schools where Persian or English were taught. The number of schoolsteachingEnglishwasonly10,thehighestbeing7inthe district of North Arcot. Nellore, North Arcot and Masulipatam had50,40and19Persianschoolsrespectively,whileCoimba torehad10,andRajahmundry5.NorthArcotandCoimbatore had schools which taught Grantham (1 and 5 respectively) as well as teaching Hindvee [a sort of Hindustani] (16 and 14 respectively),andBellaryhad23Marathischools.Thedistrictof North Arcot had 365 Tamil and 201 Telugu schools, while BellaryhadnearlyanequalnumberofschoolsteachingTelugu andKannada.Table4indicatesthisdatamoreclearly.

AGEOFENROLLMENT,DAILYTIMINGS,ETC.
Asmentionedearlier,thedatavariesconsiderablyfromdistrict todistrict.Manyofthecollectorsprovidedinformationregarding theageatwhichboys(andperhapsgirlstoo)wereadmittedto school, the usual age being five. According to the collector of Rajahmundry,thefifthdayofthefifthmonthofthefifthyearof theboysageistheluckydayforhisfirstentranceintoschool, while according to the collector of Cuddapah, the age for admissionforBrahminboyswasfromtheageoffivetosixand that for Soodras from six to eight. The collector of Cuddapah furthermentionedtwoyearsastheusualperiodforwhichthe boysstayedatschool.NelloreandSalemmentioned3to5or6 years,whilemostothersstatedthatthedurationofstudyvaried fromaminimumoffivetoaboutamaximumof15years.While some collectors did not think much of the then current educationintheschools,orofthelearningandscholarshipof theteachers,somethoughttheeducationimparteduseful.The collectorofMadrasobserved:Itisgenerallyadmittedthatbefore they (i.e. the students) attain their 13th year of age, their acquirements in the various branches of learning are uncom monlygreat.40

26

Fromtheinformationgiven,itseemsthattheschoolfunctioned forfairlylonghours:usuallystartingabout6A.M.,followedby oneortwoshortintervalsformeals,etc.,andfinishingatabout sunset,orevenlater.Table5chartsouttheinformationwhich wasreceivedonthesepointsfromtheseveralcollectors.The functioningoftheseschools,theirmethodsofteaching,andthe subjectstaughtarebestdescribedintheannexedaccountsof FraPaolinoDaBartolomeo(A.D.1796)andofAlexanderWalker (ca1820).41

BOOKSUSEDINSCHOOLS
ThemainsubjectsreportedtobetaughtintheseIndianschools werereading,writingandarithmetic.Thefollowinglistsofbooks usedintheschoolsofBellary,asalsoofRajahmundrymaybe worth noting, and may tosome degree indicate the content of learningintheseschools.

NAMESOFTHEBOOKSINUSEINTHESCHOOLSIN BELLARYDISTRICT42
A. Mostcommonlyused 1.Ramayanum2.MahaBharata3.Bhagvata B. UsedbyChildrenfromManufacturingClasses 1.NagalingaynaKutha2.VishvakurmaPoorana 3.KumalesherraKalikamahata C. UsedbyLingayatChildren 1.Buwapoorana2.RaghavanKunkauya 3.GeerujaKullana4.Unbhavamoorta 5.ChennaBusavaswaraPoorana6.Gurilagooloo,etc. D. LighterLiteratureRead 1.Punchatantra2.Bhatalapunchavunsatee 3.Punkleesoopooktahuller4.Mahantarungenee E. DictionariesandGrammarsused 1.Nighantoo2.Umara3.Subdamumburee 4.ShubdeemuneeDurpana5.Vyacurna6.Andradeepeca 7.Andranamasungraha,etc.

NAMESOFTHEBOOKSINUSEINTHESCHOOLSIN RAJAHMUNDRY43
1. BaulaRamauyanum 3. Paurejantahpatraranum 5. Raumayanum 7. KreestnaSatacum 9. JanakeySatacum 11. RamatarakaSatacum 13. BeesanavecausaSatacum 15. SooreyanarainaSatacum 17. PlaholandaCharatra 2. RookmenyCulleyanum 4. MollyRamauyanum 6. DansaradySatacum 8. SoomatySatacum 10. PrasunnaragaraSatacum 12. BahscaraSatacum 14. BeemalingaswaraSatacum 16. NarrainaSatacum 18. VasooCharatra

27

19. ManooCharetra 21. NalaCharetra 23. Ganintum 25. Bhauratam 27. VejiaValousum 29. RathamathavaVelausum 31. AstmaSkundum 33. BhaunoomalyParanayem 35. LeelansoondaryParanayem 37. Sooranthanaswarum 39. Audepurvem 41. Andhranamasungraham 43.ResekajanaManobharanum

20. SumungaCharetra 22. VamanaCharetra 24. PauvoolooryGanintum 26. Bhaugavatum 28. KroostnaleelanVelausum 30. SuptamaSkundum 32. RathamathavaSumvadum 34. VeerabhadraVejayem 36. Amarum 38. Voodeyagapurvem 40. GajandraMotchum 42. Coochalopurksyanum

INSTITUTIONSOFHIGHERLEARNING
While several of the collectors observed that no institutions of higherlearningwerethenknowntoexistintheirdistricts,the rest reported a total of 1,094 such places. These were enumerated under the term colleges (as mentioned in the prescribedform).Thelargestnumberofthese,279,wereinthe district of Rajahmundry with a total of 1,454 scholars, Coimbatore came next with 173 such places (724 scholars), Guntoor had 171 (with 939 scholars), Tanjore 109 (with 769 scholars),Nellore107,NorthArcot69(with418scholars),Salem 53 (with 324 scholars), Chingleput 51 (with 398 scholars), Masulipatam49(with199scholars),Bellary23,Trichnopoly9 (with 131 scholars), and Malabar with one old institution maintainedbytheSamudrinRaja(Zamorin),with75scholars. Inmostotherdistrictswherenosuchinstitutionswereknown, the collectors reported that such learningin the Vedas, Sastras, Law, Astronomy, Ganeetsastram, Ethics, etc.was impartedinAgraharams,orusuallyathome.Thedataregarding suchprivatelyconductedlearninginMalabarmaybeindicative oftheextentofsuchlearninginotherdistrictsalso(discussedin asubsequentsection).Table6indicatestheseandotherdetails moreclearly. Inmostareas,theBrahminscholarsformedaverysmall proportion of those studying in schools. Higher learning, however,beingmoreinthenatureofprofessionalspecialisation, seemsinthemaintohavebeenlimitedtotheBrahmins.This was especially true regarding the disciplines of Theology, Metaphysics,Ethics,andtoalargeextentofthestudyofLaw. ButthedisciplinesofAstronomyandMedicalScienceseemto have been studied by scholars from a variety of backgrounds andcastes.ThisisveryevidentfromtheMalabardata:outof 808studyingAstronomy,only78wereBrahmins;andofthe194 studying Medicine, only 31 were Brahmins. Incidentally, in Rajahmundry, five of the scholars in the institution of higher learning were Soodras. According to other Madras Presidency surveys,ofthosepractisingMedicineandSurgery,itwasfound

28

that such persons belonged to a variety of castes. Amongst them,thebarbers,accordingtoBritishmedicalmen,werethe bestinSurgery.44 Besides the account provided by the Samudrin Raja regarding the functioning of the institution supported by his family in Malabar,45 the collectors of Guntoor, Cuddapah, Masulipatam,MaduraandMadrasalsowroteinsomedetailon the subject of higher learning. According to the collector of Madras:Astronomy,Astrology,etc.areinsomeinstancestaught to the children of the poorer class of Brahmins gratis, and in certain few cases an allowance is given proportionate to the circumstances of the parents or guardians. The collector of Madura on the other hand mentioned that: In agraharam villages inhabited by Brahmins, it has been usual from time immemorial to allot for the enjoyment of those who study the Vaidams and Pooranams (religion and historical traditions) an extent of maunium land yielding from 20 to 50 fanams per annum and in a few but rare instances to the extent of 100 fanamsandtheygratuitouslyandgenerallyinstructsuchpupils asmayvoluntarilybebroughttothem.46 The collector of Masulipatam made a similar observation andstated: IftheboysareofVydeeaBrahmins,theyare,sosoonas they can read properly, removed direct from schools to collegeofVadumsandSastrums. Theformerissaidtobethemotherofallthesciencesof Hindoos,andthelatteristhecommontermforallthose sciences, which are in Sanskrit, viz law, astronomy, theology,etc.ThesesciencesaretaughtbyBrahminsonly, and more especially Brahmins holding Agraharams, Mauniums,Rozunahs,orotheremoluments,whosedutyit istoobservetheirreligiousobligationonalloccasions. Inmostofthetowns,villagesandhamletsofthiscountry, the Brahmins are teaching their boys the Vadum and Sastrums,eitherincollegesorelsewhereintheirrespective houses.47 The more descriptive accounts, however, were from CuddapahandGuntoor.ThecollectorofCuddapahstated: Although there are no schools or colleges supported by public contribution, I ought not to omit that amongst Brahmins, instruction is in many places gratuitously affordedandthepoorerclassobtainalltheireducationin thisway.Attheageoffrom10to16years,ifhehasnot the means of obtaining instruction otherwise, a young Brahminleaveshishome,andproceedstotheresidenceof amanofhisowncastewhoiswillingtoaffordinstruction without recompense to all those resorting to him for the purpose. They do not, however, derive subsistence from him for ashe isgenerallypoor himself,his meanscould

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notofcoursegivesupporttoothers,andevenifhehasthe means his giving food and clothing to his pupils would attract so many as to defeat that object itself which is professed. The Board would naturally enquire how these childrenwhoaresodestituteasnottobeabletoprocure instructionintheirownvillages,couldsubsistinthoseto whichtheyarestrangers,andtowhichtheytravelfrom10 to 100 miles, with no intention of returning for several years. They are supported entirely by charity, daily repeated,notreceivedfromtheinstructorforthereasons abovementioned,butfromtheinhabitantsofthevillages generally. They receive some portion of alms daily at the doorofeveryBrahmininthevillage,andthisisconceded tothemwithacheerfulnesswhichconsideringtheobjectin viewmustbeesteemedasamosthonourabletraitinthe nativecharacter,anditsunobtrusivenessoughttoenhance the value of it. We are undoubtedly indebted to this benevolent custom for the general spread of education amongstaclassofpersonswhosepovertywouldotherwise be an insurmountable obstacle to advancement in knowledge, and it will be easily inferred that it requires onlytheliberalandfosteringcareofGovernmenttobringit toperfection.48 The collector of Guntoor was equally descriptive and observed that though there seemed to be no colleges for teachingtheology,law,astronomy,etc.inthedistrictwhichare endowedbythestateyet, These sciences are privately taught to some scholars or disciples generally by the Brahmins learned in them, withoutpaymentofanyfee,orreward,andthatthey,the Brahminswhoteacharegenerallymaintainedbymeansof mauniumlandwhichhavebeengrantedtotheirancestors bytheancientZamindarsoftheZillah,andbytheformer Government on different accounts, but there appears no instance in which native Governments have granted allowancesinmoneyandlandmerelyforthemaintenance oftheteachersforgivinginstructionintheabovesciences. By the information which has been got together on the subject, it appears that there are 171 places where theology, laws and astronomy, etc. are taught privately, andthenumberofdisciplesinthemis939.Thereadersof these sciences cannot generally get teachers in their respectivevillagesandarethereforeobligedtogotoothers. In which case if the reader belongs to a family that can affordtosupporthimhegets

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whatisrequiredforhisexpensesfromhishomeandwhich isestimatedatthreerupeespermonth,butwhichisonly sufficient to supply him with his victuals; and if on the otherhand,hisfamilyisintooindigentcircumstancesto make such allowance, the student procures his daily subsistence from the houses in the village where taught whichwillinglyfurnishsuchbyturns. Shouldpeoplebedesirousofstudyingdeeperintheology, etc.thanistaughtintheseparts,theytraveltoBenares, Navadweepum,49 etc.wheretheyremainforyearstotake instructionunderthelearnedpunditsofthoseplaces. 50

SOMEBOOKSUSEDINHIGHERLEARNING
Thebooksusedintheseinstitutions maybeassumedtohave beentheVedas,thevariousSastras,thePuranas,themorewell known books on Ganeeta, and Jyotishshastras, and Epic literature.ExceptinthereportfromRajahmundry,thereisno mention of any books in the reports from other districts. AccordingtoRajahmundry,someofthebooksusedtherewere: NAMES OF THE BOOKS IN USE IN THE COLLEGES IN RAJAHMUNDRY51 Vadams,etc. 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. Roogvadum Yajoorvadum Samavadum Sroudum Dravedavedumor Nunlauyanum 1. Ragoovumsam 1. Coomarasumbhavem 1. Moghasundasem 1. Bharavy 1. Maukhum 5. 6. Nayeshadum 7. Andasastrum

Sastrums 1. SanskritGrammar SiddhandaCowmoody 2. Turkum 3. Jeyoteshem 4. Durmasastrum 5. Cauveyems Besides, as Rajahmundry had a few Persian schools, 52 it also sentalistofPersianandArabicbooksstudied.Thesewere:

NAMESOFTHEBOOKSINUSEINTHEPERSIAN SCHOOLSINRAJAHMUNDRY
1. CaremahAumadunnanmah 2. HarckaruminPersian 3. InshahCuliphaandGoolstan

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4. 5. 6. 7.

BahurdanishandBostan AbdulPhazulInshah Calipha Khoran

PRIVATETUITION(OREDUCATIONATHOME)
Severalcollectors,especiallythecollectorofCanara,whodidnot sendanystatisticalreturnsatall,mentionedthefactthatmany oftheboysandespeciallythegirlsreceivededucationathome fromtheirparents,orrelatives,orfromprivatelyengagedtutors. Many also stated that higher learning is being imparted in Agraharams,etc.However,itwasonlythecollectorsofMalabar andofthecityofMadraswhosentanystatisticaldataonthe subject.ThecollectorofMalabarsentsuchdatawithregardto higherlearning,whilethecollectorofMadrasabouttheboysand girls who were receiving education in their homes. Both the returnsarereproducedinTables7A&B. Regarding the data concerning higher learning from Malabar, it is reasonable to assume that though learning throughprivatetutors did existinmostother districts, itwas carriedoutinMalabartoafargreaterextentduetoitsrather differenthistoricalandsociologicalbackground.Aswillbenoted fromTables7A&B,thosestudyinginthisfashionatthisperiod (1823) were about twentyone times the number of those attending the solitary college supported by the more or less resourcelessfamilyoftheSamudrinRaja.TheMalabardataalso shows 194 persons studying medicine. As indigenous medical practitionersexistedineveryotherdistrictandperhapsinevery villagesomeofthemstillinreceiptofrevenueassignmentsfor their services to the communityit can logically be assumed that similar teaching in MedicalScience existed inmost other districtstoo. What number and proportions in the various disciplines werethuseducatedprivatelyintheotherdistricts,however,isa speculative question. Still, it may not be too erroneous to assumethatthenumberofthoseprivatelystudyingTheology, Law, Astronomy, Metaphysics, Ethics, Poetry and Literature, MedicalScience,Music,andDance(allofwhichexistedinthis period)wasperhapsseveraltimesthenumberofthosewhowere receivingsucheducationinstitutionally. ThedatafromMadrasregardingthenumberofboysand girls receiving tuition at their homes is equally pertinent. In comparisontothosebeingeducatedinschoolsinMadras,this

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number is 4.73 times. Though it is true that half of these privately tutored were from amongst the Brahmins and the Vysees,stillthosefromtheSoodrasform28.7%ofthisnumber, andfromtheothercastes13%.Furthermore,theIndianpartof Madras city at this period was more of a shantytown. In comparison to the older towns and cities of the Presidency, it wasarelativelybadlyorganisedplace,thestatusofitsIndian inhabitants being rather lower in the social scale than their counterpartsinotherplaceslikeMadura,Tanjore,Trichinopoly, etc.Itmaybequiteprobable,therefore,thatthenumberofthose privately educated in other districts, if not some 4 to 5 times more than those attending school as in Madras city, was still appreciablylarge.TheobservationofThomas Munrothatthere wasprobablysomeerrorinthenumbergivenof26,903being taughtathomeinMadrascityaremarkincidentallywhichhas beenmademuchofbylatercommentatorsonthesubjectdoes not have much validity. If the number had been considered seriouslyerroneous,anewcomputationforthecityofMadras, towhichaloneitpertained,wouldhavebeennodifficultmatter, especiallyasthisreturnhadbeensubmittedtotheGovernora whole year before this comment. It was perhaps required of Thomas Munroas head of the executiveto express such a reservation.Undoubtedly,itwasthesortofcommentwhichthe makersofpolicyinLondonwishedtohear. 55Thisdraft,however, was followed by the remark that the state of education here exhibited,lowasitiscomparedwiththatofourowncountry,is higherthanitwasinmostEuropeancountriesatnoverydistant period.AsmaybeguessedfromthedatapertainingtoBritain, thetermatnoverydistantperiodreallymeantthebeginningof thenineteenthcentury,whichhadbeentherealstartoftheDay schoolsformostchildrenintheBritishIsles.

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EDUCATIONOFGIRLS
Asmentionedearlier,thenumberofgirlsattendingschoolwas verysmall.LeavingasidethedistrictofMalabarandtheJeypoor division of Vizagapatam district, the girls from the Brahmin, Chettri, and Vysee castes were practically nonexistent in schools. There were, however, some Muslim girls receiving school education: 56 in Trichnopoly, and 27 in Salem. The Hindoogirlswhoattendedschool,thoughagainnotinanylarge number, were from the Soodra and other Hindoo castes; and, accordingtothecollectorsofMasulipatam,Madura,Tinnevelly andCoimbatore,mostofthemwerestatedtobedancinggirls,or girlswhowerepresumablygoingtobedevdasisinthetemples. Table8 presentsthedistrictandcastewisenumberofthegirls attendingschool,orsaidtobereceivingprivatetuition. AswillbenoticedfromTable9,thepositioninMalabar,as also in Jeypoor Zamindary of Vizagapatam district, was much different.Therelativenumbersofgirlsandboysattendingschool inthesetwoareas56arepresentedinTable8below: Inpercentagetermsofthetotal,theproportionofgirlsto boysinschoolwasthehighest,29.7%,intheJeypoor ZamindaryoftheVizagapatamdistrict.Evenmoresurprising, theproportionofBrahmingirlstoBrahminboysinschoolwas ashighas37%.Similarly,inMalabartheproportionofMuslim

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girlstoMuslim

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boysinschoolbeingat35.1%istrulyastonishing. 57Even amongsttheVysees,theSoodrasandtheothercastesin Malabar,theproportionofgirlstoboyswasfairlyhighat15.5%, 19.1%and12.4%respectively;theproportionofthetotalsbeing 18.3%.Thattwosuchwidelyseparatedareas(Malabaronthe westcoastwhileJeypoorZamindarybeinginthehillytractson thesouthernborderofOrissa)hadsuchasociologicalsimilarity requiresdeeperstudy.

V
TheundertakingofthesurveywaswelcomedbyLondoninMay 1825,whenitwrotetoMadras:Wethinkgreatcreditisdueto SirThomasMunroforhavingoriginatedtheideaofthisenquiry. However,afterreceiptofthesurveyinformationandpapers,the replyMadrasreceivedridiculed andaltogether dismissed what hadbeenreportedtobefunctioning.Inthepublicdespatchof 16April1828,Madraswastoldthattheinformationsent,while lacking in certain respects, was yet sufficiently complete to show,thatinprovidingthemeansofabettereducationforthe natives, little aid is to be expected from the instruments of educationwhichalreadyexist.

ADAMSREPORTONINDIGENOUSEDUCATIONIN BENGALANDBIHAR
Thirteenyears afterthe initiation of the survey in the Madras Presidency, a more limited semiofficial survey of indigenous educationwastakenupinthePresidencyofBengal.Thiswas whatisknownasthecelebrated AdamsReports,ortogivethe fulltitle ReportsontheStateofEducationinBengal1836and 1838.58

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Itconsistsofthreereports:the first,dated1stJuly1836,being a survey of the available existing information regarding indigenouseducationanditsnatureandfacilitiesinthevarious districts of Bengal (pp.1126); the second, dated 23 December 1835,beingasurveyof theprevalentsituation undertakenby W. Adam in the Thana of Nattore in the district of Rajshahy (pp.127208, pp.528578); and the third, dated 28 April 1838, beingasurveyofthesituationinpartsofMurshedabad,andthe wholeofthedistrictsofBeerbhoom,Burdwan,SouthBeharand Tirhoot, ending with Adams reflections, recommendations and conclusions(pp.209467).

AdamsPhraseologyandPresentation
Inspite of the controversieswhich AdamsReports have given risetothemostnotableonebeinghismentionoftherebeing perhaps 1,00,000 village schools still existing in Bengal and Bihar in some form till the 1830sthe total impression producedbythemisoneofextensivedecayoftheseinstitutions. LargelyduetoAdamsevangelical,moralistictone,readingthem is a rather depressing business. Adam himself was no great admirer of the Indian teacher, or the nature and content of Indianeducation.However,as Adamstartedfromtheviewthat theBritishGovernmentofthedayshouldinterestitselfinthe sphere of elementary and higher Indian education and also supportitfinancially,heseemedtohavethoughtitnecessaryto use all possible arguments and imagery to bring home this point. Under the circumstances, it was necessary for him to dramatisethedecayaswellastherelativestateofignoranceof the teachers, as well as the lack of books, buildings, etc., in ordertoevokethedesiredsympatheticresponse.Furthermore,it isimportanttonotethatW. AdaminitiallyhadcometoBengal in 1818 as a Baptist Missionary. Though he left missionary activity after some years, and took to journalism instead, he remainedaproductofhiscontemporaryBritishtimes,aperiod dominatedbytwoprincipalcurrentsofopinion:onewhichsaw the necessity of evangelising India, advocated by men like WilliamWilberforce;theother,itswesternisation,symbolisedby men like T.B. Macaulay and William Bentinck. As indicated earlier,bothideaswereencompassedintheCharterActof1813. Additionally, the reports of Adam, although not formal official documents, were nonetheless sanctioned and financed by the orders of the Governor General himself. Naturally, therefore, whiletheymayimplymanythingsasdosomeofthereportsof the Madras Presidency collectorsthey were nevertheless phrasedinsuchawayasnottolaytheblamedirectlyonpast governmentpolicyandaction.

VariedandValuableSociologicalData

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The more important point which comes through Adams voluminouswriting,however,washisremarkableindustryand thedetailandvarietyofdatawhichhewasabletocollect: first, from the post1800 existing sources; and second, through his own investigations. While the controversy about his 1,00,000 village schools in Bengal and Bihar is finally forgotten, the materialwhichheprovided(regardingthecastecompositionof thepupilstaughtaswellastheteachers,theiraverageagesat variousperiods,and the bookswhichweretheninuseinthe districtshesurveyed)willstillhavegreatrelevance.

SelectionsReproduced
Some selections from Adams material are reproduced in the present work (Annexure D). These include: (i) descriptions of elementary education takenfrom the first and second reports; (ii) description of higher learning, from the first report, (iii) a section on Medical education taken from the second report, based on investigations in Nattore, Rajshahy; and (iv), some tabulations of the basic data for the five surveyed districts contained in the third report. This latter tabulation is given underthefollowingheads: a. ElementarySchoolsandcastewisedivisionofstudents b. ElementarySchoolsandcastewisedivisionofteachers c. BooksusedinElementarySchools d. DetailsofinstitutionsofSanskriticLearning e. BooksusedinSanskriticStudies f. DetailsofinstitutionsofPersianandArabicLearning g. BooksusedinPersianandArabicStudies h. SubjectanddistrictwisedurationofStudy

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TheFirstReport:ASurveyofPost1800Material
Adamsfirstreportisageneralstatementofthesituationanda presentationofthedatawhichhecouldderivefrompost1800 official and other sources. His conclusions: first, every village had at least one school and in all probability in Bengal and Biharwith1,50,748villages,therewillstillbe1,00,000villages that have these schools.59 Second, on the basis of personal observation and what he had learnt from other evidence, he inferredthatonanaveragetherewerearound100institutionsof higher learning in each district of Bengal. Consequently, he concludedthatthe18districtsofBengalhadabout1,800such institutions.Computingthenumberstudyingintheselatterat thelowestfigureofsixscholarsineach,healsocomputedthat some10,800 scholars should bestudyingin them.Hefurther observedthatwhiletheelementaryschoolsaregenerallyheldin thehomesofsomeofthemostrespectablenativeinhabitantsor verynearthem,theinstitutionsofhigherlearninghadbuildings generally of clay with sometimes three or five rooms and in othersnineorelevenrooms,withareadingroomwhichisalso ofclay.Theselatterplaceswerealsousedfortheresidenceof thescholars;andthescholarswereusuallyfedandclothedby the teachers, and where required, were assisted by the local people.Afterdescribingthemethodofteachinginbothtypesof institutions and going into their daily routine, Adam then presented and examined the post1800 data on the subject, district by district. Table 10 gives an abstract of this examination.

TheSecondReport:SurveyofNattoreThana
The second report was wholly devoted to Adams study of the situationintheThanaofNattoreinthedistrictofRajshahy.It waslikeamodernpilotsurveyinwhichAdamdevelopedhis

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40

methodsandfashionedhistoolsforthemoreextensivesurvey whichwashisprimaryaim.TheresultsofthisNattoresurveyof 485villagesweretabulated,villagebyvillage,byAdam.Further details were provided for some of them in another tabulation. The population of this Thana was 1,20,928; the number of families 30,028 (in the proportion of one Hindoo to two Muslims);thenumberofelementaryschools27,andofschools oflearning38(alltheselatterbeingHindoo).In1,588families (80% of these being Hindoo), children occasionally received instruction at home. The number of scholars in elementary schoolswas262,andeducationinthemwasbetweentheagesof 814;whilethescholarsinschoolsoflearningwere397,136of thesebeinglocalpersonsand261fromdistantplaces,thelatter alsoreceivingbothfoodandlodging.Theaverageperiodofstudy intheselatterinstitutionswas16years,fromabouttheageof 11totheageof27.However,whilethenumberinelementary schools was so low, these 485 villages nonetheless had 123 native general medical practitioners, 205 village doctors, 21 mostlyBrahminsmallpoxinoculatorspractisingaccordingtothe old Indian method,60 297 womenmidwives, and 722 snake conjurors.

TheThirdReport:SurveyofFiveDistricts
ThethirdreportofAdamhasthemostdata.Inthisreport,Adam gives the findings of his surveys in part of the district of Murshedabad(20thanaswithapopulationof1,24,804outof37 thanas with a total district population of 9,69,447), and the wholeofthedistrictsofBeerbhoomandBurdwaninBengal,and of South Behar and Tirhoot in Bihar. In one thana of each district, Adam carried out the enquiries personally and also gatheredadditionalinformation.Intherest,itwasdoneforhim according to his instructions and proformas by his trained Indian assistants. Earlier, Adams intention was to visit every villageinperson;buthefoundthatthesuddenappearanceofa Europeaninavillageofteninspiredterror,whichitwasalways difficult, and sometimes impossible, to subdue.(p.214) He, therefore,gaveupthisideaofapersonalvisittoeveryvillage;in parttosavetime.

LanguagewiseDivision
Thetotalnumberofschoolsofalltypesintheselecteddistricts numbered 2,566. These schools were divided into Bengali (1,098),

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Hindi(375), Sanskrit (353), Persian(694), Arabic (31),English (8), Girls (6), and infants (1). The number of schools in the districtof Midnaporewasalsogiven:548Bengalischools,182 Oriyaschools,48Persianschools,andoneEnglishschool. Table 11givestheposition,districtwise:

FourStagesofSchoolInstruction
Adamdividedtheperiodspentinelementaryschoolsintofour stages. According to him these were: the first stage, seldom exceedingtendays,duringwhichtheyoungscholarwastaught toformthelettersofthealphabetonthegroundwithasmall stickorslipofbamboo,oronasandboard.The second stage, extendingfromtwoandahalftofouryears,wasdistinguished bytheuseofthepalmleafasthematerialonwhichwritingis performed,andthescholarwastaughttowriteandread,and committomemorythe Cowrie Table,theNumerationTableas faras100,theKathaTable(alandmeasureTable),andtheSer Table, etc. The third stage extended from two to three years, which are employed in writing on the plantainleaf. Addition, subtraction, and other arithmetical rules were additionally taughtduringthisperiod.Inthefourth,andlaststage,ofupto twoyears,writingwasdoneonpaper.Thescholarwasexpected tobeabletoreadtheRamayana,MansaMangal,etc.,athome, as well as be qualified inaccounts, and the writing of letters, petitions,etc.Table12indicatesthenumbers,usingthevarious materialsonwhichwritingwasdoneinthesurveyedareas.

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ElementaryEducationforAllSections
The first striking point from this broader survey is the wide socialstratatowhichboththetaughtandtheteachersinthe elementaryschoolsbelonged.Itistruethatthegreaterpropor tionoftheteacherscamefromtheKayasthas,Brahmins,Sadgop andAguricastes.Yet,quiteanumbercamefrom30othercaste groups also, and even the Chandals had 6 teachers. The elementaryschoolstudentspresentanevengreatervariety,and it seems as if every caste group is represented inthe stud ent population, the Brahmins andthe Kayasthas nowhere forming morethan40%ofthetotal.InthetwoBihardistricts,together theyformednomorethan15to16%.Themoresurprisingfigure isof61Dom,and61Chandalschoolstudentsinthedistrictof Burdwan,nearlyequaltothenumberofVaidyastudents,126, inthatdistrict.WhileBurdwanhad13missionaryschools,the numberofDomandChandalscholarsinthemwereonlyfour; and,asAdammentioned,only86ofthescholarsbelongingto 16ofthelowestcasteswereinthesemissionaryschools,while 674scholarsfromthemwereinthenativeschools.

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TeachingofAccounts
Regardingthecontentofelementaryteaching,Adammentioned variousbookswhichwereusedinteaching.Thesevariedconsid erably fromdistricttodistrict, butall schools inthe surveyed districts, except perhaps the 14 Christian schools, taught ac counts. Also, most of them taught both commercial and agriculturalaccounts.Table13givesadistrictwisestatement: Table13:ACCOUNTSTEACHINGINELEMENTARYSCHOOLS ANDCHRISTIANSCHOOLS Theageofadmissioninelementaryschoolsvariedfrom5 to 8 years, and, that of leaving school from 13 years to 16.5 years.

InstitutionsofSanskriticLearning
TheschoolsofSanskriticlearninginthesurveyeddistricts(inall 353)numberedashighas190inBurdwan(1,358scholars)and aslowas27inSouthBehar(437scholars).Theteachers(355in all)werepredominantlyBrahmins,only5beingfromtheVaidya caste.ThesubjectspredominantlytaughtwereGrammar(1,424 students),Logic(378students),Law(336students)andLitera ture(120students).Others,inorderofnumbersstudyingthem, were Mythology (82 students), Astrology (78 students), Lexicology (48 students), Rhetoric (19 students), Medicine (18 students),Vedanta(13students),Tantra(14students),Mimansa (2students),andSankhya(1student).Thedurationofthestudy andtheageswhenitwasstartedandcompletedvariedagreat dealfromsubjecttosubject,andalsofromdistricttodistrict.

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ThestudyofGrammarstartedattheearliestage(9to12years) and of Law, Mythology, Tantras, etc. after the age of 20. The periodofstudyordinarilylastedfromabout7to15years.

InstitutionsTeachingPersianandArabic
Those studying Persian (which Adam treated more as a school subject than as a matter of higher learning) numbered 3,479, the largest, 1,424, being in South Behar. The age of admissioninthemrangedfrom6.8yearsto10.3years,andthe studyseemedtohavecontinuedforsome11to15years.Over half of those studying Persian were Hindoos, the Kayasthas beingpredominant.61 Arabicwasbeingstudiedby175scholars,predominantly Muslims; but 14 Kayasthas, 2 Aguris, 1 Teli, and 1 Brahmin werealsostudentsofArabic.ThebooksusedinPersianlearning were numerous and an appreciable number for the study of Arabic. Finally, as far as age was concerned, the teachers in all typesofinstitutionswerelargelyintheirthirties.

VI
DRG.W.LEITNERONINDIGENOUSEDUCATIONINTHE PANJAB
Some45yearsafterAdam,DrG.W.Leitner,(onetimePrincipal ofGovernmentCollege,Lahore,andforsometimeactingDirector of Public Instruction in the Panjab) prepared an even more voluminoussurveyofindigenouseducationthere. 62 Thesurvey is very similar to that of W. Adam. Leitners language and conclusions, however, were more direct and much less complementarytoBritishrule.Incidentally,astimepassed,the inability of the British rulers to face any criticism grew correspondingly.

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They had really begun to believe in their divinely ordained missioninIndia,andotherconqueredareas.63 Atanyrate,Leitnersresearchesshowedthatatthetimeof the annexation of the Panjab, the lowest computation gave 3,30,000 pupils in the schools of the various denominations whowereacquaintedwithreading,writingandsomemethodof computation.Thisisincontrastwithlittlemorethan1,90,000 pupilsin1882.Furthermore,3540yearspreviously,thousands of them belonged to Arabic and Sanskrit colleges, in which oriental Literature and systems of oriental Law, Logic, Philosophy,andMedicineweretaughttothehigheststandards. Leitnerwentintogreatdetail,districtbydistrict,basinghimself on earlier official writings; and, then carried out a detailed survey of his own regarding the position in 1882. A few brief extractsfromthiswork,pertainingtohisgeneralstatement,the typeofschoolswhichhadexistedearlier,andthelistofbooks used in the Sanskritic schools is included amongst the documentsreproducedinthiswork(AnnexureE). In the documents reproduced in this work, or in those others of the eighteenth, or early nineteenth century on the subject of education in India, while there is much on the question of higher learning, especially of Theology, Law, Medicine, Astronomy, and Astrology, there is scarcely any reference to the teaching and training in the scores of technologies,andcraftswhichhadthenexistedinIndia.There is also little mention of training in Music, and Dance. These lattertwo,itmaybepresumed,werelargelytakencareofbythe complextempleorganisations. Themajorcauseofthelackofreferenceabouttheformer, however,isobviouslybecausethosewhowroteoneducation whether as government administrators, travellers, Christian missionaries,orscholarswerethemselvesuninterestedinhow suchcraftsweretaught,orpassedfromonegenerationto

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another.Someofthemwereevidentlyinterestedinaparticular technology, or craft: as indicated by the writings on their manufacture of iron and steel, the fashioning of agricultural tools, the cotton and silk textiles, the materials used in architecture,andbuildings,thematerialsusedinthebuildingof ships, the manufacture of ice, paper, etc. But even in such writings, the interest lay in the particular method and technologyanditstechnologicalandscientificdetails;and,not inhowthesewerelearnt. Yet another cause for the lack of information on the teaching of techniques and crafts may possibly lie in the fact thatordinarilyinIndiamostcraftswerebasicallylearntinthe home.WhatwastermedapprenticeshipinBritain(onecouldnot practise any craft, profession, etc., in England without a long andarduousperiodunderamastercraftsman,ortechnologist) was more informal in India, the parents usually being the teachers and the children the learners. Another reason might have been that particular technologies or crafts, even like the profession of the digging of tanks, or the transportation of commodities were the function of particular specialist groups, someofthemoperatinginmostpartsofIndia,whileothersin particular regions, and therefore any formal teaching and training in them must have been a function of such groups themselves.Remarksavailabletotheeffectthat,itisextremely difficulttolearntheartsoftheIndians,forthesamecaste,from fathertoson,exercisesthesametradeandthepunishmentof beingexcludedfromthecasteondoinganythinginjurioustoits interests is so dreadful that it is often impossible to find an inducement to makethem communicate anything, 64 appearto indicate some organisation of individual technologies at group levels.However,toknowanythingregardingtheirteaching,the innovationsandimprovisationsinthem,(theremusthavebeen innumerablesuchinstancesevenifthesewereonadecline),itis essential to have much more detailed information on such groups,the natureof thesetechnologies, and whatinessence constitutedaformal,orinformalapprenticeshipinthedifferent crafts.Onthissofarweseemtohavelittleinformation. Thefollowingindicativelistofthecraftslistedinsomeof thedistrictsoftheMadrasPresidency(collectedintheearly19th century records for levying tax on them) may give, however, someideaoftheirvariety.

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TANKS,BUILDINGS,ETC. Stonecutters Marblemineworkers Chunammakers Sawyers METALLURGY Ironorecollectors Ironmanufacturers Ironforgeoperators Ironfurnacesoperators Workersofsmeltedmetal intobars Brasssmiths TEXTILES Cottoncleaners Cottonbeaters Cottoncarders Silkmakers Spinners Ladup,orPenyasees cottonspinners Chaythreadmakers Chayrootdiggers(adye) Rungruaze,ordyers Indigomaker Barberweavers Boyahweavers Smoothandglazeclothmen OTHERCRAFTSMEN Preparersofearthforbangles Banglemakers Papermakers Fireworksmakers Oilmen Soapmakers MISCELLANEOUS Boatmen Fishermen

Woodwoopers(Woodcutters) Bamboocutters Wudders(Tankdiggers) Bricklayers Coppersmiths Leadwashers Golddustcollectors Ironsmiths Goldsmiths Horseshoemakers

Fineclothweavers Coarseclothweavers Chintzweavers Carpetweavers Sutrenzecarpetweavers Cottapeweavers Cumbleeweavers Threadpurdahweavers Gunnyweavers Pariahweavers(averylarge Muddawada,ordyersinred number) Mussalmanweavers Dyersinindigo Loommakers Silkweavers Saltmakers Earthsaltmanufacturers Saltpetremakers Arrackdistillers Collectorsofdrugsandroots Utarmakers,druggists Sandalmakers Umbrellamakers

48

Ricebeaters Toddymakers Preparersofearth forwashermen Washermen Barbers Tailors Basketmakers Matmakers

Shoemakers Penpainters Matmakers Carpenters Dubbeemakers Windinginstrumentmakers Sealmakers Chucklers

There is a sense of widespread neglect and decay in the field of indigenous education within a few decades after the onset of British rule. This is the major common impression which emerges from the 182225 MadrasPresidency data, the reportofW.AdamonBengalandBihar183538,andthelater Panjab survey by G.W. Leitner. If studies of the detailed data pertaining to the innumerable crafts, technologies and manufactures of this period, or for that matter of social organisationweretobemade,theconclusionsinallprobability willbelittledifferent.Ontheotherhand,thedescriptionsoflife andsocietyprovidedbyearlierEuropeanaccounts(i.e.accounts written prior to the onset of European dominance) of different partsof India,and thedataonIndianexportsrelating tothis earlier period (notwithstanding the political turmoil in certain partsofIndia),onthewhole leavesanimpressionofasociety which seems relatively prosperous and lively. The conclusion thatthedecaynoticedintheearly19thcenturyandmoresoin subsequent decades originated with European supremacy in India, therefore, seems inescapable. The 176970 famine in Bengal (when, according to British record, onethird of the population actually perished), may be taken as a mere forerunnerofwhatwastocome. Inthecontextofsomehistoricaldialectic,however,sucha decaymighthavebeeninevitable;perhaps,evennecessary,and tobedeliberatelyinduced.Forinstance,KarlMarx,assuchno friendofimperialismorcapitalism,writingin1853wasofthe view,that,EnglandhastofulfilladoublemissioninIndia:one destructive, theother regeneratingthe annihilation ofthe old Asiatic society, and the laying of the material foundation of WesternsocietyinAsia.65However,itisnotIndiaalonewhich

49

experienced this phenomenon of deliberate destruction. Other areasoftheworld,especiallytheAmericasandAfrica,seemto haveexperiencedsuchdestructiontoanevengreaterextent.The nearlytotalannihilationofthenativepeopleoftheAmericas aftertheirsubjugationbyEuropefrom1500A.D.onwardsis an occurrence of equally great import. A native population estimatedbymodernscholarstohavebeenintherangeof90to 112millionaround1500A.D.,66 farmorenumerousthanthe estimated total population of Europe thenhad dwindled to merely a few million by the end of the 19th century. It is probable that while differing in extent and numbers, similar destructionandannihilationhadoccurredindifferentpartsof the world through conquest and subjugation at various times during human history. Further, quite possibly, no people or culture in the world can altogether claim innocence for itself from any participation at one time or another in such occurrences.Nonetheless,whatevermaybethe caseregarding the world before 1500 A.D., the point is that after this date, ancient, functioning, established cultures inmost areas ofthe world, if not wholly eliminated, had become largely depressed duetotheexpansionofEuropeandominance.Thisrequireslittle proof.Itisobvious. Duringthelatterpartofthe19thcentury,impressionsof decay,declineanddeprivationbegantoagitatethemindofthe Indian people. Such impressions no doubt resulted from concrete personal, parental and social experience of what had gone before. They were, perhaps, somewhat exaggerated at times. By 1900, it had become general Indian belief that the countryhadbeendecimatedbyBritishruleinallpossibleways; that not only had it become impoverished, 67 but it had been degradedtothefurthestpossibleextent;thatthepeopleofIndia hadbeencheatedofmostofwhattheyhad;thattheircustoms andmannerswereridiculed,andthattheinfrastructureoftheir societymostly

50

eroded.Oneofthestatementswhichthuscameupwasthatthe ignoranceandilliteracyinIndiawascausedbyBritishrule;and, conversely,thatatthebeginningofBritishpoliticaldominance, India had had extensive education, learning and literacy. By 1930,muchhadbeenwrittenonthispointinthesamemanner as had been written on the deliberate destruction of Indian crafts and industry, and the impoverishment of the Indian countryside. However, to many within the expanding strata of westernised Indianswhether Marxists, Fabians, or capitalist roaders, their views on India and their contempt for it almost equalledthatofWilliamWilberforce,JamesMill,orKarlMarx suchchargesseemedfarfetched,andeveniftrue,irrelevant. Itisagainstthisbackgroundthat,duringhisvisitin1931 toattendtheBritishsponsoredconferenceonIndia(knownas the RoundTableConference),Mahatma Gandhiwas invited to addresstheRoyalInstituteofInternationalAffairs,London. In thisaddressGandhijialsobrieflydweltonthecausesofilliteracy inIndia.Whathesaidseemedtohavemadesparksfly. Themeetingheldon20October1931,undertheauspices oftheInstitute,isreportedtohavebeenattendedbyinfluential EnglishmenandwomendrawnfromallpartsofEngland,and was presided over by Lord Lothian.68 The subject on which GandhijispokewasTheFutureofIndia.Beforedescribingthis future,however,hedealtwithseveralissues,like:(i)theHindu MuslimSikhproblem,(ii)theproblemofuntouchability,and(iii) thedeepandeverdeepeningpovertyofthe85%oftheIndian peoplewholivedinthevillages.Fromthishemovedontothe problems which required urgent attention and how if the Congress had its way they would be dealt with. Amongst the foremost,heplacedtheeconomicwelfareofthemassesaswell as the provision of adequate occupations for those requiring them.Healsoaddressedpossiblesolutions tothe problemsof sanitationandhygiene,andofmedicalassistancewhichhefelt notonlyneededpacketsofquinine,etc.,butmoresomilkand fruit.Next,heturnedhisattentiontoeducation;and,fromthat, tothe neglectof irrigation and theneed for usinglongknown indigenousmethodsandtechniquestoachieveit.Inconclusion, he stated that while he had told them what we would do constructively,yetweshouldhavetodosomethingdestructive also. As illustrative of the required destruction, he mentioned theinsupportableweightofmilitaryandcivilexpenditurewhich India

51

couldillafford.Regardingtheformer,hestatedthatifIcould possiblyhavemyway,weshouldgetridofthreequartersofthe military expenditure. Regarding civil expenditure he gave an instance of what he meant: Here the Prime Minister gets fifty times, the average income; the Viceroy in India gets five thousandtimestheaverageincome.Hewentontoadd:From thisoneexampleyoucanworkoutforyourselveswhatthiscivil expenditurealsomeanstoIndia. Gandhijisobservationoneducationemphasizedtwomain points:(i)thattodayIndiaismoreilliteratethanitwasfiftyora hundred years ago; and (ii) that the British administrators, insteadoflookingaftereducationandothermatterswhichhad existed, began to root them out. They scratched the soil and began to look at the root, and left the root like that and the beautifultreeperished.Hestatedallthiswithconvictionanda sense of authority. He said that he was without fear of his figuresbeingchallengedsuccessfully. Thechallengecameimmediately,however,fromSirPhilip Hartog,afounderoftheSchoolofOrientalStudies,London, 69a former vicechancellor of the University of Dacca and member andchairmanofseveraleducationalcommitteesonIndiasetup by the British between 1918 and 1930. After questioning Gandhijiatthemeeting,alongcorrespondenceensuedbetween them during the next 56 weeks, ending with an hour long interview which Philip Hartog had with the Mahatma. In the interview, Philip Hartog was referred to some of the sources whichGandhijihadreliedon,includingtwoarticlesfromYoung IndiaofDecember1920byDaulatRamGupta:(i)TheDeclineof Mass Education in India, and (ii) How Indian Education was crushed in the Panjab. These articles were largely based on AdamsreportsandG.W.Leitnersbookandsomeotherofficially published material from the Panjab, Bombay and Madras. These,however,didnotseemsufficientprooftoPhilip Hartog, and he repeatedly insisted that Gandhiji should withdraw the statement he had made at the Chatham House meeting. GandhijipromisedthatafterhisreturntoIndia,hewouldlook for such material which Hartog could treat as substantiating what Gandhiji had said, adding that if I find that I cannot supportthestatementmadebymeatChathamHouse,Iwillgive my retraction much wider publicity than the Chatham House speechcouldeverattain.

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Another important point which, according to Hartog, emergedduringhisinterviewwasthatGandhijihadnotaccused the British Government of having destroyed the indigenous schools, but [that] they had let them die for want of encour agement.Tothis,Hartogsreplywasthattheyhadprobablylet them die because they were so bad that they were not worth keeping. In the meantime, Hartog had been working and seeking opinion,adviceandviewsofthehistorianEdwardJ.Thompson. Thompsonagreedwith HartogthatGandhijicouldnotpossibly beright;andthathehimselfalsodidnotbelievewedestroyed indigenousschoolsandindigenousindustryoutofmalice.Itwas inevitable. He felt nonetheless that, with regard to general education, we did precious little to congratulate ourselves on until the last dozen years.70 In a further letter, Thompson elaboratedhisviewsonthesubject:onhowlittlewasdoneuntil after 1918; thatthe very hopelessness of the huge Indianjob usedtooppresseventhosewhohadoftenfirstclassrecordof intellectinplaceslikeOxfordbeforeenteringtheICS.Henoted further:Iamreadingoldrecordsbypremutinyresidents,they teem with information that makes you hope that the Congresswallah will never get hold of it. Somehow the correspondence between Hartog and Edward Thompson ended on asour note. Perhaps,itdid not provide Hartog the sort of intellectualorfactualsupporthewasactuallylookingfor.Atany rate,aftertheinterviewwithGandhiji,Hartogfinallydespatched his rebuttal of Gandhijis statement (as intended from the beginning) for publication in International Affairs.71 In this he concludedthatthepresentpositionisthatMrGandhihassofar beenunabletosubstantiate

53

hisstatementinanyway;buthehasundertakentoretractthat statement,ifhecannotsupportit. WithinafewdaysofreachingIndia,Gandhijiwasputin YervadaPrison.Fromtherehewroteto Hartogon15February 1932 informing him of his inability at that moment to satisfy him,mentioningthathehadaskedProfK.T. Shahtolookinto thematter.K.T.ShahslonganddetailedletterreachedHartog soon after. In it, Shah also referred to the various known writingsonthesubjectincludingthoseofMaxMueller,Ludlow, G.L. Prendergast,and the morecelebrated Thomas Munro,W. Adam, and G.W. Leitner (already referred to in the foregoing pages).ForBombay,ShahquotedG.L.Prendergast,amemberof theCouncilintheBombayPresidency(brieflyreferredtoearlier) whohadstatedinApril1821: I need hardly mention what every member of the Board knowsaswellasIdo,thatthereishardlyavillage,greator small,throughoutourterritories,inwhichthereisnotat leastoneschool,andinlargervillagesmore;manyinevery town, and in large cities in every division; where young nativesaretaughtreading,writingandarithmetic,upona systemsoeconomical,fromahandfulortwo ofgrain,to perhapsarupeepermonthtotheschoolmaster,according to the ability of the parents, and at the same time so simple and effectual, that there is hardly a cultivator or petty dealer who is not competent to keep his own accountswithadegreeofaccuracy,inmyopinion,beyond whatwemeetwithamongstthelowerordersinourown country; whilst the more splendid dealers and bankers keeptheirbookswithadegreeofease,conciseness,and clearnessIratherthinkfullyequaltothoseofanyBritish merchants.72 KnowingwhatHartogconsideredassufficientproof, Shah beganhisletterbysayingthatheneedhardlypointoutthatat the time under reference, no country in the world had like definite, authoritative, statistical information of the type one wouldnowrecogniseasproperproofinsuchdiscussions;and thatall,therefore,thatonecanexpectbywayofproofinsuch matters, and at such a time, can only be in the form of impressionsofpeopleinapositiontoformideasalittlebetter and more scientific than those of less fortunately situated, or less wellendowed, observers. Shah finally concluded with the viewthatthe

54

closer enquiry of this type conducted by Leitner is far more reliable,andsoalsothe obiterdicta ofpeopleinthepositionto have clear impressions; and felt that even those impressions mustbeheldtogiveratheranunderestimatethanotherwise. ButShahslongletterwasawastedeffortasfarasHartog was concerned. It constituted merely afurther provocation. In hisreply,HartogtoldShahthatyourletterdoesnottouchthe mainquestionwhichIputtoMrGandhi;andconcludedthatI amafraidthatIamaltogetherunabletoacceptyourconclusion withregardtothehistoryofliteracyinBengalduringthepast 100years,ofwhichthereremainsagooddealtobesaid. Though it is not fair to compare individuals and to speculate on the motivations which move them, it does seem thatatthisstageSirPhilipHartoghadfeelingssimilartothose experiencedbyW.H.MorelandafterthelatterhadreadVincent Smithsobservations(inhisbookonAkbartheGreatMogul)that thehiredlandlesslabourerinthetimeof Akbarand Jahangir probablyhadmoretoeatinordinaryyearsthanhehasnow. 73 In reviewing the book, Moreland had then said, Mr Vincent Smiths authority in IndianHistoryissodeservedlygreat that thisstatement,ifallowedtostandunquestioned,willprobably pass quickly into a dogma of the schools; before it does so, I venturetopleadforfurtherexaminationofthedata. 74Andfrom then on, Moreland seems to have set himself the task of countering such a heretical view, and of stopping it from becomingadogmaoftheschools. Whateverhismotivation,PhilipHartogsethimselfthetask of proving Gandhiji wrong on this particular issue. The result was presented in three Joseph Payne Lectures for 193536 delivered at the University of London Institute of Education under the title, Some Aspects of Indian Education: Past and Present.75 The lectures were presented along with three Memoranda:(a)Noteonthestatisticsofliteracyandofschools inIndiaduringthelast

55

hundredyears.(b)TheReportsofWilliamAdamonVernacular EducationinBengalandBihar183538,andthelegendofthe 1,00,000schools,and(c)DrG.W.LeitnerandEducationinthe Panjab 184982. These were published in early 1939 by the OxfordUniversityPressundertheabovetitle.InMemorandum A,usingthelowfiguressentbyA.D.Campbellforthedistrictof Bellary,HartogquestionedThomasMunroscalculationthatthe proportion of males educated in schools was nearer onethird than onefourth. He countered instead that Munros figures mayhavebeenoverestimatesbasedonthereturnsofcollectors lesscarefulandinterestedineducationthanCampbell.Hartogs conclusionattheendwasthatuntiltheactiontakenbyMunro, Elphinstone,andBentinckinthethreepresidencies,theBritish Governmenthadneglectedelementaryeducationtoitsdetriment inIndia.ButIhavefoundnoevidencethatittriedtodestroyor uprootwhatexisted.Inafootnote,Hartogfurtherobserved:In Great Britain itself it was not until 1833 that the House of Commons madeagrantof30,000poundsforthepurposesof education. He also praised various Indian personalities, and more so Indias quaint mixture of most ancient and most modern. In his Preface, after referring to the imaginary basis for accusations not infrequently made in India that the British Government systematically destroyedthe indigenous system of elementaryschoolsandwithitaliteracywhichtheschoolsare presumedtohavecreated,Hartogobserved:WhenMr Gandhi, inanaddressgivenattheRoyalInstituteofInternationalAffairs on 20 October 1931, lent his powerful support to those accusations, and challenged contradiction, it was obviously necessarytoreexaminethefacts.76

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It may be fair to observe that, despite his considerable learning and experience, Hartog seemed to have lacked both imaginationandasenseofhistory.Hewasfartoocommittedto the dogmas of pre1939 Britain. His immigrant Jewish background may have accentuated such an outlook further. Whatever the reasons, it seemed inconceivable to Hartog that lateeighteenth,orearlynineteenthcenturyIndiacouldhavehad the education and facilities which Gandhiji and others had claimed. Similarly, it had been inconceivable to William Wilberforce, 125 years earlier, that the Hindoos could conceivablyhavebeencivilised(aswasstatedbymanyBritish officers and scholars who in Wilberforces days had had long personal experience of life in India) without the benefits of Christianity.ToHartog,asalsotoEdwardThompson,andbefore them to anextent evento W. Adam, and some of the Madras Presidency Collectors, it was axiomatic that these Indian educational institutions amounted to very little, and that the Indian system had become merely selfperpetuating, and otherwisebarren. BesidesGandhijisstatement,twootherfactsseemtohave hadquiteanupsettingeffectonPhilipHartog.The first,already referredto,werethewritingsofG.W.Leitner.Thesecondseems to have hurt him even more: this was a statement relating to what Hartog called what of the immediate future. In this context,Hartognotedthat,anearnestQuakermissionaryhas predicted that under the new regime [evidently meaning the postBritish regime] there will be a CounterReformation in education,whichwillnolongerbeWesternbutEastern;and,he observed:ThusIndiawillgobackathousandyearsandmoreto theolddays...tothosedayswhenshegaveoutagreatwealthof ideas, especially to the rest of Asia, but accepted nothing in return. Such a prospect was galling indeed to Philip Hartog, burdenedashewaslikehisillustriouspredecessorswiththe idea of redeeming India morally as well as intellectually, by pushingitalongthewesternroad. AsGandhijiwastheprimecauseofthiseffort,Hartogsent acopyofhislecturestohim.HewrotetoGandhijithathehad littledoubtthatyouwillfindthatacloseanalysisofthefacts revealsnoevidencetosupportthestatementwhichyoumadeat theRoyalInstituteofInternationalAffairs;addingthatGandhiji willthereforefeeljustifiednowinwithdrawingthatstatement. Gandhijirepliedsomemonthslater.Hisletterhadallthe ingredientsofaclassicreply:Ihavenotleftoffthepursuitofthe subjectofeducationinthevillagesduringthepreBritish

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period.Iamincorrespondencewithseveraleducationists.Those who have replied do support my view but do not produce authority that would be accepted as proof. My prejudice or presentiment still makes me cling to the statement I made at ChathamHouse.Idontwanttowritehaltinglyin Harijan.You dontwantmemerelytosaythattheproofIhadinmindhad beenchallengedbyyou! TherethematterendedasfarasGandhijiwasconcerned. On 10 September 1939, however, after learning of Gandhijis statementregardingtheWarinEurope,Hartogwrotehimavery gratefulletter: I cannot wait to express to you my profound gratitude, shared,Iamsurebyaninnumerablenumberofmyfellow countrymen,allovertheworld,fortheattitudeyouhave taken up in regard to the present War at your interview withtheViceroy,reportedintheTimes. Hartogsbookoflecturesledtomuchimmediatewritingin Indiaonthesubject.Evenaneweditionofthecomplete Adams Reports waspublishedbytheUniversityofCalcutta.Yet,what waswrittenproducedthesamedataandanalysisalloveragain; and,inthemain,coveredthesameground,andadvancedmore orlessthe sameargumentsashadalreadybeenadvancedby K.T.ShahinhislonglettertoPhilipHartoginFebruary1932. 77

VII
The significance of what Gandhiji said at Chatham House in October1931oughttohavebeenunderstoodnotintheliteral wayinwhichPhilipHartogdid,butwithinthetotalcontextof Mahatma Gandhis address, which attempted to reveal the overall disruption and decline of Indian society and its institutionsunderBritishrule.Thatagreatdecayhadsetinby the 1820s, if not a few decades earlier, in the sphere of education was admitted by the Madras Presidency survey, as wellasbyW.AdamwithregardtoBengalandBihar.In1822 25, the number of those in ordinary schools was put at over 1,50,000intheMadrasPresidency.Evidently,theinferencethat thenumberwasappreciably,perhapsagreatdealhighersome 20or30yearsearlier,cannot

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be ruled out. At any rate, nowhere was there any suggestion madethatitwasmuchlessthanithadbeenin182225.The populationoftheMadrasPresidencyin1823wasestimatedat 1,28,50,941, while the population of England in 1811 was estimatedat95,43,610.Itmaybenotedfromthisthat,whilethe differences in the population of the two regions were not that significant,thenumbersofthoseattendingthevarioustypesof schools(Charity,Sunday,Circulating)inEnglandwereinallin the neighbourhood of around 75,000 as compared to at least doublethisnumberwithintheMadrasPresidency.Further,more thanhalfofthisnumberof75,000inEnglishschoolsconsistedof thosewhoattendedschoolatthemostonlyfor23hoursona Sunday. However,afterabout1803,everyyearamarkedincrease tookplaceinthenumberofthoseattendingschoolsinEngland. The result: the number of 75,000 attending any sort of school around1800roseto6,74,883by1818,and21,44,377in1851, i.e.anincreaseofabout29timesinaperiodofaboutfiftyyears. It is true that the content of this education in England did not improve much during this half century. Neither did the period spentinschoolincrease:frommorethananaverageofoneyear in 1835 to about two years in 1851. The real implication of Gandhijis observation, and of the information provided by the MadrasPresidencycollectors,W.AdamandG.W.Leitner,isthat forthefollowing50100years,whathappenedinIndiawithin the developing situation of relative collapse and stagnation provedthereverseofthedevelopmentstakingplaceinEngland. It issuchafeeling,andtheintuitionofsuchanoccurrence,that drove Gandhiji, firstly, to make his observation in London in October 1931, and secondly, disinclined to withdraw it eight yearslater.Gandhijiseemedtobelookingattheissuefroma historical,social,andahumanviewpoint.Inmarkedcontrast, menlikeSirPhilipHartog,assocommonlycharacteristicofthe specialist,werelargelyquibblingaboutphrases;intentsolelyon pickingholesinwhatdidnotfittheprevailingwesterntheories ofsocialandpoliticaldevelopment. Statistical comparisons were what Sir Philip Hartog and many others in his time wanted. And these can, to a large extent, settle this debate: some comparison of the 182225 MadrasschoolattendingscholarsismadeherewiththeMadras Presidencydatapertainingtothe1880sand1890s.Becauseof incompleteness of the earlier data available from Bengal and Bihar, and also from the Presidency of Bombay,78 such a comparison

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doesnotseempossiblefortheseareas,muchlessforthewhole ofIndia. Accordingtothe187980ReportoftheDirectorofPublic Instruction for the Madras Presidency, the total number of educational institutions of all types (including colleges, secondary,middleandprimaryschools,andspecial,ortechnical institutions)thennumbered10,553.Outofthese,theprimary schools numbered 10,106. The total number attending them: 2,38,960males,and29,419females.Thetotalpopulationofthe Presidency at this time is stated as 3,13,08,872. While the number of females attending these institutions was evidently larger in 187980 compared to 182225, the proportionate numbers of males was clearly much reduced. Using the same computationasthoseappliedin182225(i.e.oneninthofthe totalpopulationtreatedasofschoolgoingage),thoseofthisage amongst the male population (taking males and females as equal)wouldhavenumbered17,39,400.Thenumberofmalesin primaryschoolsbeing2,18,840,theproportionofthisagegroup inschoolsthusturnsouttobe12.58%.Thisproportioninthe decayededucationalsituationof182225wasputatonefourth, i.e.at25%.Ifoneweretotakeeventhetotalofallthoseinevery typeofinstitution,i.e.thenumber2,38,960,theproportionin 187980risesonlyto13.74%. From 187980 to 188485, there was some increase, however,tobefound.Whilethepopulationwentdownslightlyto 3,08,68,504, the total number of male scholars went up to 3,79,932, and that of females to 50,919. Even this larger number of male scholars came up only to 22.15% of the computedschoolagemalepopulation;and,ofthoseinprimary schoolsto18.33%.Thesefiguresaremuchlowerthanthe1822 25officiallycalculatedproportion.Incidentally,whiletherewas anoverallincreaseinnumberoffemalesineducationalinstitu tions, the number of Muslim girls in such institutions in the district of Malabar in 188485 was only 705. Here it may be recollectedthat62yearsearlier,inAugust1823,thenumberof MuslimgirlsinschoolsinMalabarwas1,122;and,atthattime, thepopulationofMalabarwouldhavebeenbelowhalfofthatin 188485. Elevenyearslaterin189596,thenumberinalltypesof educationalinstitutionsincreasedfurther.Whilethepopulation hadgrownto3,56,41,828,thenumberofthoseineducational

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institutionshadincreasedto6,81,174males,and1,10,460fe males.Itisatthistimethenthattheproportion(takingallthose males attending educational institutions) rose to 34.4%: just about equal to the proportion which Thomas Munro had computed in 1826 as onethird (33.3%) of those receiving any educationwhetherinindigenousinstitutions,orathome.Even atthisperiod,i.e.70yearsafterMunroscomputation,however, thenumberofmalesinprimaryeducationwasjust28%. Coming to 18991900, the last year of the nineteenth century,the number ofmalesin educational institutions went upto7,33,923andoffemalesto1,29,068.Atthisperiod,the number of schoolage males was calculated by the Madras Presidency Director of Public Instruction as 26,42,909, thus giving a percentage of 27.8% attending any educational institution. Even taking a sympathetic view of the later data, what clearly comes out of these comparisons is that the proportionofthoseineducationalinstitutionsattheendofthe nineteenth century was still no larger than the proportions estimated by Thomas Munro of the number attending the institutions of the decaying indigenous system of the Madras Presidencyin182225. TheBritishauthoritiesinthelatenineteenthcenturymust havebeentemptedaswefindstateauthoritiesareinourown timestoshowtheirachievementsinbrighterhuesandthuserr onthesideofinflatingfigures:therefore,thislaterdatamaybe treated with some scepticism. This was certainly not the case withthe182225datawhich,intheclimateofthatperiod,could nothavebeenconsideredinflatedinanysenseoftheword. Fromtheabove,itmaybeinferredthatthedecaywhichis mentionedin182225proceededtogrowinstrengthduringthe next six decades. During this period, most of the indigenous institutions more or less disappeared. Any surviving remnants wereabsorbedbythelate19thcenturyBritishsystem.Further, it is only after 1890 that the new system begins to equal the 182225 officially calculated proportions of males in schools quantitatively. Its quality, in comparison to the indigenous system,isanothermatteraltogether. Theabovecomparisonofthe182225Madrasindigenous educationdatawiththedatafromthe1880sand1890speriod alsoseemstoprovideadditionalsupportifsuchsupportwere requiredtothedeductionswhichG.W. Leitnerhadcometoin 1882. These reveal the decline of indigenous education in the Panjabintheprevious3540years.

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VIII
Duringthisprolongeddebate,thecriticalissuethatwasseldom touched upon and about which in their various ways, the MadrasPresidencycollectors,thereportsofAdam,andthework of Leitner provided a variety of clues, was how all these educational institutionsthe 1,00,000 schools in Bengal and Bihar, and a school in every village according to Munro and otherswere actually organised and maintained. For, it is ridiculous to suppose that any system of such wide and universaldimensionscouldeverhavemaintaineditselfwithout thenecessaryconceptualandinfrastructuralsupportsoverany lengthoftime. Modern Indians tend to quote foreignersin mostmatters reflectingonIndiaspresent,oritspast.Oneschoolofthought usesallsuchforeignbackingtoshowIndiasprimitiveness,the barbaric,uncouthandwhatistermedparochialnatureofthe customs and manners of its people, and the ignorance, oppressionsandpovertywhichIndiansaresaidtohavealways suffered from. To them India for most of its past had lived at whatistermed,thefeudalstageorwhatinmorerecentMarxist terminologyiscalledthesystemofAsiaticsocialorganisms.Yet, toanotherschool,Indiahadalwaysbeenagloriousland,with minorblemishes,oraccidentsofhistoryhereandthere;allinall remaining a land of Dharmic and benevolent rulers. For yet others subscribing to the observations of the muchquoted CharlesMetcalfe,andHenryMaine,ithasmostlybeenahappy landofvillagerepublics. Unfortunately, due to their Britishoriented education, or because of some deeper causes (like the scholastic and hair splitting tendency of Brahmanical learning), Indians have becomesincethepastcentury,tooliteral,toomuchcaughtup with mere words and phrases. They have lost practically all senseofthesymbolicnatureofwhatissaid,orwritten.79 Itis notsurprising,

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therefore, that when Indians think of village republics, what occurs to them is not what the word republic implies in substance; but, instead, the visual images of its shell, the electedassembly,thesystemofvoting,etc. WhatCharles Metcalfe,andespeciallyHenryMainewrote on this point was primarily on the basis of the earlier British information,i.e.whathadbeenderivedfromthelateeighteenth andearlynineteenthcenturyBritishtravellers,administrators, etc., as well as from the writings of other Europeans before them. It implied (and, quite naturally, the British had no particularreasontospellitoutforusIndians)thatthevillage (itisimmaterialhowtheydefinedit),toanextent,hadallthe semblance of the State: it controlled revenue and exercised authority within its sphere. How this village State was constituted,(whetherinthemannerofanoligarchy,orbythe representation of the various castes, crafts, or other groups withinit,orbyrepresentationofallfamilies,orinsomeother manner),whileimportantinitselfasasubjectforexploration, was not its basic element. The basic element of this village republicwastheauthorityitwielded,theresourcesitcontrolled and dispensed, and the manner of such resource utilisation. Notwithstanding all that has been written about empires Ashokan,Vijayanagar,Mughal,etc.,andoforientaldespotism itisbeyondanydoubtthatthroughoutitshistory,Indiansociety and polity has basically been organised according to non centralistconcepts.Thisfactisnotonlybroughtoutinrecent research.TheeighteenthandearlynineteenthcenturyEuropean reports, manuscript as well as published writings also bear evidencetoit.Thattheannualexchequerreceiptsof Jahangir didnotamounttomorethan5%ofthecomputedrevenueofhis empire,andthatof Aurangzeb(withallhiszealformaximising suchreceipts),didnoteverexceed20%issymptomaticofthe conceptsandarrangementswhichgovernedIndianpolity. Itcanbearguedofcoursethatsuchanoncentralistpolity madeIndiapoliticallyweak;or,rather,softinthemilitarysense giventhatonlyhierarchicalandcentraliststatesarepolitically and militarily strong and viable. This may all be true and is worthyofseriousconsideration.Nonetheless,thefirstrequisite is to understand the nature of Indian society and polity especiallyasitfunctionedtwoorthreecenturiesago.Further, itsvariousdimensionsandcontours,strengthsandweaknesses need to be known, and not only from European writings but muchmoresofromIndiansources;thatisfromsourcesrooted

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in the traditions and beliefs of various areas, communities, groups, etc.,with special attention being paid to their own imagesofthesocietyofwhichtheywereapart. It is suggested hereand there is voluminous data scattered in the British records themselves which confirm the viewthatintermsofthebasicexpenses,botheducationand medical care, like the expenses of the local police, and the maintenance of irrigation facilities, had primary claims on revenue. It was primarily this revenue which not only maintained higher education, but alsoas was sometimes admitted in the British recordsthe system of elementary education.80 It is quite probable that, in addition to this basic provision, the parents and guardians of the scholars also contributedalittleaccordingtotheirvaryingcapacitiesbyway ofpresents,occasionalfeedingoftheunprovidedscholars,etc., towards the maintenance of the system. But to suppose that suchadeeprootedandextensivesystemwhichreallycateredto allsectionsofsocietycouldbemaintainedonthebasisoftuition fees,orthroughnotonlygratuitousteachingbutalsofeedingof thepupilsbytheteachers,istobegrosslyignorantoftheactual functioningoftheIndiansocialarrangementsofthetime. According to the BengalBihar data of the 1770s and 1780s, the revenues of these areas were divided into various categories in addition to what was called the Khalsa, i.e., the sources whose revenue was received in the exchequer of the ruling authority of the province, or some larger unit. These categories together (excluding the Khalsa), seem to have been allocated or assigned the major proportion of the revenue sources(perhapsaround80%ofthecomputedrevenueofany area).Twoofthesecategoriesweretermed ChakeranZemin,and BazeeZeminintheBengalandBiharrecordsofthisperiod.The former, Chakeran Zemin, referred to recipients of revenue who wereengagedinadministrative,economic,accountingactivities, etc., and were remunerated by assignments of revenue. The latter, Bazee Zemin, referred to those whoaccording to the Britishwere in receipt of what were termed religious and charitable allowances. A substantial portion of these religious allowanceswasobviously

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assignedforthemaintenanceofreligiousplaces:largelytemples ofallsizesandcelebrity,butalsomosques, dargahs, chatrams, maths, etc. Another part was assigned to the agraharams, or what perhaps were also termed Brahmdeya in South India as wellasinBengal.Yet,otherassignmentsweregivenovertoa varietyofpersons:togreatandotherpundits,topoets,tojoshis, tomedicalpractitioners,tojestersandevenforsuchpurposes as defraying the expenses ofcarryingGangawaterinareasof UttarPradeshtocertainreligiousshrinesoncertainfestivals. 81 RegardingtheextentofsuchassignmentsfromHedgeleein Bengal, it was stated in 1770 that almost onehalf of the province is held upon free tenure under the Bazee Zemin category.82 The number of these Bazee Zemin (one may reasonablyassumethetermincludedindividuals,groupsaswell as institutions) in many districts of Bengal and Bihar was as highas30,000to36,000recipientsforthedistrict.Accordingto H.T. Prinsep,83 in one district of Bengal around 1780, the applications for the registration of Bazee Zemin numbered 72,000. The position in the Madras Presidency was not very different, even after all the disorganisation, dispossession and demolition of the period 17501800, during which the British made themselves masters of the whole area. As late as 1801, over35%ofthetotalcultivatedlandintheCededDistricts(the present Rayalseema area and the Kannada District of Bellary) cameunderthecategoryofrevenuefreeassignments,anditwas thetaskofThomasMunrotosomehowreducethisquantitytoa mere5%ofthetotalcultivatedland.Thereductionintendedin the Ceded Districts was also carried out in all other districts, earlier in some, and later in others, and in some, the dispossessionofsuchvastnumbersofassigneesofrevenuetook alongtime. The returns from the various districts of the Madras Presidency, especially during the years 18051820, provide much information on the varied nature of these revenue assignments

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(orgrain,ormoneyallowances).Insomemeasure,thesehadtill then continued to be permitted, or disbursed to a variety of institutions and to individuals in the several districts. Such informationusuallygotcollectedwheneverthegovernmentwas contemplating some new policy, or some further steps concerningone,ormorecategoriesofsuchassignees,orthoseto whomanysortofallowanceswerebeingpaid.Asillustrativeof suchinformation,areturnfromthedistrictofTanjoreofApril 1813,relatingtothemoneyassignmentsreceivedby1,013big andsmalltemples,84whichbythistimeweremostlyminute and between 350400 individuals is reproduced at the end of this book (Annexures Gand H).Thesepayments amounted at thistimetoatotalofStarPagodas43,037forthetemples,and StarPagodas5,929totheindividuals,annually.AStarPagoda wasvaluedataboutthreeandonehalfrupee. WhatwastrueofBengal,BiharandtheMadrasPresidency applied equally to other areas: whether of the Bombay Presidency,Panjab,orintheRajasthanStates.Theproportions of revenue allocated to particular categoriesas far as the Britishrecordindicatesalsoseemfairlysimilar.Itwillnotbe far wrong to assume that about a quarter to onethird of the revenuepayingsources(notonlyland,butalsoseaports,etc.) were, according to ancient practice, assigned for the requirements of the social and cultural infrastructure till the Britishoverturneditall. Further still, the rate of assessment which was paid by cultivators of the revenue assigned lands was fairly low. AccordingtothesupervisorsoftheBengalDistrictsinthe1770s andearly1780s,therateofassessmentchargedbythe Bazee Zeminrevenueassigneeswasaroundonequartertoonethirdof theratewhichtheBritishhadbeguntodemandfromthelands whichweretreatedas Khalsa,85 acategorywhichwasnowjust swallowinguppracticallyalltheothercategories.Amoreorless similar phenomenon obtained in the various districts of the Madras Presidencyeven as late as the 1820s. 86 Moreover, though it may seem unbelievable, the area which constituted Malabarhad,till

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about1750,neverbeensubjecttoalandtax. 87Ithadavarietyof other mercantile and judicial taxes, but land in Malabar according to British investigators themselvesnever paid revenueofanykindtillthepeacewaswhollyshatteredbythe Europeans, Hyder Ali and Tipu Sultan. Even during Tipus period,theactualreceiptsfromMalabarwerefairlysmall. The major dispossession of the various categories of revenueassignees(startingfromthosewhohadassignmentfor the performance of military duties, and who formed the local militias,andgoingontothosewhoperformedpoliceduties,etc.) startedassoonastheBritishtookover defacto controlofany area,(i.e.inBengalandBiharfrom175758onwards).Theturn oftheChakeranZeminandtheBazeeZemincameslightlylater. By about 1770, the latter had also begun to be seriously affected. By about 1800, through various means, a very large proportionofthesehadbeenaltogetherdispossessed;and,most oftheremaininghadtheirassignmentsgreatlyreducedthrough variousdevices.Amongthedevicesusedwastheapplicationof thenewlyestablishedenhancedrateofassessmenteventothe sourcesfromwhichtheassigneeshadreceivedtherevenue.This device,tobeginwith,impliedareductionofthequantityofthe assigned source in accordance with the increased rate of assessment. The next step was to reducein most casesthe moneyvalueitself.Theresultwasthattheassigneewhetheran individualoraninstitutionevenwhenallowedafractionofthe previousassignment,wasnolongerable(becauseofsuchsteep reduction)toperformtheaccompanyingfunctionsinthemanner theyhadbeenperformedonlysomedecadespreviously.Those whose assignments were completely abrogated were of course reducedtopenuryandbeggary,ifnottoaworsefate.Naturally, manyoftheoldfunctions

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dependentonsuchassignments(liketeaching,medicine,feeding ofpilgrims,etc.),hadtobegivenupbecauseofwantoffiscal support,asalsoduetostateridiculeandprohibitions. Therearereferences(seetheannexedreportsfromsomeof the Madras Presidency collectors) to certain revenue assignments here and there, and to daily cash or grain allowances received by some of those who were occupied in impartingSanskriticlearning,orPersian,andinsomeinstances even education at the elementary level. A few other collectors alsomadereferencetocertainrevenueassignmentswhichused toexistinthearea(butweresaidtohavebeenappropriatedby Tipu, and that, when the British took over these areas, they formally added such revenue to the total State revenue). The various area reports of the period 1792 to about 1806 make muchmentionofdispossessionofrevenueassigneesbyordersof Tipuinthe areaoverwhichhe had control. But, atthe same time,itisalsostatedthatthroughtheconnivanceoftherevenue officers, etc., such dispossession during Tipus reign was, in mostcases,notoperativeatall.WhatTipumighthaveintended merelyasathreattoopponents,becameadefactorealitywhen theseareascameunderformalBritishadministration. ButinmostareaswhichtheBritishhadconquered(either on behalf of the Nabob of Arcot, or on behalf of the Nizam of Hyderabad,oradministeredinthenameofthevariousRajasof Tanjore), most such dispossession was pre1800. The process startedsoonafter1750,whentheBritishdominationofSouth India began gathering momentum in the early 1780s and the revenues of the areas claimed by the British to be under the nominalrulershipoftheNabobofArcotwereformallyassigned over to the British. One major method used to ensure dispossessionwastoslashdownwhatweretermedtheDistrict charges, i.e., the amounts traditionally utilised within the districts,butwhich,forpurposesofaccounting,wereshownin therecordsoftheNabob.Theslashingdownincertaindistricts likeTrichnopolywasupto93%oftheDistrictchargesallowed untilthen:amere19,143StarPagodasnowallowedinplaceof theearlier2,82,148StarPagodas. The report of the collector of Bellary is best known and mostmentionedinthepublishedrecordsonindigenouseduca tion.88Itislongandfairlycomprehensive,thoughthedatahe

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actuallysentwasmuchlessdetailed.Init,heactuallytothe extentacollectorcouldcameoutwiththestatementthatthe degeneration of education is ascribable to the gradual but generalimpoverishmentofthecountry;thatthemeansofthe manufacturing classes have been greatly diminished by the introduction of our own European manufactures; that the transferofthecapitalofthecountryfromthenativegovernment and their officers, who liberally expanded it in India, to Europeans,restrictedbylawfromemployingiteventemporarily inIndia,anddailydrainingitfromtheland,haslikewisetended tothiseffect;thatinmanyvillageswhereformerlytherewere schools,therearenow none;andthatlearning,thoughitmay proudly decline to sell its stores, had never flourished in any country except under the encouragement of the ruling power, andthecountenanceandsupportoncegiventoscienceinthis partofIndiahaslongbeenwithheld.Inelaboration,headded thatofthe533institutions foreducationnowexistinginthis district,Iamashamedtosaynotonenowderivesanysupport fromtheState;butthatthereisnodoubt,thatinformertimes, especiallyundertheHindooGovernmentsverylargegrants,both inmoneyandinland,wereissuedforthesupportoflearning; thattheconsiderableyeomiahsorgrantsofmoney,nowpaidto brahminsinthisdistrict...may,Ithink,betracedtothissource. Heconcludedwiththeobservationthat: Thoughitdidnotconsistwiththedignityoflearningtore ceive from her votaries hire, it has always in India been deemedthedutyofgovernmenttoevincetoherthehighest respect,andtogranttoherthoseemolumentswhichshe could not, consistently with her character, receive from other sources; the grants issued by former governments, on such occasions, contained therefore no unbecoming stipulationsorconditions.Theyallpurporttoflowfromthe free bounty of the ruling power, merely to aid the maintenanceofsomeholyorlearnedman,ortosecurehis prayers for the State. But they were almost universally grantedtolearnedorreligiouspersons,whomaintaineda schoolforoneormoreofthesciences,andtaughttherein gratuitously;andthoughnotexpressedinthedeeditself, the duty of continuing such gratuitous instruction was certainlyimpliedinallsuchgrants.89

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The Collector of Bellary, A.D. Campbell, was an experienced and perceptive officer, previously having held the postofSecretaryoftheBoardofRevenue,andwasperhapsone ofThomas Munrosfavourites.ItmaybesaidtoMunroscredit thatinhisreviewof10March1826,hedidadmitinhisoblique way that indigenous education has, no doubt, been better in earliertimes.Thefactthatitgotdisrupted,reducedandwell nigh destroyed from the time the British took over de facto controlandcentralisedtherevenue,wasobviouslynotpossible evenforaGovernoraspowerfulasThomasMunrotostatein formalgovernmentrecords. Illustrations such as the above can be multiplied ad infinitum.Itonlyrequiressearchingtherecordspertainingtothe earlyperiodofBritishruleindifferentareasofIndia.Withmuch industryandinafairlyobjectivemanner,Leitnertriedtodothis forthePanjab.ForGandhiji,anintuitiveunderstandingofwhat could have happened was enough. He could, therefore, with confidence,replyto Hartogthat,myprejudiceorpresentiment stillmakesmeclingtothestatementImadeatChathamHouse.

IX
This brings us finally to an assessment of the content of the indigenous system of education. The long letter of the much quoted A.D. Campbell, collector of Bellary, had been used a centuryearlierbyLondontoestablishthatinIndiareadingand writing

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wereacquiredsolelywithaviewtothetransactionofbusiness, that nothing whatever is learnt except reading, and with the exceptionofwritingandalittlearithmetic,theeducationofthe greatmajoritygoesnofarther. The question of content is crucial. It isthe evaluation of content which led to indigenous education being termed bad and hence to its dismissal; and, in Gandhijis phrase, to its uprooting. Yetitwas notthe merereading and writing and a little arithmetic which was of any consequence in such a decision.For,schooleducationincontemporaryEngland,except in the sphere of religious teaching, covered the same ground, andprobably,muchlessthoroughly.Asmentionedearlier,the averageperiodofschoolingin1835Englandwasjustaboutone year, and even in 1851, only two. Further, as stated by A.E. Dobbs,insomecountryschools,writingwasexcludedforfearof evilconsequences. WhilethelimitlessBritishhungerforrevenuesoforcefully describedbyCampbellstarvedtheIndiansystemoftheveryre sources whichitrequired to survive, its culturaland religious contentandstructureprovokeddeliberateattemptsaimedatits total extermination. It was imperative to somehow uproot the Indian indigenous system for the relatively undisturbed maintenance and continuance of British rule. It is the same imperative which decided Macaulay, Bentinck, etc., to deliberately neglect largescale school educationproposed by men like Adamtill a viable system of Anglicised higher educationhadfirstbeenestablishedinthecountry. In 1813, this bold intention was publicly and powerfully expressedbyWilliam Wilberforcewhenhe depicted Indians as being deeply sunk, and by their religious superstitions fast bound,inthelowestdepthsofmoralandsocialwretchedness. 90 T.B. Macaulay expressed similar views, merely using different imagery. He commented that the totality of Indian knowledge andscholarshipdidnotevenequalthecontentsofasingleshelf of a good European library, and that all the historical information contained in books written in Sanskrit was less valuable than what may be found in the most paltry abridge mentusedatpreparatoryschoolsinEngland. 91ToMacaulay,all Indianknowledge,ifnotdespicable,wasatleastabsurd:absurd history,absurdmetaphysics,absurdphysics,absurdtheology.

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A little later, Karl Marx seems to have had similar impressions of Indiathis, despite his great study of British state papers and other extensive material relating to India. Writing in the New York Daily Tribune on 25 June 1853, he shared the view of the perennial nature of Indianmisery, and approvingly quoted an ancient Indian text which according to him placed the commencement of Indian misery in an epoch even more remote than the Christian creation of the world. According to him, Indian life had always been undignified, stagnatory, vegetative, and passive, given to a brutalising worship of nature instead of man being the sovereign of natureas contemplated in contemporary European thought. And, thus Karl Marxconcluded:Whatevermayhavebeenthe crimes of England in India, she was the unconscious tool of history in bringing aboutwhat Marx so anxiously looked forwardtoIndiaswesternisation. ThecompletedenunciationandrejectionofIndianculture andcivilisationwas,however,lefttothepowerfulpenofJames Mill. This he did in his monumental three volume History of BritishIndia,firstpublishedin1817.Thenceforth,Mills History became an essential reading and reference book for those entrusted with administering the British Indian Empire. From the time of its publication till recently, the History in fact providedtheframeworkforthewritingofmosthistoriesofIndia. For this reason, the impact of his judgments on Indiaand its peopleshouldneverbeunderestimated. According to Mill, the same insincerity, mendacity, and perfidy;thesameindifferencetothefeelingsofothers;thesame prostitution and venality were the conspicuous characteristics of both the Hindoos and the Muslims. The Muslims, however, were perfuse, when possessed of wealth, and devoted to pleasure;theHindoosalmostalwayspenuriousandascetic;and intruth,theHindooliketheeunuch,excelsinthequalitiesofa slave. Furthermore, similar to the Chinese, the Hindoos were dissembling, treacherous, mendacious, to an excess which surpasseseventheusualmeasureofuncultivatedsociety.Both the Chinese and the Hindoos were disposed to excessive exaggeration with regard to everything relating to themselves. Both were cowardly and unfeeling. Both were in the highest degreeconceitedofthemselves,andfullofaffectedcontemptfor others.And,aboveall,bothwereinphysicalsense,disgustingly uncleanintheirpersonsandhouses. Compared to the people of India, according to Mill, the peopleofEuropeevenduringthefeudalages,(and

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notwithstandingthevicesoftheRomanChurchandthedefects of the schoolmen), were superior in philosophy. Further, the Europeansweregreatlysuperior,notwithstandingthedefectsof the feudal system, in the institutions of Government and in laws.Eventheirpoetrywasbeyondallcomparisonpreferableto thepoetryoftheHindoos.Millfeltthatitwashardlynecessary toassertthatintheartofwartheHindooshavealwaysbeen greatlyinferiortothewarlikenationsofEurope.Theagriculture of the Europeans surpassed exceedingly that of the Hindoos, and in India the roads were little better than paths, and the rivers without bridges; there was not one original treatise on medicine, considered as a science, and surgery was unknown among the Hindoos. Further still, compared with the slavish anddastardlyspiritoftheHindoos,theEuropeansweretobe placed in an elevated rank with regard to manners and character,andtheirmanlinessandcourage. Where the Hindoos surpassed the Europeans was in delicate manufactures, particularly in spinning, weaving, and dyeing;inthefabricationoftrinkets;andprobablyintheartof polishing and setting the precious stones; and more so in effeminategentleness,andthewinningartsofaddress.However, intheartsofpainting,sculpture,andarchitecturetheHindoos innowayexcelledEuropeans.Further,theHindooloom,with all its appurtenances, is coarse and illfashioned, to a degree hardlylesssurprisingthanthefinenessofthecommoditywhich itistheinstrumentofproducing.Theverydexterityintheuse of their tools and implements became a point against the Indians.ForasJamesMillproclaimed:Adexterityintheuseof itsownimperfecttoolsisacommonattributeofrudesociety. These reflections and judgments led to the obvious conclusion,andMillwrote: Ourancestors, however,thoughrough, weresincere;but under the glossing exterior of the Hindoo lies a general disposition to deceit and perfidy. In fine, it cannot be doubtedthat,uponthewhole,thegothicnations,assoon as they became a settled people, exhibit the marks of a superior character and civilisation to those of the Hindoos.92 As to James Mill, so also to Wilberforce, Macaulay, and KarlMarxandthethoughtandapproachestheyrepresented(for itismoreasspokesmenofsuchthinkingandapproachesthat

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they are important in the context of India rather than as outstandingindividuals),themanners,customsandcivilisation ofIndiawereintrinsicallybarbarous.Andtoeachofthem,India couldbecomecivilisedonlybydiscardingitsIndianness,andby adoptingutilityastheobjectofeverypursuit 93accordingtoMill; byembracinghispeculiarbrandofChristianityforWilberforce; bybecominganglicised,accordingtoMacaulay;andforMarxby becoming western. Prior to them, for Henry Dundas, the man whogovernedIndiafromLondonfortwentylongyears,Indians notonlyhadtobecomesubservienttoBritishauthoritybutalso had to feel indebted to our beneficence and wisdom for advantagestheyaretoreceive;and,inlikemanner,feelsolely indebtedtoourprotectionforthecountenanceandenjoymentof them94 before they could even qualify for being considered as civilised. Given such complete agreement on the nature of Indian culture and institutions, it was inevitable that because of its crucialsocialandculturalrole,Indianeducationfaredasitdid. To speed up its demise, it not only had to be ridiculed and despised,butstepsalsohadtobetakensothatitwasstarved outofitsresourcebase.True,asfarastheknownrecordcan tell, no direct dismantling or shutting up of each and every institutionwasresortedto,oranyothermoredrasticphysical measures taken to achieve this demise. Such steps were unnecessary;thereasonbeingthatthefiscalstepstogetherwith ridicule,performedthetaskfarmoreeffectively. Anofficialindicationofwhatwastocomewasconveyedby LondontotheMadrasPresidencywhenitacknowledgedreceipt of the information that a survey of indigenous education had beeninitiatedthere,muchbeforethepapersofthesurveywere actuallysenttoLondon.TheLondonauthoritiesexpressedtheir appreciation of this initiative. They also approved of the collectors having been cautioned against exciting any fears in thepeoplethattheirfreedomofchoiceinmattersofeducation wouldbeinterferedwith.However,thisapprovalwasfollowedby theobservation:Butitwouldbeequallywrongtodoanythingto fortify them (i.e. the people of the Madras Presidency) in the absurdopinionthattheirownrudeinstitutionsofeducationare soperfectasnottoadmitofimprovement.Theveryexpression ofsuchaviewinthemostdiplomaticallyandcautiouslyworded ofofficialinstructionswasaclearsignal.Operatively,itimplied

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notonlygreaterridiculeanddenunciationoftheIndiansystem; but further, that any residual fiscal and state support still available to the educational institutions was no longer to be tolerated.Notsurprisingly,theindigenoussystemwasdoomed tostagnateanddie. Theneglectanddeliberateuprooting ofIndianeducation, the measures which were employed to this end, and its replacement by an alien and rootless systemwhose products weresographicallydescribedlaterbyAnandaCoomaraswamy hadseveralconsequencesforIndia.Tobeginwith,itledtoan obliteration of literacy and knowledge of such dimensions amongst the Indian people that recent attempts at universal literacy and education have so far been unable to make an appreciable dent in it. Next, it destroyed the Indian social balance in which, traditionally, persons from all sections of society appear to have been able to receive fairly competent schooling.Thepathshalasandmadrassahshadenabledthemto participateopenlyandappropriatelyandwithdignitynotonlyin thesocialandculturallifeoftheirlocalitybut,iftheywished, ensured participation at the more extended levels. It is this destructionalong withsimilardamageintheeconomicsphere whichledtogreatdeteriorationinthestatusandsocioeconomic conditionsandpersonaldignityofthosewhoarenowknownas thescheduledcastes;andtoonlyaslightlylesserextenttothat ofthevastpeasantmajorityencompassedbythetermbackward castes. The recent movements embracing these sections, to a great extent, seem to be aimed at restoring this basic Indian socialbalance. Andmostimportantly,tilltodayithaskeptmosteducated Indians ignorant of the society they live in, the culture which sustains this society, and their fellow beings; and more tragically,yet,foroveracenturyithasinducedalackofcon fidence, and loss of bearing amongst the people of India in general. What India possessed in the sphere of education two centuries ago and the factors which led to its decay and replacement are indeed a part of history. Even if the former couldbebroughtbacktolife,inthecontextoftoday,orofthe immediate future, many aspects of it would no longer be apposite. Yet what exists today has little relevance either. An understanding of what existed and of the processes which created the irrelevance India is burdened with today, in time, couldhelpgeneratewhatbestsuitsIndiasrequirementsandthe ethosofherpeople. Notes
1.SeeAnnexures,especiallyA(i)(xxx),C,andD(i),(iii)(iv)h. 2. A. E. Dobbs: Education and Social Movements 17001850, London, 1919,p.80,quotingOxfordCommission,1852,Report,p.19.

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3.Ibid,p.83. 4.Ibid,p.104,f.n.l.quoting7HenryIV,c.17. 5. Ibid,p.105, quoting 34& 35 Henry VIII, c.l. This statute dating to 154243A.D.,consistingofjustoneArticleafterapreambleread,...The BibleshallnotbereadinEnglishinanychurch.Nowomenorartificers, prentices, journeymen, servingmen of the degree of yeomen or under, husbandmen,norlabourers,shallreadtheNewTestamentin English. Nothing shall be taught or maintained contrary to the Kings instructions.Andifanyspiritualpersonpreach,teach,ormaintainany thingcontrarytotheKingsinstructionsordeterminations,madeorto be made, and shall be thereof convict, he shall for his first offence recant,forhissecondabjureandbearafagot,andforhisthirdshallbe adjudgedanheretic,andbeburnedandloseallhisgoodsandchattels. ThestatutewasentitledAnActfortheAdvancementofTrueKnowledge. Thisrestriction,however,mayhavecompletelybeenliftedbythetime the authorised version of the Bible (King Jamess translation) was publishedinEnglandin1611. 6.Ibid,p.104,f.n.3,quotingStrype,Cranmer,i.127 7.Ibid,p.33,f.n.l. 8.Ibid,p.139 9.Ibid,p.139 10.Ibid,p.140 11.Ibid,p.158 12. J.W. Adamson: A Short History of Education , Cambridge, 1919, p.243. 13.Ibid,p.243 14.SeeAnnexureC:Alexander Walker,NoteonIndianEducation;also Ibid,p.246 15. House of Commons Papers, 185253, volume 79, p.718, for the numberofschoolsandpupilsinthemin1818and1851. 16.Adamson:op.cit.,232 17.Dobbs,op.cit.,pp.1578alsof.n.1,p.158. 18.Adamson:op.cit.,p.266 19.Ibid,p.226 20.Ibid,p.226 21.WritingtothesecondEarlSpenceron21August1787WilliamJones described a serpentine river which meets the Ganges opposite the celebratedUniversityofBrahmansatNavadwipa,orNuddea,asRennel writesit.ThisisthethirdUniversityofwhichIhavebeenamember. TheLettersofSirWilliamJones,byG.Cannon.2volumes,1970,p.754. 22. The fourth British University, that of London was established in 1828. 23.Theaboveinformationisabstractedfrom TheHistoricalRegisterof theUniversityofOxford12201888,Oxford,1888,mostlyfrompp.4565. 24.Theforegoingfourparagraphsarebasedoninformationsuppliedby theUniversityofOxfordinNovember1980onrequestfromtheauthor. 25.ForinstanceaccordingtoherdoctoralthesispresentedinApril1980 at the Sorbonne, Paris, Gita Dharampal: Etude sur le role des missionarieseuropeensdanslaformationpremiersdesideessurlInde, anearlyeighteenthcenturymanuscriptstillhasseveralcopiesextant. Themanuscriptistitled TraitedelaReligiondesMalabars,anditsfirst

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copy was completed in 1709 by Tessierde Queraly, procurator of the Paris Foreign Mission in Pondicherry from 1699 to 1720, nominated ApostolicVicarofSiamin1727.CopiesofthisMs.aretobefoundinthe followingarchives:Paris(BibliothequeNationale 3copies,Bibliotheque de LArsenal 1 copy, Bibliotheque Ste. Genevieve 1 copy, Archives Nationales1copy);Chartres(BibliothequeMunicipale1copy,formerly belongingtotheGovernorBenoitDumas), London(IndiaOfficeLibr.2 copies in Col Mackenzies and John Leydens collections respectively); Rome 1 copy (Biblioteca Casanatesa, containing Vatican collection). PublishedasLaReligionDesMalabars,Immense,1982. 26. See the authors Indian Science and Technology in the Eighteenth Century: Some Contemporary European Accounts . Other India Press, 2000,forProfJohn PlayfairslongarticleonIndianastronomy,pp.48 93. 27.EdinburghUniversity:Dc.177:lettersfromAdamFergusontoJohn Macpherson,letterdated9.4.1775. 28.Edinburgh:ScottishRecordOffice:MelvillePapers:GD51/3/617/1 2,ProfA.MaconochietoHenryDundas. 29. Edinburgh: National Library of Scotland: Ms.546, Alex Abercomby forwarding a further memorandum from Prof Maconochie to Henry Dundas, March 1788. The memorandum was communicated to Lord CornwallisbyHenryDundason7.4.1788. 30.HANSARD:June22,1813;columns832,833. 31.HANSARD:June22andJuly1,1813:DebateonClauseNo.13ofthe IndiaCharterBill,titledin HANSARD asPropagationofChristianityin India. 32.ReportonthestateofEducationinBengal,1835.p.6. 33.HouseofCommonsPapers,181213,volume7,evidenceofThomas Munro,p.127. 34.HouseofCommonsPapers,183132,volume9,p.468.Prendergasts statement may be treated with some caution as it was made in the contextofhisstandthatanyexpenditureontheopeningofanyschools by the British was undesirable. As a general impression of a senior Britishofficial,however,corroboratedbysimilarobservationsrelatingto otherpartsofIndia,itsvalidityappearsbeyonddoubt. 35. See, for instance, the discussion on relative Indian and British agriculturalwagesintheEdinburghReview,volume4,July1804. 36.PhilipHartog,Ibid,p.74. 37.This,however,mayhaveresultedmorefromarelativelyeasierIndian climatethanfromanyphysicalandinstitutionalarrangements. 38. That is those belonging to the Brahman, Kshetriya and Vaisya varnas, but excluding the Soodras and castes outside the four varna division. 39. It may fairly be assumed that the term other castes used in the Madras Presidency survey in the main included those who today are categorised amongst the scheduled castes, and many of whom were betterknownasPanchamassome7080yearsago. 40.AnnexureA(viii) 41. Given at Annexures B and C. Further, in the Public Despatch to BengalfromLondondated3June1814,itwasobserved:Themodeof instructionthatfromtimeimmemorialhasbeenpractisedunderthese mastershasreceivedthehighesttributesofpraisebyitsadoptioninthis country,underthedirectionoftheReverendDr.Bell,formerlychaplain

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at Madras; and it has now become the mode by which education is conducted in our national establishments, from a conviction of the facilityitaffordsintheacquisitionoflanguagebysimplifyingtheprocess ofinstruction. 42.AnnexureA(xxii) 43.AnnexureA(xxiii) 44.Thesesurveysbegantobemadefrom1812onwards,andtheirmain purpose was to find out what number of such medical men were in receiptof assignments of revenue. Some details of the castes of these practitionersmaybefoundinMadrasBoardofRevenueProceedingsof 17 September 1821, and of 9 March 1837, and other proceedings referredtotherein. 45.AnnexureA(xx)a. 46.AnnexureA(xi). 47.AnnexureA(x) 48.AnnexureA(xxvii). 49.ThisobservationoftheCollectorofGuntooriscorroboratedbyW. Adam wherein he mentions that at Nadia many scholars came from remotepartsofIndia,especiallyfromtheSouth(W. Adam,p.78,1941 edition) 50.AnnexureA(xix) 51.AnnexureA(xxiii) 52.ItmaybementionedthatPersianschools(inallabout145inthe Presidency) were predominantly attended by Muslims, and only a few Hindoosseemtohaveattendedthem(NorthArcot:Hindoos2,Muslims 396). However, quite a number of Muslim girls were reported to be attendingtheseschools. 53.AnnexureA(xx) 54.AnnexureA(xxviii) 55.Asinmanyotherinstances,itwasunthinkablefortheBritishthat India could have had a proportionately larger number receiving educationthanthoseinEnglanditself.Suchviewsandjudgementsin fact were applied to every sphere and even the rights of the Indian peasantry were tailored accordingly. On the rights of the cultivator of landinIndia,theFifthReportoftheHouseofCommonsstated:Itwas accordinglydecided,thattheoccupantsoflandinIndiacouldestablish nomoreright,inrespecttothesoil,than tenantryuponan estate in Englandcanestablisharighttotheland,byhereditaryresidence:and themeerasseeofavillagewasthereforedefinedtobe,apreferenceof cultivationderivedfromhereditaryresidence,butsubjecttotherightof governmentasthesuperiorlordofthesoil,inwhatwayitchooses,for the cultivation of its own lands. (House of Commons Papers, 1812, VolumeVII,p.105) 56.AnnexuresA(xx)and(xiv) 57.WhilethecastewisebreakupoftheMadrasPresidencyschooland collegescholarshashithertonotbeenpublished,theseparatefiguresfor Hindoos and Muslims and those respectively divided into males and females were published as early as 1832 in the House of Commons Papers. Since then, it may be presumed that this data regarding the numberofgirlsandboysinMalabarschoolshasbeenseenbyalarge numberofscholarsstudyingthequestionofeducationinIndiainthe earlynineteenthcentury.Curiously,however,theredoesnotseemtobe evenapassingreferencetothisMalabardatainanyofthepublished works.ItseemstohavebeenoverlookedbySirPhilipHartogalso.

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58. AdamsReportswerefirstpublishedin1835,1836and1838.The three, togetherwith some omissions,and a60pageratherdepressing and patronising introduction were published by Rev. J. Long from Calcutta in 1868. Stillanother edition of the whole (reintroducing the omissionsmadebyLongandincludingLongsownintroduction)witha furthernew42pageintroductionbyAnathnathBasuwaspublishedby theUniversityofCalcutta,in1941.Itisthislasteditionwhichisusedin the present work. The reports, while never sufficiently analysed, have oftenbeenquotedinmostworksonthehistoryofeducationinIndia. 59.W.Adam:Ibid,pp.67.Incidentallytheobservationthateveryvillage hadaschoolwasnothingpeculiartoAdam.Asmentionedearlier,many others before him had made similar observations, including Thomas MunroinhisevidencetoaHouseofCommonscommittee. Munrohad thenobservedthatifcivilizationistobecomeanarticleoftradebetween England and India, the former will gain by the import cargo. As symptomaticofthishighstateofIndiancivilisation,healsoreferredto schools established in every village for teaching, reading, writing and arithmetic.WhenThomasMunromadethisstatementhealreadyhad had30yearsofintensiveIndianexperience.(HouseofCommonsPapers: 181213,Vol.7,p.131). 60.See IndianScienceandTechnologyintheEighteenthCentury:some contemporaryEuropeanaccounts,pp.14363,foranaccountofthisold method. 61. This, as may be noticed, was quite at variance with the Madras Presidency districts where Persian was not only studied little, but the students of it were mainly Muslims. Interestingly, Adam mentions (p.149) that amongst the Muslims when a child...is four years, four months,andfourdaysold,he,orsheisonthatdayusuallyadmittedto school. 62.HistoryofIndigenousEducationinthePanjabsinceAnnexationandin 1882(Published1883,Reprinted,Patiala,1973). 63. The idea of their being divinely ordained was really a much older Englishassumption.In ABriefDescriptionofNewYorkFormerlycalled NewNetherlands,publishedin1670,referringtotheindigenouspeople in that part of North America, Daniel Denton observes: It is to be admired,howstrangelytheyhavedecreastbytheHandofGod,sincethe Englishfirstsettlingofthoseparts;forsincemytime,wheretherewere six towns, they are reduced to two small villages, and it hath been generallyobserved,thatwheretheEnglishcometosettle,aDivineHand makesway forthem,byremovingorcuttingoff theIndianseither by wars one with the other, or by some raging mortal Disease. (Reprint 1902p.45) 64. See letter of Dr H. Scott to Sir Joseph Banks, President, Royal Society,London,dated7.1.1790in IndianScienceandTechnologyinthe EighteenthCentury,p.265. 65. First published in New York Daily Tribune, August 8, 1853; also recentlyquotedbyIu.I.SemenovSocioeconomicFormationsandWorld History,in SovietandWesternAnthropology ,editedbyErnestGellner, 1980. 66. CurrentAnthropology,Volume7,No.4,October1966,pp.395449, EstimatingAboriginalAmericanPopulation,byHenryF.Dobyns. 67.Writingasearlyas1804,William Bentinck,theyoungGovernorof theMadrasPresidency,wrotetothePresidentoftheBoardofControl, Lord Castlereagh, that we have rode the country too hard, and the consequenceisthatitisinthemostlamentablepoverty.(Nottingham

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University: BentinckPapers:PwJb722). In185758amilitaryofficer wrote to Governor General Canning, it may be truly said that the revenueofIndiahashithertobeenleviedatthepointofthebayonetand considered this to be the major cause of the Mutiny. (Leeds: Canning Papers:MilitarySecretarysPapers:Misc.No.289). 68. International Affairs, London, November 1931, pp.721739; also CollectedWorksofMahatmaGandhi,vol.48,pp.193206. 69.Seeoriginsofthe SchoolofOrientalStudies,LondonInstitution ,by P.J.Hartog,C.I.E.,M.A.,1917. 70. A graphic image of the more privileged products of this British initiatededucationwasgivenbyAnandaK Coomaraswamyasearlyas 1908.Coomaraswamythenwrote:Speaktotheordinarygraduateofan Indian University, or a student from Ceylon, of the ideals of the MahabharatahewillhastentodisplayhisknowledgeofShakespeare; talktohimofreligiousphilosophyyoufindthatheisanatheistofthe crudetypecommoninEuropeagenerationago,andthatnotonlyhashe noreligion,butisaslackinginphilosophyastheaverageEnglishman; talk to him of Indian musiche will produce a gramophone or a harmoniumandinflictuponyouoneorboth;talktohimofIndiandress orjewelleryhewilltellyouthattheyareuncivilisedandbarbaric;talk tohimofIndianartitisnewstohimthatsuchathingexists;askhim totranslateforyoualetterwritteninhisownmothertonguehedoes notknowit.Heisindeedastrangerinhisownland.( ModernReview, Calcutta,vol4,Oct.1908p.338). 71.January1932,pp.15182. 72.AlsoinHouseofCommonsPapers:183132,vol.9,p.468. 73.ClarendonPress,1917,p.394. 74.InJournaloftheRoyalAsiaticSociety ,London,1917,pp.81525. 75. Philip Hartogs lectures were announced in the London Times, (March1,4,6,1935)andtwoofthemreportedinitonMarch2and5.On 2MarchtheTimesreportedthatSirPhilipHartog,submittedthatunder successive Governor Generals, from Warren Hastings to Lord Chelmsford,aneducationalpolicywasevolvedaspartofageneralpolicy togovernIndiaintheinterestofIndia,andtodevelopherintellectual resourcestotheutmostforherownbenefit.Itisinteresting,however,to notethattheTimes,whileitgavefairlyconstantthoughbriefnoticesto Gandhijis 1931 visitto England, and some of the public meetings he addressedandthecelebrationofhisbirthday,themeetingatChatham Housedidnotreachitspages.Itwasnotonlynotreportedthenextday, October21,1931,butwasalsonotannouncedalongwithvariousother noticesofvariousothermeetings,etc.,onthemorningofOctober20. Possibly it was a convention not to report any meetings at Chatham Houseinnewspapers. 76.TheBookofLectureswasreviewedinthe TimesLiterarySupplement under the caption Mr Gandhi Refuted. Complimenting Hartog, the review stated: There are many deserved criticisms of past British administrators in this particular field, but other charges dissolve into thinairwhenexposed tothesearchinganalysisSirPhilipHartoghas appliedtoastatementofMrGandhi...SirPhiliptookupthechallengeat once...heshowshowfactsweredistortedtofitaneducationaltheory. 77.ThetextofHartogGandhicorrespondenceisgivenatAnnexuresF (i)(xxv). 78.Theavailablematerialonthesurveyofindigenouseducationinthe PresidencyofBombayhasbeenbroughtoutinavaluablebook Surveyof

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Indigenous Education in the Province of Bombay 182030 by R.V. Parulekarin1951.Thissurvey,however,appearstohavecoveredonly certainpartsoftheBombayPresidency. 79.Judgingfromtheirproducts,inacertainsense,thismayapplyeven more to the writings on India bymost nonIndians. Their writings on variousaspectsofIndiansocietyandpolitywillobviouslybeinfluenced, if not wholly conditioned, by their respective cultural and educational ethos. Even when some of themAlexander Walker in the early 19th century and Prof. Burton Stein todayappear to understand India better,itisnotreallyforthemtomapouthowIndiansshouldendup perceivingthemselvesortheirownsociety.Suchataskcanlegitimately onlybeundertakenbyIndiaitself. 80.PublicDespatchtoBengal,3June1814:Wereferwith particular satisfactionuponthisoccasiontothatdistinguishedfeatureofinternal polity which prevails in some parts of India, and by which the instruction of thepeopleisprovided forbyacertain charge uponthe produce of the soil, and other endowments in favour of the village teachers,whoaretherebyrenderedpublicservantsofthecommunity. 81.Therevenuerecordsofallareas,especiallyoftheyears177090for the Bengal Presidency, and of 180120 for the Madras Presidency provide very extensive information regarding such assignments. The information regarding assignments for the purpose of carrying Ganga watertoreligiousshrinesistakenfrom MafeeRegister for1847forthe district of Hamirpur and Kalpiin the Uttar Pradesh State Archives at Allahabad. 82. I.O.R. Factory Records: G/27/1, Supervisor Houghly to Murshe dabadCouncil,10.10.1770,p.88. 83.Inanotedatedcirca1830. 84.Thetotalnumberof maths andtemplesinTanjoreaboutthistime wasaround4,000. 85.I.O.R.FactoryRecords:G/6/4.ProceedingsofBurdwanCouncilon Beerbhoom,24.5.1775. 86. The problem of peasants deserting sirkar lands (i.e. lands paying revenuetogovernment)becauseoftheexhorbitantrate ofgovernment assessment even in the 1820s was of such frequency that it was deliberateduponbyThomasMunroasGovernorofMadrasinNovember 1822.AtthattimeMunroobservedthatitwouldbemostsatisfactoryif thesirkarryotswereinducedtogiveavoluntarypreferencetothesirkar landandfeltthattherestofthevillagecommunitypayingrevenueto government should not allow a ryot to throw up sirkar land liable to adjustment merely that he may occupy Enam land which is liable to none.ButifsuchinducementdidnotworkMunrowasoftheview,that if necessary, measures for the protection of the rights of government may be directed more immediately to the Enamdars, either by taking theirEnamsorbyresumingthem.(TamilNadustateArchives:Boardof Revenue Proceedings: volume 930, Proceedings 7.11.1822, pp.10292 96). 87. For fairly detailed information on Malabar, see the voluminous Report of Commissioner Graeme, 16.7.1822 in TNSA: Revenue Consultations,especiallyvolume277A. 88.AnnexureA(xxi),PhilipHartog,whomademuchplayofthisreply, as mentioned earlier, used it to throw doubt on the educational data from the other districts. It is possible that because of his contrary concerns,hewasnotabletocomprehendthisreportfully.

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89.BellarywaspartoftheCededDistrictsandwasadministeredfrom 18007byThomasMunro.Asmentionedearlier,itwasherethatMunro seemedoutragedbythefactthat35%ofthetotalcultivatedlandwas still being assigned for various local purposes, and expressed his determination toreduceittoaslowas5%ofthetotalrevenueofthe CededDistricts.Munroatthattimealsoadvocatedtheimpositionofan incometax of about 15% on all those (revenue assignees, as well as merchants, artisans, labourers and the rest) who did not pay land revenue.TheMadrasGovernmentacceptedhisrecommendationandthis tax,undervariousnames,(Veesabuddy, Mohtarpha,etc.)wasimposed notonlyintheCededDistrictsbutalsoinmanyotherdistrictsofthe MadrasPresidency. Itisthisbackgroundofexhorbitanttaxationandthecuttingdownofall expenses,evenontherepairofirrigationsourcesthatlargelyledtothe conversion of Bellary and Cuddapah into the latter day arid and impoverishedareas.Quitenaturally,then,theeducationalreturnsfrom Bellarywerelow. 90.Hansard:June22,1813. 91.MinuteonIndianEducation:March1835. 92.J.S.Mill,HistoryofBritishIndia,1817,vol.I,pp.344,3512,4667, 472,646. 93.Ibid,p.428. 94.RevenueDespatchtoMadras:11.2.1801.

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DOCUMENTS
AnnexureA

I
MINUTEOFGOVERNORSIRTHOMASMUNRO ORDERINGTHECOLLECTIONOFDETAILEDINFORMATION ONINDIGENOUSEDUCATION: 25.6.1822* (TNSA:RevenueConsultations:Vol.920:dated2.7.1822) 1. Much has been written both in England and in this country about the ignorance of the people of India and the means of disseminating knowledge among them. But the opinions upon this subject are the mere conjectures of individuals unsupported by any authentic documents and differingsowidelyfromeachotherastobeentitledtoverylittle attention.Ourpowerinthiscountryandthenatureofitsown municipalinstitutions havecertainlyrendereditpracticableto collectmaterialfromwhichajudgmentmightbeformedofthe state of the mental cultivation of the people. We have made geographicalandagriculturalsurveysofourprovinces.Wehave investigatedtheirresourcesandendeavouredtoascertaintheir population,butlittleornothinghasbeendonetolearnthestate of education. We have no record to show the actual state of education throughout the country. Partial inquiries have been made by individuals, but those have taken place at distant periodsandon asmallscaleand noinference can be drawn fromthemwithregardtothecountryingeneral.Theremaybe some difficulty in obtaining such a record as we want. Some Districtswillnotbutothersprobablywillfurnishitandifwe getitonlyfromtwoorthreeitwillanswerinsomedegreeforall therest.Itcannotbeexpectedtobeveryaccurate,butitwillat leastenableustoformanestimateofthestateofinstructions among the people. The only record which can furnish the informationrequiredisalistoftheschoolsinwhichreadingand writingaretaughtin

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eachdistrict showing the numberof scholarsineach andthe castetowhichtheybelong.TheCollectorsshouldbedirectedto preparethisdocumentaccordingtotheformwhichaccompanies this paper. They should be desired to state the names of the book generally read at the schools. The time which scholars usuallycontinue,atsuchschools.Themonthlyoryearlycharge tothescholarsandwhetheranyoftheschoolsareendowedby thepublicandifsothenatureandamountofthefund.When there are colleges or other institutions for teaching Theology, Law,Astronomy,etc.anaccountshouldbegivenofthem.These sciences are usually taughtprivately without feeor reward by individuals to a few scholars or disciples, but there are also someinstancesinwhichthenative governmentshavegranted allowances in money and land for the maintenance of the teachers. 2. In some districts, reading and writing are confined almost entirely to Bramins and the mercantile class. In some theyextendtootherclassesandareprettygeneralamongthe Patails of villages and principal Royets. To the women of BraminsandofHindoosingeneraltheyareunknownbecause the knowledge of them is prohibited and regarded as unbecoming of the modesty of the sex and fit only for public dancers. But among the women of the Rujbundah and some othertribesofHindoos whoseemtohavenoprejudiceofthis kind,theyaregenerallytaught.Theprohibitionagainstwomen learning to read is probably from various causes, much less attendedtoinsomedistrictsthaninothersandasitispossible thatineverydistrictafewfemalesmaybefoundinthereading schools, a column has been entered for them in the Form proposed to be sent to the Collector. The mixed and impure castesseldomlearntoread,butasafewofthemdo,columns areleftforthemintheForm. 3. It is not my intention to recommend any interface whateverinthenativeschools.Everythingofthiskindoughtto be carefully avoided, and the people should be left tomanage their schools in their own way. All that we ought to do is to facilitatetheoperationsoftheseschoolsbyrestoringanyfunds that may have been diverted from them and perhaps granting additional ones, where it may appear advisable. But on this point we shall be better able to judge when we receive the informationnowproposedtobecalledfor. 25thJune1822. (Signed) ThomasMunro

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II
Orderedinconsequencethatthe followingletterbedespatched: No.459 RevenueDepartment To, ThePresidentandMembersoftheBoardofRevenue Gentlemen, I am directed to state that it is considered by the HonourabletheGovernorinCounciltobeanobjectofinterest andofimportancetoobtainasaccurateinformationasmaybe procurable with regard to the actual state of education throughoutthecountry,andtodesirethattheseveralCollectors may be required to furnish such information according to the accompanyingForm.Besidesreportingthenumberofschoolsin whichreadingandwritingaretaught,thenumberofscholarsin eachandthecastestowhichtheybelong,theCollectorsshould state the time which scholars usually continue at school, the monthly or yearly charge to the scholars, whether any of the schoolsareendowedbythepublicandinsuchcasesthenature and amount of the fund. When there are colleges or other institutions for teaching Theology, Law, Astronomy, etc., an account of them should be given. These sciences are usually taught privately to a few scholars or disciples by individuals withoutanyfeeorreward,buttherearealsosomeinstancesin whichthenativegovernmenthasgrantedallowancesinmoney andlandforthemaintenanceoftheteachers. Although generally education is confined to particular castes and is not extended to females, yet as there are exceptions, which in certain districts may be numerous, the accompanyingFormisadoptedtoincludethem. It is to be clearly understood by the Collectors that no interference whatever with the native school is intended. Everything of that kind should be carefully avoided and the peopleshouldbelefttomanagetheirschoolsintheirownway. All that ought to be done is to facilitate the operation of the schools, by restoring any funds that may have been diverted fromthemandperhapsgrantingadditionalfundswhereitmay appearadvisable. FortSt.George, 2ndJuly1822. D.Hill, SecretarytoGovernment

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III
CIRCULARFORTST.GEORGE25THJULY1822 (TNSA:BRPVol.920,Pro.25.7.1822,pp.697172No.7) 1.IamdirectedbytheBoardofRevenuetotransmittoyou the accompanying copy of a letter with its enclosure from the Secretary to Government in the Revenue Department, and to desire that you will submit the required information together with a statement in the prescribed Form at your earliest convenience. 2.Incallingfortheinformationfromthedifferentpartsof yourCollectorate,youwillcauseyourpublicservantsclearlyto understand, and to make known to the people that no interference with the schools is intended, though every assistance will be given to facilitate their operations and to restoreanyfundswhichmayappeartohavebeendivertedfrom theiroriginalpurposes. FortSt.George, 25thJuly1822. (Statementonfollowingpage) R.Clarke, Secretary

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IV
PRINCIPALCOLLECTOR,CANARATOBOARD OFREVENUE: 27.8.1822 (TNSA:BRP:Vol.924Pro.5.9.1822,pp.842529Nos.356) 1.Ihavethehonortoacknowledgethereceiptofyourletter dated 25th ultimo, together with its enclosure being copy of letter from the Secretary to Government Revenue Department dated2ndJulydirectingmetoforwardastatementfilledupas perFormtransmitted,andtoreportuponthestateofeducation inthiszillah. Asthepreparationofthenecessaryinformationtofillup the statement in question, would take up a considerable time andasanyjustcriterionoftheactualextentofsuchschoolsas existinthiszillahcannotbeformeduponit,Ihaveconsideredit expedient to submit this address, explanatory of the foregoing causes,whichwillIthinkshowthepreparationofthedocument forthisProvinceunnecessary. 2.TherearenocollegesinCanaraforthecultivationofthe abstruse Sciences. Neither are there any fixed schools and masterstoteachinthem. Thereisnoinstanceknownofanyinstitutionsoftheabove descriptionhavingeverreceivedsupportinanyshapefromthe formergovernments. 3.TheeducationofthefewBraminchildrenofthehigher classes in towns or villages, is conducted in the house of the principalman.Heselectsateacher,whoreceivesforeachchild asmallsum,apresentofclothatparticularceremonies,andthe same for a few others, children of the friends of the principal man,whoalsomeetathisownhouseforthesamepurpose.The Moolla*inthesamemannerteachesafewMussulmanchildren onthesameprinciple.Itisentirelyaprivateeducation,andthe master is as often changed as the scholars. There is nothing belongingtoitwhichcanassimilateitwithashadowofpublic education,orindeedofregularityinlearning. The children are taught to read and write and accounts, andunlessbelongingtothehighestclasses,theattainmentof

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PersianandHindwyandCanareseatthesametimeisseldomor everpursued.Indeed,amongstthoseclasses,itissoentirelya privatetuition,thatanyestimateofthenumbersoftheirchild renlearningsuchlanguagescouldnotbebuterroneous. 4.EducationisundoubtedlyatitslowestebbinCanara.To theBraminsofthecountrytheConkannyandShinnaweeandto the 2nd class of the former, the little education given, is confined.Amongstthefarmers,generallyspeaking,andprobably amongstonehalfofitspopulation,themostcommonformsof education are unknown and in disuse, or more correctly speakingwereneverinuse. 5.AsapplicabletothesubjectIbegleavetointroducean extract from a letter to the assistant surgeon of the zillah, written to him in consequence of a wish on the part of the Superintendent General of Vaccination to obtain information fromme,onthepracticabilityofinducingtheupperclassesof nativesinCanara,toundertakethesituationsofpractitioners, whofromtheirsupposedsuperiorattainmentswouldbeenabled tofacilitatetheprogressofvaccination.

ExtractofParas6th,7thand8th
6.IhavestatedthatIconsiderthereisnoobjectiontothe Christian practitioner, but with regard to employment of menoftheothervariouscastesinthisdistrict,causesexist whichIamledtobelievewouldrendertheattemptfutile. The mass of people are cultivators, there are no manufactures to speak of in Canara, it is a country of cottagesdispersedinvalleysandjungles,eachmanliving uponhisestateandhencetherearefewtowns,eventhese arethinlypopulated.HenceIamledtoconjecturefroma lesser congregation of people the Arts and Sciences have never,atleastinlatertimes,becomeofthatconsequence in Canara to cause them to be taught and cherished. ProbablythereisnoDistrictinthePeninsulasodevoidof artistsorscientificmen. 7.ThesoilofCanaraisthenativesundoubtedright,gained by the first of all claims, the original clearing of it for cultivation.Thus,tothisdayhisdetestationofquittinghis houseandthefieldsbywhichitissurrounded.Forthose wantstowhichheisthusnaturallyexposedforclothand forthevariousnecessitiesoflifewhichhislanddoesnot yieldhim,heisindebtedtothefewbazarmeninthevery

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fewtownsineachtalook;thesemenchieflyConcaneseare againindebtedtotheirmoreopulentbrethrenestablished on the coast for supplies which are bartered for the productsofthesoil.Theseagainareconfinedtothreeor fourprincipalarticlessothattheydonotaffordroomfor much individual foreign enterprise, and consequently the provisionofthemremainswiththepeople,who,haveever retained it, and thus strangers are in a great degree excludedfromthecountry. 8.FromthesecausesIcertainlyconsiderthegeneralwant of Men of Science originates, and also that men, where theiroccupationissoentirelytakenupwithonepursuit wouldnotbeinducedtoquititonanyaccount,muchless fortheoccupationofatravellingvaccinator. 6.SubsequentlytomyarrivalinCanara,Ihadendeavored to persuade some of the original farmers, the Bunts, to send theirnephews(fortheyaretheheirs,notthesons)toMangalore for educationwithout success. A Christian school has been establishedinwhichLatinandPortuguesealonearetaught. 7.ShouldtheBoardafterthisexplanationstillconsiderthe preparationoftheFormtransmittedwiththeirletter,desirable, andaccordingtotheviewsofthegovernment,Ishallendeavorto obtaintheparticulars.Itwillbe,Ibegtorepeat,averyfallacious statement. Amongst the numerous servants of this extensive Collectorate there is but one, who writes Persian; the literary knowledge of all others is confined to Hindwy and Canarese. Even Sanscrit is very partially known, and the Ballabund is confined to a very few of the class of Bramins who read the Shastras. Amongst this latter class I have found many, who could not read some of the ancient inscriptions, which they assertareinadifferentcharacterfromtheHalaCanarese,and Ballabundtheyweretaught. Mangalore, PrincipalCollectorsCutcherry, 27thAugust,1822. (Orderthereon)3536 Orderedtolieonthetable: Collector.

T.Harris, Principal

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COLLECTOROFTINNEVELLYTOBOARDOFREVENUE: 18.10.1822 (TNSA:BRP:Vol.928Pro.28.10.1822pp.99367No.467) IhavethehonorofforwardingtheStatementofSchoolsin this District required by your Deputys letter of the 25th July last. The preparation of the account has been delayed by enquiryintothecastesofthefemalescholars,whoinalmostall instancesarefoundtobedancinggirls. TinnevellyDistrict, Sharenmadavy, 18thOctober1822. (Statementonfollowingpage)

J.B.Hudleston Collector.

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ASSISTANTCOLLECTOR,SERINGAPATAMTOBOARDOF REVENUE: 29.10.1822 (TNSA:BRP:Vol.929Pro.4.11.1822pp.102602Nos.33&4) 1. I have the honor to transmit in conformity to the instructions conveyed in your letter of the 25th July last, a statementexhibitingthenumberofseminarieswithinthiszillah. 2. The extent of information acquired under the present prevailing system of education is extremely limitednothing more is professed to be taught in these dayschools than reading, writing, and arithmetic, just competent for the dischargeofthecommondailytransactionsofsociety. 3.Therearenotracesonrecord,asfarasIcanascertain, of endowments in land towards the support of colleges and schools having at a former period been granted either by the then existing government or any patriotic private individuals. The superintendents of the different seminaries were left for remuneration,entirelytotheparentsoftherespectivestudents frequentingthem,andwhichsystemobtainstothepresentday. 4.Itappearsthatforeachpupilthepreceptorreceives5 annas monthly which makes the total annual expenditure for the purposes of education within the Island of Seringapatam amount to rupees 2,351 and annas 4. This sum, divided amongst41superintendents,giveseachonanaveragethevery inadequateandtriflingincomeofrupees57annas5andpice5. Seringapatam 29thOctober1822. H.Vibart AssistantCollectorincharge.

(Statementonfollowingpage)

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COLLECTOR,TINNEVELLYTOBOARDOFREVENUE: 7.11.1822 (TNSA:BRPVol.931,Pro.18.11.1822No.37,pp.105456) Ihavenowthehonorofforwardingacompleteaccountof schools in this district according to the prescribed Form. The accountsfromthetalookofPunjamahlnothavingbeenreceived atthetimeofmysendingthoseoftheothertalooks. The total under the head of population appears to have been erroneous, and is correctly given in the statement, now sent: Tinnevelly, 7thNovember1822. (Statementonfollowingpage) J.B.Hudleston, Collector.

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PRINCIPALCOLLECTOR,COIMBATORETO BOARDOFREVENUE: 23.11.1822 (TNSA:BRP:Vol.932,Pro.2.12.1822,pp.10939943,No.43) To, ThePresidentandMembersoftheBoardofRevenue Gentlemen, 1.Ihavethehonortoforwardtheinformationcalledforin MrClarkesletterofthe25thJuly1882regardingtheschoolsin thedistrict. 2.ThestatementNo.1isdrawnupaftertheFormwhich accompaniedMrClarkesletter. ThestatementNo.2showstheparticularlanguagetaught in each school, the number of pupils, the average amount of stipends paid by parents, to the teachers, the average annual chargetopupilsforthepurchaseofcadjans. The statement No.3 shows the number of institutions in whichTheology,LawandAstronomyaretaught,thenumberof pupils educated in them, and the amount of maximum land granted by the Hindu Government, for their support, and assumed either by the Mussulman, or by the British Government. 3.Theearliestageatwhichboysattendschoolis5years, they continue there untilthey are 13 or 14.Those whostudy Theology,Law,etc.,beginatabout15andcontinuetofrequent thecollegesuntiltheyhaveattainedacompetentknowledgein theScience,oruntiltheyobtainemployment. 4.Besidestheirregularstipends,schoolmastersgenerally receive presents, from the parents of their pupils, at the Das sarahandothergreatfeasts;afeeisalsogivenwhenthepupil begins a new book. The annual stipend from one pupil varies fromRs.14toRs.3perannum,accordingtothecircumstances oftheparents.Theschoolhoursarefrom6a.m.to10,andfrom 1to2p.m.until8atnight. Besidesthe severalfestivalsthey haveregularholidays,4daysineachmonthonthefullmoon, thenewmoon,andadayaftereach.

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5.Theeducationoffemalesisalmostentirelyconfinedin this district to the dancing women, who are generally of the Kykelercaste,a class ofweavers. Thereareexceptions tothis rule,butthenumbersaretooinsignificanttorequirenotice. 6. There is a school for teaching English in the town of Coimbatore, which is superintended by an English writer belongingtothisCutcheree. Coimbatore, 23rdNovember1822. (Signed)J.SULLIVAN, PrincipalCollector.

(Statementsonfollowingpages)

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COLLECTOROFMADURATOBOARDOFREVENUE:5.2.1823 (TNSA:BRPVol.942,Pro.13.2.1823,pp.2402406No.21) 1. I had previous to the receipt of the instructions of governmentmadesomelittleinquiryintothestateoftheschools inthisdistrictandhaveendeavouredtoascertain,shouldtheir numberbeincreased,ifthepoorerclasseswouldbeinducedto bringtheirchildrentothem,tobeeducatedamongstthelower class;Iseelittlehopeofsuchanimprovement.Theysayasthey are poor, their children are better employed in attending bul locks,etc.,bywhichtheygainalivelihood,thanbeingatschool. In the Fort of Madura and the different Cusbah villages some schools might be established with advantage. Many people of caste would, I have no doubt, send their children to such schools, and as the benefit derivable from education began graduallytodevelopitself,thenumberswouldincrease.Fiveor 6 schools in the Fort of Madura, and 2 or 3 in each of the Cusbahs,grantingthemastersasmallmonthlysalaryof30to 40fanams*wouldbesufficient,andIhavenodoubttheHeads ofVillageswouldbeinducedtosendtheirchildrenthere,which would render such establishments most desirable as very few Nattawkarsthroughoutthedistrictcaneitherreadorwrite,and areconsequentlytotallydependentontheCurnams. 2.Fromthestatementitwouldseem,thatinapopulation ofnearly800,000,therearestatedtobeonly844schools,and inthem13,781childreneducated.Thatthenumbershouldbe increasedmustbewishedfor. 3.Fromtheseveralstatementsreceivedfromthedifferent divisions, it does not appear that any Mauneom lands are enjoyed for the purpose of schools; but that the teachers are paidbythepoorerclassesofpeoplefrom to1fanamforeach scholarpermonth,andfrom2to3and5fanamsbythosein bettercircumstances,andthatateacherderivesfrom30to60 cullyfanams**permonthinlargevillages,andfrom10to30 fanamsinsmallvillagesscholarsusuallyfirstattendschoolat theageof5andleaveitfrom12to15.

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4.InAgrahromvillagesinhabitedbyBramins,ithasbeen usualfromtimeimmemorialtoallotfortheenjoymentofthose who study the Vaidoms(Religion), and Pooraunoms (Historical traditions),anextentofMauneomlandyieldingfrom20to50 fanamsperannum,andinafewbutrareinstancestotheextent of 100 fanams, and they gratuitously and generally instruct suchpupilsasmayvoluntarilybebroughttothem. 5. Female children devoted for the profession of dancing girlsattheHindootemplesareonlyinstructedatschools. Teroomungalom, R.Peter, 5thFebruary,1823. Collector. (Statementonfollowingpage)

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PRINCIPALCOLLECTOR,TANJORETO BOARDOFREVENUE: 28.6.1823 (TNSA:BRP:Vol.953,Pro.3.7.1823pp.53455347No.61) WithreferencetoyourSecretarysletterofthe25thofJuly last, and its enclosures, I have the honor now to transmit a statement in the prescribed Form, prepared from the Returns received from the Tasildars of the number of schools and colleges in this District accompanied by two other statements Nos.1 and 2, more in detail, which will I expect, afford every information, thatyourBoardandgovernmentdesiretoreceive onthesubject,beingnecessaryformeonlytoaddthatitdoes notappear,anyfundsgrantedfortheseinstitutions,havebeen eitherresumedordivertedfromtheiroriginalpurpose. TanjoreNegapatam, 28thJune,1823. J.Cotton, PrincipalCollector.

(Statementonfollowingpages)

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COLLECTOR,MADRASTOBOARDOFREVENUE:13.11.1822 (TNSA:BRP:Vol.931,Pro.14.11.1822pp.10,51213No.578) 1.Ihavethehonortoacknowledgethereceiptofyourletter underdatethe25thJulylast,withonefromgovernmentandto forwardthestatementthereincalledfor. 2.AdvertingtotheOrdersofGovernmentabovereferredto IbegleavetosubmittheinformationIhavebeenabletoobtain ontheseveralquestionsconnectedwiththesystemofeducation adoptedinthisCollectorate. 3.Theschoolsenumeratedinthestatementcompriseonly those in which the various descriptions of the Hindoo and Mussulmanchildrenareeducated. 4.Thesechildrenaresenttoschoolwhentheyareabove five years old and their continuance in it depends in a great measureontheirmentalfaculties,butitisgenerallyadmitted thatbeforetheyattaintheirthirteenthyearofage,theiracquire mentinthevariousbranchesoflearningareuncommonlygreat, acircumstanceveryjustlyascribedtoanemulationandperse verancepeculiaronlytotheHindoocastes. 5.Astronomy,Astrology,etc.,areinsomeinstancestaught to the children of the poorer class of Bramins gratis, and in certain few cases an allowance is given proportionate to the circumstancesoftheparentsorguardians. 6.InthisCollectoratetherearenoschoolsendowedbythe public.ThosedenominatedCharityschoolsincludeafewinsti tutions of that description under the immediate control of the missionarysociety.Thescholarsinthemarethereforeofvarious sectsandpersuasions. 7.TheseCharityschoolsareabolishedatthepleasureof theirsupporters. 8.Theallowancespaidtoeachoftheteachersinaschool seldomexceed12pagodasperannumforeveryscholar. MadrasCutcherry, L.G.K.Murray, 13thNovember1822. Collector. (Statementonnextpage)

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PRINCIPALCOLLECTOR,NORTHARCOTDISTRICTTOBOARD OFREVENUE: 3.3.1823 (TNSA:BRP:Vol.944,Pro.10.3.1823,pp.280616No.201) 1.AccompanyingIhavethehonortoforwardastatement of the colleges and other institutions in this District for the educationofpupils. 2.In addition to theFormreceivedwithyourSecretarys letter I have prepared an abstract, showing the different descriptionsoftheseinstitutions,andthemeansbywhichthey aresupported. 3.Thosereceivingendowmentsfromthegovernmentareas follows. The Persian schools at Arcot, mention of which was madeinMrChamiersletter,transmittedbymetoyourBoard underdate10thDecember1822. 4.Somecolleges(28)areestablishedindifferentpartsof thedistrict,theexpensesofwhicharedefrayedfromMauneoms andMairas,whichhavebeengrantedbyformergovernmentson thisaccount,andwhicharestillappropriatedtothesepurposes, thetotaloftheiramountisRs.516119. 5.APersianSchoolintheSautgudtalookisalsosupported onthegrantofa Yeomiah of rupeeperdiem,whereabout8 scholars are instructed in the Persian language, and a trifling Mairaofrupees584isreceivedforoneofthecollegesinthe talook of Cauvareepauk. These form the whole of the expense defrayedbygovernmentonthisaccount. 6. Certain of the institutions from different branches of learning will be seen entered as free of charge, these are conductedbypersonsofsomeacquirementsandwhovoluntarily give up a part of their time for this purpose, but the greater portion of the seminaries are instituted by those gaining their livelihoodbythismeans,andratesofchargeareveryvariable, beingaccordingtothenatureofthestudies,orthemeansofthe parties.

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7.TheTamil,TaloogooandHindwyschoolsarethemost extensive;tothesethescholarsaresentgenerallyabouttheage of 5andinthecourseof fiveorsixyearsaregenerallyfound sufficientlyforwardtocommencebyassistinginthepreparation orcopyingoftheaccounts,accordingtotheirdifferentwalksin life,sometimesasvolunteersinthepublicCutcherriesorinthe situationswithCurnums,Shroffs,Merchantsorothers,whence they graduate to situations in the public service or their he reditaryoccupations. CollectorsCutcherry 3rdMarch,1823. Collector. WilliamCooke, Principal

(Statementsonfollowingpages)

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COLLECTOROFCHINGLEPUTTO BOARDOFREVENUE: 3.4.1823 (TNSA:BRP:Vol.946,Pro.7.4.1823pp.349396No.25) 1. I have the honor to acknowledge the receipt of your Secretarys letter of the 25th of July last, and to transmit a statement in the prescribed Form, respecting the places of tuitionandnumberofscholarsinthethisdistrict. 2.Therearenocollegesproperlysocalledbuttherearea fewplacesinwhichthehigherbranchesoflearningaretaughtto asmallnumberofpupilswhichIhaveclassedseparately. 3.Avillageschoolmasterearnsfrom3 to12rupeesper month. I think the average is no more than 7 rupees. The scholarsaresubsistedintheirownhousesandonlyattendthe school during a part of the day. For the most part their attendance is very irregular. Few of the school masters are acquaintedwiththegrammarofthelanguagewhichtheyprofess to teach, and neither the master nor scholars understand the meaningofthesentenceswhichtheyrepeat. 4.Idonotfindthatanyallowancehasbeenmadebythe NativeGovernmentsforeducationinthisdistrict,butinsome villagestherearetriflingMauneoms,fromaquarterofaCawny to two Cawnies of land, for Vaidavartyars or Theological teachers. 5.Ihavepublishedinthedistrictthatthereisnointention tointerferewiththepeopleinthemodeofeducation,andthat no change is contemplated except it be to aid existing institutions. 6.Educationcannotwell,inacivilizedstate,beonalower scalethanitisandImuchfeartheredoesnotexistthesame desireforimprovementasisreportedofthenativesofBengal. ZillahChingleput, Poodooputnum, Smalley, 3rdApril1823. (Statementonnextpage)

S. Collector.

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PRINCIPALCOLLECTOROFSOUTHARCOTTOBOARDOF REVENUE: 29.6.1823Cuddalore (TNSA:BRP:Vol.954,Pro.7.7.1823,pp.562224No.5960) 1. I have the honor to acknowledge the receipt of your DeputySecretarysletterunderdatethe25thofJuly1822with its enclosures, in conformity to which I herewith submit a statementofthenumberofnativeschoolsandcollegesinthis CollectoratedrawnoutaccordingtotheFormreceivedfromyour Board. 2. The number of schools which this statement exhibits haveeachoneteacherwherereadingandwritingintheMalabar andGentoolanguages,aretaught.Thepaymentmadeforeach scholarisfrom1fanamto1Pagodapermonthaccordingtothe condition and circumstances of their parents. The scholars generallyattendtheschoolfrom6to10oclockinthemorning thenfrom12to2andlastlyfrom3to7and8oclockinthe evening. 3. There are no private or public schools for teaching Technology, Law, Astronomy, etc., in this Collectorate, and no allowance of any sort has ever been granted by the Native Governments to schools the masters of which are entirely supportedbytheparentsofthescholars. PrincipalCollectors Cutcherry,Cuddalore, 29thJune,1823. Collector.

C.Hyde, Principal

(Statementonfollowingpages)

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COLLECTOR,NELLORETOBOARDOFREVENUE: 23.6.1823 (TNSA:BRP:Vol.952,Pro.30.6.1823pp.518891No.26) 1.Iwouldhaverepliedtoyourletterofthe25thJulylast before now, had I not met with unavoidable difficulties in ob taining the requiredinformation aboutthe nativeschools they referredto,intheZemindarytalooks. 2.IherewithforwardthestatementApreparedaccording totheFormconveyedinyourletterabovementioned,showing thenumberofschools,scholars,etc.,inthedistrictundermy charge. 3. The statement Bwhich accompanied this letter shows thenumberofpersons,whoteachVedums,Arabic,Persian,etc., onreceivingallowancesinmoneyorlandgrantedforthesame by the Carnatic Government and continued by the Company, anditalsoshowsthenumberofscholarsaswellastheamount ofthesaidallowances. 4.Itistobeobservedthattheschools mentioned inthe statement A are not endowed by the public with any emoluments. They are partly established occasionally by individualsfortheeducationoftheirownchildrenandpartlyby theteachersthemselves,fortheirownmaintenance. 5.Itisstatedthatthescholarsintheseschoolscontinue therein from 3 to 6 years. The school master is paid from 2 annasto4rupeesmonthlyforeachscholar,andtheexpenses forthesubsistenceofascholarisabout3rupeesmonthly,and onerupeeforhiswritingthings,etc.,and2rupeesifitisthe Englishlanguage. 6.Thenatives,Iunderstand,sendtheirchildrentoschool whentheyareabout5yearsofageandbesidestheallowance mentioned in the preceding paragraph each scholar gives him about one seer rice once every fortnight, at the new and full moons.Theyalsopayhimsomepresentswhentheyarefirstput intheschool, andaftertheyfinishthereadingofanyoftheir introductorybooks,suchasBaularamayanum,Amarum,etc.,

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and also pay a present to him when they complete their education,andleavetheschool. 7. The native schools in the districtare not permanently heldbytheteachers;somepeoplewhoareanxioustohavetheir childreneducatedsoonemploylearnedmentoundertaketheir childrens education separately in their own houses, settling withthemtheirwagesfrom2annasto4rupeesmonthly,and also give them victuals in their houses. Some who cannot sufficiently pay the teachers out of their own money procure someotherchildreninadditiontotheirownforbeingeducated andgetadequateallowancetothembywayofsubscriptionfrom these children, from one quarter, to one rupee each month. When they see their children improved they give leave to the teachersandconsequentlybreakuptheschools. Ibegleavetosubjoinalistofthedescriptionofthenative schoolsmentionedinthestatementAadvertedto: GenttooSchools VedumSchools AstronomySchools LawsSchools AstrologySchools EnglishSchools PersianandArabicSchools TamilSchools HindoostanyMusicSchools Totalnativeschools Nellore, Fraser, June1823. (Statementonfollowingpages) 642 83 5 15 3 1 50 4 1 804 T. 23rd Collector.

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FROMCOLLECTOR,MASULIPATAMTOBOARD OFREVENUE: (TNSA:BRP:Pro.13.1.1823) To, ThePresidentandMembersoftheBoardofRevenue, FortSt.George. Gentlemen, Ihavethehonourtoforwardthestatementofthenumber ofnativeschoolsandcollegesandofthenumberofscholarsin each of the Collectorate under my charge in the Form which accompaniedyourSecretarysletterof25thJulylast. 2.Inordertorendertheinformationmorecompleteunder the head of schools and colleges, the several languages and sciencesaredistinguished,andoneadditionalcolumnisintro duced for Chatreya scholars next to that of the Bramins. The scholars who are instructed in the Gentoo* language usually enter the schools in their fifth year, and continue inthem till aboutthetwelfth,orseventeenthoftheirage.Theschoolhours arefromsixtonineinthemorning,andagainfromeleventosix intheevening. 3.Theyarefirsttaughttoreadtheletters,spelling,andthe namesbothcommonandproper,writingonthesandwiththeir fingers. When they are perfect in that, they are taught the reading of books (Balaramayanum, Amram, etc.), on cadjans (usefulfortheboys)inSanscritandGentooaswellaslettersof correspondence, books of mathematics, accounts, etc., etc., accordingtothepleasureoftherelationsoftheboys. 4.Assoonastheboyshavelearnttowritewelloncadjans oronpapertheyareremovedfromtheschoolstosomeofthe publicorprivateofficesofcurnums,paishcar,ortobeimproved inkeepingaccounts,ortoschoolsofforeignlanguagessuchas Persian,English,etc.

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5.IftheboysareofVydeeaBramins,theyare,sosoonas theycanreadproperly,removeddirectfromschoolstocolleges ofVadumsandSastrums. 6.Theformerissaidtobethemothertoallthesciencesof Hindoos,andthelatteristhecommontermforallthosescienc es,whichareinSanscrit,viz.,Law,Astronomy,Theology,etc., etc.ThesesciencesaretaughtbyBraminsonly,andmoreespe cially Bramins holding Agrahrums, Mauneoms, Rozunahs, or other emoluments, whose duty it is to observe their religious obligationonalloccasions. 7. In most of the towns, villages and hamlets of this country,theBraminsareteachingtheirboystheVadumsand Sastrums, either in colleges or elsewhere in their respective houses. 8. No school or college appears to have been ever built separately for that purpose, or to have been endowed by the public. Two years ago Vencatanarsimmah Appahrow, the zemindaratEllore,causedacharityschoolforGentooscholars tobeopenedinthattownbyaschoolmasteronafixedmonthly stipendof3M.pagodas.Thescholarsinstructedthereinare33 innumber,buttheyingeneralsubsistuponcharity. 9.Withtheexceptionofdancinggirlsitisveryseldomthat womenofothercastesarepubliclyeducatedinthispartofthe country. 10.ThechargestoaGentooscholaraverage6annasper month for papers, cadjans, books, etc., etc., besides food and raimentaswellasthepayoftheirschoolmaster.Bothofthese chargesofcoursedependupontherankandcircumstancesof therelationsofthescholars.Thewagestotheschoolmasterare commonlyfromto2rupeesforeachboy. 11.ThecollegesofSanscrit,lawandastronomyalludedto inthestatementareopenedbylearnedandcharitablepersons, someofwhomhavemauniumsetc.,andpartaresupportedby charity or by presents from their own scholars but receive no fixed wages. Some few of the scholars have in like manner mauniums,etc.,whichtheyinheritfromtheirforefathers,anda fewaresupportedbysomerespectableteachers,orbycharity subscriptions.Thechargesofeachscholarareestimatedupon anaverageat60rupeesperyearfortheirsubsistence,books, etc.

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12.Bythestatementnowsubmitteditappearsthat4,847 scholars are receiving education in 465 Gentoo schools, while only199arestudyingtheSastrumsin49colleges. 13. The number of schools for teaching the Persian language are few in this part of the country. The Mussulman scholars (with the exception of the 41 who are learning the Gentoolanguage)are236in19schools,theircontinuanceinthe schoolsabout9years(from6to15oftheirage),themonthly Paytotheschoolmasterisfromaquartertoonerupee;andthe charges for writing things are estimated at 4 annas each per month.SomeofthelearnedMussulmansareteachingafewof thescholarswithoutreceivingrewardonaccountoffriendship fortheirrelations,andothersforacharity;forinstanceHussain AlliFukeersonofMuhudeenShawatEllore. 14.Noneoftheinstitutionsappeartohavebeenregularly endowed, although probably encouragement and support was given to them by the more opulent and powerful natives of formerdays. Masulipatam, 3January1823. (Statementonfollowingpages) J.F.Lane, Collector.

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COLLECTOROFVIZAGAPATAMTOBOARDOF REVENUE: 14.4.1823 (TNSA:BRP:Vol.947Pro.1.5.1823pp.384750Nos.67) 1. I have the honor to acknowledge the receipt of your Secretarysletterofthe25thJulylastrequiringaStatementof SchoolsandCollegesinthisDistrict. 2.HavingnowacquiredthedesiredinformationIbegleave to forward the statementwhich is drawn outaccording tothe prescribedForm. WaltairCollectors Cutcherry, 14thApril1823. Collector. (Statementonfollowingpages)

J.Smith,

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COLLECTOR,TRICHINOPOLYTOBOARDOFREVENUE: 23.8.1823 (TNSA:BRP:Vol.959Pro.28.8.1823pp.745657Nos.3536) 1. Information having at length been obtained on the subject of your letter of the 25th July 1822, I do myself the honortosubmittheresult.Theannexedstatementdrawnupin correspondence with that which accompanied your letter, will showthenumberofnativeschoolsandcollegesinthisdistrict, andthenumberofscholarsmaleaswellasfemaleHindoosofall castes,andMussulmans,whoareeducatedinthem. 2.Thescholarsgenerallycontinueintheschoolsfromthe ageof 7to15and theaverage yearly expenseof education is about7pagodas.Therearenoschoolsorcollegesinthisdistrict forthesupportofwhichmypublicfundsareappropriated,and in institutions for teaching AstronomyTheology or any other science. 3.InthetalookofJyalorealone,andnoother,thereare7 schools, which were formerly endowed by some Native Government with between 44 and 47 Cawnies of land for the maintenanceoftheteachers. Trichinopoly, 23rdAugust,1823. (Statementonfollowingpage) G.W.Saunders, Collector.

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COLLECTOR,BELLARYTOBOARDOFREVENUE: 17.8.1823 (TNSA:BRP:Vol.958Pro.25.8.1823pp.716785Nos.3233) 1. The delay of my Amildars, in furnishing the requisite returns, has hitherto prevented my submitting to you the enclosed statement called for in your orders of the 25th July 1822,and19thofJunelast. 2. The population of this District is specified in the enclosed statement at 9,27,857 or little less than a million of souls. The number of schools is only 533 containing no more than, 6,641 scholars, or abouttwelve toeachschool, and not sevenindividualsinathousand,oftheentirepopulation. 3. The Hindoo scholars are in number 6,398, the Mussulmanscholarsonly243,andthewholeofthesearemales, with the exception of only sixty girls, who are all Hindoos exclusively. 4.TheEnglishlanguageistaughtinoneschoolonly.The Tamilinfour,thePersianintwentyone,theMahrattaintwenty three, the Teloogoo in two hundred and twentysix, and the Carnatacaintwohundredandthirtyfive.Besidesthese,there are twentythree places of instruction, attended by Bramins exclusively, in which some of the Hindoo sciences, such as Theology,Astronomy,LogicandLaw,arestillimperfectlytaught intheSanscritLanguage. 5. In these places of Sanscrit instruction in the Hindoo sciences,attendedbyyouths,andoftenbypersonsfaradvanced inlife,educationisconductedonaplanentirelydifferentfrom thatpursuedintheschools,inwhichchildrenaretaughtread ing, writing, and arithmetic only, in the several vernacular dialectsofthecountry.Ishallendeavourtogiveabriefoutlineof thelatter,astothemthegeneralpopulationofthecountryis confined, andasthatpopulation consistschieflyofHindoos, I shallnotdwellonthefewMussulmanschoolsinwhichPersian istaught.

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6.TheeducationoftheHindooyouthgenerallycommences whentheyarefiveyearsold.Onreachingthisage,themaster andscholarsoftheschooltowhichtheboyistobesent,are invitedtothehouse ofhisparents.Thewholeareseatedina circleroundanimageofGunasee,andthechildtobeinitiatedis placedexactlyopposite toit.Theschool master,sitting byhis side,afterhavingburntincenseandpresentedofferings,causes thechildtorepeataprayertoGunaseeentreatingwisdom.He thenguidesthechildtowritewithitsfingerinricethemystic name of the deity, and is dismissed with a present from the parents, according to their ability. The child, next morning commencesthegreatworkofhiseducation. 7. Some children continue at school only five years, the parents, through poverty, or other circumstances, being often obligedtotakethemaway,andconsequently,insuchcases,the merest smattering of an education is obtained; and when parents take a lively interest in the culture of their childrens minds, they not infrequently continue at school as long as fourteenandfifteenyears. 8.Theinternalroutineofdutyforeachdaywillbefound, with very few exceptions, and little variation, the same in schools.Thehourgenerallyforopeningschoolissixoclock.The first child who enters has the name of Saraswatee, or the Goddess of learning, written upon the palm of his hand, as a sign of honor, and, on the hand of the second, a cypher is written,toshowthatheisworthy,neitherofpraisenorcensure, the third scholar receives a gentle stripe; the fourth two, and every succeeding scholar that comes an additional one. This customaswellasthepunishmentsinnativeschools,seemofa severekind.Theidlescholarisflogged,andoftensuspendedby bothhands,andapulley,totheroof,orobligedtokneeldown and rise incessantly, which is most painful and fatiguing but perhapsahealthymodeofpunishment. 9.Whenthewholeareassembled,thescholarsaccording to their number and attainments, are divided into several classes.Theloweronesofwhichareplacedpartlyunderthecare ofmonitors,whilstthehigheronesaremoreimmediatelyunder thesuperintendenceofthemaster,whoatthesametimehashis eyeuponthewholeschool.Thenumberofclassesisgenerally four;andascholarrisesfromonetotheother,accordingtohis capacityandprogress.Thefirstbusinessofachildonentering

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schoolistoobtainaknowledgeoftheletters,whichhelearnsby writingthemwithhisfingeronthegroundinsand,andnotby pronouncingthealphabetasamongEuropeannations.Whenhe becomesprettydexterousinwritingwithhisfingerinsand,he has then the privilege of writing either with an iron style on cadjanleaves,orwithareedonpaper,andsometimesonthe leavesofthearistolochiaidentica,orwithakindofpencilonthe Hulligi or Kadata,whichanswerthepurposeofslates.Thetwo latterinthesedistrictsarethemostcommon.Oneoftheseisa common oblong board about a foot in widthand three feetin length. This board, when plained smooth, has only to be smearedwithalittlericeandpulverizedcharcoalanditisthen fit for use. Theother ismadeofcloth, firststiffenedwithrice water,doubledinfolds,resemblingabook,andisthencovered withacompositionofcharcoalandseveralgums.Thewritingon eitherthesemaybeeffacedbyawetcloth.Thepencilusedis called Buttapa, a kind of white clay substance, somewhat resemblingacrayon,withtheexceptionofbeingratherharder. 10. Having attained a thorough knowledge of the letters, thescholarnextlearnstowritethecompounds,orthemanner ofembodyingthesymbolsofthevowelsintheconsonantsand theformationofsyllables,etc.,thenthenamesofmen,villages, animals,etc.,andfinallyarithmeticalsigns.Hethencommitsto memoryanadditiontable,andcountsfromonetoahundred;he afterwards writes easy sums in addition, and subtraction of money; multiplication and the reduction of money, measures, etc. Here great pains are taken with the scholars, in teaching himthefractionsofaninteger,whichdescend,notbetensasin ourdecimalfractions,butbyfours,andarecarriedtoagreat extent. In order that these fractions, together with the arith metical table, in addition, multiplication, and those on the threefoldmeasuresofcapacity,weight,andextent,mayberen deredquitefamiliartothemindsofthescholars,theyaremade tostanduptwiceaday,inrows,andrepeatthewholeafterone ofthemonitors. 11. The other parts of a native education consist in decipheringvariouskindsofhandwriting,inpublicandother letters, which the school master collects from the different sources; writing common letters, drawing up forms of agreement;reading;fablesandlegendarytales;andcommitting variouskindsofpoetrytomemory,chieflywithaviewtoattain distinctness and clearness in pronunciation, together with readinessandcorrectnessinreadinganykindofcomposition.

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12. The three books which are most common in all the schools, and which are used indiscriminately by the several castes,arethe Ramayanum,MahaBharata,and Bhagvata;but the children of the manufacturing class of people have in addition to the above, books peculiar to their own religious tenets;suchasthe NagalingaynaKutha,VishvakurmaPoorana, Kumalesherra Kalikamahata; and those who wear the Lingum suchastheBusvapoorana,RaghavankunkauyaGeerojaKullana, Unabhavamoorta, Chenna Busavaswara Poorana, Gurilagooloo, etc.,whichareallconsideredsacred,andarestudiedwithaview ofsubservingtheirseveralreligiouscreeds. 13. The lighter kind of stories which are read for amusement, are generally the Punchatantra, Bhatalapunchavansatee, Punklee Soopooktahuller, Mahantarungenee.Thebooksontheprinciplesofthevernacular languages themselves, are the several dictionaries and grammars, such as the Nighantoo, Umara, Subdamumbured, Shubdeemunee Durpana, Vyacurna Andradeepeca, Andhranamasungraha, etc., etc., but these last, and similar books, which are most essential, and, without which, no accurateorextensiveknowledgeofthevernacularlanguagescan be attained, are, from the high price of manuscripts and the generalpovertyofthemasters,ofallbooks,themostuncommon intheNativeSchools;andsuchofthemwhicharefoundthere areinconsequenceoftheignorance,carelessness,andindolence ofcopyistsingeneral,fullofblunders,andineverywaymost incorrectandimperfect. 14.Thewholeofthebooks,however,intheTeloogooand Carnatacaschools,whicharebyfarthemostnumerousinthis district, whether they treat of religion, amusement, or the principlesoftheselanguages,areinverse;andinadialectquite distinctfromthatofconversationandbusiness.Thealphabets ofthetwodialectsarethesame,andhewhoreadstheone,can read,butnotunderstand,theotheralso.Thenatives,therefore, readthese(unintelligible)bookstothem,toacquirethepowerof reading letters, in the common dialect of business; but the poeticalisquitedistinctfromtheprosedialect,whichtheyspeak and write; and though they read these books, it is to the pronunciationofthesyllables,nottothemeaningorconstruc tion of the words, that they attend. Indeed few teachers can explain,andstillfewerscholarsunderstand,thepurportofthe numerousbookswhichtheythuslearntorepeatfrommemory. Everyschoolboycanrepeatverbatimavastnumberofverses,of

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themeaningofwhich,heknowsnomorethantheparrotthat has been taught to utter certain words. Accordingly, from studies, in which he has spent many a day of laborious, but fruitless toil, the native scholar gains no improvement, except theexerciseofmemoryandthepowertoreadandwriteonthe commonbusinessoflife;hemakesnoadditiontohisstockof usefulknowledge, and acquires no moralimpressions. He has spenthisyouthinreadingsyllables,notwords,and,onentering intolife,hemeetswithhundredsandthousandsofbooksofthe meaning of which he can form not even the most distant conjecture, and as to the declension of a noun, or the conjugation of a verb, he knows no more than of the most abstruse problem in Euclid. It is not to be wondered at, with suchanimperfecteducation,that,inwritingacommonletterto their friends, orthographical errors and other violations of grammar, may be met with in almost every line written by a native. 15. The government could not promote the improved educationoftheirnativesubjectsinthesedistrictsmore,than by patronizing versions, in the common prose and spoken dialect, of the most moral parts of their popular poets and elementary works, now committed to memory in unintelligible verse.Hewhocouldreadwouldthenunderstandwhathereads, which is far from the case at present. I am acquainted with manypersonsverycapableofexecutingsuchatask;and,inthe Teloogoolanguage,wouldgladlysuperintendit,asfarasisin mypower,atthisdistancefromthePresidency. 16.Theeconomywithwhichchildrenaretaughttowritein thenativeschools,andthesystembywhichthemoreadvanced scholarsarecausedtoteachthelessadvancedandatthesame timetoconfirmtheirownknowledgeiscertainlyadmirable,and welldeservedtheimitationithasreceivedinEngland.Thechief defects in the native schools are the nature of the books and learningtaughtandthewantofcompetentmasters. 17. Imperfect, however, as the present education of the nativesis,thereareafewwhopossessthemeanstocommandit fortheirchildrenevenwerebooksofaproperkindplentifuland themastereverywayadequatetothetaskimposeduponhim, hewouldmakenoadvancefromoneclasstoanother,exceptas he might be paid for his labour. While learning the first rudiments,itiscommonforthescholartopaytotheteachera quarter

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ofarupee,andwhenarrivedasfarastowriteonpaper,orat thehigherbranchesofarithmetic,halfarupeepermensem.But in proceeding further such as explaining books, which are all writteninverse,givingthemeaningofSanscritwords,andillus trating the principles of the vernacular languages, such demandsaremadeasexceedthemeansofmostparents.There is, therefore, no alternative, but that of leaving their children onlypartiallyinstructed,andconsequentlyignorantofthemost essentialandusefulpartsofaliberaleducation.Butthereare multitudeswhocannotevenavailthemselvesoftheadvantages ofthissystem,defectiveasitis. 18.Iamsorrytostatethatthisisascribabletothegradual but general impoverishment of the country. The means of the manufacturing classes have been, of late years greatly dimin ished,bytheintroductionofourownEuropeanmanufactures, inlieuoftheIndiancottonfabrics.Theremovalofmanyofour troops,fromourownterritories,tothedistantfrontiersofour newly subsidized allies, has also, of late years, affected the demandforgrain,thetransferofthecapitalofthecountry,from the Native Governments, and their Officers, who liberally expendeditinIndia,toEuropeans,restrictedbylawfromem ployingiteventemporarilyinIndia,anddailydrainingitfrom theland,haslikewisetendedtothiseffectwhichhasnotbeen alleviatedbyalessrigidenforcementoftherevenueduetothe state.Thegreaterpartofthemiddlingandlowerclassesofthe peoplearenowunabletodefraytheexpensesincidentuponthe education of their offspring, while their necessities require the assistance of their children as soon as their tender limbs are capableofthesmallestlabour. 19.ItcannothaveescapedtheGovernmentthatofnearlya millionofsoulsinthisdistrict,not7,000arenowatschool;a proportion which exhibits but too strongly the result above stated. In many villages, where formerly there were schools, therearenownone;andinmanyothers,wheretherewerelarge schools,nowonlyafewofthechildrenofthemostopulentare taught, others being unable,frompoverty,toattend or to pay whatisdemanded. 20. Such is the state, in this district, of the various schools,inwhichreadingwriting,andarithmetic,aretaughtin thevernaculardialectsofthecountry,ashasbeenalwaysusual inIndia,byteacherswhoarepaidbytheirscholars.Thehigher branchesoflearningonthecontrary,havealways,inthis

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country,beentaughtinSanscrit;andithaseverinIndia,been deemedbelowthedignityofscience,forherprofessorstobarter it for hire. Lessons in Theology, Astronomy, Logic and Law, continue to be given gratuitously as of old, by a few learned Bramins,tosomeoftheirdisciples.Butlearning,though,itmay proudly decline to sell its stores, has never flourished in any country, except under the encouragement of the ruling power andthecountenanceandsupport,oncegiventoscienceinthis partofIndia,havelongbeenwithheld. 21.Ofthe533institutionsforeducation,nowexistingin this district, I am ashamed to say not one now derives any supportfromthestate.Ihavethereforereceived,withpeculiar satisfaction, the inquiries instituted by the Honorable the GovernorinCouncil,onthisinterestingsubject;andtrustthat thispartofIndiamaybenefitfromtheliberalitywhichdictated therecordofhisintention,tograntnewfundswherethesame may be deemed expedient, and to restore to their original purpose,allfundsdivertedfromthissource. 22.Thereisnodoubtthatinformertimes,especiallyunder theHindooGovernmentsverylargegrants,bothinmoney,and in land, were issued for the support of learning. Considerable Yeomiahs, or grants of money, now paid to Bramins from my treasury, and many of the numerous and valuable Shotrium villages,nowintheenjoymentofBraminsinthisdistrict,who receive onefourth, onethird, onehalf, twothirds, and sometimesthewhole,oftheirannualrevenue,may,Ithink,be tracedtothissource.Thoughitdidnotconsistwiththedignity of learning to receive from her votaries hire; it has always in IndiabeendeemedthedutyofGovernmenttoevincetoherthe highestrespect,andtogranttoherthoseemolumentswhichshe could not, consistently with her character receive from other sources; the grants issued by former governments, on such occasions,contained,therefore,nounbecomingstipulationson conditions.Theyallpurporttoflowfromthefreebountyofthe ruling power, merely to aid the maintenance of some holy or learned man, or to secure his prayers for the state. But they werealmostuniversallygrantedtolearnedorreligiouspersons, whomaintained aschoolforone ormoreofthesciences,and taught therein gratuitously; and though not expressed in the deed itself, the duty of continuing such gratuitous instruction wascertainlyimpliedinallsuchgrants.

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23. The British Government, with its distinguished liberality,hascontinuedallgrantsofthiskindandeveninmany caseswhereitwasevidentthattheyweremerelyofa personal nature.Buttheyhavenot,untilnow,intimatedanyintentionto enforcetheimplied,butnowdormant,conditionofthesegrants. The revenue of the original grantee has descended, without much inquiry, to his heirs. But his talents and acquirements have not been equally hereditary, and the descendants of the original grantees will rarely be found to possess either their learning, or powers of instruction. Accordingly, considerable alienationsofrevenue,whichformerlydidhonortothestate,by upholding and encouraging learning, have deteriorated, under ourrule,intothemeansofsupportingignorance;whilstscience deserted by the powerful aid she formerly received from government, has often been reduced to beg her scanty and uncertain meal from the chance benevolence of charitable individuals;anditwouldbedifficulttopointoutanyperiodin thehistoryofIndia,whenshestoodmoreindeedoftheproffered aid of government, to raise her from the degraded state into whichshehasfallen,anddispeltheprevailingignorancewhich sounhappilypervadestheland. 24.Ataformerperiod,Irecollect,thatthegovernment,on therecommendationoftheCollegeBoard,authorisedthelateMr Ross,thenCollectorintheneighbouringdistrictofCuddapah,to establish experimental schools with the view of improving the educationofthenatives;butthelamenteddeathofthatzealous and able public officer led to the abandonment of a plan, to whichhistalentsandpopularityinthecountrywerepeculiarly calculated to give success. As Secretary to the college, and to your Board, I was, at that time, a warm advocate for such experiment; and, if now allowed, I should gladly attempt to superintend some arrangement of that kind, in my present provincialsituation. 25. I would propose the appointment of an able Shastry fromamongsttheLawstudentsatthecollege,withanaddition tohisexistingpayofonly10pagodaspermensem,tobeplaced under me at the principal station of the district, to instruct gratuitouslyallwhochosetoattendhim,intheHindoosciences intheSanscritlanguage,andthenativeschoolmasters,inthe grammar of the Teloogoo and Carnataca tongues, being those vernacularhere;suchamanIhavenodoubtthatIcouldsoon obtain from the college; for, if one with all the requisite qualificationsisnotatpresentattachedtotheinstitution,there

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aremanythatIknowtherewhocanspeedilyqualifythemselves foritinaveryshorttime. 26. Subordinate to this man and liable to his periodical visitations,Iwouldrecommendthatseventeenschoolmasters, for Teloogoo and Carnataca, be entertained, at from 7 to 14 rupeeseachpermensemtobestationedattheseventeenCusba stations under each of my Amildars, and liable to their supervision,toteachgratuitouslytheselanguages.Theirlowest paymightbefixed at7rupees, andmightberaised,by fixed gradations,withtheincreasingnumberoftheirscholars,ashigh as the maximum above stated. All of these might be selected fromthebestinformedofthepresentschoolmastershere;but, withreferencetothelowstateofknowledgeamongstthepresent persons of that class, most of them will previously require instruction from the Head Shastry, in grammar, etc. Though forbiddentodemandmoneyallsuchmastersshouldbeallowed to receive any presents their scholars may offer to them; particularlythoseusual,onenteringorquittingschool. 27. The highest expense of such an institution would be 273 rupees, the lowest 154 rupees per mensem. The first expense must necessarily be borne by government, who alone are able to originate, and, at first support, such a plan. But properstepsmaybetakentoengageinittheaidofthemore opulentclassesofthecommunity,andifpracticabletoinduce them,induetime,willinglytocontributetothesupportofsuch schools. Indeed, I have little doubt that the plan would soon carrywithittheunitedconsent,andgratefulapprobation,ofthe morerespectableandwellinformedoftheinhabitantsatlarge. 28. It would also greatly accelerate the progress and efficiencyofsuchschools,ifGovernmentweretoappropriatea moderateannualsum,tothepurposeofpreparingandprinting, atthecollegepress,orelsewhere,suitablebooksfortheuseof theseschools,intheprose,orcommon,dialects,oftheTeloogoo and Carnataca languages; on the principle stated by me in a formerpartofthisletter.Theseshouldconsistofselectionsfrom the most approved native school books, fables, proverbs, etc., nowinuseintheschoolsorwellknowninthecountrytothe exclusion,inthefirstinstance,ofallnewpublicationswhatever. Booksofapopularandknowncharacter,intelligibletoallwho read,wouldthusbeprocurableatacheaperrate,andinmore

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correct state, than at present, and the teachers might be employedtodisposeofthematlowprices. 29. If public examinations once a year were instituted before the Head Shastry, and small premiums of badges of distinction were distributed, for the purpose of rewarding, on suchoccasions,thosewhoaremostadvanced,asuitableeffect might be produced, and a powerful stimulus afforded to the students. 30. To cover the first expense of these schools, and to providefurtherfortheirgradualextension,iffound,advisable, withoutentailinganyadditionalornewexpenseongovernment, it might be provided, that, on the demise of any persons now holding Yeomiahs or alienated lands, a new inquiry be instituted;andthat,thoughthesamemayhavebeencontinued formorethanonegenerationbytheBritishGovernment,itbe resumed, and carried to a new fund, to be termed the school fund(towhichtheproposedexpenseshouldalsobedebited), unlessitisclearlystatedthatthebodyoftheoriginalgranttobe hereditary,ontheintentionoftherulingpoweratthetimeto makesuchgranthereditary,beclearlyprovedtothesatisfaction ofgovernment. 31. If an arrangement of this kind is sanctioned, I have littledoubtthat,inafewyears,thereceiptsfromsuchafund wouldmorethancounterbalancethedisbursement.Butevenif they did not, the charge would be comparatively trifling. The enactmentsoftheBritishParliamentcontemplatesuchacharge. The known liberality of the authorities in England on this subjectensuretoitsanction:thesupremegovernmenthaveset the example; and, the Provincial functionaries in the Madras territoriesoughtperhapstotakeblametothemselves;thatthey have waited to be called upon, before they stood forth as the organ of public opinion, in a matter of such importance and universalinterest;Isincerelyhopethatitwillnot,asbefore,be allowedtosinkintooblivion;butthattheinformationsubmitted by the several Collectors, will enable your Board and the government,tomature,fromtheirsuggestions,somepractical, or at least some experimental plan for the improvement of education,andthesupportoflearninginSouthernIndia. Bellary, 17thAugust1823. (Statementonfollowingpage) A.D.Campbell, Collector.

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COLLECTOR,RAJAMUNDRYTOBOARDOFREVENUE: 19.9.1823 (TNSA:BRP:Vol.963,Pro.2.10.1823,pp.852025Nos.2930) 1.Ihavethehonortosubmittheinformationcalledforin your Deputy Secretarys letter dated 25th July 1822, together withastatementintheprescribedformofthenumberofnative schoolsinthisCollectorateandofthenumberofscholars. 2. I also take the liberty to forward another statement which being in more detail and containing some additional headsofinformationmayprobablybefoundofsomeuse. 3.Ifthesestatementsareatalltobedependedupon,and (theyarefoundedonveryminutereturnsofmypublicservants) theactualstateofeducationinthisdistrictmustbepronounced anythingbutsatisfactoryinasmuchasitwouldappearthatout of1,200villagescomposingthezillahofRajamundryandtotal populationof7,38,308soulsthereare207villagesonlyinwhich reading and writing are taught, the number of schools in the villagesinquestionbeing291andthenumberofscholars,Hin doos and Mussulman 2,658. The time that scholars usually continueatschoolvariesfrom5to7years.Thefifthdayofthe fifthmonthofthefifthyearoftheboysageistheluckydayfor his first entrance into school. The monthly charge to the scholarsisashighasonerupeeeachinsomeplacesandaslow astwoannasinothers,buttheaverageratemaybestatedat7 annas.Ihavenotfoundthatanyoftheschoolsareendowedby thepublic. 4.Thenumberofcolleges,orratherteachers*ofTheology, Law,Astronomy,etc.,is279,thenumberofscholars1,454.The particularsareasfollows(seenextpage). The teachers of the Vedum here alluded to are not generallymenofmuchscience.Thescholarisbarelytaughtso muchoftheVedumaswillenablehimtoperformtheusual

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Table36 *Ts:Teachers;Ss:Scholars ceremoniesofhisreligion,norisitthoughtatallessentialthat heshouldunderstandwhatlittlehedoesread.Henceithappens that this class of people are often very deficient in their education. 5.Ofthetotalnumberof279teachersmentionedabove69 possessallowancesinlandand13inmoneyboththeoneand the other being granted by former Zemindars. 196 individuals teach their scholars without fee or reward and 1 person is supportedbyhisscholars. 6. In those villages under my immediate management wherethere are no schools, I havefound the inhabitants very willing to have such established among them, but some assistance from government will be necessary to set things agoing,saymonthlyallowanceof2rupeestoeachteacher,the scholars to make up the remainder. I shall be prepared to address your Board more fully upon the subject should this proposalmeetyourapproval. ZillahRajamundry, Robertson, Mugaluteer,19thSept.1823. (Statementsonfollowingpages) F.W. Collector.

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NAMESOFTHEBOOKSINUSEATTHESCHOOLSAND COLLEGESATRAJAMUNDRY
Schools 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. 8. 9. 10. 11. BaulaRamauyanum RookmenyCulleyanum Paurejantahpatraranum MollyRamauyanum Raumayanum DansaradySatacum KreestnaSatacum SoomatySatacum JanakeySatacum PrasunnaragaraSatacum RamatarakaSatacum 12. Turkum 13. BeesanavecausaSatacum 14. BeemalingaswaraSatacum 15. SooreyanarainaSatacum 16. NarrainaSatacum 17. PlaholandaCharetra 18. VasooCharetra 19. ManooCharetra 20. SumungaCharetra 21. NalaCharetra 22. VamanaCharetra 23. Ganintum 24. PauvoolooryGanintum 25. Bhauratam 26. Bhaugavatum 27. VejiaVelausum 28. KroostnaleelanVelausum 29. RathamathavaVelausum 30. SuptamaSkundum 31. AstmaSkundum 32. RathamathavaSumvadum 33. BhaunoomalyParanayem 34. VeerabhadraVejayem 35. LeelansoondaryParonayem 36. Amarum 37. Sooranthanaswarum 38. Voodeyagapurvem 39. Audepurvem 40. GajandraMotchum 41. Andhranamasungraham 42. Coochalopurksyanum 43.ResekajanaManobharanum ZillahRajahmundry, Mongultoor,19thSeptember,1823. 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. . 1. Vadahs,etc. Roogvadum Yajoorvadum Samavadum Sroudum Dravedavedumor Nunlauyanum

Sastrums SanscritGrammar SiddhandaCowmoody BahscaraSatacum 2. 3. 4. 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. Jeyoteshem Durmasastrum Cauveyems Ragoovamsam Coomarasumbhavem Moghasundasem Bhauravy Maukhum Naveshadum Andasastrum EnglishBooksinitsSchools 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. PersianSchools Caremah Aumadunnanmah HarckaruminPersian InsahCuliphaand Goolstan BahurdanishandBostan AbdulPhazaulInshah Calipha Khoran

F.W.Robertson, Collector.

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PRINCIPALCOLLECTOR,MALABARTOBOARDOF REVENUE: 5.8.1823 (TNSA:BRP:Vol.957,Pro.14.8.1823,pp.694955Nos.52&53) (A)1.Ihavethehonortosubmitastatementshowingthe numberofschoolsandcollegesinthisCollectorate,towhichI haveannexedanAccountoftheindividualswhostudyTheology, Astronomy,etc.,underprivatetutors. (B) 2. With respect to the only college entered in the statement now sent, I beg to transmit Translation of a MemorandumreceivedfromtheZamorinRajah,whichcontains thebestinformationIcouldcollectrespectingit. 3.Theschoolmastersreceivemonthlyfromeachscholar from one quarter to four rupees, according to their respective means, independent of some remuneration when a scholar leaves the school. The private teacher who gives lessons in Theology, Law, etc., does not receive any monthly or annual allowancebutapresentorcompensationwhenthepupilsleave himaccordingtothecircumstancesandmeansofeach. PrincipalCollectorsOffice, Calicut,5thAugust,1823. Collector. J.Vaughan, Principal

(Statementandtranslationonfollowingpages) TranslationofmemorandumreceivedfromtheZamorinRajah: B. In the beginning the Bramins of Malabar used to be instructedinReligion atthe Chetroms (orTemples)nearestto their houses by the teachers of that time, but it was apprehended that learning after that manner would not be attendedwithadvantage.Aconsultationwasthereforeheldby theBramins,whenitwasdeterminedthataCollegeshouldbe instituted for the purposes of instructing all persons in the principlesofReligion.Aspotofground(adjacenttotheriver)to thesouthwardofTeroonavyaChetrominTerooina:nisherynad Hobby, Cootnad Talook, was fixed upon for the proposed building and all of them waited on and reported the circumstance to our ancestor the then reigning Rajah who causedaCollegetobebuiltathisexpenseonthespotpointed outbythem,andorderedthatallpersonsresidinginitshould befurnishedwiththeirdailymealandoil,andfurther,ordereda storehousetobebuiltandtheappointmentofapersontobe inchargeofthesametheBraminsaccordingly,(agreeabletothe respective means of each) allotted for this purpose a certain portion of rice lands, and Achipora Erkara Namboory was by

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general consent, chosen Instructor in the college for whose subsistencesomefurtherricelandsweregivenbytheBramins andfromthattimethemembersofthatfamilycontinueholding theaboveemployment.ThisiswhatIhaveheardmyancestors and the Bramins say. There is no document containing an accountoftheforegoingtransaction.Thenumberofpersonsto beadmittedinthecollegeisnotlimited;everybodydesirousof availinghimselfofitwillbeadmittedandprovidedfor.Formerly, thenumberofpersonswhoresortedtothecollegeforinstruction amounted from 100 to 120 daily. In the year 949 when a foreigner invaded the country, he caused several temples and dwellingstobedestroyedandtheabovecollegewasdemolished onthatoccasionandthericelandsallottedforthesupportofit, assessed by his order in consequence of which the Bramins found it impossible to live in this country and therefore all of them repaired to Rama Rajahs country (Travancore) and consequently the learning of the Vethom was altogether discontinued in Malabar. It being a very great sin for the Bramins to be ignorant of their religious tenets, they and the Namboory who was appointed their Instructor went and representedtoRamaRajahthiscircumstancewhenthatRajah ordered acollegeto be established in hiscountry adjoiningto theTeroonaKareChetrom,andallottedthenecessaryallowance forthesubsistenceofthelearners,whotherecontinuedbeing instructedwithoutanyinterruptiontilltheyear966.Whenthe

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invaderwasexpulsedfromMalabarbytheHonorableCompany who extended their protection throughout the country the emigrant Bramins thereupon returned to this country and resumed their former habitations but the destruction of their collegeandthedecayedstateofthelandedpropertyallottedfor its support precluded them from deriving the benefit of that institutioninthemannertheyformerlydid,whichwasasource of much grievance to them. Accordingly, they represented the circumstancetotheRajah,myuncle.Althoughaccordingtothe thenexistingstateofaffairsnogreatassistancecouldbegiven yetheresolvedtodototheutmostinhispowerconsideringthat itwasaninstitutionestablishedbyhisancestorsandthatthe existenceofitwouldtendtorendertheRajahandhissubjects prosperous. Accordingly he ordered their college to be rebuilt and furnished it as well with every (thing) necessary as the meansofmaintainingtheInstructorandhispupils,whichhas beencontinuedbyme.Theproduceofthelandsappertainingto thecollege,afterdeductingtherevenuepayabletotheSirkaris hardly sufficient for one months expense. Consequently, whateveriswantedissuppliedbyme;about2,000rupeesfor the support of the pupils and 200 rupees for that of the Instructor are paid by me every year. This is what obtains at present.WiththeexceptionofReligionnootherscienceistaught in the college. There was in ancient times at Choanoor in Talpallynad a college with lands assigned for its support in which several Bramins were instructed in the Shastram, and whentheyleftthecollegeafteracquiringacompetentproficiency they were admitted in the Tallel Chetrom at Calicut on an annual allowance of 101 fanams each. The number of individuals thus admitted consisted from 70 to 80. On the introduction of revenue the lands which afforded the above allowanceceasedtoyielditandthemeansoftheestatebecame muchreduced,inconsequenceofwhichtheaboveallowanceas wellastheinstructionwasdiscontinued.OnwhichtheBramins cameandrepresentedtheirgrievancewhereuponateacherwas entertained herewhohas alwayshad somepupilsunderhim. TheTallilallowancealsoiscontinuedbutonareducedscale. Dated10thKarkaddayom998M.S. Nosignatureintheoriginal TrueTranslation J.Vaughan.

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COLLECTOR,SALEMTOBOARDOFREVENUE: 8.7.1823 (TNSA:BRP:Vol.No.954,Pro.14thJul.1823,No.50,pp.590810) 1.Ihavethehonortosubmittheaccompanyingstatement ascalledforbyyourBoardintheirinstructionsofthe25thJuly 1822. 2.Fromthestatementitappearsthatonly4,650,persons receiveeducationoutofapopulationofabovetenlacswhichis only a fraction more than four and a quarter per Milleand provesthebadandcontractedstateofpublicinstructions. 3.Theperiodwhichscholarsusuallycontinueatschoolis fromthreetofiveyearsaccordingtotheabilityoftheirfriendsto maintainthemthereandtheirownaptitudetolearntheyearly chargetothescholarsisneverlessthanthreerupeesayearin theHindooschoolsandintheMussulmanschoolsthecharge amounts to fifteen and twenty rupees. None of the Hindoo schools are endowed by the publicand only one Mussulman school hasland yielding rupees20per annum allowedfor its supporta former master of this school possessed a Yeomiah paid monthly by the Collector amounting to fiftysix rupees a yearon his death this allowance was discontinued by my Predecessorasitwasheldonlyonalifetenure. 4.InthetalooksofAbtoor,Namkul,SalemandParmutty therearetwentyteachersofTheology,LawandAstronomyto the support of whom are attached Enam lands calculated to yieldrupees1,109perannum.Theselandsarealmostentirely under cultivationand the possessors perform the duties for whichtheywereoriginallygranted. 5. Besides the above Enam lands there are other lands yieldingrupees384,perannum,inthetalooksofRaizepoorand SankerryDroogwhich were sequestered by Tippoo the year previoustothesecessionofthecountryandwhichhavesince beenincludedintheRevenueofGovernment. 6.Consideringeducationasthebestmeansofpreventing crimesinthepeoplewhetherservantsofgovernmentor

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otherwise(andwhichopinion,isstronglyexpressedinthe7th ParaofyourBoardsReporttogovernmentunderdatethe11th December1815),andviewingthedefectivestateofeducationin thisdistrictasthefruitfulsourceofmuchcrime,Ishallwiththe sanction of your Board, be prepared to offer suchsuggestions andtoproposetheestablishmentofsuchfundsaswilltendto promoteeducationinsomedegreemoreadequatetothedemand forit. CutcherryoftheCollectorofSalem, Cockburn, 8thJuly,1823. (Statementonnextpage) M.D. Collector.

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COLLECTOR,GUNTURTOBOARDOFREVENUE: 9.7.1823 (TNSA:BRP:Vol.954,Pro.14.7.1823,No.49,pp.59047) 1.InreplytoyourDeputySecretaryMrViveashsletterof the 25th July last, I have the honor to transmit a statement showingthenumberofschoolsinwhichreadingandwritingare taughttogetherwiththenumberofscholarsinthem,andwhich has been prepared according to the form accompanying the aboveletter. 2. With regard to the information called for by the government in their letter of the 2nd July, 1822, I have to observethatthescholarsgenerallyassembleinthemorningat6 oclockandstayuntilnineandthengototheirhousestotake theirmorningmealandreturnagaintoschoolwithin11oclock andcontinueuntil2or3oclockintheevening,andagainto theirrespectivehousestoeattheirriceandreturnby4oclock and continue until 7 oclock in the evening. The morning and evening generally are the times for reading and afternoon for writing. 3. The charge to the scholars chiefly depends on the circumstancesofthefathersorpersonswhoputthemtoschool andisfoundtovaryfrom2annasto2rupeespermensemfor eachboyandthisistheonlychargethatcanbeshown,asthe boysareonlysenttotheschoolsintheirownvillagesandliveat home. 4.Itappearsthattherearenoschoolsinthezillahwhich areendowedbythepublicandnocollegesforteachingTheology, Law,Astronomy,etc.,inthisdistrict;thesesciencesareprivately taught tosome scholars ordisciples generally bythe Bramins learnedinthem,withoutpaymentofanyfeeorreward,andthat the Bramins who teach are generally maintained by means of Mauneom land whichhave beengranted totheirancestorsby the ancient Zemindars of this zillah, and by the former governments on different accounts, but there appears no instance in which the Native Governments have granted allowancesinmoneyandlandmerelyforthemaintenanceofthe teachers for giving instruction in the above sciences. By the information

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which has been got together on this subject, it appears that thereare171placeswhereTheology,LawandAstronomy,etc., aretaughtprivately,andthenumberofdisciplesinthemis939. The readers of these sciences cannot generally getteachers in theirrespectivevillagesandarethereforeobligedtogotoothers. Inwhichcasesifthereaderbelongstoafamilythatcanaffordto supporthimhegetswhatisrequiredforhisexpensesfromhis homeandwhichisestimatedat3rupeespermonth,butwhich isonlysufficienttosupplyhimwithhisvictuals;andifonthe otherhandhisfamilyisintooindigentcircumstancestomake suchallowance,thestudentprocureshisdailysubsistencefrom thehousesinthevillage,wheretaught,whichwillinglyfurnish suchbyturns. 5. Should people be desirous of studying deeper in Theology, etc., than is taught in these parts, they travel to Benares, Navadweepum, etc., where they remain for years to takeinstructionsunderthelearnedPunditsofthoseplaces. GuntoorZillah, Bauputtah,9thJuly,1823. (Statementonfollowingpage) J.C.Whish, Collector.

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COLLECTOROFGANJUMTOBOARDOFREVENUE: 27.10.1823 (TNSA:BRP:Vol.967Pro.6.11.1823pp.933234Nos.56) 1. I have the honor to acknowledge the receipt of Mr DeputySecretaryViveashsletterandenclosureofthe25thJuly 1822and toforwardforyourBoardsinformationastatement partially showing the number of schools, etc., in this district madeoutagreeabletotheformsentbyyourBoard. 2.Therearenoschoolsorcollegesinthisdistrictendowed by the Circar or by any public authority but the teachers are monthlypaidbythescholarsfrom4annasto1rupeeforeach man. 3. The schools are usually opened from 6 oclock in the morninguntil5oclockintheevening. 4. The Bramins of Agraharums, etc., are in general educatedinSastrums,etc.,bytheirFathersorBrothersorby any other relations but noschools in this districtarepublicly openedforsuchoccasion. 5.InmakingouttheenclosedstatementIhavenotbeen abletoprocureanysatisfactoryaccountsfrommostoftheHill Zemindaries. Nothing but vodiahs is taught in these places, a language,merelyconfinedtothemountainsandborders. Chicacole, 27thOctober1823. (Statementonfollowingpages) P.R.Cazalet, Collector

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SECRETARYTOGOVERNMENT,BOARDOFREVENUE: 27.1.1825 (TNSA:BRPVol.1010,Pro.27.1.1825Nos.78pp.674675) 1.Thegovernmentbeinganxioustoreceivetheinformation relativetothestateofeducationthroughoutthecountry,which was called for by Mr Hills letter of the 2nd July 1822, I am directed by the Honourable the GovernorinCouncil to desire, thattheresultofthereferencemadetotheseveralCollectors, underthoseinstructions,maybereportedwithaslittledelayas possible. 2.ShouldanyoftheCollectorshaveomittedtofurnishthe required report, you will direct early attention to the subject, submitting,inthemeantime,informationwhichmaybealready beforeyou. FortSt.George, 21stJanuary1825 J.Stokes, SecretarytoGovernment.

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SECRETARY,BOARDOFREVENUE,FORTST.GEORGE,TO COLLECTOROFCUDDAPAH: 31.1.1825 (TNSA:BRP,Vol.1010Pro.31.1.1825No.42,p.841) 1. I am directed by the Board of Revenue to call your immediateattentiontomypredecessorsletterofthe25thJuly 1822requiringareportonthestateofeducationinyourdistrict andIamdesiredtorequestthatyouwillsubmitthestatement andinformationrequiredonthissubjectwiththeleastpossible delay. 2. Adverting to the elaborate inquiries made by a former Collectorinyourdistrictregardingallthepointsnecessarytobe reportedon,theBoardconceivethattherewillbenodifficultyin complyingwiththeirordersatanearlyperiod. 3. You will be pleased to prepare the statement required strictlyaccordingtotheFormtransmittedwiththeletterabove referredto. FortSt.George, 31stJanuary,1825 Secretary. J.Dent,

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COLLECTOR,CUDDAPAHTOBOARDOFREVENUE: 11.2.1825 (TNSA:BRP:Vol1011,Pro.17.2.1825No.33pp.1272678) 1.IhavethehonortoreplytoyourSecretarysletterofthe 31st January calling for the report on the state of education throughout this district and to return the statement filled up accordingtotherequiredform. 2. There are no public institutions either schools or colleges in this zillah supported by grants of land or any allowances from the government and I do not hear of any establishmenthavingexistedofthisdescription. 3.Instructionofeverykindiscarriedoneitherprivatelyby thepupilresidinginthehouseofhispreceptor,orintheschools whicharesupportedineveryvillagebythecontributionofthose whohavechildrentobeinstructed.Inthelattercasethepupils areforthemostpartinthehabitofattendingthisschoolatday break,afterremaininguntilabout10oclocktheyreturnhome, and attend school again from past eleven until sunsetthe expense varies according to the progress made by the scholar andbecomeshigherateachstagefromreadingtowritingand arithmeticthe allowance is of course smallest at first and is augmentedasthepupilacquiresinformation;theaverageforthe lowestclassisabout rupeepermonthforeachscholarand increasesashighas1and1butrarelyexceedsit.Idonotfind that there are any schools even of this description of the instructionofthesciences.Theology,Law,Astronomyaretaught it appears in a private manner for the most part in small fa milies, and given as an inheritance from father to son. The instruction can only be attained by the party applying, either fromthestrongestinterestorfromrelationshiptothoseBramins whoarequalifiedtoaffordit.Pupilsundersuchcircumstances appeartoresideentirelyundertheroofoftheirpreceptorsandto formpartofthefamily. 4. In Cuddapah there are several schools supported by voluntarycontribution,thoughitcanbehardlycalledapublic oneasitisconfinedentirelytotheEuropeanGentlemenofthe place.

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5. Instruction generally commences amongst Bramins whenthechildhadattainedtheageof5or6andamongstthe Sudrasfrom6to8.ThisdifferenceisaccountedforbyaBramin withreferencetothesuperiorintellectofhiscastovertheSudra andthereforehischildrenattaintherequisiteageforreceiving instructionsmuchearlierthanthoseoftheinferiorcastes.Asin structionamongstthenativeshere,isencouragedandpromoted solelyinproportiontothepersonalprofitobtainablebyit,the courseofeducationisconsideredcompletewhenthescholarbe comesaproficientinwritingandarithmetic.Heisthentaken fromschool,allotheraccomplishmentsarelearnedathome,and he arrives at experience, and attains improvement in what he has already acquired, only by attending his fathers shop and writinghisaccounts,orbybeingpermittedtoqualifyhimselffor employment by volunteering his services in our public Cutcherries. The period during which each scholar receives instruction at school (and after the expiration of which he is usuallyconsideredtohavecompletedhiseducation)isabout2 years. 6.InnearlyallthevillagesofthisdistrictthereisanEnam setapart,asisdoubtlesswellknowntotheBoardforthesup portofaPunchangumBramin,anditmightbeconjecturedthat amongstsomanytherewouldbefoundsomewhohadattained considerable perfection in Astronomy and Theology, of this howeverthereishardlyaninstance.Thepersonsholdingsuch Enamarequitecontenttobeignorantofthehigherbranchesof science,theirutmostambitionbeingconfinedtothedistinction offoretellingafortunatehourforreapingoraluckydayfora marriage, and of contriving a horoscope for persons of distinctioninthevillage. 7.Althoughtherearenoschoolsorcollegessupportedby publiccontribution,IoughtnottoomitthatamongstBramins, instruction, is in many places gratuitously affordedand the poorerclassobtainalltheireducationinthiswayattheageof from 10 to 16 years. If he has not the means of obtaining instruction otherwise a young Bramin leaves his home, and proceeds to the residence of a man of his own caste who is willing to afford instruction without recompense to all those resorting to him for the purpose. They do not however derive subsistence from him for as he is generally poor himself, his meanscouldnotofcoursegivesupporttoothers,andevenifhe hadthemeanshisgivingfoodandclothingtohispupilswould attractsomanyastodefeattheobjectitselfwhichisprofessed.

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8.TheBoardwouldnaturallyenquire,howthesechildren whoaresodestituteasnottobeabletoprocureinstructionin their own villages, could subsist in those to which they are strangers,andtowhichtheytravelfrom10to100miles,withno intention of returning for several years. They are supported entirely by charity, daily repeated, not received from the instructor for the reasons above mentioned, but from the inhabitantsofthevillagesgenerally.Theyreceivesomeportionof almsdaily(foryears)atthedoorofeveryBramininthevillage, and this is conceded to them with a cheerfulness which considering the object in view must be esteemed as a most honorabletraitinthenativecharacter,anditsunobtrusiveness oughttoenhancethevalueofit.Weareundoubtedlyindebtedto this benevolent custom for the general spread of education amongstaclassofpersonswhosepovertywouldotherwisebean insurmountable obstacle to advancement in knowledge and it will be easily inferred that it requires only the liberal and fosteringcareofgovernmenttobringittoperfection. 9.Astheonlyschoolsinthedistrictsupportedbycharity are those which owe their maintenance to the gentlemen at Cuddapah, Ihave entered them inthe listunder the name of subscriptionschools. 10.Iamnotawarethatthereisanyfurthermatterrelating tothissubjectwhichisnecessarytobesubmittedtotheBoard, butIbegtoassurethemthatanydeficiencywhichmaybere markedshallbesuppliedwithallthediligenceinmypower. 11.Icannotconcludethisletterwithoutexpressingtoyour BoardtheobligationIamundertoMrWheatlyfortheinformant nowsubmitted,hislongresidenceinthedistricthavingafforded tohimthebestopportunityofascertainingcorrectlytheactual stateofeducationthroughout. CutcherryoftheCollectorof Cuddapah,Roychooty, 11thFebruary,1825.

G.M.Ogilvie, SubCollectorincharge.

(Statementonfollowingpages)

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COLLECTOR,MADRASTOBOARDOFREVENUE: 12.2.1825 (TNSA:BRP:Vol1011,Pro.14.2.1825No.46pp.119394) With reference tomy letterof the 13th November 1822 I havethehonortoforwardanotherstatementofschools,whichI consider to be more correct, and to submit that it may be substituted for the one transmitted with the letter to which I havebeforereferred. MadrasCutcherry, Murray, 12thFebruary1825. (Statementonfollowingpage) L.G.K. Collector.

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BOARDOFREVENUETOCHIEFSECRETARYTO GOVERNMENT: 21.2.1825 (TNSA:BRP:Vol.1011,No.46Pro.21.2.1825pp.141226) 1. With reference to the instruction of government conveyed in a letter from the Secretary to government in the RevenueDepartmentunderdatethe2ndJuly1822andtoMr SecretaryStokesletterofthe21stultimo,Iamdirectedbythe BoardofRevenuetosubmitfortheinformationoftheHonorable theGovernorinCouncilthecorrespondencenotedinthemargin regardingtheactualstateof educationinthe Provincesunder thisgovernment.

CirculartoallCollectorsdated25thJuly1822
From the Collector of Ganjam dated 27 October in consultations:6thNovember1823. From the Collector of Vizagapatam 14th April in consultations:1stMay1823 From the Collector of Rajahmundry 19th September in consultations:2ndOctober1823 From the Collector of Masulipatam 3rd September in consultations:13thJanuary1823 From the Collector of Guntoor 9th September in consultations:14thJuly1823 Fromthe CollectorofNellore23rdJune inconsultations: 30thJune1823 Fromthe CollectorofBellary17thJuneinconsultations: 25thAugust1823 From the Collector of Cuddapah 11th June in consultations:17thFebruary1825 FromtheCollectorofChingleput3rdJuneinconsultations: 7thApril1823

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From the Principal Collector in the Northern Division of Arcot3rdJuneinconsultations:10thMarch1823. FromthePrincipalCollectorinSouthernDivisionofArcot 29thJuneinconsultations:7thJuly1823 From the Collector of Salem 8th June in consultations: 14thJuly1823 From the Principal Collector of Tanjore 28th June in consultations:3rdJuly1823 From the Collector of Trichinopoly 23rd June in consultations:28thAugust1823 From the Collector of Madura 5th February in consultations:13thFebruary1823 From the Collector of Tinnevelly 18th October in consultations:28thOctober1822&7thNovemberin consultations:18thNovember1822 FromthePrincipalCollectorofCoimbatore23rdNovember inconsultations:2ndDecember1822 From the Principal Collector of Malabar 5th August in consultations:14thAugust1823 From the Principal Collector of Canara 27th August in consultations:5thSeptember1822 FromtheAssistantCollectorofSeringapatam29thOctober inconsultation:4thNovember1822 From the Collector of Madras 13th October in consultations:14thNovember1822&12thOctoberin consultations:14thFebruary1825 2.Anabstractstatementpreparedfromthereportsofthe severalCollectorsisalsosubmittedforthepurposeofexhibiting atoneviewtheinformationrequiredbythegovernment. 3.ThisabstractisintheFormtransmittedbygovernment, withanadditionalcolumnshowingtheamountofpopulationin eachdistrictaccordingtotheCensusassomeoftheCollectors havestatedthenumbersdifferently.Undertheheadofremarks theinformationrequiredbythegovernmentregardingthetime

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whichscholarsusuallycontinueatschool,themonthlyoryearly chargetothescholarsandotherparticularsisconciselystated. 4.Itwillbeobservedthattheschoolsnowexistinginthe countryareforthemostpartsupportedbythepaymentsofthe peoplewhosendtheirchildrentothemforinstruction.Therate of payment for each scholar varies in different districts and according to the different circumstance of the parents of the pupils,from1annato4rupeespermensem,theordinaryrate amongthepoorerclassesappearstobegenerallyabout4annas, andseldomtoexceedrupee. 5. In a few districts only there are endowments for the supportofschoolsandcolleges.InRajahmundry69teachersof Sciences possess endowments in land, and 13 allowances in money granted by former Zemindars. In Nellore certain individuals, Bramins and Mussulmans, are in possession of allowances in land and money granted by the Carnatic GovernmentforteachingtheVedas,etc.,andArabicandPersian respectivelytotheamountofrupees1,467perannum. IntheNorthernDivisionofArcot,28collegesaresupported by mauniums and Marahs granted by former governments yielding rupees 516 per annum, and 6 Persian schools are maintainedatthepublicexpenseatanannualchargeofrupees 1,861.InSalemEnamlandsestimatedtoyieldrupees1,109per annum are appropriated to the support of 20 teachers of Theology,etc.,andoneMussulmanschoolhaslandallowedfor itssupportyieldingannually20rupees.InTanjore44schools and71collegesaresupportedbyHisHighnesstheRajahThere isnoschool,orcollege,endowedparticularlybytheCircarbut therearefreeschoolsmaintainedbytheMissionestablishedin Tanjore which possess a Survamanniam, the annual value whereof is estimated at 1,100 rupees. In the District of Trichinopolythereare7schoolswhichpossessendowmentsin landtotheextentof46cawniessupportedbytheZamorinRajah which has also some land attached granted by former governments.InMalabarthereisonecollegetoit. 6.ItdoesnotappearfromtheReportsoftheCollectorsthat any public endowments for the advancement of learning have beendivertedfromtheiroriginalpurposeorresumedexceptin SalemandCoimbatore.TheCollectorofSalemsaysthatlands yielding rupees 384 formerly devoted to this object were sequesteredbeforetheacquisitionofthecountrybytheBritish

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Governmentandtheirproducehassincebeenincludedinthe revenue of government. The Principal Collector of Coimbatore reports that Mauniums, etc., granted in former times for the support of colleges to the value of rupees 2,208 have been resumedeitherbytheMussulmanortheBritishGovernment. 7.ThelateCollectorofBellaryhavingstatedinhisreport thatnoneoftheinstitutionsforeducationatpresentexistingin that district derive support from the state added there is no doubt that in former times especially under the Hindoo Governmentverylargegrantsbothinmoneyandinlandwere issued for the support of learning, and further stated his opinionthatmanyofthe YeomiahsandShrotriumsnowheldby Bramins in the district may be traced to this source. No conditions he observedare statedin thegrants issuedbythe former governments; they all purport to flow from the free bounty of the ruling power merely to aid the maintenance of some holy or learned man. But they were almost universally grantedtolearnedorreligiouspersons,whomaintainedschools foroneormoreoftheSciencesandtaughtthereingratuitously; and though not expressed in the deed itself the duty of continuingsuchgratuitousinstructionwascertainlyimpliedin all such grants. It does not appear upon what grounds Mr Campbell founded his opinion so confidently that the implied condition of the grants referred to was the continuance of gratuitous instruction; but it seems not to be the result of particularinvestigation.MrCampbellfurthersuggestedwiththe viewofcoveringtheexpenseofageneralarrangementproposed byhiminthisreportfortheimprovementofeducationthatit might be provided that on the demiseof any persons now holdingYeomiahsoralienatedlandsanewenquirybeinstituted and thatthough the same may have been continued formore than one generation by the British Government it may be resumed and carried to a newfund to be termed, the school fund,unlessitisclearlystatedinthebodyoftheoriginalgrant tobehereditary,ortheintentionoftherulingpoweratthetime to make such grant hereditary be clearly proved to the satisfactionofgovernment.TheBoardhavelittledoubtthatthe resumptionoflandsnowalienated,inthemannersuggestedby Mr Campbell would produce ample funds for the purpose contemplated but they conceive that the two objects in view, namely,therecoveryofalienatedlands,andtheestablishment of a fund for the support of schools should be kept entirely distinctandseparate.Theestablishmentofschoolsineverypart ofthecountryunderanygeneralplanshouldberegulated

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by the wants of the people in the respect to education and should not in any degree depend upon the accidental circumstanceoftheamountofaparticularfundbeinggreator lessindifferentsituations. 8.TheBoardthinkitpropertoofferthisremarkinregard tothesuggestionofMrCampbellwhichhasjustbeennoticed, butitappearstothemtobeunnecessaryatthistimetodiscuss theplanproposedbyhimfortheimprovementofeducationand hisgeneralspeculations onthesubjectconceivingittobethe desire of government at present only to receive information regardingtheactualstateofeducationinorderthatitmaybe seenwhatarethedeficienciestobesupplied. 9.Thatthesedeficienciesarelamentablygreatisshownin everyoneofthereportsnowsubmitted,andthegeneralresultof the whole from which it appears that out of a population estimated by the Census at above 12 million and a half only about1,88,000arereceivinginstructionorabout13 percentis mostunsatisfactory. 10.Itwillberemarkedthatnostatementissubmittedof the number of schools, etc., in Canara. The late Principal Collectorreportedthateducationisconductedinthatdistrictso much in private that any statement of the number of schools andofthescholarsattendingthemwouldbeoflittleornouse, butonthecontraryratherfallaciousinforminganestimateof theproportionofthepopulationreceivinginstruction.Hestated generallythattherearenocollegesinCanaraforthecultivation of abstract Science, neither are there any fixed schools and masters to teach in them. There is no instance known of any institution of the above descriptions having even received supportinanyshapefromtheformergovernment. 11. Notwithstanding the observations of Mr Harris the Board have thought it proper to call again upon the present Principal Collector to furnish a Statement of Schools, etc., preparedintheformtransmittedbygovernmentwhichshallbe submittedtotheHonbletheGovernorinCouncilassoonasit isreceived. FortSt.George, 21stFebruary,1825. Secretary. (Statementonfollowingpages) J.Dent,

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REMARKS Ganjam: Therearenoschoolsorcollegesinthisdistrictendowedby theCircar.Theteachersintheschoolsarepaidmonthlybythe scholars at various rates from 4 annas to 1 rupee each. The Shastras, etc., are usually taught privately to Bramins. The statementisnotcompleteinrespecttotheHillZemindariesfrom whichsatisfactoryaccountscouldnotbeprocured. Vizagapatam: It does not appear that there are any colleges in this district.Theschoolsarenotendowedbythepublic;2onlyare statedtoreceiveapaymentfromtheZemindarofChamoodooat therateof50rupeesannually.Theteachersarepaidatvarious ratesfromoneannato1rupeeforeachscholarpermensem. Privateteachersinfamiliesofrespectabilityarepaidamonthly or yearly stipend accordingtotheiracquirementand the rank andopulenceoftheiremployer. Rajahmundry: Some of the schools in this district are endowed by the public. The teachers arepaid bythe scholars at rates varying from 1 rupee to 2 annas, 7 annas being the average rate per mensem.Thescholarsareenteredatschool intheirfifthyear andcontinueattheirstudiesfrom5to7years.Thenumberof professorsorteachersoftheSciencesis279;ofthese69possess allowances in land and 13 in money granted by former Zemindars;196teachtheirscholarswithoutfeeorrewardand onlyoneissupportedbyhisscholars.Inthevillagesinwhichno schoolsatpresentexisttheinhabitantsaredesirousofhaving them established. It might be done with a small contribution from government to the pay of the teachers. The Collector considered2rupeesamonthtoeachtobesufficient. Masulipatam: Noneoftheinstitutionsforthepurposeofeducationinthis district appear to have been regularly endowed. One Charity School only is supported at Ellore by the Zemindar by the paymentofamonthlystipendof3pagodastotheteacher.The scholars usually enter in the schools in their 5th year and continueinthemuntiltheyarefrom12to16yearsofage.The greaterproportionarethenemployedonpublicorprivate

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business,theVedikaBraminsonlybeingremovedfromschools to college for the purpose of being instructed in Theology and otherSciences.Thechargesonaccountofaboyatschoolare abouttheaverageof6annasforpaper,cadjan,etc.,andfrom4 annasto2rupeestotheschoolmastermonthly.TheSciences are taught in the colleges generally gratis by Bramins holding Mauniums, etc. Some teachers, however, are supported by contributionsfromtheirscholarsbutreceivenofixedallowance. Theaveragechargetoascholaratcollegeforhissubsistence, books, etc., is 60 rupees per annum. In most parts of the country instruction in the Vedas, etc., is also given by the Braminsprivately.TheschoolsinwhichthePersianlanguageis taught are few. Mussulman scholars remain at school from 6 yearsofageto15,thepayoftheteachersisfrom to1rupee andtheotherchargesofthescholarsareestimatedat4annasa month;somelearnedMussulmansgiveinstructiongratis. Guntoor: Therearenoschoolsinthisdistrictendowedbythepublic andnocollegesforinstructionintheSciences.TheSciencesare taughtprivatelybylearnedBraminswithoutanyremuneration. These Bramins generally hold mauniums, etc., granted by the ancientZemindars and by the former governments for various reasons,butthereisnoinstanceofanygrantinmoneyorland, speciallyforthepurposeofmaintainingteachersoftheSciences. The chargefor the education of aboy atschool varies from 2 annasto2rupeesmonthly.Threerupeesamonthisrequisite for the subsistence of a scholar while he is studying the Sciences. Nellore: Thisstatementgivesthenumberofschoolsinthedistrict notendowedbythepublic.Therearebesides26individualswho have scholars as shown by a separate statement B viz. 15 Bramins, and 11 Mussulmans who are in possession of allowances in money and land granted by the Carnatic GovernmentforteachingtheVedas,etc.,andArabicandPersian respectivelytotheamountofrupees1,467perannum.Boysare generallysenttoschoolat5yearsofagewheretheyaresaidto remain from 3 to 6 years. The school master receives from 2 annas to 4 rupees monthly for each scholar. The scholar has alsotopayaboutonerupeeforwritingmaterials,etc.,andhis subsistenceisestimatedat3rupeesamonth.Besideshisfixed allowanceoccasionalpresentsaremadebythescholarstotheir teacher.

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Theschoolsarenotallofpermanentcontinuancesomedepend upon circumstances, schools being some times established by the joint subscriptions of several families especially for the educationoftheirownchildrenwhichbeingaccomplishedthey are discontinued. The difference between the amount of populationinthisstatementandinthereportoftheCensusis accounted for by the population of the Zemindaries being includedintheformerandnotinthelatter. Bellary: None of the schools in this district at present derive supportfromthestate.Thereappeartobenoregularcolleges butin23casesofinstructionattendedbyBraminsexclusively someoftheSciences,etc.,aretaughtimperfectlyintheSanscrit language.In theschools some children continue only 5years, whileotherswhoseparentsareopulentnotinfrequentlyremain aslongasfourteenandfifteenyears.Itappearsthattheteacher is paid at various rates according to the class to which the scholar may belongwhile learning the first rudiments it is commonforthescholartopayaquarterofarupeeandwhen arrivedsofarastowriteonpaperoratthehigherbranchesof Arithmetichalfarupeepermensem.Butonproceedingfurther suchdemandsaremadeasexceedthemeansofmostparents. Their children are therefore left only partially instructedand therearemultitudeswhocannotavailthemselvesevenofthis imperfecteducationfortheirchildren.Thediffusionofcommon instructionissaidtobelessextensivethanitwasformerly.In manyvillageswhereformerlytherewereschools,therearenow none,andinmanyotherswheretherewerelargeschools,now onlyafewofthechildrenofthemostopulentaretaught,others beingunablefrompovertytoattendortopaywhatisdemanded. InstructionsintheSciencesisgivengratuitouslyasofold,bya fewlearnedBraminstotheirdisciples. Cuddapah: There are in this District no public institutions for education supported by grants of land or allowances from the government, nor are any known to have existed. The schools which existaresupported by the parents of the scholars. The charge for instruction is variable rising as the scholar is promotedfromthelowesttothehigherclasses.Theaveragefor thelowestclassisabout rupeepermensem,andincreasesto 1 rupee and 1 rupee which rate it rarely exceeds. In the Bramincaste,boysareputtoschoolattheageof5or6and amongtheSudrasatfrom

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6to8.Boysaresaidtobekeptatschool generallynolonger than2yearsinwhichtimetheyareexpectedtohaveattainedall that they are desired to acquire, that is a certain degree of knowledgeofreading,writingandarithmeticinwhichtheyare afterwardstoimprovethemselvesbypracticeathome,inashop, orinapublicoffice.Theonlyschoolswhichcanbedenominated public in this district are the charity schools at Cuddapah, supportedbytheEuropeangentlemenoftheplace.Thereareno schoolsorcollegesforinstructionintheSciences.Theology,Law andAstronomyaretaughtprivately,thepupilsresidinginthe houses of their preceptors. Besides the instruction afforded in theschoolstothosewhoseparentsareabletopayforit,itis alsogivengratuitouslyinmanyplacesbyBraminstothoseof theirowncastewhohavenoothermeansofobtainingityoung Braminsforthesakeofreceivinginstructioninthisway,leave their homes and wait upon the preceptor in his own village, where they are supported by the daily charity of the Bramins residinginit. Chingleput: Therearenocollegesproperlysocalledinthisdistrictbut thereareafewplacesinwhichthehigherbranchesoflearning aretaughttoasmallnumberofpupilsavillageschoolmaster earnsfrom3to12rupeespermonththeaverageisnotmore than7rupees.Itdoesnotappearthatanyallowancewasmade bytheNativeGovernmentsforthepromotionofeducationbutin some villages there are trifling mauniums from a quarter of a Cawnyto2CawniesoflandforTheologicalteachers. N.D.Arcot: Ofthe69collegesinthisdistrictitappearsbyaseparate statementNo.2submittedbythePrincipalCollectorthat43are forTheology,24forLaw,etc.,and2forAstronomy;28ofthese colleges are supported by mauniums and marahs granted by former governments yielding rupees 516 per annumThe allowancetoeachteacherforthelowerclassisrupees38per annumandforthehigherclassrupees3612.Oftherestthe greaternumberarefreeofchargeandafewaresupportedby triflingcontributionsfromthescholars.Theperiodofattendance atthecollegesisfrom8to12years.OftheHindooschoolsonly 3arefreeofcharge.Therestaresupportedbypaymentsfrom thescholarsvaryingfrom1anna3picepermensemto1rupee 12annas.OfthePersianschools6aremaintainedatthepublic expenseatayearlychargeofrupees1,361.Thegreater

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proportionaresupportedbythescholarswhopayfrom2annas 6 pice to 2 rupees a month to their teachers. In the Hindoo schoolsthescholarscontinue5or6years,intheMussulman schools 7 or 8 years. Of the 7 English schools 3 are free of charge and in the others the scholars pay monthly from 10 annasto3rupees8annas.Itappearsthatthisstatementdoes not include the Zemindaries and Pollams which form a large portionofthedistricttheirpopulationbeingestimatedatnearly 3lacs. S.D.Arcot: NoallowancewasevergrantedbytheNativeGovernments forthesupportofschoolsinthisdistrict.Therearenopublicor privateinstitutionsforteachingTheology,Law,Astronomy,etc. Theschoolsaresupportedentirelybythescholarswhopayfrom 1fanamto1pagodamonthly. Salem: NoneoftheHindooschoolsinthisdistrictareendowedby thepublicandonlyoneMussulmanschoolhaslandallowedfor its support yielding 20 rupees per annum; a Yeomiah was enjoyed by a former master of this school amounting to 56 rupeesayear.Onhisdeathitwasdiscontinuedhavingbeenon atenureforlife.Theperiodofattendanceatschoolisfrom3to5 years.The yearlycharge foreachscholar isneverlessthan3 rupeesayearintheHindooschoolsandfrom15to20rupeesin theMussulmanschools.Enamlandsestimatedtoyieldrupees 1,109perannumareappropriatedtothesupportof20teachers of Theology, Law and Astronomy, and the present possessors performtheduties;otherlandsyieldingrupees384perannum wereformerlydevotedtothesameobject,butweresequestered beforetheacquisitionofthecountrybytheBritishGovernment and the produce of them has since been included in the revenuesofgovernment. Tanjore: Oftheschoolsinthisdistrict44arefreeschools.Therest aresupportedbypaymentsfromthescholarsattherateof4D fanamsmonthlyforeach19ofthefreeschoolsbelongtothe Missionsanditisbelievedthattherearemorenotincludedin theReport.In21themastersarepaidbytheRajahandin1by theTrevalorePagoda,intheremaining23themastersteachgra tuitously. There are none individually endowed by the Circar, butforthegeneralsupportoftheMissionatTanjorethereisa Survamauniumofonevillagetheannualvalueofwhichis

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estimated at 1,100 rupees. The scholars are usually kept at schoolabout5years.Ofthecollegesinnumber109thereare99 in which instruction is given free of charge, of these 71 are supported by the Rajah in the town of Tanjore and villages belongingtohisHighness;in16themastersteachgratuitously, 1 only is endowed with a maunium, 7 are supported by a Pagoda,3byprivatedonationsand1byvillagecontribution.In theremaining10collegesthemastersarepaidbytheirscholars. These colleges are for Bramins only. The Hindoo Sciences are taughtinthem.Thepopulationofthosevillagesonlyinwhich there are schools is shown in this statement, not the general populationofthedistrict. Trichinopoly: There are no schools or colleges in this district for the support of which any public funds are appropriated and no institution for teaching Astronomy, Theology or any other Sciences. In the talook of Jyalore alone there are 7 schools which were formerly endowed by the Native Government with between46and47Cawniesoflandforthemaintenanceofthe teachers.Thescholarsgenerallycontinueatschoolfromtheage of7to15.Theaverageyearlyexpenseofeducationisabout7 pagodas. Madura: Itdoesnotappearthatanymauniamlandsinthisdistrict areassignedforthesupportofschools.Theteachersarepaidby the poorer class of people from fanam to 1 fanam for each scholarmonthlyandfrom2to3and5fanamsbythoseinbetter circumstancesateacherreceivesinthismannerfrom30to60 Cullyfanamsorfrom2to3 pagodasamonthinlargevillages and from 10 to 30 fanams in small villages. Scholars usually enterschoolattheageof5andleaveitatfrom12to15.There are no colleges in this district. In Agraharam villages a small portion of maunium land is usually allotted to those Bramins whostudytheVedasandtheygratuitouslyinstructsuchpupils ascometothem. Tinnevelly: ThereappeartobenocollegesinTinnevelly. Coimbatore: Theschoolsinthisdistrictappeartobesupportedentirely bythepeoplewhosendtheirchildrentothemforinstruction.

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Theannualpaymentforeachscholarvariesfrom14rupeesto3 rupees per annum, according to the circumstances of the parents.Themastersbesidestheirregularstipendsoccasionally receivepresentsfromtheparentsoftheirpupils;theyhavealso small fees on particular occasions. The earliest age at which boysattendschoolis5years;theycontinuethereuntiltheyare 13or14.ThosewhostudyTheology,Law,etc.,enterthecolleges at about 15 and continue to frequent them until they have attained a competent knowledge of the Sciences or until they obtain employment, a statement is given of mauniums, etc., granted in former times for the support of colleges, but now resumedtothevalueofRs.2,2087. Canara: Nostatement. Malabar: InMalabarthereisonlyoneregularcollegeforinstruction in the Sciences, but these are taught privately. The private teachersarenotpaidafixedstipendbutpresentsaremadeto them by their pupils when their education is completed. The schoolmastersreceivemonthlyfromeachscholarfrom rupee to4rupeesindependentofsomeremunerationwhenthescholar leavesschool.Theonlycollegewhichexistsinthisdistrictwas established and is now supported by the Zamorin Rajah who allowsabout2,000rupeesannuallyforthemaintenanceofthe pupils and 200 rupees to the Instructor; some land also appertains to ita history of this college, furnished by the ZamorinRajahissubmitted. Seringapatam: It is stated that there are no traces on records of endowments in lands towards the support of colleges and schoolsontheislandofSeringapatam,havingbeengrantedby anyformergovernmentorprivateindividual.Theteachersinthe schools are supported by their scholars. The average monthly charge for each scholar is 5 annas and the average annual incomeofthemastersfromthissourceisabout57rupees. Madras: Inthisstatementtwodescriptionsofschoolsareincluded, native schools for the education of Hindoo and Mussulman childrenrespectively,andcharityschoolsinwhichthescholars

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areofvariousreligionsandcastesindifferently.Thechildrenin the native schools are generally sent to them at the age of 5 years, the term of their continuance there depends upon circumstances, but it is stated that they generally acquire a competentknowledgeofthevariousbranchesoflearningtaught to them before they attain their thirteenth year. The Collector states that there are no schools endowed by the public, exceptingthecharityschools.Thepaymentstoateacherseldom exceed12pagodasperannumforeachscholar.TheSciencesare in some instances taught gratuitously to the children of the poorerclassofBraminsandsometimesanallowanceismadeto the teachers. It will be observed that the estimate of the populationofMadrasinthisstatementisgreatlytoohigh,and there is reason to suppose that the proportion receiving instructionandthenumberofschoolsarestatedtoolow.

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XXX
MINUTEOFSIRTHOMASMUNRO,MARCH10,1826 (FortSt.George,RevenueConsultations ) 10March1826 1.TheBoardofRevenueweredirectedbygovernment,on the2ndJuly1822,toascertainthenumberofschoolsandthe stateofeducationamongthenativesintheprovinces,andwith their letter of the 21st February last, they transmitted the reportsonthissubjectwhichtheyhadreceivedfromtheseveral Collectors. From these reports it appears that the number of schools,andofwhatarecalledcolleges,intheterritoriesunder this presidency, amount to 12,498, and the population to 12,850,941; so that there is one school to every 1,000 of the population;butasonlyaveryfewfemalesaretaughtinschools, wemayreckononeschooltoevery500ofthepopulation. 2. It is remarked by the Board of Revenue, that of a populationof12 millions,thereareonly188,000,or1in67 receivingeducation.Thisistrueofthewholepopulation,butnot asregardsthemalepartofit,ofwhichtheproportioneducated ismuchgreaterthanishereestimated:forifwetakethewhole populationasstatedinthereportat12,850,000,anddeductone half for females, the remaining male population will be 6,425,000; and if we reckon the male population between the ages of five and ten years, which is the period which boys in general remain at school, at oneninth, it will give 713,000, whichisthenumberofboysthatwouldbeatschoolifallthe males above ten years of age were educated; but the number actually attending the schools is only 184,110, or little more than onefourth of that number. I have taken the interval between five and ten years of age as the term of education, because, though many boys continue at school till twelve or fourteen, many leave it under ten. I am, however, inclined to estimatetheportionofthemalepopulationwhoreceiveschool educationtobenearertoonethirdthanonefourthofthewhole, becausewehavenoreturnsfromtheprovincesofthenumbers taught at home. In Madras that number taught at home is 26,963, or about five times greater than that taught in the schools. There is probably some error in this number, and though the number privately taught in the provinces does certainly not approach this rate, it is no doubt considerable, because the practice of boys being taught at home by their relationsorprivateteachersisnot

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infrequentinanypartofthecountry.Theproportioneducatedis verydifferentindifferentclasses;insomeitisnearlythewhole; inothersitishardlyonetenth. 3. The state of education here exhibited, low as it is comparedwiththatofourowncountry,ishigherthanitwasin mostEuropeancountries atno very distant period. Ithas, no doubt been better in earlier times; but for the last century it doesnotappeartohaveundergoneanyotherchangethanwhat arosefromthenumberofschoolsdiminishinginoneplaceand increasing in another, in consequence of the shifting of the population, from war and other causes. The great number of schools has been supposed to contribute to the keeping of education in a low state, because it does not give a sufficient numberofscholarstosecuretheserviceofableteachers.The monthly ratepaidbyeachscholar isfromfourtosixoreight annas.Teachersingeneraldonotearnmorethansixorseven rupeesmonthly,whichisnotanallowancesufficienttoinduce menproperlyqualifiedtofollowthe profession.Itmayalsobe saidthatthegeneralignoranceoftheteachersthemselvesisone causewhynoneofthemdrawtogetheralargebodyofscholars; butthemaincausesofthelowstateofeducationarethelittle encouragement which it receives, from there being but little demandforit,andthepovertyofthepeople. 4. These difficulties may be gradually surmounted; the hindrance which is given to education by the poverty of the peoplemayinagreatdegreeberemovedbytheendowmentof schoolsthroughoutthecountrybygovernment,andthewantof encouragement will be remedied by good education being rendered more easyand general, and by the preference which willnaturallybegiventowelleducatedmeninallpublicoffices. No progress, however, can be made without a body of better instructedteachersthanwehaveatpresent;butsuchabody cannot be had without an income sufficient to afford a comfortable livelihood to each individual belonging to it; a moderate allowance should therefore be secured to them by government,sufficienttoplacethemabovewant;therestshould bederivedfromtheirownindustry.Iftheyaresuperiorbothin knowledgeanddiligencetothecommonvillageschoolmasters, scholarswillflocktothemandaugmenttheirincome. 5.Whatisfirstwanted,therefore,isaschoolforeducating teachers,asproposedbythecommitteeoftheMadrasSchool Book Society, in the letter of the 25th October 1824, which accompanied their second report. I think that they should be authorisedtodraw700rupeesmonthlyfromthetreasuryfor

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thepurposeswhichtheyhavestated;namely,forthepaymentof theinterestofmoneyemployedinbuilding,andthesalariesof teachers,500;andfortheexpensesofthepress,200.Iwould next propose that government should establish, in each Collectorate, two principal schools, one for Hindoos and the otherforMahomedans;andthathereafter,asteacherscanbe foundtheHindooschoolsmightbeaugmentedsoastogiveone toeachtehsildary,orabout15toeachCollectorate.Weoughtto extendtoourMahomedanthesameadvantagesofeducationas toourHindoosubjects,andperhapseveninagreaterdegree, becauseagreaterproportionofthembelongtothemiddleand higher classes. But as their number is not more than one twentiethofthatoftheHindoos,itwillnotbenecessarytogive morethanoneMahomedanschooltoeachCollectorate,except inArcot,andafewotherCollectorates,wheretheMahomedan populationisconsiderablyabovetheusualstandard. 6.Wehave20Collectorates;thenumberoftehsildariesis liabletochange:butitwillbesufficientforthepresentpurpose to estimate them at15 onan average toeachCollectorate, or 300inall.Thiswould,accordingtotheplanproposedgiveabout 40collectorateand300tehsildaryschools.Themonthlysalaries oftheteachersofthecollectorateschoolsmight,onanaverage, be15rupeestoeach,andthoseofthetehsildaryninerupees each. These allowances may appear small, but the tehsiladry school master who receives nine rupees monthly from government,willgetatleastasmuchmorefromhisscholars, and, considering all circumstances, his situation will probably bebetterthanthatofaparishschoolmasterinScotland. 7.Thetotalexpenseoftheschoolswillbeasfollows: MadrasSchoolBookSocietypermonth CollectorateSchools,Mahomedan, 20at15rupees CollectorateSchools,Hindoo,20at15rupees TehsildarySchools,300at9rupees Permonth Perannum Rs. 700

Rs. 300 Rs. 300 Rs. 2,700 Rs. 4,000 Rs.48,000

Thisexpensewillbeincurredonlybedegrees,becauseit willbelongbeforeasufficientnumberofqualifiedteacherscan beobtained.ThechargesfortheMadrasSchoolBookSociety

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andthecollectorateschools,areallthatwillprobablybewanted beforethesanctionoftheHonorableCourtcanbereceived.The sumforwhichweoughttorequesttheirsanctionoughtnotto belessthanhalfalakhofrupees.Noneoftheendowmentsin theCollectorsreportsareapplicabletothepresentobject;they donotexceed20,000rupeesinall,andonlyasmallportionof themarepublicgrants,andthissmallportionbelongschieflyto theteachersofTheology,LawandAstronomy.Whateverexpense government may incur in the education of the people, will be amplyrepaidbytheimprovementofthecountry;forthegeneral diffusion of knowledge is inseparably followed by more orderly habits,byincreasingindustry,byatasteforthecomfortsoflife, byexertiontoacquirethem,andbythegrowingprosperityofthe people. 8. It will be advisable to appoint a Committee of Public Instruction, in order to superintend the establishing of the publicschools;tofixontheplacesmostproperforthem,and thebookstobeusedinthem;toascertaininwhatmannerthe instructionofthenativesmaybebestpromoted,andtoreportto government the result of their inquiries on this important subject. 9.Wemustnotbetoosanguineinexpectinganysudden benefit from the labours of the SchoolBook Society. Their dispositiontopromotetheinstructionofthepeoplebyeducating teachers,willnotextendittomoreindividualsthannowattend theschools;itcanbeextendedonlybymeansofanincreased demandforit,andthismustarisechieflyfromitsbeingfoundto facilitate the acquisition of wealth or rank, and from the im provement in the condition of the people rendering a larger portionofthemmoreabletopayforit.Butthoughtheycannot educatethosewhodonotseekorcannotpayforeducation,they can,byanimprovedsystemgiveabettereducationtothosewho doreceiveit;andbycreatingandencouragingatasteforknowl edge,theywillindirectlycontributetoextendit.Ifweresolveto educatethepeople,ifwepersevereinourdesign,andifwedo notlimittheschoolstotehsildaries,butincreasetheirnumber so as to allow them for smaller districts, I am confident that successwillultimatelyattendourendeavours.But,atthesame time,Ientirelyconcurintheopinionexpressedinthe5thReport of the Calcutta SchoolBook Society, when speaking of the progress of the system, that its operation must therefore of necessitybeslow;yearsmustelapsebeforetherisinggeneration willexhibitanyvisibleimprovement. (Signed) ThomasMunro.

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AnnexureB

FRAPAOLINODABARTOLOMEO ONEDUCATIONOFCHILDRENININDIA (BornatHos,Austria,1748,asJohnPhillipWesdin;in India1776to1789.FromVoyagestotheEastIndies (Published,Rome,1796,Berlin,1798,England,1880), BookII:BirthandEducationofChildren(pp.253268))

All the Grecian historians represent the Indians as people of greatersize,andmuchmorerobustthanthoseofothernations. Thoughthisisnottrueingeneral,itiscertainthatthepurityof the air, wholesome nourishment, temperance and education contribute,inanuncommondegree,tothebodilyconformation, andtotheincreaseofthesepeople.Theirnewbornchildrenlie alwaysontheground,asiftheywerethrownawayorneglected; and theyareneverwrapped upwithbandages,orconfined in anyothermanner,asisdoneinEurope.Theirlimbs,therefore, canexpandthemselveswithouttheleastrestraint;theirnerves andbonesbecomemoresolid;andwhenthesechildrenattain theperiodofyouth,theyacquirenotonlyabeautifulfigure,but a sound, well turned, and robust bodily conformation. The frequentuseofthecoldbath,repeatedrubbingthe bodywith coconut oil and the juice of the Ingia plant, as well as their exercises,whichhaveagreatresemblancetothe Juvenilia,and which I have often seen in Malabar, allcontribute to increase theirstrengthandagility.Theseadvantagesalsoareseldomlost, unless some of these young people abandon themselves to debauchery, or weaken their bodies by too great labour or excessive perspiration. However healthful and lively the young Indiansmaybeingeneralthosewhomarrybeforethetwentieth year of their age, for the most part, soon become feeble and enervated.Inaword,IseldomsawinIndiaapersoneitherlame, crooked,orotherwisedeformed.ThepeopleofMalabar,wholive towardsthewest,aremuchhandsomerandmorerobustthan the natives of Coromandel, or the Tamulians on the eastern coastofIndia. TheeducationofyouthinIndiaismuchsimpler,andnot near so expensive as in Europe. The children assemble half naked under the shade of acoconut tree; place themselves in rows

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ontheground,andtraceoutonthesand,withtheforefingerof therighthand,theelementsoftheiralphabet,andthensmooth itwiththeleftwhentheywishtotraceoutothercharacters.The writingmaster,calledAgian,orEluttacien,whostationshimself oppositetohispupils,examineswhattheyhavedone;pointsout theirfaults,andshowsthemhowtocorrectthem.Atfirst,he attends them standing; but when the young people have acquired some readiness in writing, he places himself cross leggedonatigersordeersskin,orevenonamatmadeofthe leaves of the coconuttree, or wild ananas, which is called Kaida*, plaited together. This method of teaching writing was introduced into India two hundred years before the birth of Christ, according to the testimony of Magasthenes, and still continues to be practised. No people, perhaps, on earth have adhered so much to their ancient usages and customs as the Indians. AschoolmasterinMalabarreceiveseverytwomonths,from eachofhispupils,fortheinstructiongiventhem,twoFanonor Panam. Some do not pay in money, but give him a certain quantityofrice,sothatthisexpensebecomesveryeasytothe parents.Therearesometeacherswhoinstructchildrenwithout anyfee,andarepaidbytheoverseersofthetemple,orbythe chiefofthecaste.Whenthepupilshavemadetolerableprogress in writing, they are admitted into certain schools, called Eutupalli, where they begin to write on palm leaves ( Pana), which,whenseveralofthemarestitchedtogether,andfastened betweentwoboards,formaGrantha,thatis,anIndianbook.If such a book be written upon with an iron style, it is called Granthavari, or Lakya, that is, writing, to distinguish it from Alakya,whichissomethingnotwritten. WhentheGuru,orteacher,enterstheschool,heisalways receivedwiththeutmostreverenceandrespect.Hispupilsmust throw themselves down at full length before him; place their right hand ontheir mouth, and not venture to speak asingle word until he gives them express permission. Those who talk andpratecontrarytotheprohibitionoftheirmasterareexpelled fromtheschool,asboyswhocannotrestraintheirtongue,and whoareconsequentlyunfitforthestudyofphilosophy.Bythese

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meansthepreceptoralwaysreceivesthatrespectwhichisdueto him: the pupils are obedient, and seldom offend against rules whicharesocarefullyinculcated.Thechiefbranchestaughtby theGuruare:1st,theprinciplesofwritingandaccounts:2nd, the Samscred grammar, which contains the declensions and conjugations;inMalabaritiscalled Sidharuba;but,inBengal Sarasvada,ortheartofspeakingwithelegance:3rd,thesecond part of this grammar, which contains the syntax, or the book Vyagarna:4th,the Amarasinha,orBrahmanicdictionary.This work, which is highly esteemed by the Brahmans, does not consist,asAnquetilduPerronsays,ofthree,butoffourparts; and contains everything thatrelatestothe gods,thesciences, colours and sounds, the earth, seas and rivers, men and animals,aswellastotheartsandallkindsofemploymentin India.TorendertheconstructionoftheSamscredlanguage,and itsemphaticmodeofexpression,morefamiliartotheirpupils, the Guru employsvariousshortsentencesclothedinSamscred verse,whicharecalled Shloga.Theseversesservenotonly as examplesofthemannerinwhichthewordsmustbecombined witheachother,butcontain,atthesametime,mostexcellent moral maxims, which are thus imprinted in the minds of the youngpeopleasifinplay;sothat,whilelearningthelanguage, they are taught rules proper for forming their character, and directing their future conduct in life. That the reader may be better enabled to conceive some idea of the morality of the Brahmans,Ishallheresubjoinaspecimenofthesesentences. I.Whatistheuseofstudy,iftheobjectofitbenottolearn knowledgeandfear,whichistruewisdom? II.Whyhaveweceasedlivingintheforests,andassociated ourselvesincitiesandtowns,iftheobjectofourdoingsobenot toenjoyfriendship;todogoodmutuallytoeachother,andto receiveinourhabitationsthestrangerandwanderer? III. The wounds occasioned by a slanderous tongue occasion far more pain, and are much more difficult to be healed,thanthosewhichproceedfromfireandthesword. IV.Ofwhatuseisittotheetoshutthedoorofthyhouse? Itisnecessaryinorderthatthywifemaylearntobeuponher guard. V. He who revenges an injury enjoys a pleasure which enduresonlyaday;buthewhoforgivesreceivesasatisfaction whichwillaccompanyhimthroughlife.

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VI. Modesty becomes every one, but is a particular ornamenttothelearnedandrich. VII.Thestateofamarriedpair,whoneverdeviatefromthe pathofhonour,virtue,andmutualduty,isasdifficultasthatof thosewhoimposeonthemselvestheseveralpenances. Inthegardens,orsacredenclosures,inwhichchildrenare taught,theLingam,orPriapus,representedundertheformofa cylinder,isgenerallyfound.Itis,however,notworshippedbyall theIndians,butonlybythe Shivanites.Theseareaparticular sect,whopaydivinehonourtoFire,undertheformofthegod Shiva, as the principle or creative power by which everything was produced. Besides the above idol, there are two other statues,which,forthemostpart,areplacedbeforetheentrance oftheschool.Oneofthemrepresents Ganesha,theprotectorof the sciences, and of learned men; and the other the goddess Sarasvadi,thegoddessofeloquenceandhistory.Everystudent, as he enters the school, always directs his eyes to these two idols;raiseshishands tohishead,and shows hisrespectfor thembyrepeatingcertainformsofprayer.Thatwithwhichhe salutesGaneshaiscommonlyinthefollowingwords: SalGuruve nama: Adoration to thee, thou true master. Or, Ganabadaye name:Adorationtothee,OGanabadi.Thisisrealidolatry;but thesepracticesatanyrateprovethattheIndiansaccustomtheir childrenearlytohonourthegods,andtoconsiderthemastheir protectorsandbenefactors.Thosewhoaredesirousofknowing the power of religion, and the influence of religious opinions, said the Marquis of Kergariou, who commanded the Calypso frigate,needonlygotoIndia.Thisobservationisindeedjust; for among 2000 Indians you will scarcely find one who is not convincedofthenecessityofsupplicatingthegods.Education, andthenatureoftheclimate,arethestrongestincitementsto thenativestoworshipthedeity,andtosubmitthemselvestohis will. Theothersciencesandbranchesoflearningtaughttothe Indianyouthare:Poetry, Gavya; Fencing, Payatta; Botanyand medicine, Vaydyassastra, or Bheszagiashastra: Navigation, Naushastra:Theuseofthespearonfoot( Hastiludium),Cundera: The art of playing at ball, Pandacali: Chess, Ciudarangam: Tennis, Coladi: Logic, Tarkashastra: Astrology, Giodisha: Law, Svadhyaya: Silence, Mauna.(Youth destined to be Brahmans, must spend ten years within the precincts of the temple at Trichur,andavoidallintercoursewiththefemalesex.Theyare obligedalsotoobservethestrictestsilence,whichcontinuesfor five years. This is the first degree of philosophy. A. It thence appears,thatPhythagorasmusthaveborrowedhisphilosophy inpartfromtheIndianPhilosophers,orotherswhosedoctrine was similar, for his scholars were subjected to silence for the samenumberofyears.See DiogenesLacrtus,lib.viii.10,andAul. Gollius,Noct,Att,1ib.i.9F.)Thereaderwillhavealready

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remarked, that surgery, anatomy, and geography are excluded from this catalogue. The Indians are of opinion, that their countryisthemostbeautifulandhappiestinthewholeworld: andforthatreasontheyhaveverylittledesiretobeacquainted withforeignkingdoms.Theirtotalabstinencefromallflesh,and the express prohibition of their religion which forbids them to killanimals,preventthemfromdissectingthemandexamining theirinternalconstruction. OftheIndianpoetryIhavealreadyspokeninmySamscred grammar;andIshallgivesomefurtheraccountofithereafter. Theirnavigationisconfinedmerelytotheirnavigablerivers;for ingeneral,thePaganIndianshavethegreatestaversiontothe sea.Themanagementofthelance,fencing,playingatballand tennis, have been introduced into their education on good grounds,torendertheiryouthactiveandrobust,andthatthey maynotwantdexteritytodistinguishthemselvesinbattlesand engagementswherecannonsarenotused.Thereareparticular mastersforalltheseexercises,artsandsciences;andeachof them,asalreadymentioned,istreatedwithparticularrespectby the pupils. Twice a year each master receives a piece of silk, which he employs for clothing; and this present is called Samanam. AlltheIndiangirls,thosealoneexceptedwhobelongtothe castesoftheShudrasandNayris,areconfinedathometilltheir twelfth year; and when they go out, they are always accompaniedbytheirmotheroraunt.Theyinhabitaparticular division of the house, called Andarggraha, which none of the malesexdareapproach.Theboys,intheninthyearoftheirage, areinitiatedwithgreatceremonyintothecallingoroccupation ofthecastetowhichtheirfatherbelongs,andwhichtheycan neverabandon.Thislaw,mentionofwhichoccursinDiodorous Siculus, Strabo, Arrian, and other Greek writers, is indeed exceedinglyhard;but,atthesametime,itisofgreatbenefitto civilorder,theartsandsciences,andeventoreligion.According toalikeregulation,nooneisallowedtomarryfromonecaste into another. Hence it happens that the Indians donot follow that general and superficial method of education by which children are treated as if they were all intended for the same condition

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andfordischargingthesameduties;butthoseofeachcasteare fromtheirinfancyformedforwhattheyaretobeduringtheir wholelives.AfutureBrahman,forexample,isobliged,fromhis earliestyears,toemployhimselfinreadingandwriting,andto bepresentatthepresentationofofferings,tocalculateeclipses ofthesunandmoon;tostudythelawsandreligiouspractices; tocastnativities;inshorttolearneverything,which,according totheinjunctionoftheVeda,orsacredbooksoftheIndians,it isnecessaryheshouldknow.The Vayshya ontheotherhand, instruct youth in agriculture; the Kshetria, in the science of governmentandthemilitaryarts,theShudra,inmechanics,the Mucaver,infishing;theCiana,ingardeningandtheBanyen,in commerce. By this establishment the knowledge of a great many things necessary for the public good is not only widely diffused, but transmittedtoposterity;whoaretherebyenabledstillfartherto improvethem,andbringthemnearertoperfection.Inthetime ofAlexandertheGreat,theIndianshadacquiredsuchskillin themechanicalarts,thatNearchus,thecommanderofhisfleet, wasmuchamazedatthedexteritywithwhichtheyimitatedthe accoutrementsoftheGreciansoldiers.Ioncefoundmyselfina similar situation. Having entrusted to an Indian artist a lamp made in Portugal, the workmanship of which was exceedingly pretty,somedaysafterhebroughtmeanothersolikemyown that I could scarcely distinguish any difference. It, however, cannot be denied, that the arts and sciences in India have greatly declined since foreign conquerors expelled the native kings;bywhichseveralprovinceshavebeenlaidentirelywaste, andthecastesconfoundedwitheachother.Beforethatperiod, thedifferentkingdomswereinaflourishingcondition;thelaws were respected, and justice and civil order prevailed; but, unfortunately, at present everything in many of the provinces mustgivewaytoabsoluteauthorityanddespoticsway.

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AnnexureC

MALABAR BIBLIOGRAPHY, THEIR PROGRESS IN LITERATURE,EDUCATIONSYSTEMBORROWEDFROM IT. ACCOUNT OF IT FROM PETER DELLA VALLE. CUSTOM IN MALABAR TO TRANSLATE WORKS FROM SANSCRIT, MANNER OF WRITING OR ENGRAVING ON LEAVES.QUOTATIONFROMLUSIAD.LISTOFBOOKS.
(NationalLibraryofScotlandEdinburgh:WalkerofBowland Papers184a3,Chapter31:pp.50127) IdonotproposetogiveahistoryoftheliteratureofMalabar;far less to enquire into the origin and progress of the sciences of India. I mean only to preface by a few observations a biblio graphicallistwhichIobtainedmanyyearsago(in1800)ofsome of the books and authors whose works are studied in that country(Malabar). The literature of Malabar has the same foundation, and consistsofthesamematerials,asthatofalltheHindoonations. ThewholeoftheiroriginalworksarecomposedinSanscrite,a language of great antiquity, but which is no longer spoken, though its history is intimately connected with several of the present languages of Europe, with those of Greece and Rome, and with the whole of the numerous family of cognate Gothic tongues.SancriteholdsthesameplaceinIndia,thatLatinand GreekdoinEurope;butasitwouldrequireanamazingperiodof time, and many political changes in society before a language could fall into disuse and be unemployed in speech, this circumstancewithoutanyfurtherproof,wouldcarryus,backto thefirstages.Itisnaturaltosupposethatthescienceswould firstprosperwheremenwerenotexposedtoexcessivelabourin order to procure the necessaries of life; plenty and tranquility wouldleavethematlibertytocultivateknowledge,toapplytheir minds tobooks, and learning. Unfortunately the Hindoos, like theancients,seemtohaveconsideredthatalmostexclusivelyas science,whichismoregroundedonpreceptsandidealpictures, thanonfactsanddemonstration.Theytaughtthedutiesoflife,

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andexplainedthefacultiesofthemind;but,thefavouritestudy of the Indian sages, was a metaphysical and abstruse philosophy, founded on superstition and error. They regarded logic, rhetoric and grammar with particular approbation; and those who aspired to a superior reputation, acquired those sciences with unceasing labour, and intense application. They spenttheirlivesintheircultivation.TheHindoosmadenouseof experiments,anditisextraordinarythatwithoutthisaid,they should have become acquainted with the most difficult and hiddenbranchesofMathematics,AstronomyandAlgebra.Have theacquisitionsbeenthefruitsoftheirownstudyandreflection; orhavetheybeenobtainedfromextraneousandamoreancient source which is now forgotten and lost? It is not possible to determine these questions; and as we cannot prove that they derived their knowledge from another people, it is but fair to considerthemastheinventorsofallwhichtheypossess,which they have preserved through so many perils and which they musthavecultivatedwithsomuchardour. ThelearningoftheMalabarisprobablymorelimitedthan that of the more central people of India; but they are not inattentive to the cultivation of letters. They are particularly anxious andattentivetoinstructtheirchildrentoreadandto write. Education with them is an early and an important businessineveryfamily.Manyoftheirwomenaretaughttoread and write.TheBramansaregenerallythe schoolmasters,but any of the respectable castes may, and often do, practice teaching.Thechildrenareinstructedwithoutviolence,andbya process peculiarly simple. It is the same system which has causedsomuchheatandcontroversy,astotheinventorsofit, inthiscountry,andthemeritofwhichwasduetoneitherofthe claimants.1 The system was borrowed from the Bramans and broughtfromIndiatoEurope.Ithasbeenmadethefoundation ofNationalschoolsineveryenlightenedcountry.Somegratitude isduetoapeoplefromwhomwehavelearnttodiffuseamong the lower ranks of society instruction by one of the most unerringandeconomicalmethodswhichhaseverbeeninvented. Thepupilsarethe monitors ofeachother,andthe characters aretracedwitha rod, orthe fingeronthe sand. Reading and writingareacquiredatthesametime,andbythesameprocess. This mode of teaching however is only initial. If the pupil is meanttostudythehigherbranchesoflearning,heisremoved fromtheseprimaryschools, wherethe artsof reading,writing andaccounts

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areacquired,andplacedundermorescientificmasters.Itisto theseelementaryschoolsthatthelabouringclassesinIndiaowe theireducation.Itgivesthemanaccess,fromtheintroductionof thesystemintothispartoftheworld;advantagewhichthesame classes in Europe, only now partially conferred on them a superiorshareofintelligenceandplacedtheminasituationto performbetterallthedutiesoflife. About 200 years ago, Peter Della Valle published an accountofthismodeofinstructioninMalabar.Hewrotefrom Tkkeri22ndNovember1623. Inthemeantime,hesays,whiletheburthensweregetting in order, I entertained myself in the porch of the temple, beholdinglittleboyslearningarithmeticafterastrangemanner, whichIwillhererelate.Theywerefour,andhavingalltakenthe samelessonbeforethemaster,togetthatsamebyheart,and repeatlikewisetheirformerlessons,andnotforgetthem,oneof them singing musically with a certain continued tone, 2 (which hath the force of making a deep impression in the memory) recitedpartofthelesson;asforexample,onebyitselfmakes one;andwhilsthewasthusspeaking,hewritdownthesame number, not with any kind of pen, nor in paper, but (not to spendpaperinvain)withhisfingerontheground,thepavement beingforthatpurposestrewedalloverwithfinesand; 3afterthe firsthadwrotewhathesung,alltherestsungandwritdown thesamethingtogether.Thenthefirstboysung,andwritdown anotherpartofthelesson;as,forexample,twobyitselfmakes two, which all the rest repeated in the same manner; and so forward inorder. When the pavement was fullof figures, they putthemoutwiththehand,andifneedwere,streweditwith new sand from a little heap which they had before them wherewithtowritefurther.Andthustheydidaslongasexercise continued;inwhichmannerlikewisetheytoldone,theylearnt to read and write without spoiling paper, pens or ink, which certainlyisaprettyway.Iaskedthem,iftheyhappentoforget or be mistaken in any part of the lesson, who corrected and taughtthem,they being allscholars without theassistance of anymaster;theyansweredme,andsaidtrue,thatitwasnot possibleforallfourtoforgetormistakeinthesamepart,and that they thus exercised together, to the end, that if one happenedtobeout,the

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othermightcorrecthim.Indeedapretty,easyandsecurewayof learning.4 We are continually reproaching the natives of India with the slow advances they have made in knowledge and their neglectofopportunitiestoacquireit.Therewehaveaninstance of the same neglect in Europeans, who have allowed two centuriestopassaftertheywereacquaintedwiththisinvention, before they applied it to any practical use. It was at length introducedintothiscountrywithoutanyacknowledgementand it was even claimed as an invention by two individuals who disputeduponthepriorityofdiscovery. The Missionaries5 have now honestly owned that the systemuponwhichtheseschoolsaretaughtwasborrowedfrom India.Ithasbeenprobablyimprovedbyus,butthisisthefateof alloriginalconceptions,whichcommonlymakethemostrapid advancesatsecondhand. Nopeopleprobablyappreciatemorejustlytheimportance of instruction than the Hindoos; hence instead of offering obstaclesorcreatingoppositiontotheestablishmentofschools, theyhaveformedinstitutionsthemselvestomeetvariouscases of ignorance and misery. They are not averse to a spirit of enquiryanddiscussion.6Alltheywantedwasagovernmentthat wouldnotcheckanddiscouragethisspirit. InMalabarisstilltobeseentheearliestmodeofwriting. Thepaperisthenaturalproduceofthewoods.Theymakeno useofink;thecharactersareengravedontheleavesoftrees. Theleafofaparticularpalmisselectedanddrieduntilitcan beartheimpressionofthestyles.Theseleavesstrungortiedto gether are formed into books. They are enclosed in a wooden cover,sometimesgildedandlackered,soastomakeneatand handsomeappearance.Ontheseleavesalsotheywritetheirlet ters,whichtheyfoldup,buttheoriginalpracticeofthecountry did not require them to be sealed. The original Acts of the CouncilofBasil900yearssince,withtheBullaorleadenaffix, which has a silken cord passing through every parchment, is mentionedintheabovewordsbyEvelynasexistinginhistime atCambridge,andwhichwouldappeartobethesameformas thatinwhichtheMalabarMSSarepreserved.7

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In Norway and Sweden they formerly wrote, or rather engraved,onflakesandplanks.Theywroteonwoodentablets. Poetrywasinscribedonstaves.Averseisthereforestillcalleda stave.8 Themodeofwritingorengravingonleaveswasprobablyat one period extended all over India. It is mentioned by Abdulrizackwhotravelledin1442,asthecommonpracticeat Bisnaghur.9 Thereisnodifficultyinmultiplyingschools atpresentin Indiatoanyextentprovidedfundsarefurnished.Thepeopleare anxiousandearnestincallingupontheMissionariesforteach ers.Withalittlepatience,wemayintroduceintotheseschools any books that we please. In them the children know of no precedence,butthatwhichisderivedfrommerit. 10Thisisanex traordinarytestimonyinfavourofthenativecharacter,andfrom a source where we can expect no kindly prejudice. They entertain no suspicion of the ultimate designs of their instructors;butwithcandourandopennesssendtheirchildren to school, where we are elsewhere informed, no difficulty was foundinintroducingthescriptures,whendonewithdiscretion. 11 Theysacrificeallthefeelingsofwealth,familyprideandcaste thattheirchildrenmayhavetheadvantagesofagoodeducation. This desire is strongly impressed on the minds of all the Hindoos. Itis inculcated bytheir own system, whichprovided schoolsineveryvillage.Thelearnedandtheignorant,oneofthe MissionarieswritesfromChinsuram,congratulateoneanother, thattheirchildrennowenjoythegreatblessingsofeducation. NativefreeschoolswereonceuniversalthroughoutIndia. Ithas beenlong the practicein Malabar to translate the Sanscrite writings into the common tongue, and to transcribe theminthevernacularcharacter.Bythismeansknowledgehas been more generally diffused among the inhabitants; it is less confined to any order or class, and the people are better acquaintedwiththemysteriesanddogmasoftheirreligion.This spiritofenquiryandoflibertyhasmostprobablybeenaffected bythesooderswhocomposethegreatbodyofpopulation,and whowereinpossessionoftheprincipalauthorityandproperty inthecountry.

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The Malabars have a mode of writing peculiar to themselves:itmaybecalledwithmoreproprietyengraving.The letters are imprinted on a palm leaf dried and prepared by a particularprocess.Insteadofapen,theymakeuseofaniron instrument with a sharp point resembling the stylus of the ancients.Whentheywriteonpaper,theyhaverecoursetothe pen; but this is only in imitation of our manners or of the Mohammedans. Stones, skins, leaves, and the bark of trees, weretheearliestmaterialsmadeuseofinwriting.Theseleaves are not subject to decay, and resist vermin. They may be preserved a long time, much longer perhaps than paper; they writeingeneralonlyononesideandfromlefttoright.Theycut theleavesintodifferentsizes,andmanufacturethemofdifferent qualities, which may be compared to different sorts of paper. Theyaremadetoanswereitherforbooks,notesorletters.They are formed into neat and convenient sized volumes not by stitching or binding but by stringing them together. A blank spaceisleftattheendlikeourmargin,throughthisaholeis madewhichadmitsastringorcord,generallyofsilk,andthis drawn tight, or tied round them keeps the whole secure. The leaves are opened and unfolded by the Natives with the same facility as we do those of our books. The Malabar books are boundorcoveredbytwopiecesofwoodwhichserveasboards, andwhicharevarnishedandpaintedaccordingtotaste. InMalabarinshort,theoriginalpracticewastouseneither pens, ink, nor paper. The leaf of the palm, smoked and dried served the purpose of paper. They engraved on this with a pointedironresemblingthatwithwhichtheancientsinscribed lettersonwax, andwithaquicknessand facilityequaltoour fastestwriters.(Omittedhere) Thefollowingcontainsalistofbookswhicharetobefound inMalabar:manywerelostordestroyedduringthedisturbances under the Mohammedan Government, but the whole are still saidtobeexistinginTravancore.Thisprobablycomprisesthe greatest part of Malabar literature. About 30 or 40 of these workshavebeentransferredfromtheSanscritintothecommon tongue.ManyoftheSanscritwordsareallowedtoremaininthe translations and the affinity of the languages permits this liberty. Inthenotestothe Lusiad mentionismadeofaMalabar workwhichisprobablycontainedinNo.181ofthebibliography;

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itmayhavebeenwrittenbysomeSecretaryandisperhapsat presentsuppressedorconcealed. ThereisextantinIndiathewritingsofaMalabarpoet,who wroteninehundredepigrames,eachconsistingofeightverses, inridiculeoftheworshipoftheBramans,whomhetreatswith greatasperityandcontempt.Wouldanyofourdiligentenquirers afterorientallearningfavouruswithanauthenticaccountofthe worksof this poetof Malabar,hewould undoubtedly confera singularfavourontherepublicofletters.12 The author was probably a Deist: this is the secret profession of many Bramans, who are often at no pains to conceal their sentiments, and express openly their entire disbelief in all the Hindoo deities. I have been acquainted intimatelywithseveralBramanswhoentertainedtheseopinions, andwhoavowedtheirbeliefinoneGodonly,thesupremebeing, theCreatorofall.Reformershaveappearedatdifferenttimesin India, and the Vedantic sect in particular put no faith in the popularsuperstition. TheMalabarshaveanumberofdramasornaticasandare fondoftheatricalexhibitions. I have been present at these exhibitions. The theatre is eitherintheopenair,orunderaslighttemporarycovering; 13but sometimeslargeenoughtocontainseveralthousandspectators. On these occasions, they have regular rows of forms and benches,onwhichtheaudienceseatthemselves.Themenand womenareintermixedasinourplayhouses.Thisisanamiable andremarkablecontrastwiththemannersandjealousreserve ofotherpartsofIndia.Ihaveseenprobablytwothousandmen andwomenassembledandsittingclosetogethertowitnessone oftheseexhibitions.This,however,wasonagreatoccasionof themarriageofaRajasdaughter.Therewasaverylarge pendall erected, with rows of seats one above another, for the accommodation of the audience. The dramatist personae were gods,goddesses,kings,heroesandtheirattendants.Theactors weredressed,suitablyastheyimaginedtothecharactersthey represented,buttherewasnomachineryemployed.Thewholeof thesceneryconsistedofasheetoracalampoe,whichformeda curtain.

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Thesubjectofthepieceseemedtobetheembarrassment of aRaja who was married to two wives. They tormented him with their quarrels and jealousies. He prayed to the Gods for relief.Hisprayerswereheard,andhereceivedacharmwhich enabledhimtoputwhicheveroftheladieshechoseasleep.He wasdelightedwiththeremedyandlookedforwardfornothingin futurebuthappiness.Onatrialhoweverhewasdisappointed. Thewakingwifewasassuspiciousasever,andwascontinually upbraidinghimforhispartialitytoherrival.Hethrowsthemby turns asleep, but has no relief. Each as she awoke was still jealous of the other. I have forgotten how it ended, but the accountofthismarriagewaspublishedinthenewspapersofthe timeinIndia,about1793.Icannotatpresentlaymyhandson theaccountofthisweddingwhichafterwardswastransferredto someoftheperiodicalpublicationsathome.TheobjectIthink wastoinculcatethatonewifewaspreferabletotwo. Notes
1.BellandLancasterSystem. 2.Thisisdoneinourinfantschools. 3.Theyhavesmallboardsofthesizeandshapeofourplatescovered withsandorchalk. 4.Letters,PeterDellaValle,p.100. 5.TheMissionaryRegisterforJanuary,1879. 6.Ibid. 7.EvelynVI,p.277. 8.EdinburgReview,No.67. 9.Seep.518. 10.MissionaryRegisterforJanuary1822. 11.Ibid.. 12.Lusiad,Book8,p.300

13.Pendall

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AnnexureD

ExtractsFromWilliamAdamsStateofEducationinBengal1835 38

I
W.ADAMONINDIGENOUSELEMENTARYSCHOOLS GENERAL:(pp.69)
Bythisdescriptionaremeantthoseschoolsinwhichinstruction intheelementsofknowledgeiscommunicated,andwhichhave beenoriginatedandaresupportedbythenativesthemselves,in contradistinctionfromthosethataresupportedbyreligiousor philanthropicsocieties.ThenumberofsuchschoolsinBengalis supposed to be very great. A distinguished member of the General Committee of Public Instruction in a minute on the subject expressed the opinion, that if one rupee per mensem were expended on each existing village school in the Lower Provinces,theamountwouldprobablyfalllittleshortof12lakhs of rupees per annum. This supposes that there are 100,000 suchschoolsinBengalandBihar,andassumingthepopulation ofthosetwoProvincestobe40,000,000therewouldbeavillage schoolforevery400persons.Thereareno datainthiscountry known to me by which to determine out of this number the proportion of schoolgoing children, or of children capable of goingtoschool,orofchildrenoftheageatwhich,accordingto thecustomofthecountry,itisusualtogotoschool.InPrussia (SeeCousinsReportontheStateofPublicInstructioninPrussia, p.140) it has been ascertained by actual census that in a populationof12,256,725therewere4,487,461childrenunder fourteenyearsofage;whichgives366childrenforevery1,000 inhabitants, or about eleventhirtieths of the nation. Of this entirepopulationofchildrenitiscalculatedthatthreesevenths areofanagetogotoschool,admittingeducationintheschools tobeginattheageofsevenyearscomplete,andthereisthusin theentirePrussianmonarchythenumberof1,923,200children capableofreceivingthebenefitsofeducation.Theseproportions willnotstrictlyapplyto

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thejuvenilepopulationofthiscountrybecausetheusualagefor goingtoschoolisfromfivetosix,andtheusualageforleaving schoolisfromtentotwelveinsteadoffourteen.Therearethus twosourcesofdiscrepancy.Theschoolgoingageisshorterin IndiathaninPrussia,whichmusthavetheeffectofdiminishing the total number of schoolgoing children; while on the other hand,thatdiminishednumberisnotexposedtothecausesof mortalitytowhichthetotalschoolgoingpopulationofPrussiais liablefromtheageoftwelvetofourteen.Inwantofmoreprecise data,letussupposethatthesetwocontrarydiscrepanciesbal ance each other, and we shall then be at liberty to apply the Prussianproportionstothiscountry.Taking,therefore,eleven thirtieths of the abovementioned 400 persons, and three sevenths of the result, it will follow that in Bengal and Bihar there is on an average a village school for every sixtythree children of the schoolgoing age. These children, however, include girls as well as boys, and as there are no indigenous girlsschools,ifwetakethemaleandfemalechildrentobein equal or nearly equal proportions, there will appear to be an indigenous elementaryschool foreverythirtyone orthirtytwo boys.Theestimateof100,000suchschoolsinBengalandBihar is confirmed by a consideration of the number of villages in thosetwoProvinces.Theirnumberhasbeenofficiallyestimated at150,748ofwhich,notall,butmosthaveeachaschool.Ifitbe admitted that there is so large a proportion as a third of the villages that have no schools, there will still be 100,000 that have them. Let it be admitted that these calculations from uncertainpremisesareonlydistantapproximationstothetruth, and it will still appear that the system of village schools is extensivelyprevalent;thatthedesiretogiveeducationtotheir male children must be deeply seated in the minds of parents evenofthehumblestclasses;andthatthesearetheinstitutions, closelyinterwovenastheyarewiththehabitsofthepeopleand thecustomsofthecountry,throughwhichprimarily,although notexclusively,wemayhopetoimprovethemoralsandintellect ofthenativepopulation. It is not, however, in the present state of these schools, that they can be regarded as valuable instruments for this purpose.Thebenefitsresultingfromthemarebutsmall,owing partlytotheincompetencyoftheinstructors,andpartlytothe early age at which through the poverty of the parents the children are removed. The education of Bengalee children, as hasbeenjuststated,generallycommenceswhentheyarefiveor sixyearsoldandterminatesinfiveyears,beforethemindcan befullyawakenedtoasenseoftheadvantagesofknowledgeor thereason

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sufficientlymaturedtoacquireit.Theteachersdependentirely upon their scholars for subsistence, and being little respected andpoorlyrewarded,thereisnoencouragementforpersonsof character,talentorlearningtoengageintheoccupation.These schools are generally held in the houses of some of the most respectablenativeinhabitantsorverynearthem.Allthechild renofthefamilyareeducatedinthevernacularlanguageofthe country; and in order to increase the emoluments of the teachers, they are allowed to introduce, as pupils, as many respectablechildrenastheycanprocureintheneighbourhood. Thescholarsbeginwithtracingthevowelsandconsonantswith thefingeronasandboardandafterwardsonthefloorwitha pencilofsteatiteorwhitecrayon;andthisexerciseiscontinued foreightortendays.Theyarenextinstructedtowriteonthe palmleafwithareedpenheldinthefistnotwiththefingers, andwithinkmadeofcharcoalwhichrubsout,joiningvowelsto theconsonants,formingcompoundletters,syllables,andwords, andlearningtablesofnumeration,money,weight,andmeasure, andthecorrectmodeofwritingthedistinctivenamesofpersons, castes,andplaces.Thisiscontinuedaboutayear.Theironstyle isnowusedonlybytheteacherinsketchingonthepalmleaf the letters which the scholars are required to trace with ink. Theyarenextadvancedtothestudyofarithmeticandtheuseof theplantainleafinwritingwithinkmadeoflampblack,which is continued about six months, during which they are taught addition, subtraction, multiplication and division, and the simplest cases of mensuration of land and commercial and agriculturalaccounts,togetherwiththemodesofaddressproper in writing letters to different persons. The last stage of this limited course of instruction is thatin whichthe scholars are taughttowritewithlampblackink onpaper,and arefurther instructedinagriculturalandcommercialaccounts andinthe compositionofletters.Incountryplacestherulesofarithmetic are principally applied to agricultural and in towns to commercialaccounts;butinbothtownandcountryschoolsthe instructionissuperficialanddefective.Itmaybesafelyaffirmed thatinnoinstancewhateveristheorthographyofthelanguage ofthecountryacquiredinthoseschools,foralthoughinsomeof them two or three of the more advanced boys write out small portions of the most popular poetical compositions of the country,yetthemanuscriptcopyitselfissoinaccuratethatthey only become confirmed in a most vitiated manner of spelling, whichtheimperfectqualificationsoftheteacherdonotenable him to correct. The scholars are entirely without instruction, bothliteraryandoral,

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regardingthepersonalvirtuesanddomesticandsocialduties. Theteacher,invirtueofhischaracter,orinthewayofadviceor reproof, exercises no moral influence on the character of his pupils. For the sake of pay he performs menial service in the spiritofamenial.Ontheotherhand,thereisnotextorschool bookusedcontaininganymoraltruthsorliberalknowledge,so thateducationbeinglimitedentirelytoaccounts,tendsratherto narrowthemindandconfineitsattentiontosordidgain,thanto improve the heart and enlarge the understanding. This descriptionapplies,asfarasIatpresentknow,toallindigenous elementaryschoolsthroughoutBengal.

ELEMENTARYBENGALISCHOOLS(pp.137146)
Itisexpresslyprescribedbytheauthorities ofHindulaw thatchildrenshouldbeinitiatedinwritingandreadingintheir fifth year; or, if this should have been neglected, then in the seventh,ninth,oranysubsequentyear,beinganoddnumber. Certainmonthsoftheyear,andcertaindaysofthemonthand week,arealsoprescribedaspropitioustosuchapurpose;and onthedayfixed,areligiousserviceisperformedinthefamilyby the familypriest, consisting principally of the worship of Saraswati,thegoddessoflearning,afterwhichthehandofthe childisguidedbythepriesttoformthelettersofthealphabet, andheisalsothentaught,forthefirsttime,topronouncethem. ThisceremonyisnotofindispensableobligationonHindus,and isperformedonlybythoseparentswhopossessthemeansand intentionofgivingtheirchildrenmoreextendedinstruction.Itis strictlythecommencementofthechildsschooleducation,and insomepartsofthecountryheisalmostimmediatelysentto school;butinthisdistrict[Rajshahy]Idonotfindthatthereis anydeterminateageforthatpurpose.Itseemstobegenerally regulatedbymeansandopportunitiesoftheparentandbythe dispositionandcapacityofthechild;andasthereisaspecified routine of instruction, the age of leaving school must depend upontheageofcommencement. The Bengali schools in Nattore are ten in number, containing 167 scholars, who enter school at an age varying fromfivetotenyears,andleaveitatanagevaryingfromtento sixteen.Thewholeperiodspentatschoolalsovaries,according tothestatementsofthedifferentteachersfromfivetotenyears; twostatingthattheir instructions occupiedfive years,one six years, three sevenyears, twoeightyears, one nine years, and onetenyearsanenormousconsumptionoftimeespeciallyat themore

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advanced ages, considering the nature and amount of the instructioncommunicated. Theteachersconsistbothofyoungandmiddleagedmen, for the most part simpleminded, but poor and ignorant, and, therefore, having recourse to an occupation which is suitable bothtotheirexpectationsandattainments,andonwhichthey reflectaslittlehonorastheyderiveemolumentfromit;theydo not understand the importance of the task they have undertaken;theydonotappeartohavemadeitevenasubjectof thought;theydonotappreciatethegreatinfluencewhichthey might exert over the minds of their pupils; and they consequently neglect the highest duties which their situation wouldimpose,iftheywerebetteracquaintedwiththeirpowers and obligations. At present they produce chiefly a mechanical effect upon the intellect of their pupils which is worked upon and chiseled out, and that in a very rough style, but which remainsnearlypassiveintheirhands,andisseldomtaughtor encouraged to put forth its selfacting and selfjudging capacities. As to any moral influence of the teachers over the pupilsanyattempttoformthesentimentsandhabits,andto control and guide the passions and emotionssuch a notion never enters into their conceptions, and the formation of the moralcharacteroftheyoungisconsequentlywhollylefttothe influence of the casual associations amidst which they are placed, without any endeavour to modify or direct them. Any measures that may be adopted to improve education in this country will be greatly inadequate if they are not directed to increase the attainments of the teachers, and to elevate and extendtheirviewsofthedutiesbelongingtotheirvocation. Theremunerationoftheteachersisderivedfromvarious sources. Two teachers have their salaries wholly, and another receiveshisinpart,frombenevolentindividualswhoappearto be influenced only by philanthropic motives; a fourth is remuneratedsolelyintheformoffees;andtheremainingsixare paidbyfeesandpartlybyperquisites.Thereareingeneralfour stagesorgradationsinthecourseofinstructionindicatedbythe natureofthematerialsemployedforwritingon,viz.,theground, the palmleaf, the plantainleaf, and paper; and at the commencement of each stage after the first a higher fee is charged.Inoneinstancethefirstandsecondstagesaremerged into one; in another instance the same fee is charged for the third and fourth: and in a third, the first, second, and third stagesareequallycharged;buttheruleIhavestatedisobserved

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in a majority of cases, and partially even in those exceptions. Anothermodeadoptedintwoinstances,ofregulatingthefeesis according to the means of the parents whose children are in structed;ahalf,athird,orafourthlessbeingchargedtothe children of poor than to the children of rich parents in the successivestagesofinstruction.Theperquisitesoftheteachers varyfromfourannastofiverupeesamonth;intheformercase consistingofapieceofclothorotheroccasionalvoluntarygift fromtheparents;andinthelatter,orinsimilarcases,offood alone,oroffood,washing,andallpersonalexpenses,together withoccasionalpresents.Thosewhoreceivefoodasaperquisite eitherliveinthehouseofoneoftheprincipalsupportersofthe school, orvisitthehousesofthedifferentparentsbyturnsat mealtimes.Thetotalincomeoftheteachersfromfixedsalaries and fluctuating fees and perquisites varies from three rupees eightannastosevenrupeeseightannaspermonth,theaverage beingrathermorethanfiverupeespermonth. The school at Dharail(No.34)affordsagood specimen of themodeinwhichasmallnativecommunityunitetosupporta school.AtthatplacetherearefourfamiliesofChaudhuris,the principalpersonsinthevillage;buttheyarenotsowealthyasto be able to support a teacher for their children without the cooperation of others. They give the teacher an apartment in which his scholars may meet, one of the outer apartments of theirownhouseinwhichbusinessissometimestransacted,and at other times worship performed and strangers entertained. Oneofthosefamiliesfurtherpaysfourannasamonth,asecond anequalsum,athirdeightannas,andafourthtwelveannas, whichincludethewholeoftheirdisbursementsonthisaccount, nopresentsorperquisitesofanykindbeingreceivedfromthem, andforthesumsmentionedtheirfivechildrenreceiveaBengali education.Theamountthusobtained,however,isnotsufficient forthesupportoftheteacher,andhe,therefore,receivesother scholars belonging to other familiesof whom one gives one anna,anothergivesthreeannas,andfivegiveeachfourannasa month, to which they add voluntary presents amounting per month to about four annas, and consisting of vegetable, rice, fishandoccasionallyapieceofcloth,suchasahandkerchiefor anupperorundergarment.FiveboysofKagbariya,thechildren of two families, attend the Dharail school, the distance being aboutamile,which,intherainyseason,canbetravelledonlyby water.Ofthefive,twobelongingtoonefamilygivetogethertwo annas, andthethreeothersbelongingtotheotherfamilygive togetherfourannasamonth,andthusthewholeincomeofthe

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master is made up. This case shows by what pinched and stinted contributions the classjust belowthe wealthy andthe classjustabovetheindigentunitetosupportaschool; andit constitutesaproofoftheverylimitedmeansofthosewhoare anxioustogiveaBengalieducationtotheirchildren,andofthe sacrificeswhichtheymaketoaccomplishthatobject. Ihavespokenoftheemolumentsoftheteachersaslow; but I would be understood to mean that they are low, not in comparisonwiththeirqualifications,orwiththegeneralratesof similar labour in the district, but with those emoluments to whichcompetentmenmightbejustlyconsideredentitled. The humblecharacterofthemen,andthehumblecharacterofthe servicetheyrender,maybejudgedfromthefactalreadystated, thatsomeofthemgoaboutfromhousetohousetoreceivetheir daily food. All, however, should not be estimated by this standard; and perhaps a generally correct opinion of their relative position in society may be formed by comparing them withthosepersonswhohavenearlysimilardutiestoperformin other occupations of life, or whose duties the teachers of the common schools could probably in most instances perform if theywerecalledontodoso.Such,forinstance,arethe Patwari, theAmin,theShumarnavis,andtheKhamarnavisemployedona nativeestate.The Patwari,whogoesfromhousetohouse,and collectsthezemindarsrents,getsfromhisemployerasalaryof tworupeeseightannas,orthreerupeesamonth,towhichmay be added numerous presents from the ryots of the first productionsoftheseason,amountingprobablytoeightannasa month. The Amin, who on behalf of the zemindar decides the disputesthattakeplaceamongthevillagersandmeasurestheir grounds, gets from three rupees eight annas to four rupees a month.The Shumarnavis,whokeepsaccountsofthecollection ofrentsbythedifferent Patwaris,receivesaboutfiverupeesa month.AndtheKhamarnavis,whoisemployedtoascertainthe stateandvalueofthecropsonwhichthezemindarhasclaims in kind, receives the same allowance. Persons bearing these designations and discharging these duties sometimes receive higher salaries; but the cases I have supposed are those with which that of the common native schoolmaster may be consideredasonalevel,hebeingsupposedcapableofunder takingtheirduties,andtheyofundertakinghis.Theholdersof these offices on a native estate have opportunities of making unauthorised gains, and they enjoy a respectability and influencewhichthenativeschoolmasterdoesnotpossess;but in other respects they are nearly on an equality; and, to compensateforthosedisadvantages,thesalary

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ofthecommonschoolmasterisingeneralratherhigher,noneof those whom I met in Nattore receiving in all less than three rupeeseightannas,andsomereceivingashighassevenrupees eightannasamonth. There are no schoolhouses built for, and exclusively appropriated to, these schools. The apartments or building in which the scholars assemble would have been erected, and wouldcontinuetobeappliedtootherpurposes,iftherewereno schools. Some meet in the Chandi Mandap, which is of the natureofachapelbelongingtooneoftheprincipalfamiliesin the village, andinwhich, besidesthe performanceof religious worshiponoccasionofthegreatannualfestivals,strangersalso aresometimeslodgedandentertained,andbusinesstransacted; othersintheBaithakkhana,anopenhutprincipallyintendedas aplaceofrecreationandofconcoursefortheconsiderationof anymattersrelatingtothegeneralinterestsofthevillage;others intheprivatedwellingofthechiefsupporteroftheschool,and othershavenospecialplaceofmeeting,unlessitbethemost vacantandprotectedspotintheneighbourhoodofthemasters abode. The school (a) in the village numbered 4 meets in the openairinthedryseasonsoftheyear;andintherainyseason thoseboyswhoseparentscanafforditerecteachforhimselfa small shed of grass and leaves, open at the sides and barely adequate at the top to cover one person from the rain. There werefiveorsixsuchshedsamong30or40boys;andthosewho hadnoprotection,ifitrained,musteitherhavebeendispersed orremainedexposedtothestorm.Itisevidentthatthegeneral efficiencyandregularityofschoolbusiness,whicharepromoted bytheadaptationoftheschoolroomtotheenjoymentofcomfort bythescholars,tofullinspectiononthepartoftheteacher,and to easy communication on all sides, must here be in a great measureunknown. Respecting the nature and amount of the instruction received,thefirstfacttobementionedisthattheuseofprinted books in the native language appears hitherto to have been almostwhollyunknowntothenativesofthisdistrict,withthe exception of a printed almanac which some official or wealthy nativemayhaveprocuredfromCalcutta;orastraymissionary tractwhichmayhavefounditswayacrossthegreatriverfrom theneighbouringdistrictofMoorshedabad.Asinglecaseofeach kindcameunderobservation;butasfarasIcouldascertain,not oneoftheschoolmastershadeverbeforeseenaprintedbook, thosewhichIpresentedtothemfromtheCalcuttaSchoolBook

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Societybeingviewedmoreascuriositiesthanasinstrumentsof knowledge.ThatSocietyhasnowestablishedanagencyforthe saleofitpublicationsatBauleah,henceworksofinstructionwill probablyintimespreadoverthedistrict. Notonlyaretheprintedbooksnotusedintheseschools, but even manuscript textbooks, are unknown. All that the scholars learn is from the oral dictation of the master; and althoughwhatissocommunicatedmusthaveafirmseatinthe memory of the teacher, and will probably find anequally firm seat in the memory of the scholar, yet instruction conveyed solely by such means must have a very limited scope. The principalwrittencompositionwhichtheylearninthiswayisthe SaraswatiBandana, or salutation to the Goddess of Learning, which is committed to memory by frequent repetitions, and is dailyrecitedbythescholarsinabodybeforetheyleaveschool allkneelingwiththeirheadsbenttotheground,andfollowinga leaderormonitorinthepronunciationofthesuccessivelinesor couplets. I have before me two versions or forms of this salutation obtained at different places; but they are quite differentfromeachother,althoughdescribedbythesamename, and both are doggrels of the lowest description even amongst Bengalicompositions.Theonlyotherwrittencompositionused intheseschools,andthatonlyinthewayoforaldictationbythe master, consists of a few of the rhyming arithmetical rules of Subhankar,awriterwhosenameisasfamiliarinBengalasthat ofCockerinEngland,withoutanyoneknowingwhoorwhathe wasorwhenhelived.Itmaybeinferredthathelived,orifnota real personage that the rhymes bearing that name were composed, before the establishment of the British rule in this country,andduringtheexistenceoftheMussalmanpower,for they are full of Hindustani or Persian terms, and contain referencestoMahomedanusageswithouttheremotestallusion to English practices or modes of calculation. A recent native editor has deemed it requisite to remedy this defect by a supplement. Ithasbeenalreadymentionedthattherearefourdifferent stagesinacourseofBengaliinstruction.The firstperiodseldom exceeds ten days, which are employed in teaching the young scholarstoformthelettersofthealphabetonthegroundwitha smallstickorslipofbambu.Thesandboardisnotusedinthis district,probablytosaveexpense.The secondperiod,extending fromtwoandahalftofouryearsaccordingtothecapacityofthe scholar, is distinguished by the use of the palmleaf as the materialonwhichwritingisperformed.Hithertothemere

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formandsoundofthelettershavebeentaughtwithoutregardto theirsizeandrelativeproportion;butthemasterwithaniron style now writes on the palmleaf letters of a determinate size andindueproportiontoeachother,andthescholarisrequired to trace them on the same leaf with a reedpen and with charcoalinkwhicheasilyrubsout.Thisprocessisrepeatedover and over again on the same leaf until the scholar no longer requirestheuseofthecopytoguidehimintheformationofthe lettersofafitsizeandproportionandheisconsequentlynext madetowritethemonanotherleafwhichhasnocopytodirect him.Heisafterwardsexercisedinwritingandpronouncingthe compoundconsonants,thesyllablesformedbythejunctionof vowels with consonants, and the most common names of persons. In other parts of the country, the names of castes, rivers, mountains, etc., are written as well as of persons; but here the names of persons only are employed as a school exercise.Thescholaristhentaughttowriteandread,andby frequentrepetitionhecommitstomemorytheCowrieTable,the Numeration Table as far as 100, the Katha Table (a land measuretable),andtheSerTable(adrymeasuretable).There are other tables inuse elsewhere whichare not taughtinthe schools of this district. The third stage of instruction extends from twoto three years which are employed inwriting on the plantainleaf. In some districts the tables just mentioned are postponedtothisstage,butinthisdistricttheyareincludedin theexercisesofthesecondstage.Thefirstexercisetaughtonthe plantainleafistoinitiatethescholarintothesimplestformsof letterwriting,toinstructhimtoconnectwordsincomposition witheachother,andtodistinguishthewrittenfromthespoken forms of Bengali vocables. The written forms are often abbreviatedinspeechbytheomissionofavoweloraconsonant, orbytherunningoftwosyllablesintoone,andthescholaris taughttouseinwritingthefullnottheabbreviatedforms.The correctorthographyofwordsofSanscritoriginwhichaboundin thelanguageofthepeople,isbeyondthereachoftheordinary classofteachers.Aboutthesametimethescholaristaughtthe rulesofarithmetic,beginningwithadditionandsubtraction,but multiplicationanddivisionarenottaughtasseparaterulesall thearithmeticalprocesseshereaftermentionedbeingeffectedby additionandsubtractionwiththe aidof amultiplicationtable whichextendstothenumber20,andwhichisrepeatedaloud onceeverymorningbythewholeschoolandisthusacquirednot asaseparatetaskbyeachboy,butbythemereforceofjoint repetitionandmutualimitation.Afteradditionandsubtraction, thearithmeticalrulestaughtdivide

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themselvesintotwoclasses,agriculturalandcommercial,inone orbothofwhichinstructionisgivenmoreorlessfullyaccording tothecapacityoftheteacherandthewishesoftheparents.The rules applied to agricultural accounts explain the forms of keepingdebitandcreditaccounts;thecalculationofthevalueof dailyormonthlylabouratagivenmonthlyorannualrate;the calculation of the area of land whose sides measure a given numberofkathasorbigas;thedescriptionoftheboundariesof landandthedeterminationofitslength,breadth,andcontents; andtheformofrevenueaccountsforagivenquantityofland. Therearenumerousotherformsofagriculturalaccounts,butno others appear to be taught in the schools of this district. The rulesofcommercialaccountsexplainthemodeofcalculatingthe valueofagivennumberofsersatagivenpricepermaund;the priceofagivennumberofquartersandchataksatagivenprice perser;thepriceofatolaatagivenrateperchatak;thenumber of cowries in a given number of annas at a given number of cowries per rupee; the interest of money; and the discount chargeableontheexchangeoftheinferiorsortsofrupees.There areotherformsofcommercialaccountalsoincommonuse,but theyarenottaughtintheschools.The fourth andlaststageof instructiongenerallyincludesaperiodoftwoyears,oftenless andseldommore.Theaccountsbrieflyandsuperficiallytaught intheprecedingstagearenowtaughtmorethoroughlyandata greater length, and this is accompanied by the composition of businessletters,petitions,grants,leases,acceptances,notesof hand,etc.,togetherwiththeformsofaddressbelongingtothe different grades of rank and station. When the scholars have writtenonpaperaboutayear,theyareconsideredqualifiedto engage in the unassisted perusal of Bengali works, and they often read at home productions as the translation of the Ramayana,ManasaMangal,etc.,etc. This sketch of a course of Bengali instruction must be regardedratheraswhatitisintendedtobethanwhatitis,for mostoftheschoolmasterswhomIhaveseen,asfarasIcould judge from necessarily brief and limited opportunities of observation, were unqualified to give all the instruction here described, although I have thus placed the amount of their pretensionsonrecord.All,however,donotevenpretendtoteach the whole of what is here enumerated; some, as will be seen fromTableII,professingtolimitthemselvestoagricultural,and others to include commercial accounts. The most of them appearedtohaveaverysuperficialacquaintancewithboth.

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WiththeexceptionoftheMultiplicationTable,therhyming arithmetical rules of Subhankar, and the form of address to Saraswati, all which the younger scholars learn by mere imitation of sounds incessantly repeated by the elder boys, withoutforalongtimeunderstandingwhatthosesoundsconvey withtheseexceptions,nativeschoolboyslearneverythingthat theydolearnnotmerelybyreadingbutbywritingit.Theyread to the master or toone of the oldestscholars what theyhave previouslywritten,andthusthehand,theeye,andtheearare equally called into requisition. This appears preferable to the modeofearlyinstructioncurrentamongstourselves,according towhichtheelementsoflanguagearefirsttaughtonlywiththe aidoftheeyeandtheear,andwritingislefttobesubsequently acquired. It would thus appear also that the statement which representsthenativesystemasteachingchieflybytheear,to theneglectofeye,isfoundedonamisapprehension,forhowcan the aid of the eye be said to be neglected when with the exceptions abovementioned, nothing appears to be learned which is not rendered palpable to the sense by the act of writing?Itisalmostunnecessarytoaddthattheuseofmonitors or leaders has long prevailed in the common schools of India, andiswellknowninthoseofBengali. Thedisadvantagesarisingfromthewantofschoolhouses and from the confined and inappropriate construction of the buildingsorapartmentsusedasschoolroomshavealreadybeen mentioned. Poverty still more than ignorance leads to the adoptionofmodesofinstructionandeconomicalarrangements which,undermorefavourablecircumstances,wouldbereadily abandoned.Inthematterofinstructiontherearesomegrounds forcommendationforthecourseIhavedescribedhasadirect practicaltendency;and,ifitweretaughtinallitsparts,iswell adapted to qualify the scholar for engaging in the actual businessofnativesociety.Myrecollectionsofthevillageschools ofScotlanddonotenablemetopronouncethattheinstruction giveninthemhasamoredirectbearinguponthedailyinterests oflifethanthatwhichIfindgiven,orprofessedtobegiven,in thehumblervillageschoolsofBengal.

ELEMENTARYPERSIANSCHOOLS:(pp.148153)
The Persian schools in Nattore are four in number, containing twentythree scholars, who enter school at any age varyingfromfourandahalftothirteenyears,andleaveitatan agevaryingfromtwelvetoseventeen.Thewholetimestatedto

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bespentatschoolvariesfromfourtoeightyears.Theteachers intellectuallyareofahighergradethantheteachersofBengali schools,althoughthatgradeisnothighcomparedwithwhatis tobedesiredandisattainable.Morally,theyappeartohaveas little notion as Bengali teachers of the salutary influence they mightexerciseonthedispositionsandcharactersoftheirpupils. Theyhavenofeesfromthescholarsandarepaidintheformof fixed monthly allowances with perquisites. The monthly allowancesvaryfromonerupeeeightannastofourrupees,and theyarepaidbyone,twoorthreefamilies,whoaretheprincipal supportersoftheschool.Theperquisites,whichareestimatedat tworupees eightannas tosixrupeesamonth, and consist of food,washing,andotherpersonalexpenses,areprovidedeither bythesamepartiesorbythoseparentswhodonotcontributeto the monthly allowance. The total remuneration of a teacher variesfromfourtotenrupeespermonth,averagingaboutseven rupees.Theprincipalobjectofthepatronsoftheseschoolsisthe instructionoftheirownchildren;butinoneinstanceaworthy old Mussalman, who has no children, contributes a small monthly allowance, without whichthe teacher would not have sufficient inducement to continue his labours; and in another case besides two children of the family, ten other boys are admitted, on whom instruction, food, and clothing, are gratuitouslybestowed.Twooftheschoolshaveseparateschool houses, which were built by the benevolent patrons who principallysupportthem.Thescholarsoftheothertwoassemble inoutbuildingsbelongingtooneorotherofthefamilieswhose childrenreceiveinstruction. Although in the Persian schools printed books are unknown, yet manuscript works are in constant use. The general course of instruction has no very marked stages or gradations into which it is divided. Like the Hindus, however, theMussalmansformallyinitiatetheirchildrenintothestudyof letters.Whenachild,whetheraboyoragirl,isfouryears,four months,andfourdaysold,thefriendsofthefamilyassemble, andthechildisdressedinhisbestclothes,broughtintothe company,andseatedonacushioninthepresenceofall.The alphabet, the form of letters used for computation, the introductiontotheKoran,someversesofChapterLV,andthe whole of Chapter LXXXVII, are placed before him, and he is taught to pronounce them in succession. If the child is self willed, and refuses to read, he is made to pronounce the Bismillah,whichanswerseverypurpose,andfromthatdayhis educationisdeemedtohavecommenced.Atschoolheistaught thealphabet,aswith

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ourselves, by the eye and ear, the forms of the letters being presentedtohiminwritingandtheirnamespronouncedinhis hearing, which he is required to repeat until he is able to connectthenamesandtheformswitheachotherinhismind. Thescholarisafterwardsmadetoreadthethirteenthsectionof the Koran, the chapters of which are short, and are generally usedatthetimesofprayerandintheburialservice.Thewords are marked with the diacritical points in order that the knowledgeofletters,theirjunctionandcorrectorthographyand their pronunciation from the appropriate organs may be thoroughly acquired; but the sense is entirely unknown. The next book put into his hands is the Pandanameh of Sadi, a collection of moral sayings, many of which are above his comprehension,butheisnottaughtorrequiredtounderstand any of them. The work is solely used for the purpose of instructing him in the art of reading and of forming a correct pronunciation, without any regard to the sense of the words pronounced.Itisgenerallyafterthisthatthescholaristaughtto write the letters, to join vowels and consonants, and to form syllables.ThenextbookistheAmadnameh,exhibitingtheforms of conjugating thePersianverbswhicharereadtothe master andbyfrequentrepetitioncommittedtomemory.Thefirstbook whichisreadforthepurposeofbeingunderstoodisthe Gulistan ofSadi,containinglessonsonlifeandmannersandthisfollowed oraccompaniedbytheBostanofthesameauthor.Twoorthree sections of each are read; and simultaneously short Persian sentences relating to going and coming, sitting and standing, andthecommonaffairsoflife,arereadandexplained.Thepupil isafterwardsmadetowritePersiannames,thenArabicnames andnextHindinames,especiallysuchascontainletterstothe writing or pronunciation of which difficulty is supposed to attach. Elegant penmanship is considered a great accomplishment, and those who devote themselves to this art employfromthreetosixhourseverydayintheexerciseofit, writingfirstsingleletters,thendoubleortreble,thencouplets, quatrains,etc.Theyfirstwriteuponaboardwithathickpen, thenwithafinerpenonpiecesofpaperpastedtogether;andlast of all, when they have acquired considerable command of the pen, they begin to write upon paper in single fold. This is accompanied or followed by the perusal of some of the most popular poetical productions such as Joseph and Zuleikha, foundedonawellknownincidentinHebrewhistory;thelovesof Leila and Majnun; the Secundar Nameh an account of the exploitsofAlexandertheGreat,etc.,etc.Themodeofcomputing bytheAbjad,orlettersofthealphabet,isalsotaught,

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andisoftwosorts;inthefirst,thelettersofthealphabetinthe order of the Abjad being taken to denote units, tens, and hundreds to a thousand; and in the second the letters composing the names of the letters of the alphabet being employed for the same purpose. Arithmetic, by means of the Arabicnumerals,andinstructionatgreatlengthinthedifferent stylesofaddress,andintheformsofcorrespondence,petitions, etc.,etc.,complete acourseof Persianinstruction. Butinthe Persianschoolsofthisdistrict,thiscourseisverysuperficially taught,andsomeoftheteachersdonotevenprofesstocarry theirpupilsbeyondtheGulistanandBostan. In a Persian school, after the years of mere childhood, when the pupils are assumed to be capable of stricter application,thehoursofstudywithintervalextendfromsixin themorningtonineatnight.Inthefirstplaceinthemorning theyrevisethelessonsofthepreviousday,afterwhichanew lesson is read, committed to memory, and reported to the master.Aboutmiddaytheyhaveleaveofabsenceforanhour whentheydine,andontheirreturntoschooltheyareinstructed inwriting.Aboutthreeoclocktheyhaveanotherreadinglesson whichisalsocommittedtomemory,andaboutanhourbefore thecloseofdaytheyhaveleavetoplay.Thepracticewithregard totheforenoonandafternoonlessonsinreading,istojointhe perusalofaworkinprosewiththatofaworkinverse;asthe Gulistan with the Bostan and Abdulfazls letters with the SecundarNameh,theforenoonlessonbeingtakenfromoneand theafternoonlessonfromtheother.Intheeveningtheyrepeat the lessons of that day several times, until they have them perfectlyatcommand;and, aftermakingsomepreparationfor thelessonsofthenextday,theyhaveleavetoretire.Thursday everyweekisdevotedtotherevisionofoldlessons;andwhen that is completed, the pupils seek instruction or amusement accordingtotheirownpleasureintheperusalofformsofprayer andstanzasofpoetry,andaredismissedonthatdayatthree oclock without any new lesson. On Friday, the sacred day of Mussalmans, there is no schooling. In other districts in respectableorwealthyMussalmanfamilies,besidestheliterary instructorcalledMiyanorAkhun,thereisalsoadomestictutor or Censor Morum called Atalik, a kind of headservant whose dutyitistotrainthe childrenofthe familytogoodmanners, andtoseethattheydonotneglectanydutyassignedtothem; butIdonotfindanytraceofthispracticeinRajshahi.

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UponthewholethecourseofPersianinstruction,evenin itslessperfectformssuchasarefoundtoexistinthisdistrict, has a more comprehensive character and a more liberal tendencythanpursuedinthe Bengalischools. The systematic useofbooksalthoughinmanuscriptisagreatstepinadvance, accustoming the minds of the pupils to forms of regular composition, to correct and elegant language, and to trains of consecutive thought, and thus aiding both to stimulate the intellect and to form the taste. It might be supposed that the moralbearingofsomeofthetextbookswouldhaveabeneficial effectonthecharacterofthepupils;butasfarasIhavebeen abletoobserveorascertain,thosebooksareemployedlikeall therestsolelyforthepurposeofconveyinglessonsinlanguage lessons in the knowledge of sounds and words in the constructionofsentences,orinanecdotalinformation,butnot for the purpose of sharpening the moral perceptions or strengtheningthemoralhabits.Thisingeneralnativeestimation does not belong to the business of instruction, and it never appearstobethought of orattempted.Otherswilljudgefrom their own observation and experience whether the Mussalman character,asweseeitinIndia,hasbeenformedorinfluenced by such a course of instruction. The result of my own observations is that of two classes of persons, one exclusively educatedinMahomedan,andtheotherinHinduliterature;the formerappearstometopossessanintellectualsuperiority,but themoralsuperioritydoesnotseemtoexist.

ELEMENTARYARABICSCHOOLS:(pp.152153)
TheArabicschools,orschoolsforinstructionintheformal or ceremonial reading of certain passages of the Koran, are eleveninnumber,andcontain42scholars,whobegintoreadat anagevaryingfrom7to14,andleaveschoolatanagevarying from8to18.Thewholetimestatedtobespentatschoolvaries fromonetofiveyears.Theteacherspossessthelowestdegreeof attainmenttowhichitispossibletoassignthetaskofinstruc tion.Theydonotpretendtobeableeventosigntheirnames; and they disclaim altogether the ability to understand that whichtheyreadandteach.Themereforms,names,andsounds, of certain letters and combinations of letters they know and teach, and what they teach is all that they know of written language,withoutpresuming,orpretending,oraimingtoelicit thefeeblestglimmeringofmeaningfromtheseemptyvocables. Thiswholeclassofschoolsisasconsummateaburlesqueupon mereformsofinstruction,separatefromarationalmeaningand

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purpose, as can well be imagined. The teachers are all Kath Mollas, that is, the lowest grade of Mussalman priests who chieflyderivetheirsupportfromtheignoranceandsuperstition ofthepoorclassesoftheircoreligionists;andthescholarsare intrainingforthesameoffice.TheportionoftheKoranwhichis taught is that which begins with Chapter LXXVIII of Sales Koran, and extends to the close of the volume. The Mollas, besidesteachingafewpupilstheformalreadingofthisportion oftheKoran,performthemarriageceremony,forwhichtheyare paid from one to eight annas according to the means of the party; and also the funeral service with prayers for the dead continued fromone tofortydays,forwhichtheygetfromtwo annastoonerupee,anditisintheseservicesthattheformal readingoftheKoranisdeemedessential.TheMollasalsooften performtheofficeofthevillagebutcher,killinganimalsforfood withtheusualreligiousforms,withoutwhichtheirfleshcannot be eaten by Mussalmans; but for this they take no remuneration. In several cases, the teacher of the school depends for his livelihood on employment at marriages and burials,givinghisinstructionsasateachergratuitously.Inone instance a fixed allowance is received from the patron of the school,feesfromsomeofthescholars,andperquisitesbesides, amountinginalltofourrupeeseightannaspermonth,andin thiscasethepatronprofessestheintentiontohavethescholars hereafter taught Persian and Bengali. In another the patron merely lodges, feeds and clothes, the teacher who receives neither fixed allowance nor fees. In three instances the only remunerationtheteacherreceivesisa salami orpresentoffive orsixrupees,fromeachscholarwhenhefinallyleavesschool.In two instances the teachers have small farms from which they derive the means of subsistence in addition to their gains as Mollas.Theygiveinstructioneitherintheirownhouses,orin schoolhouses,whicharealsoappliedtothepurposesofprayer andhospitalityandofassemblyonoccasionsofgeneralinterest. Noinstitutionscanbemoreinsignificantanduseless,and ineveryrespectlessworthyofnotice,thantheseArabicschools, viewedasplacesofinstruction;but,howeverworthlessinthem selves, they have a certain hold on the Native mind, which is proved by the increased respect and emoluments as Mollas, expectedandacquiredbysomeoftheteachersonaccountofthe instructiontheygive;theexpenseincurredbyothersofthemin erectingschoolhouses;andbythegeneralemploymentbythe Mussalman population of those who receive and communicate theslendereducationwhichtheseschoolsbestow.Intheeyeof

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the philanthropist or the statesman no institution however humble,willbeoverlooked,bywhichhemayhopebeneficiallyto influencetheconditionofanyportionofmankind;anditisjust inproportiontothegrossignoranceofthemultitudethathewill look withanxiety forany loopholes by whichhe may find an entrancetotheirunderstandingssomeinstitutions,whichare heldbytheminvenerationandwhichhavehithertoservedthe causeofignorance,butwhichhemayhopewithdiscretionto turnto the service of knowledge.I donot despair thatmeans might be employed, simple, cheap, and inoffensive, by which even the teachers of these schools might be reared to qualify themselves for communicating a much higher grade of instruction to a much greater number of learners without divestingthemofanyportionoftherespectandattachmentof whichtheyarenowtheobjects.

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II
W.ADAMONINDIGENOUSSCHOOLSOFLEARNING GENERAL:(pp.1623)
WardinhisworkontheHindooshasgiven,onthewhole,acor rect account of the state of indigenous learning and of the institutions by which it is preserved among the Hindoos. The principlewhichsecurestheperpetuationoftheseinstitutions,as long as the Hindoo religion subsists and is professed by the mass of the people and by a majority of the wealthy and powerful,isthatitisdeemedanactofreligiousmerittoacquire aknowledgeoftheHindooshastras,ortoextendtheknowledge ofthemeitherbydirectinstructionorbypecuniarysupportor assistancegiveneithertoscholarsorteachers.Hencethepriva tions to which the students submit in the prosecution of the prescribedcourseofstudy;thedisinterestednessoftheteachers in bestowing their instructions gratuitously with the addition, alwaysofshelter,oftenoffood,andsometimesofclothing;and the liberality of landholders and others shown by occasional endowmentsoflandandfrequentgiftsofmoneybothtoteachers andscholarsontheoccasionoffuneralfeasts,weddings,dedica tions, etc. The number of such institutions throughout the countryisunknownnoraresufficientdatapossessedonwhich to rest a probable conjecture. In the district of Dinajpur, Dr Buchananfoundonly16,andinthatofPurniyanotlessthan 119a difference between two neighbouring districts in which somemistakemaybesuspected.Theestimatesofthenumberin otherdistricts,besidesthosereportedonbyDrBuchanan,are not the results of personal inquiries, and less dependence is, therefore,tobeplacedonthem.IfIweretohazardaconjecture founded on all the facts and statements I have met with, I should say that there are on an average probably 100 such institutions ineachdistrictof Bengal,whichwould give1,800 for the whole province. An estimate of the total number of studentsmustdependupontheapproachtocorrectnessofthe conjecture respecting the total number of schools; but the following facts may help towards the formation of a correct opinion respecting the average number of students in each school. In 1818, Mr Ward enumerated 28 schools of Hindoo learning in Calcutta, in which 173 scholars received instructions,averagingupwardsofsixscholarstoeachschool. Healsoenumerated31schoolsofHindoolearningatNuddea,in

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which747scholars received instruction, averagingupwardsof 24scholarstoeachschool.In1830,MrH.H.Wilsonascertained bypersonalinquiryatNuddea,thattherewerethenabout25 schools in which between 5 and 600 scholars received instruction, and taking the number of scholars at 550 the average to each school will be 22. The average of these three estimateswouldgive17scholarstoeachschool.Thelowestor Calcuttaaverage,thatofsixscholarstoeachschool,Iconsider moreprobablethantheothers,fortheinstancesarenumerous throughoutthecountryinwhichalearnedHindooteacherhas not more than three or four pupils. Assuming the Calcutta average and the previous estimate of the total number of schools, there will appear to be 10,800 students of Hindoo learningthroughoutBengal.Thetotalnumberofteachersand students of Hindoo learning will thus be 12,600; and this number is exclusive of a large class of individuals who, after havingreceivedinstructioninaschooloflearning,andbecome inthetechnicalsenseofthetermPunditsorlearnedmen,from variouscausesdeclinetoengageintheprofessionofteaching.If furtherinquiryshouldshowthatthelowestestimate,whichis thatIhaveassumed,isonehalfinexcessofthetruth,therewill stillremainalargeandinfluentialclassofmenwhoeitherhave received or are engaged in giving and receiving a Hindoo collegiateeducation. The Hindoo colleges or schools in which the higher branches of Hindoo learning are taught are generally built of clay.Sometimesthreeorfiveroomsareerected,andinothers nineoreleven,withareadingroomwhichisalsoofclay.These hutsarefrequentlyerectedattheexpenseoftheteacher,who notonlysolicitsalmstoraisethebuilding,butalsotofeedhis pupils.Insomecasesrentispaidfortheground;buttheground iscommonly,andinparticularinstancesboththegroundand theexpensesofthebuildingare,agift.Afteraschoolroomand lodgingroomshavebeenthusbuilttosecurethesuccessofthe school, the teacher invites a few Brahmans and respectable inhabitants to an entertainment at the close of which the Brahmans are dismissed with some trifling presents. If the teacher finds a difficulty in obtaining scholars, he begins the collegewithafewjuniorrelatives,andbyinstructingthemand distinguishing himself in the disputations that take place on public occasions, he establishes his reputation. The school opensearlyeverymorningbytheteacherandpupilsassembling in the open readingroom, when the different classes read in turns.Studyiscontinuedtilltowardsmidday,afterwhichthree hoursaredevotedtobathing,worship,eatingandsleep;andat threethey

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resumetheirstudieswhicharecontinuedtilltwilight.Nearlytwo hoursarethendevotedtoeveningworship,eating,smokingand relaxation,andthestudiesareagainresumedandcontinuedtill tenorelevenatnight.Theeveningstudiesconsistofarevision of the lessons already learned, in order that what the pupils have read may be impressed more distinctly on the memory. Thesestudiesarefrequentlypursued,especiallybythestudents oflogic,tilltwoorthreeoclockinthemorning. TherearethreekindsofcollegesinBengaloneinwhich chiefly grammar, general literature, and rhetoric, and occasionallythegreatmythologicalpoemsandlawaretaught;a second, in which chiefly law and sometimes the mythological poems are studied; and third, in which logic is made the principalobjectofattention.Inallthesecollegesselectworksare read and their meaning explained; but instruction is not conveyedintheformoflectures.Inthefirstclassofcolleges,the pupilsrepeatassignedlessonsfromthegrammarusedineach college, and the teacher communicates the meaning of the lessonsaftertheyhavebeencommittedtomemory.Intheothers thepupilsaredividedintoclassesaccordingtotheirprogress. Thepupilsofeachclasshavingoneormorebooksbeforethem seat themselvesinthe presenceof theteacher,whenthe best reader of the class reads aloud, and the teacher gives the meaningasoftenasasked,andthustheyproceedfromdayto daytilltheworkiscompleted.Thestudyofgrammarispursued duringtwo,three,orsixyears,andwheretheworkofPaniniis studied, not less than ten, and sometimes twelve, years are devoted to it. As soon as a student has obtained such a knowledgeofgrammarastobeabletoreadandunderstanda poem,alawbook,oraworkonphilosophy,hemaycommence thiscourseofreadingalso,andcarryonatthesametimethe remainderofhisgrammarstudies.Thosewhostudylaworlogic continuereadingeitheratonecollegeoranotherforsix,eight,or eventenyears.Whenapersonhasobtainedalltheknowledge possessedbyoneteacher,hemakessomerespectfulexcuseto hisguideandavailshimselfoftheinstructionsofanother.Mr Ward, from whom many of the preceding details have been copied estimates that amongst one hundred thousand Brah mans,theremaybeonethousandwholearnthegrammarofthe Sunskritu,ofwhomfourorfivehundredmayreadsomepartsof the kavyu (or poetical literature), and fifty some parts of the ulunkaru(orrhetorical)shastras.Fourhundredofthisthousand mayreadsomeofthe smriti (orlawworks);butnotmorethan tenanypartofthetuntrus(orthemysticalandmagicaltreatises ofmodernHinduism).Threehundredmay

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studythe nyayu (orlogic),butonlyfiveorsixthe meemangsu, (explanatoryoftheritualoftheveds),the sunkhyu(asystemof philosophical materialism), the vedantu (illustrative of the spiritual portions of the veds), the patunjulu (a system of philosophical asceticism), the vaisheshika (a system of philosophical antimaterialism), or the veda (the most ancient andsacredwritingsofHindoos).Tenpersonsinthisnumberof Brahmans may become learned in the astronomical shastras, whiletenmoreunderstandtheseveryimperfectly.Fiftyofthis thousand may read the shree bhaguvutu, and some of the pooranas.Atthepresentdayprobablythe alankarshastrasand the tantras are more studied than is here represented. The astronomicalworksalsoreceivemoreattention.Thecollegesare invariablyclosedandallstudysuspendedontheeighthdayof thewaxingandwaningofthemoon;onthedayinwhichitmay happen to thunder; whenever a person or an animal passes between the teacher and the pupil while reading; when a honorablepersonarrives,oraguest;atthefestivalofSaraswati duringthreedays;insomepartsduringthewholeoftherainy season,oratleastduringtwomonthswhichincludetheDoorga, theKali,andotherfestivals,andatmanyothertimes.Whena studentisabouttocommencethestudyoflaworoflogic,his fellow students, with the concurrence and approbation of the teacher, bestow on him an honorary title descriptive of the natureofhispursuit,andalwaysdifferingfromanytitleenjoyed byanyofhislearnedancestors.Insomepartsofthecountry, thetitleisbestowedbyanassemblyofPunditsconvenedforthe purpose;andinotherstheassemblyisheldinthepresenceofa rajaorzemindarwhomaybedesirousofencouraginglearning and who at the same time bestows a dress of honour on the studentandplacesamarkonhisforehead.Whenthestudent finally leaves college and enters on the business of life, he is commonlyaddressedbythattitle. The means employed by the Mahomedan population of Bengal to preserve the appropriate learning of their faith and race are less systematic and organised than those adopted by theHindoos;andtowhateverextenttheymayexist,lessenquiry has been made and less information is possessed respecting them.Itisbelieved,however,thatintheLoweraswellasthe WesternProvinces,therearemanyprivateMahomedanschools begunandconductedbyindividualsofstudioushabitswhohave madethecultivationoflettersthechiefoccupationoftheirlives, andbywhomtheprofessionoflearningisfollowed,notmerely asameansoflivelihood,butasameritoriousworkproductiveof moralandreligiousbenefittothemselvesandtheirfellow

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creatures.Few,accordingly, giveinstruction for anystipulated pecuniaryremuneration,andwhattheymayreceiveisbothten dered and acceptedas an interchange of kindness and civility betweenthemasterandhisdisciple.Thenumberofthosewho thus resort to the private instruction of masters is not great. Their attendance and application are guided by the mutual convenienceandinclinationofbothparties,neitherofwhomis placed under any system nor particular rule of conduct. The successandprogressofthescholardependentirelyonhisown assiduity. The least dispute or disagreement puts an end to study, no check being imposed on either party, and no tie subsisting between them beyond that of casual reciprocal advantageswhichathousandaccidentsmayweakenordissolve. Thenumberofpupilsseldomexceedssix.Theyaresometimes permanent residents under the roof of their masters, and in otherinstancesliveintheirownfamilies;andintheformercase, ifMussalmans,theyaresupportedattheteachersexpense.In return,theyarerequiredtocarrymessages,buyarticlesinthe bazar,andperformmenialservicesinthehouse.Thescholarsin consequenceoftenchangetheirteachers,learningthealphabet andtheotherintroductorypartsofthePersianlanguageofone, the Pandnameh ofasecond,the Gulistan ofathird,andsoon fromoneplacetoanother,tilltheyareabletowriteatolerable letterandthinktheyhavelearnedenoughtoassumethetitleof Munshi, when they look out for some permanent means of subsistenceashangersonattheCompanysCourts.Thechief aim is the attainment of such a proficiency in the Persian languageasmayenablethestudenttoearnalivelihood;butnot, unfrequently,theArabicisalsostudied,itsgrammar,literature, theology and law. A proper estimate of such a desultory and capriciousmodeofeducationisimpossible. ThenumberofinstitutionsofHindoolearning,nowexisting in Calcutta and the Twentyfour Pergunahs, is not accurately known.MrWardinhisworkpublishedin1818enumerates28 schools of Hindoo learning in Calcutta, naming the teacher of each school, the quarter of the city in which the school was situated, and the number of students receiving instruction. These institutions are also mentioned as only some amongst otherstobefoundinCalcutta.The nyaya and smritishastras chieflyweretaughtinthem;and thetotalnumberofscholars belongingtothecollegesactuallyenumeratedwas173,ofwhom not less than three, and not more than fifteen, received the instructions of the same teacher. The enumeration to which I referissubjoinedinMrWardswords:

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ThefollowingamongothercollegesarefoundinCalcutta; and in these the nyaya and smriti shastras are principally taught UnuntuRamuVidyaVageeshu,ofHatiBagan,fifteen students RamuKoomaruTurkalunkaru,ofditto,eightstudents RamuToshunuVidylunkaru,ofditto,eightditto RamuDoolaluChooramunee,ofditto,fiveditto GorruMuneeNyayalunkaru,ofditto,fourditto KasheeNathuTurkaVegeeshu,ofGhoshaluBagan,six ditto RamuShevuKuVidyaVegeeshu,ofShikdarerBagan, fourditto MrityoonjuyuVidyalunkaru,ofBagBazar,fifteenditto RamuKishoruTurkuChooramunee,ofditto,sixditto RamuKoomaruShiromunee,ofditto,fourditto JuyuNarayunuTurkuPunchanum,ofTalarBagan,five ditto ShumbhooVachusputee,ofditto,sixditto SivuRamuNayayuVageeshu,ofLalBagan,tenditto GouruMohunuVidyaBhooshunu,ofditto,fourditto HureePrusaduTurkuPunchanunu,ofHattiBagan,four ditto RamuNarayunuTurkuPunchanunu,ofShimila,five ditto RamuHureeVidyaBhooshun,ofHureeTukeeBagan,six ditto KumulaKantuVidyalunkaru,ofArukoolee,sixditto GovinduTurkuPunchanunu,ofditto,fiveditto PeetamburuNayayuBhooshunu,ofditto,fiveditto ParvuteeTurkuBhooshunu,ofThunthuniya,fourditto KasheeNathuTurkalunkaru,ofditto,threeditto RamuNathuVaschusputee,ofShimila,nineditto RamuTunooTurkuSiddhantu,ofMulunga,sixditto RamuTunooVidyaVageeshu,ofSobhaBazar,fiveditto RamuKoomaruTurkuPunchanunu,ofVeerupara,five ditto KaleeDasuVidyaVageeshu,ofItalee,fiveditto RamuDhunuTurkuVageeshu,ofShimila,fiveditto. Hamiltonstatesthatin1801therewerewithinthelimitsof the Twentyfour Pergunnahs, and as I suppose must be understoodbeyondthelimitsofthetownofCalcutta,190

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seminaries in which Hindoo law, grammar, and metaphysics were taught. These institutions are stated to have been maintained by the voluntary contributions of opulent Hindoos andtheproduceofcharitylands,thetotalannualexpensebeing rupees 19,500. No details are given, but it may be inferred, althoughitisnotexpresslymentioned,thatthestatementrests on the authority of official documents. No cause has been in operationintheintermediateperiodtorenderitprobablethat the number of such seminaries within this district has since then been materially diminished. Mr Ward mentions that at Juyunugur and Mujilee Pooru seventeen or eighteen similar schoolswerefound,andatAndooleetenortwelve,thesevillages, according to my information, being within the limits of the district; but it is probable that they are included in the more comprehensiveenumerationmentionedbyHamilton. I do not find any account on record of any private institutionsforthepromotionofMahomedanlearningeitherin Calcuttaorinthesurroundingdistrict.Hamiltonstatesthatin 1801 there was one and but one, madrasa or college for instruction in Mahomedan law, but he does not mention its particularlocality,anditisnotimprobablethathereferstothe institution endowed by Warren Hastings, and now under the superintendenceoftheGeneralCommitteeofPublicInstruction. Therecanbenodoubt,however,thatinthisaswellasinother districtsofBengalinwhichhehavenoauthenticaccountofthe stateofMahomedanlearning,thatloosesystemofprivatetuition alreadydescribedprevailstoagreaterorlessextent.

MIDNAPORE:(pp.5051)
Hamilton states thatin this districtthere are no schools where the Hindoo or Mahomedan laws are taught. There was formerly a Mahomedan college in the town of Midnapore, and evenyettheestablishmentissaidtoexist,butnolawistaught. PersianandArabicaretaughtbymaulaviswhoingeneralhavea few scholars in their houses, whom they support as well as instruct. These Persian and Arabic students, although of respectable families, are considered as living on charity; and theyaretotalstrangerstoexpenseanddissipation.Thealleged absenceofschoolsofHindoolearninginapopulationofwhich sixseventharesaidtobeHindoosisincredible,anddeniedby learned natives who have resided in the district and are personally acquainted with several schools of that description within its limits. They are not so numerous as the domestic schoolsoflearning

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whichprevailamongsttheMahomedanpopulation;buttheyare notsofewastobewhollyneglected.Thereareprobably,Iam told, about 40 in the district. It may be offered as a general remark to account for such incorrect statements, that the greaterattentiongivenbyEuropeanstotheMahomedanthanto the Hindoo languages and literature, combined with the unobtrusive and retiring character of learned Hindoos, sometimesleadsthepublicfunctionarytooverlookinstitutions ofHindooorigin.Itisprobablyfromsomesuchofficialauthority thatHamiltonhasborrowedthestatementtowhichIrefer.

CUTTACK:(p.54)
MrStirling,intheelaborateaccountofthisdistrict,from whichthe precedingdetailsareabridged,gives no information whatever on the state of education as conducted by natives, either in elementary schools or schools of learning. In the descriptionofthetownof PuriJugunnath,itisstatedthatthe principal street is composed almost entirely of the religious establishmentscalledmaths,anameappliedinotherpartsof thecountry,bothinthewestandsouth,toconventsofascetics inwhichthevariousbranchesofHindoolearningaretaught.It maybeinferredthattheyareappliedtothesameusein Jugun nathPuri.

HUGLY:(pp.5759)
ThenumberofHindooschoolsoflearninginthisdistrictis considerable.MrWardin1818statedthatat Vansvariya,avil lagenotfarfromthetownofHugly,thereweretwelveorfourteen colleges, in all of which logic was almost exclusively studied. Therewerethenalsosevenoreightinthetownof Triveni,oneof whichhadbeenlatelytaughtbyJugannathTarkaPanchanan, supposedtobethemostlearnedaswellastheoldestmanin Bengal, being 109 years old at the time of his death. He was acquaintedinsomemeasurewiththeveda,andissaidtohave studiedthevedanta,thesankhya,thepatanjala,thenyaya,the smriti,the tantra,the kavya,the pooranas andother shastras. Mr Ward also mentions that Gundulpara and Bhudreshwuru containedeachabouttennyayaschools,and Valeetwoorthree, all villages in this district. Hamilton states that in 1801 there were altogether about 150 private schools in which the principles of Hindoo law were taught by Pundits, each school containing from five to twenty scholars. There is no reason to supposethatthenumberofschoolsisnowless,andthe

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enquiries made in 1824 showed that there were some schools withthirtyscholars.Accordingtothereputationoftheteacheris thenumberofthestudents,andinproportiontothenumberof thestudentsisthenumberofinvitationsandtheliberalityofthe gifts which the teacher receives on the occasion of the performance of important religious ceremonies in Hindoo families.Thenumberofstudentshasthusadoublepecuniary operation.Astheyalwaysderiveapartoftheirsubsistencefrom the teacher, they are a burden upon his means; and by the increasedreputationwhichtheyconferuponhim,theyenable him to support that burden. Sometimes, however, students capableoflivingontheirownmeansreturnhomeafterschool hours;andinotherinstances,themorewealthyinhabitantsof thetownorvillagearefoundtocontributetowardsthesupport of poor students whom the teacher cannot maintain. The first three or four years are occupied in the study of Sanscrit grammarandthenextsixoreightyearsinthestudyoflawand logic, with which the generality of students finish their education, and are thenceforth classed among learned men, receiving from the teacher when they are leaving him an honorarytitlewhichtheyretainforlife. There are few Mahomedan schools of learning in this district.Omitting reference tothat atHugly, supported bythe endowmentofHajiMohammedMoshin,undertheordersofthe Board of Revenue, and about to be extended and improved underthesuperintendenceoftheGeneralCommitteeofPublic Instruction, I find mention made of only one other existing at Seetapore,apopuloustown,situated22milesintheinteriorof thedistrict.Itwasoriginallysupportedbyagrantoffiverupees eight annas per diem, made by the English Government in consideration of the faithful services of Umsihooddin the founder.Afterhisdeath,andinconsequenceofdivisionsamong thesurvivingmembersofhisfamily,whoitseemshadclaimtoa partofthegrantfortheirmaintenance,itwaslimitedtorupees 50 per month, which, as far as my information extends, it continues to derive from government to the present day. According to Hamilton, in 1801, this college had 30 students whowereinstructedinPersianandArabic,andaccordingtothe report made to the General Committee in 1824, it had 25 studentswhoweretaughtonlyPersian.Thisinstitutiondoesnot appear ever to have come under the supervision of the Committee orof anypublicofficer. Thereportof1824further allegestheexistenceofcertainlandsat Pandua inthisdistrict, whichshouldbeappropriatedtothesupportof madrasas,but whichhavebeendivertedfromthatpurpose.Itisstatedtobea wellknownfactthatgrants

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weremadetotheancestorsofthelateMolaMirGholamHyder Mutawali, attached to the shrine of Shah Suffuddin Khan ShuhidatPandua,togetherwithMolaMynuddinorMolaTaj uddin and Mir Gholam Mustafa, private persons who had no share in the superintendence. The grants are said to have specified certain villages or tracts of land to be exclusively appropriated to the support of three madrasas, in addition to those granted for the personal benefit of the grantees. The madrasas were kept up for a generation or two, but through carelessnessoravaricewereafterwardsdiscontinued.Itisadded thattherewerepersonsthenlivingsowellacquaintedwiththe circumstancesastobeabletopointouttheestatesthatwere specified in the grants for the support of the madrasas. The Collector, in the letter enclosing the report, intimated his intention to investigate the matter, and in the event of the alleged misappropriation being substantiated, to pursue the course directed in Regulation XIX of 1810. The result of the enquiryIhavenotbeenabletolearn.

BURDWAN:(pp.7072)
Hamilton says that in this district there are no regular schools for instruction in the Hindoo or Mahomedan law, and thatthemostlearnedprofessorsoftheformerareprocuredfrom the district of Nuddea on the opposite side of the Hugly. The sameremarkmaybeappliedtothisstatementthathasalready beenmadewithreferencetothestateoflearninginMidnapore. Allthatcanbefairlyunderstoodfromitisnotthatthereareno native schools of learning in the district, but that there were none known to the writer, or to the public officer on whose authority the author relied. It is exceedingly improbable, from theanalogyofotherdistricts,thattherearenotsomeofthose domesticschoolsofMahomedanlearningalreadydescribed,and still moreimprobable thatin apopulation of which fivesixths are Hindoos, there should not be a still greater number of schoolsofHindoolearning. Thefollowingreferencestoinstitutionsoflearninginthis district were extracted from the proceedings of the Board of RevenueatCalcutta,andfirstpublishedinthememoirprepared attheIndiaHousewhichIhavementionedasoneofmyauthori ties: InSeptember,1818,theCollectorofBurdwanwasrequired toreportuponapensionofrupees60perannum,claimedby

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Rambullubh Bhattacharjya, for the support of a religious institution and seminary. The Collector deputed his ameen to the spot, to enquire whether the institution on which the pensionwasclaimedwasstillmaintained.Theameenreported thattheinstitutionappearedtobekeptup,thatthenumberof scholarsgenerallyentertainedwasaboutfiveorsix,andthatthe allowance had been sanctioned by the government during the joint lives of Rambullubh Bhattacharjya and his deceased brother. Under these circumstances, the Revenue Board considered the claimant entitled to the full amount of the pension during his life, or as long as he should continue to appropriate it faithfully to the purposes for which it was originally granted. They accordingly authorised the future paymentofthispensiontoRambullubhBhattacharjya,andthe dischargeofallarrearswhichhadaccruedsubsequentlytothe deceaseoftheclaimantsbrother. In March, 1819, the Collector of Burdwan applied to the RevenueBoardforinstructionsrespectingcertainpaymentstoa musjidandmadrasainthedistrict,respectingwhichasuithad beeninstitutedintheCalcuttaCourtofAppeal,andthequestion orderedbythatCourttobedeterminedbytheCollectorunder RegulationXIX,of1810.Theestablishmentinquestionwasin thehandsofMusiluddeen,whowascalledupontoproducehis accounts,whichheappearsnottohavedonesatisfactorily.The Collector,therefore,senthisameentotheplacetoascertainto whatextenttheestablishmentwaskeptup.Thatofficerreported favourablyoftheestablishmentontheauthorityoftheinhabit antsofthevillageinwhichthe madrasawassituated,butwith outanydocumentstocorroboratehisstatements.Underthese circumstances,theRevenueBoarddesiredtheCollectortotake an opportunity of visiting the spot, in order that he might himself ascertain the grounds on which a decision might be cometo.Nothingfurtherappearsrelatingtothismadrasa. InJuly,1823,theRevenueBoardreportedanendowment foraCollegeinBurdwanof254siccarupeesperannum,which was communicated to the General Committee of Public Instruction.

JESSORE:(p.73)
Ihavemetwithnoreferencetoindigenousschools,either elementaryorlearned,inthisdistrict,butitisbeyondall

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question that the number of both amongst Hindoos and Mussalmansisconsiderable.Thisdistrictisaperfectandentire blankinasfarasinformationregardingthestateofindigenous educationisconcerned.

NUDDEA:(pp.7582)
ThetownofNuddeawasthecapitalofHindooprincipality anterior to the Mahommedan conquest, and in more recent times it has been a seat of Brahmanical learning. Hamilton remarks that, as a seat of learning, it must have apparently declinedtoaveryobscurecondition,asin1801theJudgeand Magistrate,inreplytotheMarquisWellesleysqueries,declared thatheknewnotofanyseminarieswithinthedistrictinwhich either the Hindoo or Mahomedan law was then taught. This statement curiously contrasts with the following details, and affordsanotherillustrationofaremarkalreadymade,thatthe educational institutions of the Hindoos have sometimes been moststrangelyoverlooked. ThecelebrityofNuddeaasaschoolofHindoolearningis wholly unconnected with any notion of peculiar sanctity as in thecaseofBenares.Itscharacterasauniversitywasprobably connected with the political importance which belonged to it aboutthetimeoftheMahomedaninvasion,asitseemstohave beenforatimethecapitalofBengal.TheprincesofBengaland thelatterrajahsofNuddeaendowedcertainteacherswithlands fortheinstructionandmaintenanceofscholars,andthesupport thus given to pundits and pupils attracted a number of Brahmanstosettlethere,andgaveareputationtothedistrict. Thelossofallpoliticalconsequenceandtheallegedresumption of most of the endowments have very much diminished the attraction of the site, but it stillcontinues a place of learning andextensiverepute. In1811,LordMinto,thenGovernorGeneral,proposedto establish a Hindoo college at Nuddea and another in Tirhoot, andsetapartfundsforthatpurpose.Thedesign,however,was finally abandoned in favour of that of forming a similar institution on a larger scale, the present Sanskrit College in Calcutta.Inthecourseofthecorrespondencewhichtookplace between government and the Committee of Superintendence provisionallyappointedfortheproposedcollegeatNuddea,the Committee stated, under date9th July, 1816, that there were then in Nuddea 46 schools kept and supported by the most learnedand

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respectablepunditsoftheplace,whoinvariablytaughtattheir housesorinthetolsattachedtothem,wherethepupilswereall lodgedpartlyattheirownexpenseandpartlyattheexpenseof their preceptors. Thetotal numberof pupils who were atthat time so circumstanced amounted to about 380; their ages averaging between 25 and 35 years. Few, it was observed, commencedtheirstudiesuntiltheyhadattainedtheageof21 years,andtheyoftenpursuedthemfor15years,when,having acquiredaperfectknowledgeoftheshastraandallitsarcana, theyreturnedtotheirnativehomesandsetupaspunditsand teachersthemselves. In 1818, Mr Ward enumerated 31 schools of learning at Nuddea,containinginall747students,ofwhomnotfewerthan five studied under one teacher. So many as one hundred and twentyfive students are stated to have been receiving the instructionsofoneteacheratthesametime,buttheaccuracyof MrWardsinformationinthis particularmaybedoubted.The principal studies were logic and law, and there was only one school for general literature, one for astronomy, and one for grammar.ThefollowingarethedetailsinMrWardswords: NyayaColleges ShivuNathuVidyaVachusputee has one hundred and twentyfivestudents RamuLochunuNyayuVhooshunu,twentyditto KasheeNathuTurkuChooramunee,thirtyditto UbhuyanunduTurkalunkaru,twentyditto RamuShurunuNyayuVagesshu,fifteenditto BholaNathuShiromunee,twelveditto RadhaNathuTurkuPunchanunu,tenditto RamuMohunuVidyaVachusputee,twentyditto ShriRamuTurkuBhooshunu,twentyditto KaleeKantuChooramunee,fiveditto KrishnuKantuVidyaVageeshu,fifteenditto Turkalunkaru,fifteenditto KaleePrusunu,fifteenditto MadhubuTurkuSidhantu,twentyfiveditto KumulaKantuTurkuChooramunee,twentyfiveditto EeshwuruTurkuBhooshunu,twentyditto KantuVidyalunkaru,fortyditto LawColleges RamuNathuTurkuSiddantu,fortystudents GungaDhuruShiromunee,twentyfiveditto

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DeveeTurkalunkaru,twentyfiveditto MohunuVidyaVachusuputee,twentyditto GangoleeTukalunkaru,tenditto KrishnuTurkuBhooshunu,tenditto PranuKrishnuTurkuVageeshu,fiveditto Poorohitu,fiveditto KasheeKantuTurkuChooramunee,thirtyditto KaleeKantuTurkuPunchanunu,twentyditto GudadhuraTurkuVageeshu,twentyditto CollegewherethePoeticalWorksareread KaleeKantuTurkuChooramunee,fiftystudents WheretheAstronomicalWorksareread GoorooPrusaduSiddhantuVageeshu,fiftystudents WheretheGrammarisread ShumbooNathuChooramunee,fivestudents. In1821,thejuniorMemberandSecretaryoftheGeneral Committee of Public Instruction, H.H. Wilson, Esquire, in prosecuting a special investigation on which he was deputed, collectedatthesametimesomegeneralinformationrespecting thestateoflearningatNuddea.AtthatperiodNuddeacontained abouttwentyfiveestablishmentsforstudy.Thesearecalled tols, andconsistofathatchedchamberforthepunditandtheclass, and two or three ranges of mudhovels in which the students reside.Thepunditdoesnotliveonthespot,butcomestothe tol everydayonwhichstudyislawfulatanearlyhourandremains tillsunset.Thehutsarebuiltandkeptinrepairathisexpense, and he not only gives instructions gratuitously but assists to feedandclothehisclass,hismeansofsodoingbeingderived fromformergrantsbytherajahofNuddea,andpresentsmade to him by the zemindars in the neighbourhood at religious festivals,thevalueofwhichmuchdependsonhiscelebrityasa teacher.Thestudentsareallfullgrownmen,someofthemold men.Theusualnumberina tol isabouttwentyortwentyfive, butinsomeplaces,wherethepunditisofhighrepute,thereare fromfiftytosixty.Thewholenumberissaidtobebetween500 and 600. The greater proportion consists of natives of Bengal, buttherearemanyfromremotepartsofIndia,especiallyfrom thesouth.TherearesomefromNepaulandAssam,andmany from the eastern districts, especially Tirhoot. Few if any have means of subsistence of their own. Their dwelling they obtain fromtheirteacher,andtheirclothesandfoodinpresentsfrom himandtheshopkeepersandlandholdersinthetownor

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neighbourhood.Attheprincipalfestivalstheydisperseforafew daysinquestofalms,whentheycollectenoughtosustainthem till the next interval of leisure. The chief study at Nuddea is nyayuorlogic;therearealsosomeestablishmentsfortuitionin law,chieflyintheworksofRaghunandana,acelebratedNuddea pundit,andinoneortwoplacesgrammaristaught.Someofthe students, particularly several from the Dekhin, speak Sanscrit withgreatfluencyandcorrectness. TheaccountbyMrWilsonisthelatestandprobablythe mostcorrectofthestateoflearningatNuddea.Thevariationsin thenumberofcollegesandstudentsatthedifferentperiodsare deserving of attention. According to the respective authorities therewerein1816fortysixschoolsand380students;in1818 thirtyone schools and 747 students; and in 1829 twentyfive schools,containingfrom5to600students.Itwouldthusappear that, within the last twenty years, the number of schools has diminished,andthenumberofscholarshasuponthewholein creased.Thiswouldseemtosupporttheinferencethatthereis now,intheclassfromwhichstudentsaredrawn,andincreased disposition to study Hindoo learning, accompanied by a diminished ability or inclination in the class by which the colleges are principally supported, to incur the expense of encouraging new tols proportioned tothe increased numberof students. SeveralofthoseschoolsofHindoolearninginNuddeaare supportedoraidedbysmallannualallowancesfromtheBritish Government. Thus in 1813, Ramchandra Vidyalankara who enjoyedanannualallowance ofrupees71,inconsiderationof his keeping up a chaupari or seminary, died. Application was shortlyafterwardsmadetotheCollectorofthedistrict,andby him referred to the Revenue Board, for the assignment of his allowancetoanativewhoclaimeditastheheirofRamchandra Vidyalankara, but the proofs of his right of succession or qualificationsnotbeingsatisfactory,itwasnotgrantedtohim. In1818,BalanathSiromanipreferredaclaimtothisallowance as the son of Ramchandra Vidyalankara and his successor in the chaupari.OnreferenceofthisclaimtotheRevenueBoard, the Collector was ordered to ascertain whether Balanath Siromani did actually keep a seminary in Nuddea; and it appearing on enquiry that he kept a chaupari in which he educated eight pupils in the tarka or nyayu shastra, the government determined in June 1820, that the pension of rupees71shouldbecontinuedtohimandthearrearspaidup.

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InJune,1818,applicationwasmadetotheRevenueBoard through the Collector of Nuddea, on behalf of Sivnath Vidya Vachaspati,forapensionorallowanceofrupees90perannum, which had been enjoyed by his father Sukra Tarkavagis, in consideration of his maintaining a seminary in Nuddea. The Boardorderedthecontinuanceofthepensionandthepayment ofarrears. InNovember,1819,anapplicationwasmadethroughthe CollectorofNuddeatotheBoardofRevenue,onbehalfofSriram Siromani,forapensionorallowanceofrupees36perannum,in consideration of his keeping up a chaupari or seminary at Nuddea,whichhadbeenfoundedandendowedbytherajahof Nattore. It was in this case also ascertained that Sriram Siromani did keepup the seminary in whichthere were three pupils, and the allowance together with the arrears was accordinglyorderedtobepaidtohim. Asimilardecisionwaspassedin1819infavourofRamjaya TarkaBangka,confirmingtohimanannualallowanceofrupees 62,inconsiderationofhiscontinuingtomaintainaseminaryin Nuddeainwhichheeducatedfivepupils. In1823,itwasrepresentedtotheBoardofRevenuethata Native College existed in the town of Nuddea in which Ramchandra Tarkavagis taught the puranas, on account of which he petitioned for the annual pension or allowance from governmentofsiccarupees24,whichhadbeenenjoyedbyhis fatherwhileresidentinRajshahy,andwhichhesolicitedmight be continued to him in Nuddea. The Revenue Board directed theirnazirtomakeenquiryastothefactsstated,andtoreport theresult.HeaccordinglyreportedthatRamchandraTarkavagis did keep a seminary in the town of Nuddea in which he maintainedandinstructedintheshastras31students,ofwhose namesalistwasdeliveredinandthathehaddonesofornine years then last past. Under these circumstances, the Board recommendedandthegovernmentdeterminedthatthepension shouldbecontinuedtoRamchandraTarkavagis,andthearrears whichhadaccruedsincethedeathofhisfatherbepaidtohim. In 1829, the Committee of Public Instruction received orders to examine and report upon a petition to government from certain students at Nuddea, claiming the restoration or continuance of an allowance amounting to 100 rupees per month. The Committee deputed their junior Member and Secretary, and ascertained that all those students who came fromplacesmore

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than three days journey from Nuddea had hitherto depended verymuchuponthis grantfromgovernmentwhichgavethem fromtwelveannastoonerupeeamonth,andnearlysufficedto procure them food. The amount of the grant that reached the studentswasinfactbut90rupees,10beingsetapartforsome ceremony. The number of foreign students was generally between100to150,andtherewereaboutthelatternumberat thattimeatNuddeaawaitingtheresultoftheirpetition.Ifnot compliedwith, theywouldhavefound itnecessarytoquitthe place.MrWilsonmadeparticularenquiryofthestudentswith respect to the distribution of the allowance and entire satisfaction was uniformly expressed on this subject. A petty suraforpodaraccompaniedbyoneoftheirnumberisdeputed to receive the allowance at the Collectors Treasury. On his returnhedividesitamongtheforeignstudentswhosepresence inthetownisperfectlywellknown.Thepodar,whomMrWilson saw, keeps a shop for the sale of grain, and supplies the studentswithfood,advancingthemoccasionalmaintenanceon thecreditoftheirmonthlyallowance.Theyarecommonlyinhis debt,butheistoounimportantapersonage,andthestudents aretoonumerous,andasBrahmanstooinfluential,forhimto practiceanyfrauduponthem.Theallowance,hehas,nodoubt, is fairly distributed; and although the value of the learning acquired at Nuddea may not be very highly estimated by Europeans, yet it is in great repute with the natives, and its encouragementevenbythetriflingsumawardedisagracious andpopularmeasure.Therecanbenodoubtofitsbeingavery essential benefit to those students who have no other fixed meansofsupport.OnMrWilsonsreportitwasdeterminedto continue the allowance of rupees 100 per month to the petitioners. Little is said by any of the authorities to which I have referred of the schools of learning in this district beyond the townofNuddea;buttherecanbenodoubtthatsuchexistat Santipore, Kishnaghur,andotherplaceswithinthedistrict.Mr Ward mentions transiently that, at Koomaru Hutta and Bhatpara, villages in this district, there are perhaps seven or eight such schools. At Santipore there was formerly a small Government endowment which appears to be at present in abeyance. In 1824, an application was made through the Collector of Nuddea to the Board of Revenue by Devi Prasad NyayuVachaspatiBhattacharyya,asthebrotherofKaliPrasad TarkasiddhantaBhattacharyya,whohaddiedinthepreceding year,foranannualallowanceorpensionofsiccarupees15611 10, in consideration to his keeping a seminary in the town of Santipore.

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Enquiriesweremadeastothecharacterofthedeceasedwhois stated to have been a pundit of great ability, having when he died about10 students undertuition. It also appeared by the evidenceproducedontheoccasionthatthebrotherandpresent claimantassistedthedeceasedinthetuitionofhisstudentswho resided with him, and that they read the dharma shastra or worksonlaw.Theinformationthusproducednotseemingtothe Board of Revenue satisfactory, the Collector was directed to make further enquiries respecting the originand the extent of the endowment and the service rendered, but his final report doesnotappearontherecords. Ihavealreadymentionedthenatureofthereport,madeby theJudgeandMagistrateofthisdistrictin1801,thattherewere noseminarieswithinthedistrictinwhicheithertheHindooor Mahomedan law was taught, and I have met with no direct evidence to establish the existence of any Mahomedan institutions. With a considerable proportion, however, of Mahomedan population it seems exceedingly improbable that they should be entirely destitute of such institutions of educationasarefoundtoexistinotherdistricts.

DACCA&JALALPUR:(p.85)
Hamiltonspeaksofcertainschoolsinthedistrictinwhich theprinciplesorrathertheformsofHindooreligionandlaware taught, but I have not been able to trace any further details respectingthem.IfindnottheremotestreferencetoMahomedan schoolsinadistrictremarkableforalargeproportionofMoslem inhabitants. The public functionaries in1823 reported tothe General Committeethatnograntsorendowmentsofanydescriptionfor thepurposeofeducationwereknowntoexistinthedistrict.

BACKERGUNGE:(p.86)
Ihavenotbeenabletoobtainanyinformationrespecting indigenousschools,eitherelementaryorlearned,inthisdistrict, andIcanonlyinferfromtheknownstateofeducationinother districts that here also such institutions must exist, although they have not in any way come under public notice. The Collectorin1823reportedthatnoendowmentsorfundsforthe purposesofeducationexistedinthedistrict.

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CHITTAGONG:(pp.8889)
Theofficialreportof1824makesnomentionofindigenous schools of learning, and it is probable that few exist in this district.Itis,however,statedthatthereismuchlandthathas been appropriated to charitable purposes, some for churches andsomeforthebenefitofthepoor,butnoendowmentswere knownatthattimetoexistforthebenefitofeducation. In1827,theCollectorofthedistrictwasdirectedtomake enquiries respecting a native institution supported by endowment,andtoreporttheresulttogovernment.Hereported thatMeerHinjahadbequeathedlandsfortheendowmentofa madrasa, and that they then yielded for the purpose of educationnotmorethanrupees1,570perannum,twothirdsof theendowmenthavingbeenjudiciallyassignedtothefounders childrenintheyear1790;thatwiththeremainingonethirdthe thenincumbentMaulaviAliMachtululKhanKemounprofessed himself unable to keep up the institution on its then present footing,whichprovidedfortheinstructionof50studentsandfor thesupportofthreeteachers,oneofArabicandtwoofPersian; that the number of students originally contemplated was 150; andthatthebuildingsconsistedofasmallmosqueingoodorder and twolowrangesofattachedhouses forthe dwellingofthe master and disciples, which were of little value. The Collector suggestedthatthelandswouldrealisetwicetheirpresentrental, if put up to the highest bidder by order of government; and submittedthattheyshouldbesorelet,andtheproceedspaidto the Maulavi in monthly installments, who in return should periodicallysubmithisaccountsandareportofthestateofthe institution to the Board of Revenue for the information of government. The GovernorGeneral in Council approved this suggestionanditwasorderedaccordingly.

TIPERA:(p.91)
Ihavenoinformationregardingeithercommonschoolsor schoolsoflearninginthisdistrict.Hamiltonstates,perhapstoo positively,thattherearenotanyregularschoolsorseminaries wheretheHindooandMahomedanlawsandreligionaretaught. InreplytoenquiriesmadebytheGeneralCommitteethelocal agentsofgovernmentstatedin1823thattheycouldnotdiscover that any endowments or funds of apublic nature existinthe district,orthatany grants have everbeenmadeapplicableto thepurposeofpublicinstruction.

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MYMUNSING:(p.92)
Hamiltonstatesthattherearenotanyregularseminaries inthisdistrictforteachingtheMahomedanlaw,butthatthere are two or three schools in each pergunnah for instruction in Hindoo learning. The district is divided into nineteen pergunnahs and six tuppas, in all twentyfive local sub divisions, which will give from 50 to 60 schools of Hindoo learninginthedistrict.Thescholarsaretaughtgratuitously,it beingdeemeddisgracefultoreceivemoneyforinstruction. Indigenous schools for learning imply the existence of indigenouselementaryschools,butIfindnomentionofthemin anyauthoritytowhichIhavereferred. The alleged nonexistence of Mahomedan schools in a districtinwhichtheproportionofMahomedanstoHindoosisas fivetotwoisincredible.

SYLHET:(p.93)
The information respecting the state of education in this districtisexceedinglyscanty.Hamiltonstatesthatthereareno regular schools and seminaries for teaching the Hindoo or Mahomedan law, but that in different places there are private schoolswhereboysaretaughttoreadandwrite.OfMymunsing the reverse was stated, that it had schools of learning, but nothing was said of elementary schools. It is probable that in Sylhettheformeraretobefoundaswellasthelatter,although neithermaybenumerousorveryefficient.

MOORSHEDABAD:(pp.9496)
In1801therewassaidtobeonlyoneschoolinthedistrict forinstructionintheMahomedanlaw,whilethereweretwenty forinstructionintheHindoolawsandcustoms.Itseemsvery probable that the number both of Hindoo and Mahomedan schoolsoflearningwasthenandstillismuchgreater. In December, 1818, the Collector of Moorshedabad forwardedtotheBoardofRevenuethepetitionofoneKaliKanth Sarma,prayingforthecontinuancetohimofapensionoffive rupeespermonth,whichhadbeengrantedtohisfather,Jaya RamNyayaPanchanan,bythelateMahaRaniBhawani,former zemindar of Chucklah Rajshahy, for the support of a Hindoo collegeatthatplace.TheCollectoraccompaniedthepetitionbya

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statementthatthepensionhad,asrepresented,beenenjoyedby the father of the petitioner and confirmed to him by the governmentonthereportoftheCollectorin1796,andthatthe petitioner was of good character and qualified for the superintendence of the college. The Revenue Board on forwarding this petition and the Collectors letter to the governmentobservedthatthepensionhadinfactlapsedtothe governmentin1811, thepetitioner notbeingthenqualified to dischargethedutiesoftheoffice,butthatitwasintendedfully to ascertain his fitness for the office and in the event of his competencytogiveittohim.Ongeneralprinciples,theBoard added,weentertaintheopinionthatpensionsgrantedforthe maintenanceofpublicinstitutionsforeducationandinstruction should not be resumed so long as they shall be appropriated bonafideforthepurposeforwhichtheywereassigned;andwe observe on reference to our proceedings that government has generally been pleased to continue pensions for similar purposes, the Board having previously ascertained the qualifications of the persons in whose favour they have been granted and we are accordingly induced to recommend the presentclaimtothefavourableconsiderationofhisLordshipin Council. On this recommendation the government confirmed KaliKanthSarmainthereceiptofthispension;anduponhis deceasein1821itwasbythesameauthorityconferredonhis brotherChandrasivaNyayalankarawhoseclaimwasundisputed andwhothenmaintainedsevenstudents,fiveofthemresident inhishouse. InJuly,1822,theCollectorofMoorshedabadforwardedto the Revenue Board a petition from Kishanath Nyaya Panchanand,thesonofRamkishoreSarma,reportingthedeath of his father, and praying the transfer and continuance to himself of a monthly pension of five rupees which had been grantedin1793forthesupportofaHindooseminaryat Vyspur nearColapur.TheCollectorreportedthepetitionertobetheheir and rightfulclaimant ofthe pensionand wellqualified for the performance of the duties of the school. Under these circumstances the transfer of the pension from the name of RamkishoreSarmatohissonKishanathNyayaPanchanandwas authorised.

BEERBHOOM:(pp.98100)
Ifind no accountof thestate of indigenous education in thisdistrict.Hamiltonissilentonthesubject,andinreplyto inquiries made by the General Committee in 1823, the local AgentofGovernmentstatedthattherewerenoseminariesfor

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theinstructionofyouthinthedistrict,eitherpublicorprivate, and, as I suppose must be understood, either elementary or learned. If, as I suspect, this statement is incorrect, it is the moreextraordinary,becausetheagentappearstohavetakena greatdealoftroubletocollectinformationregardingthemeans existinginthedistrictsupposedtobeapplicabletotheencour agementofeducation. Fromtheanalogyofotherneighbouring districts,itseemsincrediblethatthereshouldbenoschoolsof anykindamongstapopulationinwhichthereisaproportionof thirtyHindoostooneMahomedan. In 1820, a Hindoo named Sarbanand, who claimed succession to the officeof ojha or highpriest of the temple of Baidyanathalreadymentioned,madeanoffertothegovernment throughthelocalagenttogive5,000rupeesasanendowment foraNativeschoolinthedistrictonconditionthathisclaimto the succession of the ojhaship might be sanctioned and establishedbytheauthorityofgovernment.Fromanoticeofthis transactioncontainedintherecordsoftheGeneralCommittee, it would appear that he actually sent the money to the Collectorsoffice,andthatinadditiontotheestablishmentofa schoolhewishedittobe,inpart,expendedontheexcavationof a tank at Soory, the chief town of the district. The offer was declined, and Sarbanand informed that he must abide the regularadjudicationofthelawcourtsonhisclaim,whichproved unfavourable. The acting Agent and Collector in Beerbhoom in 1823 seems to have considered that the funds of the temple were liabletobeappliedtotheestablishmentofpublicinstitutions, butitdoesnotappearonwhatgroundsthisopinionwasformed. Accordingtooneaccountthecollectionsofthetempleaverage 30,000 rupees per annum, the amount depending on the number and liberality of the pilgrims. According to an official estimate made in 1822, the resources of the temple were supposedtobe1,50,000rupeesannually.Aspecificfactstated is that in two months the collections amounted to 15,000 rupees,butitisnotsaidwhetherthetwomonthswereinthe season of the year when the temple is most frequented. The presentappropriationoftherevenueafterproviding,Iconclude, for the current expenses of the temple, is to the support of religiousmendicantsanddevotees. The acting Agent and Collector also submitted two statementsofthequantityoflanddedicatedtovariousreligious purposes, expressing at the same time the opinion that the produce

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oftheseendowmentsisgenerallyestrangedfromthepurposesto which it was originally devoted, and enjoyed by persons who have no claim to it. He seems to have considered that these endowmentsalsowereapplicabletopurposesofeducationbut the reasons of theopinionarenotgiven.Thestatements were preparedfromthepublicregistriesoflandandIsubjointhem entire,noticinghereonlytheirgeneralresults.Thesearethatin twentytwo pergunnahs there are 8,348 beeghas, besides 39 separatemouzahsorvillagesof dewotturlands;16,331beeghas of nazar lands; 5,086 beeghas of chiraghi lands and 1,015 beeghasof pirottur lands.Infifteenotherpergunnahsthathad beenthenrecentlytransferredfromthedistrictofMoorshedabad tothatofBeerbhoom,thereare1,934beeghasof dewottur and 162ofpirotturlands,makingthewholeamount32,877beeghas of land, besides 39 villages. I have added tothe statements a brief explanation of the distinctive terms employed todescribe thedifferentsortsofendowedlands;andIhaverecordedthese endowments in this place because they were in some way connectedinthemindoftheactingAgentandCollectorwiththe meansexistinginthedistrictforthepromotionofeducation;but I would not be understood to express a concurrence in the opinion, if it was entertained, that their application to such a purpose could be rendered legally obligatory. As far as I can ascertain from the terms employed to describe them, they are religious endowments. With the voluntary consent of the holders,theyare,asIunderstand,capableofbeingappliedto promoteeducationwhenviewedasareligiousduty;butwithout that consent it would be unjust to employ them for such a purpose,anditwouldalsobeimprudentbytheemploymentof questionablemeansinpursuitofagreatpublicobject,suchas nationaleducation,torousethereligiousfeelingsofthecountry againstit.

RAJSHAHY:(pp.103104)
There is no doubt that in this district there are several schoolsofHindoolearning,butIfindnomentionofanyofthem except two which are supported by an allowance from government.InJune,1813,theCollectorofRajshahyforwarded to the Revenue Board a petition from Kassessur Bachusputy, Govindram Sirhat, and Hurram Surma Buttacharjee, stating thattheirfatherhadreceivedfromRaniBhawanianallowance of 90 rupees per annum for the support of a college, which allowanceonthedeceaseoftheirfatherhadbeencontinuedto their elder brother till his decease; and that since the date of thateventthey

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hadkeptuptheestablishment,andtherefore,prayedthatthe allowancemightbecontinuedtothem. TheCollectorcorroboratedtheavermentsinthispetition, observingthatKassessurdischargedthedutiesofonecollegein thetownofNattore,andthathistwobrothershadestablished anotherintheMofussil. TheRevenueBoard,inforwardingtheCollectorsletterand thepetitiontogovernment,observedthatthepensionhadbeen conferredbythe authorityofgovernmentonthe lateChundar Sikar Turkanshes for his life, on a representation from the Collectorthathehadnoothermeansofsubsistence,andwas properly qualified and taught the sciences gratis; that he was attended by many students; was the only capable teacher in Nattore; and that the continuance of his pension might be deemedapublicbenefit. TheRevenueBoardfurthersubmittedthat,asitappeared the brothers maintained the institutions of their father in full efficiency, the pension might be continued to them and their heirs in perpetuity, on the condition of their continuing to upholdtheseestablishmentsunderthesupervisionofthelocal agentsoftheBritishGovernment.TheBengalGovernmentfully acquiesced in this suggestion, and sanctioned the payment of theallowanceof90rupeesperannumontheconditionstated bytheRevenueBoard.

RANGPUR:(pp.106107)
Hamiltononthestateoflearninginthisdistrictsaysthata few Brahmans have acquired sufficient skill in astronomy to constructanalmanac,andfiveorsixPunditsinstructyouthina science named Agam, or magic, comprehending astrology and chiromancy. The latter is reckoned a higher science than the calculationofnativities,andismonopolisedbythesacredorder. The Mahomedans, he adds, having no wise men of their own, consult those of the Hindoos. This account of the state of learning is very unfavourable and is not quite correct. The Agamashastradoesnotmerelyteachastrologyandchiromancy, but is also occupied with the ritual observances of modern Hindooism,anditisnottheonlybranchoflearningtaughtin theschools. Fromdetailsfurnishedbythecanoongoes,itappearsthat in nine subdivisions of the district there are 41 schools of Sanskritlearningcontainingeachfrom5to25scholars,whoare

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taught grammar, general literature, rhetoric, logic, law, the mythological poems, and astronomy, as well as the Agama shastra.Thestudentsoftenprosecutetheirstudiestilltheyare thirtyfiveandevenfortyyearsofage,andarealmostinvariably the sons of Brahmans. They are supported in various ways first,bytheliberalityofthoselearnedmenwhoinstructthem; secondly,bythepresentstheyreceiveonoccasionsofinvitation toreligiousfestivalsanddomesticcelebrations;thirdly,bytheir relationsathome;andfourthly,bybegging,recoursebeinghad toonemeanswhenothersfail.Theinstructorsareenabledto assist their pupils, sometimes from their own independent means, sometimes from the occasional gifts they receive from others,andsometimesfromtheproduceofsmallendowments. At least ten are stated to have small grants of land for the support of learning, one of these consisting of 25 beeghas of Brahmotturland,andanotherof176beeghasofLakhirajland. Thequantityoflandintheothercasesinnotmentioned,butit isnotstatedtobegenerallyBrahmottur. Inoneinstanceitisstatedthattheowneroftheestateon whichtheschoolissituatedgavethePunditayearlypresentof 32rupees,andinanotherinstanceamonthlyallowanceof5or 8rupees.InathirdinstancethePunditoftheschoollivedonhis patrimony,andatthe sametimeactedasfamilypriesttothe zemindar.

DINAJPUR:(pp.112114)
Ofthetwentytwosubdivisionsofthedistrict,therearefif teenwithoutanyschoolsoflearning,andtheremainingseven have only sixteen schools. Most of the teachers possess lands whichenablethemtoprovidefortheirownsubsistenceaswell asthatoftheirpupils,andtheyreceivegiftsfromallHindoosof anydistinction.Thereis,however,nonecessityforapersonwho holdstheselandstoinstructyouth,andwhenthecelebrityofa teacher has procured large grants of land, his heirs, although theycontinuetoenjoytheestate,arenotboundtoteach.They mayretainthehightitleofPunditwithoutdevotingthemselves to the business of instruction or they may even betake themselvestothedegradingaffairsoftheworldwithoutforfeiting the property. Very much, however, to the credit of the Brahmans, such a neglect is not usual, and one son of the familycontinuesgenerallytoprofesstheinstructionofyouth.If thereareothersonstheyfollowtheirnaturalinclination.With suchasystem,howeverliberalitmaybeinappearance,andto

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whatever merit the individual professors are justly entitled, it mustbeevidentthattheworkofeducationwillgoonbutslowly. Itiseventobefearedthatitwouldaltogetherstop,wereitnot forthecharitywhichusuallyfollowsconsiderablereputationas ateacher. Students usually commence the study of the Sanskrit language about twelve years of age, after they have been instructed in the knowledge taught in the elementary schools. Theprincipalstudiesare,aselsewhereinBengal,grammar,law, andmetaphysicsandlessfrequentlythephilosophicaltheology oftheVeds,theritualofmodernHindooism,andastronomy,to whichmaybeaddedmedicineorrathermagic. The Vaidyas or medical tribe, and even some rich Kayasthas, are permitted to study such portions of Sanskrit literature as have been composed by wise men; but they are excludedfromwhateverissupposedtobeofdivineoriginand authority. Dr Buchanan remarks that the exclusiveness with which Sanskrit learning has been appropriated to the sacred tribe may have tended to increase the general ignorance; but thattherecanbenodoubtthatthosewhopossessitenjoyvery considerableadvantagesovertheircountrymen.TheBrahmans generally speaking have an intelligence and acuteness far beyond other Hindoos; and he further thinks that they are subjecttofewervices,andthatthosepersonswillbefoundto approachnearesttheirgoodqualitieswhoareadmittedevento theporchofscience.Hereaswellaselsewhereitwillbefound that although intellectual cultivation and moral excellence are neither identical nor always concomitant yet the addiction to intellectualpursuitsandenjoyments, coeteriesparibus,leadsto theelevationandimprovementofthemoralcharacter.Amongst the multiplied means, therefore, which civilisation and philanthropywillsuggestforthereformationofawholepeople, letusnotaltogetherneglectoneofwhich,howeverunfamiliarit may be to our conceptions, experience has established the utility, and which has in fact been the salt of the earth, preserving the country for centuries past amid general debasement and corruption from total ignorance and depravation. ItdoesnotappearthatthereisanyschoolinwhichArabic or thesciencesof theMahomedans aretaught,aremarkable factrespectingapopulousdistrictinwhichsolargeaproportion oftheinhabitantsisMahomedan. Although some of the Mahomedan priests can read the portions of the Koran that are appropriated for certain ceremonies,

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yetDrBuchananheardageneralcomplaintfromthekazisthat few understood a single word of that language and that the greaterparthad merelylearnedthe passagesbyroteso asto enablethemtoperformtheceremonies.

PURNEAH:(pp.119122)
Throughout the district Dr Buchanan reckoned 119 schools of this description, possessing various degrees of respectability.Thesubjectstaughtaregrammar,logic,andlaw, astronomyandthemodernritual,theteachersofthetwolatter, althoughclassedaslearnedmen,beinglessrespectedthanthe former.Someevenofthemostrespectedclasswerereputedto possessbutsuperficialacquirements.Thestudentsaresaidto be inattentive and to take long vacations. About as many studentsgotootherdistrictsfromPurneahasareattractedtoit from other quarters. No Pundit had above eight scholars altogetherwhichislessthantwoforeachteacher.ThePundits inthedistrict,includingtheprofessionalteachers,amountedto 247, but the claims of many to the title were deemed questionable. A great many other persons to the number of 1,800or1,900assumethetitleofPunditbutaredistinguished fromtheformerbythenameofdasakarmas.Theyofficiateas prieststotheSudras,andtowardstheWesttheyactinthesame capacityforverylowcastes;butinthosepartsfewcanreador write any language. They understand, however, the poetical legends when read, have acquired some knowledge of the marvelstheycontain,havecommittedtomemorythenecessary formsofprayer,andcanperformtheusualceremonies.Inthe easternpartsofthedistrict,wherethemannersofBengalpre vail, there is a class of Brahmans who officiate for the lower castesofSudras,andtheirknowledgeisnearlyonalevelwith thatofthedasakarmas.Thedasakarmas,whoactaspriestsfor thehigherorderofSudras,canreadandareabletoprayfroma book.Agoodmanyofthemhavestudiedforayearortwounder alearnedteacher,andhavesomeslightknowledgeofgrammar andlaw.Someofthemcanunderstandapartoftheceremonies whichtheyread,andsomealsocannotenativities.Averyfewof the medical tribe in the south east corner of the district have studiedthesacredtongue. Itis remarked thatscience isalmostentirely confined to twoofthecornersofthedistrict,theoldterritorycalledGour, and the small portion situated to the westof the Kosi. In the formercase,theeffectisattributedtothecareofanativepublic officerwhohadseveralestatesinthatvicinity,andstill

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retainedapartatthetimeofDrBuchanansinvestigation.He appointedsixpunditstoteach,andgavethemanallowancebe sidesthelandswhichtheypossess.Theyarereckonedhigherin rank than the other professors in the vicinity, and are called rajpundits.Thethirtyonepunditsinthatquarteraddictthem selveschieflytothestudyofgrammar,law,andthemythological poems. Logic and metaphysics are neglected, as well as astronomyandmagic.Inthewesternsideofthedistrictthere arenolessthanthirtythreeteacherswithinasmallspaceand thereastrologyaswellasmetaphysicsisstudied;mythological poemsarenotmuchreadandmagicisnotknown.Thenumber of the teachers is owing to the patronage of the Rajahs of Darbhanga to whom the greater part of the lands belong; but theirpatronagedidnotappeartobeveryefficacious,for,ofthe thirtythreePunditsinthewholeterritorywestoftheKosi,only eightwereconsideredwellversedinthesciencesandlearning, which they professed to teach, viz., one in logic and metaphysics,threeingrammar,andfourinastrology.Allthese areMithilaPundits. Dr Buchanan has communicated some details of the proportions in which the different branches of learning were studied. Eleven Pundits taught metaphysics; of these six confined themselves entirely to that branch; one also taught grammar,anotheraddedlaw;twootherswithlawalsoreadthe Sribhagvut;andonemanincludedthewholeofthesewithinthe range of his instructions. There were no less than thirtyone teachersofthelaw,ofwhomoneonlyconfinedhimselftothat pursuit; twenty of them taught one additional science; and of thesenineteentaughtgrammar,andonelogicandmetaphysics; eight taught two additional branches, of whom three taught grammar and explained the bhagvut, two taught logic and metaphysics and also explained the bhagvut, two taught grammarandthemodernritual,andonetaughtgrammarand astronomy. Two taught three other branches, one explaining grammar, logic and the mythological poems, and the other substitutingthemodernritualforlogic.Ofeleventeachersofthe astronomical works, ten professed nothing else. Of seven personswhotaughtthemodernritual,oneonlyconfinedhimself to it, two professed the law, three taught grammar and the metaphysicalpoems,andsixwereproficientsingrammar.Only fivePunditslimitedthemselvestotheteachingofgrammar. Withregardtothestateofmedicaleducationandpractice, Dr Buchanan ascertained that there were twentysix Bengalee practitionerswhousedincantations(muntras);thirtysevenwho

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rejectedthemandadministeredmedicine;andfiveMahomedan physicianswhoseemedtobelittlesuperiortotheHindoos.The doctrinesofbotharenearlythesame,andseemtobefounded ontheschoolofGalen.Thosewhopracticeatlargemakefrom 10 to 20 rupees a month. They do not keep their recipes or doctrines secret, but seemed to practice in a liberal manner, although without having gained a high reputation. A considerable number are servants, and attend on wealthy familiesforamonthlypension.Manyofthemcannotread.There isanotherclassofmedicalpractitionerswhorejectincantations and exhibit herbs. They have no books, and the greater part cannotreadthevulgartongue.Theyhavebeenearlyinstructed in the use of certain herbs in certain diseases. Dr Buchanan heard of about 450 of them, but they seemed to be chiefly confinedtotheHindoodivisionsofthedistrict,andtheyareheld in very low estimation. There is also a class of persons who professtotreatsores,buttheyaretotallyilliterateanddestitute ofscience,nordotheyperformanyoperation.Theydealchiefly inoils.Theonlypractitionerinsurgerywasanoldwoman,who hadbecomereputedforextractingthestonefromthebladder, whichsheperformedafterthemanneroftheancients. According to Dr Buchanan the science of the Arabs has beenexceedinglyneglectedinthisdistrict,sothatveryfeweven ofthekazisaresupposedtounderstandtheKoranoranyArabic workongrammar,lawormetaphysics.Hedidnothearofone manwhoattemptedtoteachanyofthesebranchesoflearning, and heexpressesadoubtwhetherevenonemanemployedin administeringtheMohammedanlawandborninthedistrictwas tolerably wellversed in the subject, or so well informed or liberallyeducatedasthecommonattorniesinacountrytownof England.

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III
W.ADAMONSTATEOFNATIVEMEDICALPRACTICE (pp.195200)
ThestateofNativeMedicalPracticeinthe(Rajshahy)districtis so intimately connected with the welfare of the people that it couldnotbewhollyoverlooked;andasthefewfactsthatIhave collected tend additionally to illustrate their character and condition, it would be improper to omit them. They are submitted with deference to those who may have made professionalinquiries,andcanformaprofessionaljudgmenton thesubject. The number of those, who may be called general practitioners and who rank highest in the native medical professioninNattoreis123,ofwhom89areHindusand34are Mahomedans. The Medical School at Vaidya Belghariya possesses considerable interest, since it is, as far as I can ascertain,theonlyinstitutionofthekindinthedistrict,andthe numberofsuchinstitutionsthroughoutBengalis,Ibelieve,very limited.Thetwomedicalteachersofthisschoolareemployedas domesticphysiciansbytwowealthyfamilies,andtheyhaveeach alsoarespectablegeneralpractice.Asadomesticphysician,the juniorteacherhasafixedsalaryoftwentyfiverupeesamonth; while the senior teacher in the same capacity has only fifteen rupeesamonth,andthatonlyaslonghisattendancemaybe requiredduringperiodsofsicknessinthefamilythatemploys him. I have spoken of that family as wealthy, but it is only comparatively so being in very reduced circumstances; and to that cause rather than to the low estimation in which the physician isheld,wemust ascribethe scantremuneration he receives.Atanotherplace,HajraNattore,No.26,therearethree educatedHindupractitioners,allthreeBrahmansandbrothers andmoreorlessacquaintedwithSanscrit,havingacquiredthe grammarofthelanguageatBejparaAmhatti,andsubsequently appliedtheirknowledgeofittothestudyofthemedicalworksin thatlanguage.Theeldesthaspractisedsincehewaseighteen, andheisnowsixtytwoyearsofage,andemployshisleisurein instructing his two nephews. On an average of the year he estimatestheincomederivedfromhispracticeatfiverupeesa month,whileoneofhisbrotherswhoisinlessreputeestimates his own income at three rupees. At a third place, Haridev Khalasi, No.100, there are four educated Hindu practitioners, threeofwhomappearedtobein

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considerablereputeforskillandlearning.Theywereallabsent, andIhadnotanopportunityofconversingwiththem;buttheir neighbours and friends estimated their monthly professional incomeateight,ten,andtwelverupees,respectively.Thereare at most two or three other educated Hindu physicians in Nattore,andalltherestareprofessionallyuneducated,theonly knowledgetheypossessofmedicinebeingderivedfromBengali translationsofSanscritworkswhichdescribethesymptomsof the principal diseases and prescribe the articles of the native materiamedicathatshouldbeemployedfortheircure,andthe proportions in which they should be compounded. I have not beenabletoascertainthatthereisasingleeducatedMusalman physician in Nattore, and consequently the 34 Mahomedan practitionersIhavementioned,rankwiththeuneducatedclass ofHindupractitioners,derivingalltheirknowledgeofmedicine fromBengalitranslationsofSanscritworkstotheprescriptions ofwhichtheyservilelyadhere. The only difference that I have been able to discover between the educated and uneducated classes of native practitionersisthattheformerprescribewithgreaterconfidence andprecisionfromtheoriginalauthorities,andthelatterwith greater doubt and uncertainty from loose and imperfect translations. Themodeoftreatmentissubstantiallythesame, andineachcaseisfixedandinvariable.Greatattentionispaid to the symptoms of disease, a careful and strict comparison beingmadebetweenthedescriptionsofthesupposeddiseasein the standard medical works and the actual symptoms in the case of the patient. When the identity is satisfactorily ascertained, there is then no doubt as to the practice to be adopted,foreachdiseasehasitspeculiarremedyintheworksof establishedrepute,andtodepartfromtheirprescriptionswould be an act of unheard of presumption. If, with a general resemblance, there should be some slight difference of symptoms, a corresponding departure from the authorised prescription is permitted, but only as regards the medium or vehicle through which it is administered. The medicines administered are both vegetable and mineral. The former are divided into those which are employed in the crude state, as barks,leaves,commonorwildroots,andfruitsetc.;andthose whicharesoldinthedruggistsshopascamphor,cloves,carda mums, etc. They are administered either externally or in the formsofpill,powder,electuary,anddecoction. Theprecedingclassofpractitionersconsistsofindividuals whoatbestknownothingofmedicineasascience,butpractise

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itasanartaccordingtoaprescribedroutine,anditmaywellbe supposed that many, especially of the uneducated class, are nothing but quacks. Still as a class they rank higher both in generalestimationandinusefulnessthanthevillagedoctors.Of thesetherearenotfewerthan205inNattore.Theyhavenotthe leastsemblanceofmedicalknowledge,andtheyingenerallimit theirprescriptionstothesimplestvegetablepreparations,either precededorfollowedbythepronouncingofanincantationand by striking and blowing upon the body. Their number proves thattheyareinreputeinthevillages;andthefactisascribable to the influence which they exercise upon the minds of the superstitiousbytheirincantations.Thevillagedoctorsareboth menandwomen;andmostofthemareMahomedans,likethe classtowhichtheyprincipallyaddressthemselves. The smallpox inoculators in point of information and respectability come next to the class of general practitioners. Thereare21oftheminNattore,forthemostpartBrahmans, butuninstructedandignorant,exercisingmerelythemanualart ofinoculation.Onemansometimesinoculatesfrom100to500 children in a day, receiving for each operation a fixed rate of paymentvaryingfromonetotwoannas;thelessamountifthe numberofchildrenisgreat,thegreateramountifthenumberis small.Thecowpoxhasnot,Ibelieve,beenintroducedintothis district amongst the natives, except at the head station. Elsewhere the smallpox inoculators have been found its opponents,but,asfarasIcanunderstand,theiroppositiondoes not arise from interested motives, for the cowpox inoculation wouldgivethemasmuchlabourandprofitastheynowhave. Theiroppositionarises,Iamassured,fromtheprejudiceagainst using cowpox.Thevenerationinwhichthecowisheldiswell known,andtheyfeartoparticipateinapracticewhichseemsto befoundedonsomeinjurydonetothatanimalwhenthematter was originally extracted. The spread of the cowpox would probablybemosteffectuallyaccomplishedbytheemploymentof Mussalman inoculators whose success might in due time convincetheBrahmaninoculatorsoftheirmistake. Midwives are another class of practitioners that may be noticed,althoughithasbeendeniedthatHindushaveany.An eminent London physician, in his examination before the MedicalCommitteeoftheHouseofCommons,isstatedtohave affirmedthattheinhabitantsofChinahavenowomenmidwives, andnopractitionersinmidwiferyatall.Ofcourse,itisadded, theAfricannationsandtheHindusarethesame.Ienquired

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andnotedthenumberofwomenmidwives(thereisnotaman midwifeinthecountry)inthevillagesofNattore,andfindthat theyamountto297.Theyarenodoubtsufficientlyignorant,as areprobablythemajorityofwomenmidwivesathome. Still lower than the village doctors there is a numerous classofpretenderswhogounderthegeneralnameofconjurors or charmers. The largest division of this class are the snake conjurors, their number in the single police subdivision of Nattorebeingnotlessthan722.Therearefewvillageswithout one,andinsomevillagesthereareasmanyasten.Icould,ifit wererequired,indicatethevillagesandthenumberineach;but insteadofincumberingTableIwithsuchdetails,Ihavejudgedit sufficienttostatethetotalnumberinthisplace.Theyprofessto curethebitesofpoisonoussnakesbyincantationsorcharms.In this districts,particularlyduring the rainy season, snakes are numerous and excite much terror among the villagers. Nearly the whole district forming, it is believed, an old bed of the Ganges, lies very low; and the rapid increase of the waters duringtherainyseasondrivesthelandsnakesfromtheirholes, andtheyseekrefugeinthehousesoftheinhabitants,whohope to obtain relief from their bites by the incantations of the conjurors.Thesetakenothingfortheperformanceoftheirrites, orforthecurestheypretendtohaveperformed.Allispecuniar ilygratuitoustotheindividualbuttheyhavesubstantialadvan tages which enable them to be thus liberal. When the inhabitants of a village hitherto without a conjuror think that they canafford to have one, they invite a professor of the art from a neighbouring village where there happens to be one to spare,andgivehimapieceoflandandvariousprivilegesand immunities.Hepossessesgreatinfluenceovertheinhabitants.If aquarreltakesplace,hisinterferencewillquellitsoonerthan that of any one else; and when he requires the aid of his neighbours in cultivating his plot of ground or in reaping its produce,itisalwaysmorereadilygiventohimthantoothers. Theartisnothereditaryinafamilyorpeculiartoanycaste.One Imetwithwasaboatman,anotherachowkidarandathirda weaver. Whoever learns the charm may practise it, but it is believedthatthosewhopractiseitmostsuccessfullyaretothe mannerborn,thatis,whohavebeenbornunderafavourable conjunction of the planets. Every conjuror seems to have a separatecharm,forIhavefoundnotwothesame.Theydonot objecttorepeatitmerelyforthegratificationofcuriosity,and theyallowittobetakendowninwriting.Neitherdotheyappear tohaveanymutualjealously,eachreadilyallowingthevirtueof otherincantationsthanhisown.

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Sometimes the pretended curer of snakebites by charms professesalsotopossessthepowerofexpellingdemons,andin other cases the expeller of demons disclaims being a snake conjuror. Demonconjurors are not numerous in Nattore; and tigerconjurorswhoprofesstocurethebitesoftigers,although scarcely heard of in that thana, are more numerous in those partsofthedistrictwherethereisaconsiderablespacecovered by jungle inhabited by wild beasts. Distinct from these three kindsofconjurorsandcalledbyadifferentnameisaclassof gifted (guni) persons who are believed to possess the power of preventing the fall of hail which would destroy or injure the cropsofthevillages.Forthispurposewhenthereisaprospect ofahailstorm,oneofthemgoesoutintothefieldsbelongingto the villages withatridentand abuffalos horn. Thetridentis fixedinthegroundandtheGiftedmakesawidecircuitaround it, running naked blowing the horn, and pronouncing incantations.Itisthefirmbeliefofthevillagersthattheircrops are by this means protected from hailstorm. Both men and women practise this business. There are about a dozen in Nattore, and they are provided for in the same way as the conjurors. Someofthesedetailsmayappear,andinthemselvesprobably are, unimportant, but they help to afford an insight into the character of the humblest classes of native society who constitute the great mass of the people, and whose happiness and improvement are identical with the prosperity of the country;andalthoughtheyexhibittheproofsofamostimbecile superstition,yetitissuperstitionwhichdoesnotappeartohave its origin or support in vice or depravity, but in a childish ignorance of the common laws of nature which the most imperfecteducationorthemostlimitedmentalcultivationwould remove.ThesesuperstitionsareneitherHindunorMahomedan, being equally repudiated by the educated portions of both classes of religionists. They are probably antecedent to both systems of faith and have been handed down from time immemorialasalocalandhereditaryreligionofthecultivators of the soil, who, amid the extraordinary changes which in successiveagesandundersuccessiveracesofconquerorsthis countryhasundergone,appearalwaystohavebeenleftinthe samedegradedandprostrateconditioninwhichtheyarenow found.

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(c)BOOKSUSEDINELEMENTARYSCHOOLS Abbreviations:Murshidabad=MD;SouthBeerbhoom=BM; S.Behar=SB;Burdwan=Bun;Tirhoot=TT

AnnexureE
HistoryofEducationinthePanjabsinceAnnexationandin1882

LEITNERONINDIGENOUSEDUCATIONINTHEPANJAB (EXTRACTS) GENERAL:

IamabouttorelateIhopewithoutextenuationormalice thehistoryofthecontactofaformofEuropeanwithoneof Asiaticcivilisation;how,inspiteofthebestintentions,themost publicspiritedofficers,andagenerousGovernmentthathadthe benefitofthetraditionsofotherprovinces,thetrueeducationof thePanjabwascrippled,checked,andisnearlydestroyed;how opportunitiesforitshealthyrevivalanddevelopmentwereeither neglectedorperverted;andhow,farbeyondtheblameattaching toindividuals,oursystemstandsconvictedorworsethanofficial failure.Whetheritispossibletorousetorenewedexertion,on behalfofitsowneducation,themostloyalpopulationthathas everbeendisappointed,isaquestionwhichthefollowingpages will only partially attempt to answer. Much will of course, depend on the wise adaptation of the noble principle just propoundedof localselfgovernmenttoadepartmentof the Administration,thatofeducation,inwhich,aboveallothers, itcanbeintroducedwithperfectsafetyandthegreatestpolitical advantage. Respectforlearninghasalwaysbeentheredeemingfeature oftheEast.TothisthePanjabhasformednoexception.Torn by invasion and civil war, it ever preserved and added to educational endowments. The most unscrupulous chief, the avariciousmoneylender,andeventhefreebooter,viedwiththe small landowner in making peace with his conscience by founding schools and rewarding the learned. There was not a mosque,atemple,adharmasalathathadnotaschoolattached toit,towhichtheyouthflockedchieflyforreligiouseducation. There were few wealthy men who did not entertain a Maulvi, Pandit or Guru, to teach their sons, and along with them the sons offriendsanddependents. Therewerealsothousands of secular

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schools,frequentedalikebyMahomedans,HindusandSikhs,in which Persian or Lunde was taught. There were hundreds of learned men who gratuitously taught their coreligionists, and sometimesallcomers,forthesakeofGodLillah.Therewasnot asinglevillagerwhodidnottakeaprideindevotingaportionof hisproducetoarespectedteacher.InrespectableMahomedan familieshusbandstaughttheirwives,andthesetheirchildren; nordidtheSikhsproveinthatrespecttobeunworthyoftheir appellation of learners and disciples. In short, the lowest computationgivesus3,30,000pupils(againstlittlemorethan 1,90,000atpresent)intheschoolsofthevariousdenominations whowereacquaintedwithreading,writing,andsomemethodof computation;whilstthousandsofthembelongedtoArabicand Sanskrit colleges, in which Oriental Literature and systems of OrientalLaw,Logic,Philosophy,andMedicineweretaughttothe higheststandards.Tensofthousandsalsoacquiredaproficiency in Persian, which is now rarely reached in Government and aidedschoolsorcolleges.Throughallschoolstherebreatheda spirit of devotion to education for its own sake and for its influenceonthecharacterandonreligiousculture;whilsteven the sons of Banyas who merely learnt what they absolutely required in order to gain a livelihood looked with respect, amounting to adoration, on their humble Pandhas, who had taughtthemtheelementsoftwoRs. We have changed all this. The annexation disturbed the minds of believers in Providence, and all that was respectable kept,asmuchaspossible,alooffromtheinvader,justasthe bestEnglishmanwouldnotbethefirsttoseekthefavourofa foreignconqueror.

CLASSIFICATIONOFINDIGENOUSSCHOOLS
I. SIKHINDIGENOUSEDUCATION 1. GurmukhiSchools

II. MOHAMMEDANINDIGENOUSEDUCATION 2. Maktabs 3. Madrasas,religiousandsecular 4. KoranSchools. III. HINDUINDIGENOUSEDUCATION 5. Chatsalas(forthetradingcommunity) 6. Patshalas(religious)

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7. 8.

Patshalas(semireligious) SecularSchoolsofvariouskindsandgrades

IV. MIXEDINDIGENOUSEDUCATION 9. PersianSchools 10. VernacularSchools 11. AngloVernacularSchools V. FEMALEINDIGENOUSEDUCATION 12. (a) FemaleSchoolsforSikhgirls (b) doMohammedangirls (c) InstructionatHinduhomes With amoreminute subdivisionthe indigenous schools might havetobeclassifiedasfollows: I. MAKTABSORMADRASAS 1. ArabicSchoolsandColleges(ofvariousgradesand specialities) 2. PersoArabicSchoolsandColleges(ofvariousgrades andspecialities) 3. KoranSchools(wheremerelyorchieflytheKoranis read) 4. PersoKoranSchools 5. KoranArabicSchools 6. PersoKoranArabicSchools 7. PersianSchools 8. PersianUrduSchools 9. PersianUrduArabicSchools 10. ArabicMedicalSchools 11. PersoArabicMedicalSchools

II. GURMUKHISCHOOLS 12. GurmukhiSchools 13. GurmukhiandLandeSchools III. MAHAJANISCHOOLS 14. LandeSchoolsofdifferentkinds(Chatsalas) 15. NagariLandeSchools(Chatsalas) 16. PersoLandeSchools IV. PATSHALAS 17. NagariSanscritSchools 18. SanscritreligiousSchools

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19. SanscritsecularliterarySchools(cultivatingvarious branches) 20. SanscritsemisecularSchools(cultivatingvarious branches) 21. SanscritMedicalSchools(Chiefly) 22. HindiSanscritSchools 23. SanscritastrologicalorastronomicalSchools(Chiefly) V. FEMALEINDIGENOUSSCHOOLS (classifiedasabove) LISTOFSANSCRITBOOKSUSED Balbodh Akshardipika I. GRAMMAR Saraswat Chandrika LaghuKaumudi Kaumudi Shekar Manorama Bhashya PaniniyaVyakaran SiddhantKaumudi PrakritaPrakasa MaliniKosh

II. LEXICOLOGY AmarKosh Halayudh

III. POETRY,THEDRAMAANDRELIGIOUSHISTORY RaghuVans Mahabharat MeghDuta Venisanhara Magh Sakuntala KiratArjun NaishadhaCharita Ramayan Mrichhakatika SriMadBhagwat KumaraSambhava andotherPuranas IV. RHETORIC KavyaDipik SahityaDarpana Kuvlayanund KavyaPrakash DasuRupa

V. MATHEMATICS,ASTRONOMY,ANDASTROLOGY SiddbantShiromani NilKanthi MahurtaChintamani BrihatJatak ShighraBodh Parasariya GarbhLagana

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VI. MEDICALSCIENCE ShamRaj Susruta Charaka MadhavaNidan VII. LOGIC NyayaSutraVritti Vyutpattivad TarkSangrah VIII.VEDANT AtmaBodh Sarirak PanchDashi IX. LAW ManuSmriti YagyaValk Gautama Mitakshara X. PHILOSOPHY SankhyaTatwaKaumudi

Nighant SharangDhar BhashyaParichehed Vagbhat Gadadhari Tarkalankar Karikavali

ParasaraSmriti

Patanjali,SutraBrittiSutra withBhashya SankhyaPravachanBhashya Vedanta,Vedantsar(see YogaSutra alsoabove) Vaiseshika,Siddhant Mimansa,Sutrawith MuktavaliSutrawith BhashyaArthaSangraha acommentary VrittaRatnakar Vasavadatta

XI. PROSODY SrutBodh XII.PROSELITERATURE Hitopadesa DasaKumaraCharita XIII.RELIGION RigvedaSanhita(rare) Yajurveda,ShuklaYajur VajasneyiSanhita

Samaveda,MantraBhaga ChhandasyaArchika(very rare)

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AnnexureF

CorrespondencebetweenMahatmaGandhiand SirPhilipHartog

MAHATMAGANDHIONINDIGENOUSEDUCATION
...That does not finish the picture. We have education of this futurestate. I say withoutfearof myfiguresbeingchallenged successfully,thattodayIndiaismoreilliteratethanitwasfifty orahundredyearsago,andsoisBurma,becausetheBritish administrators,whentheycametoIndia,insteadoftakinghold ofthingsastheywere,begantorootthemout.Theyscratched thesoilandbegantolookattheroot,andlefttherootlikethat, and the beautiful tree perished. The village schools were not goodenoughfortheBritishadministrator,sohecameoutwith hisprogramme.Everyschoolmusthavesomuchparaphernalia, building,andsoforth.Well,therewerenosuchschoolsatall. TherearestatisticsleftbyaBritishadministratorwhichshow that, in places where they have carried out a survey, ancient schools have gone by the board, because there was no recognitionfortheseschools,andtheschoolsestablishedafter the European pattern were too expensive for the people, and therefore they could not possibly overtake the thing. I defy anybodytofulfillaprogrammeofcompulsoryprimaryeducation ofthesemassesinsideofacentury.Thisverypoorcountryof mine is very ill able to sustain such an expensive method of education. Ourstate would revive the old village schoolmaster anddoteveryvillagewithaschoolbothforboysandgirls. Question(SIRPHILIPHARTOG):WouldMrGandhigivehis authorityforthestatementthatliteracyhaddiminishedinIndia duringthelastfiftyyears? Mr Gandhi replied that his authority was the Punjab Administration Reports, and said that he had published in YoungIndiaastudyofthePunjabeducationalstatistics. SIR PHILIP HARTOG: Would Mr Gandhi explain why the literacy figure was fourteen percent of the men and only two percentofthewomen,andwhyilliteracywashigherinKashmir andHyderabadthaninBritishIndia?

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Mr Gandhi replied that the womens education had been neglected,totheshameofthemen.Hecouldonlyconjecture, with regard to the figures for Kashmir, that if illiteracy was greaterthere,itwasduetothenegligenceoftherulerorbecause the population was predominantly Mohammedan, but he thoughtthat,asamatteroffact,itwassixoftheoneandhalfa dozenoftheother. from InternationalAffairs,London,November1931:from a long speechbyMahatmaGandhi, onOctober20,1931 held under the auspices of the Royal Institute of International Affairs at Chatham House, London; the meeting was attended by influential Englishmen and Englishwomen drawn from all parts of England. Lord othian,whowasoneoftheBritishchairmenattheRound TableConferenceonIndia,presidedatthismeeting. (Theabovetextiscopiedfrom CollectedWorks,Vol.48,pp.199200,2012)

. . .
5, Inverness Gardens, W.8. 21stOctober,1931 M.K.Gandhi,Esq., RoundTableConference, St.JamesPalace, S.W.1. DearMrGandhi, IunderstoodyoutosaylastnightattheRoyalInstituteof International Affairs that you could prove on the evidence of BritishofficialsthatliteracyhaddiminishedinBritishIndiain the last fifty or hundred years. In reply to my request for the precise authority for this statement you mentioned a Punjab AdministrationReport,(without, however,givingthedate,)and saidthatwhathadhappenedinthePunjabmusthavehappened in the rest of India. You mentioned, too, an article in Young India, but also without giving its date. The subject is one in whichIhavetakenadeepinterestforsomeyears,andIshould begrateful,therefore,ifyouwouldverykindlygivemeprecise referencestotheprinteddocumentsonwhichyourstatements werebased,sothatImayconsultthem. Youwill,Ifeelsure,forgivemeforpointingoutthatthe

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assumptionthatwhathappensintheeducationalworldinthe Punjab necessarily happens in the rest of India is a mistaken one.ItisgenerallyrecognisedthatthePunjabhasmademore rapidadvancesinprimaryeducationinthelast10or15years thananyotherprovinceinIndia. Inreplytomyquestionabouttheinferiorityoftheliteracy in the two largest Indian States, Kashmir, (Predominantly Mohammedan with a Hindu ruler), and Hyderabad, (Predominantly Hindu with a Mohammedan ruler), you suggested that perhaps Kashmir was educationally backward because it was predominantly Mohammedan, but this left the backwardness of Hyderabad as compared with British India unexplained.Probablythefactshadnotbeenpreviouslybrought toyournotice. Ifyoushouldfindultimatelythattheinferencefromyour remarksthatbackwardnessinliteracyandeducationhasbeen due to British administration in India was unjustified, I feel certainthatyouwouldwishtocorrectyourstatement. Iam Yourssincerely, Sd/PhilipHartog

M.K.GandhiEsq., RoundTableConference, St.JamesPalace, S.W.1

. . .
88,Knightsbridge, London,W. 23rdOctober,1931 DearFriend, Inadvertently, I have no doubt, you have omitted to sign yourletter,butastheaddressisfullygiven,Iamhopingthat thisletterwillreachyou. YouwillrealisethatIcouldnotoffhandgiveyouthedates, but since you would gladly study the whole question, I would find out the numbers of Young India in which the articles appearedandsendthereferencestoyou.Ishallalsofindout whatispossibletoprovewithreferencetotheotherprovinces, apartfromthedeductionsthatIhavedrawnfromthePunjab. Meanwhile, I have no difficulty in drawing the deduction from therest

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oftheProvincesfromtheexamplesofthePunjabandBurma. Whatever may be the strides made by the Punjab during the past five or ten years, cannot affect the argument that I have advancedtoyou. About Kashmir, as I said in reply, mine was merely a conjecture, but since you are so interested in the question, I shalltryandfindoutthetruestateofeducationinKashmir. Youarequiterightinfeelingcertainthatiftherewereany errorinmyreasoningorthefactsthatIstated,Ishouldimme diatelycorrectthem,andwhilstIshouldtrytoverifymorefully thestatementsthatImade,youwillalsoonyourpartobligeme bygivingmesuchinformationasmaybeinyourpossessionand asmayhelpmetounderstandthetruth. Yourssincerely, Sd/M.K.Gandhi P.M.C.

. . .
5,InvernessGardens,W.8. 27thOctober1931 DearMrGandhi, I am much obliged by your very friendly letter of 23rd Octoberandmustapologiseforhavingomittedtosignmyownof the 22nd. I must have signed the carbon copy instead of the copysent. I shall be grateful for the references to the articles in YoungIndiawhichyoupromiseme,andIwillverifythemand giveyoumyopinionofthem. Table55

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In reply to your request for the sources of my own knowledgeofthehistoryofeducationinIndia,Iwouldreferyou to the sources quoted in the report of the Calcutta University Commission of which I was Chairman (Interim Report of the Indian Statutory Commission, H.M. Stationery Office, Cmd. 3407,1929),andespeciallytotheliteracyfigures,takenfromthe census reports and quoted on p.382 of Vol.1 of the Simon Report,whichIsubjoin: In1911thefigureforBritishIndiawas12%;andin1881 8%.Ithasalwaystoberememberedthatthesepercentagesare adversely affected by the existence of nearly 20,000,000 aboriginals and hill tribes, as well as by the educational backwardnessofafargreaternumberofuntouchables. You willnotice that thefigure for males for British India increasedfrom8%in1881(50yearsago)to12%in1911and 14.4%in1921,notarapidincrease,butstillanincrease. In Travancore and Cochin you have a large number of IndianChristians.InBarodathesystemofcompulsoryprimary educationtakenfromWesternmodels,begantobeintroducedin 1893. The census figures, as you well see, are in complete contradictionwithyourassertionthatliteracyhasdiminishedin BritishIndiainthelastfiftyyears. ThefiguresforHyderabad(preponderatinglyHinduwitha Mohammedanruler),andforKashmir(preponderatinglyMuslim withaHinduruler)seeminexplicableifyouattributeilliteracyto Britishadministration. IwouldreferyoualsotothechapteronEducationwhichI have contributed to Modern India (Oxford University Press, 1931), and finally to a work by an advanced Indian political thinker, the late Lala Lajpat Rai (National Education in India, 1920),whoseviews,thoughinmanywaysopposedtoyourown, Iamsureyouwouldfindinteresting. I welcome your decision, of which I felt assured beforehand,thatyouwillimmediatelycorrectyourstatement,if you are convinced that it is erroneous, and I look forward to yourdoingso. Believeme, Yourssincerely, Sd/PhilipHartog

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5,InvernessGardens,W.8. 13thNovember,1931 M.K.Gandhi,Esq. 88,Knightsbridge,W. DearMrGandhi, I wrote on October 27th in reply to your letter to me of October23rd,buthavenotyetreceivedfromyouthepromised references to the documents (a Punjab Administration Report andthearticlesinYoungIndia)onwhichyourstatementthat literacy had diminished in British India during the last fifty yearswasbased. Incasemyletterofthe27thmayhavemiscarriedIenclose acopyofit,andamsendingthistoyoubyregisteredpost. Iam, Yourssincerely, Sd/PhilipHartog M.K.Gandhi,Esq. 88,Knightsbridge W.

. . .
88,Knightsbridge,S.W.1. (PostMarkNov.14,1931) (ToSirPhilipHartog,London) DearFriend, MrGandhihasyourletterofthe27thOctober.Hehasnow beenabletosecurethefilesofYoungIndiafor1920andwants metosendyoutheenclosedcopies. Yourssincerely, MahadeoDesai. (seefollowingpage)

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COPYOFARTICLETAKENFROMYOUNGINDIA 8THDECEMBER1920 THEDECLINEOFMASSEDUCATIONININDIA

(ByDaulatRamGupta,M.A.) It is generally believed that from the time the British Govern menthavetakenintheirhandsthedutyofeducatingthepeople ofIndia,inaccordancewiththeParliamentarydispatchof1854, thecountryhasmaderemarkableprogressineducation,inso farasthenumberofschools,thenumberofscholars,andthe standardofeducationareconcerned.Itwillbemybusinessto prove,thatwehavemadenosuchprogressintheserespects,a factwhichwillbestartlingtosomeandarevelationtoothers and in so far as our mass education is concerned, we have certainlymadeadownwardmovesinceIndiahaspassedtothe BritishCrown. The advent of British Rule found in India systems, of education of great antiquity and value existing among both Hindus and Mussalmans, in each case closely bound up with theirreligiousinstitutions.Therewasnotamosque,atemple,a Dharamsala,thathadnotaschoolattachedtoit.Togiveand receiveinstructionwasregardedasareligiousduty.Schoolsof learningwereformedincentrescontainingaconsiderablehigh caste population, where Pandits gave instruction in Sanskrit, grammar,logic,philosophyandlaw. For the lower classes, village schools were scattered over thecountryinwhichagoodrudimentaryeducationwasgivento thechildrenofpettytraders,cultivatorsandlandlords.Thevery factthateveryfamilyoftheDWIJA(twiceborn)andeveryguild ofthemixedcastes,andeveryvillageofanyimportance,hadits ownpriest,andthatitwasenjoineduponthepriesttoteachas wellastoministertoreligion,leadsonetothebelief,onstrong prima facie grounds, that education was very widely diffused amongthepeople. ThehighereducationoftheMussalmanswasinthehands of men of learning. Schools were attached to mosques and shrinesandsupportedbythestategrantincashorland,orby private liberality. The course of study in a Muslim Madrassa includedgrammar,rhetoric,logic,literature,jurisprudence,and science. Thus,inMadras,inaninquiryconductedbySirThomas Munroin1826,itisstatedthatin1826therewere11,758

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indigenous schools and 740 colleges giving instruction to 1,57,664 boys, and 4,023 girls. (Vide Education Commission ReportbytheMadrasProvincialCommittee1884).Itistherefore estimated, that considering the population in that period (123,50,941)elementaryindigenouseducationwasimpartedto about onefourth of the boys of schoolgoing age. It was also estimatedthattherewasatleastoneschooltoevery1,000ofthe population.Butasonlyafewfemalesweretaughtinschools,we mayreckononeschooltoevery500ofthepopulation. Mr Munro, (as he then was) further supplements this estimate of the spread of education with the following observation: Iam,however,inclinedtoestimatetheportionofthemale population,whoreceiveschooleducation,toonethirdthan onefourthofthewhole,becausewehavenoreturnofthe numberstaughtathome. In1826,suchwasthestateofpurelyindigenouseducation inaprovincewhichhadbeenunderBritishinfluenceforovera century and was, therefore, fast disintegrating old institutions andadoptingnewones. InBengal,MrW. Adam,conductedasimilarinquiryand found that in 1835 a network of primitive Vernacular schools existedthroughoutBengal,andheestimatedtheirnumbertobe aboutonelakh.TheSadlerCommissionhaspointedoutthatno attempt was made to develop these schools. Government preferredtodevoteitsenergiestosecondaryandhigherschools, onthetheorythat,ifWesterneducationwereintroducedamong theupperclasses,itwouldfilterdownbyanaturalprocessto the lower classes. Practically all the public funds available for educationwereexpendedonschoolsandcollegesfoundedand controlled by Government, and nothing was spent upon indigenous schools, and as rentfree lands attached to these schools were resumed, the schools were left without any financialaidandnaturallycollapsed. Thepurposeofallthiswaspolitical.SirSankaran Nairin hismasterlyMinuteofDissentwrites: Efforts were made by the government to confine higher education and secondary education, leading to higher education, to boys in affluent circumstances...Rules were made calculated to restrict the diffusion of education generally and among the poorer boys in particular . Conditionsforrecognitionforgrantsstiffandvarious werelaiddownandenforced,andthenonfulfillmentof anyoneofthese

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conditions was liable to be followed by serious consequences. Fees were raised to a degree, which, consideringthecircumstancesoftheclassesthatresortto schools, were abnormal. When it was objected that minimumfeewouldbeagreathardshiptopoorstudents theanswerwas suchstudentshadnobusinesstoreceive that kind of education. Managers of private schools who remitted fees in whole or in part, were penalised by reducedgrantsinaid. Thus, by this policy, education was only confined to the welltodoclasses. They it was believed would give no trouble to the Government.SriSankaranNair,therefore,concludesthat, Itistheuniversalbelief,andthereislittledoubtthatfacts unfortunately tend to prove it, that primary English Education for the masses, and higher education for the higherclassesarediscouragedforpoliticalreasons.Higher, professional, industrial and technical education is discouragedtofavour Englishindustriesandrecruitment inEnglandofEnglishofficials. InthePunjabthestateofindigenouseducationwasmuch better because of the special efforts made by Maharaja Ranjit Singhtopromotelearning.Dr Leitner,whowasthePrincipalof theOrientalCollegeandGovernmentCollege,Lahore,andwho also officiated for some time as Director of Public Instruction, Punjab,conductedaverythoroughgoinginquiryintothestate ofindigenouseducationinthePunjab,andinhisbookonthe HistoryofIndigenousEducationinthePunjab,hewrites: IamabouttorelateIhopewithoutextenuationormalice thehistoryofthecontactofaformofEuropean,withone of the Asiatic, civilisation; how in spite of the best intentions, the most publicspirited officers, and a generousgovernmentthathadthebenefitofthetraditions of other provinces, the true education of the Punjab was crippled, checked and is nearly destroyed; how opportunitiesforitshealthyrevivalanddevelopmentwere either neglected or perverted; and how, far beyond the blame attaching to individuals, our system stands convictedofworsethenofficialfailure. Hethereforewrites: I fear that my account of the decline of indigenous educationinthePunjabmayoffendsomeprejudicesand oppose

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someinterests.Ihavetoappealtorulerstoputthemselves in the position of the ruled, if they wish to understand them...andboththewriterofthesepagesandthereader must endeavour to divest themselves of every preconception.Indeed,themanhassooftendescribedthe struggle with the lion, that it would be well to sketch a picture which the lion might have drawn had he been a painter. Referring to the educational glory of the Punjab before annexationhewrites: Respectforlearninghasalwaysbeentheredeemingfeature oftheEast.TothisthePunjabformednoexception.Torn byinvasionandwar,iteverpreservedandaddedtoeduca tional endowments. The most unscrupulous chief, the avaricious money lender, and even the freebooter, vied with the small landowner in making peace with his consciencebyfoundingschoolsandrewardingthelearned. Therewasnotamosque,atemple,aDharamsala,thathad not a school attached to it, to which the youth flocked chieflyforreligiouseducation.Therewerefewwealthymen whodidnotentertainaMaulvi,Pandit,orGurutoteach their sons, and along with them the sons of friends and dependents.Therewerealsothousandsofsecularschools, frequented alike by Mahomedans, Hindus and Sikhs, in whichPersianorHindiwastaught.Therewerehundredsof learnedmenwhogratuitouslytaughttheircoreligionists, and sometimes all comers, for the sake of God, Lillah. Therewasnotasinglevillagewhodidnottakeapridein devotingaportionofhisproducetoarespectedteacher .In respectable Mahomedan families husbands taught their wives,andthesetheirchildren;nordidtheSikhsprovein thatrespecttobeunworthyoftheappellationofLearners and disciples. In short the lowest computation gives us 3,30,000 pupils in the schools of the various denominationswhowereacquaintedwithreading,writing and some method of computation, whilst thousands of them belonged toArabic and SanskritColleges, inwhich oriental literature and system of oriental law, logic, philosophy and medicine were taught to the highest standards.Tensofthousandalsoacquiredaproficiencyin Persian which is now rarely reached in government and aided schools and colleges. Through all schools there breathedaspiritofdevotiontoeducationforitsownsake, and for its influence on the character and on religious culture;whilsteventhesonsofBaniaswhomerely

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learnt what they absolutely required in order to gain a livelihood,lookedwithrespect,amountingtoadoration,on their humble Pandhas, who taught them the elements of twoRs. DrLeitnerfurtherdescribesthestateoffeelingwithrespect toeducationinthePunjab.Hewrites: ThePunjab isclassicground. Not merelythe celebrated countrybetweenSutlejandtheJumna,butalsothewhole provinceteemswithnoblerecollections.Thehistoryofits culturewilltellusofasimpleworship...........ofanardent republicanism allied to the most chivalrous devotion to chiefs, of capacity for selfGovernment not equalled elsewhere, and above all, of the universal respect for learningandofthegeneralspreadofeducation.Thepriest wasaprofessorandpoet,andeducationwasareligious, socialandprofessionalduty. Itis,therefore,ourbelief,foundedonauthentichistorical data,thatbeforeannexation,everyPunjabvillagehadaschool ofitsown. IneveryIndianvillagewhichhasretainedanythingofits form...the rudiments of knowledge are sought to be imparted;thereisnotachild,exceptthoseoftheoutcastes (whoformnopartofthecommunity), whoisnotableto read, to write, to cypher; in the last branch of learning, theyareconfessedlymostproficient.(VideBRITISHINDIA byLudlow). DrLeitnerestimatedthatin185455therewereatleast30 thousandschools,andifwecountatleast13pupilsperschool, the total number of pupils will amount to 4 lakhs. Dr Leitner writes: The village school would contain 3,00,000 pupils, but therearereasonsforestimatinglargernumber. Further,inbackwarddistrictslikethatofHushiarpur,the SettlementReportof1852,showsaschooltoevery1,965male inhabitants (adults and nonadults), which may be contrasted withthepresentproportionofonegovernmentoraidedschoolto every9,028oroneschoolto2,818.7inhabitantsincludingthe present number of ascertained indigenous schools throughout the province, a significant contrast to the proportion of one schooltoevery1,783inhabitantsinthemostbackwarddivision ofthePunjabin1849whenbroughtunderBritishRuleaftera periodofconfusionfollowingonwarandannexation.

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Suchwasthestateofaffairsin1882,butthecontrastwill become more startling if we look at the figures already repro ducedinYoungIndia. A mere glance at that statement will show how the indigenouseducationhasdeclined,andhowstagnantthestate ofeducationhasremainedfrom1882to191819.Inaperiodof 37yearsthegovernmenthasdonenothingwhatsoeverformass education. In a period less than this, England was able to educate the whole of its populations; in a period considerably less than this, America could give education to a population withoutanyrecordsofcivilisationorintellectualstamina;andin aperiodequaltothis,Japanwasabletoworkoutitsdestiny. ButsuchisthewayofdoingthingsinIndiathatduringallthis timenothingwasdoneexcepttoshiftschoolsfromoneplaceto another,toshifttheexpensesofeducationfromonesourceto another,toshifttheresponsibilityfrommantoman;infactto makeshiftsasbestascouldbedone. Such in brief is the history of the decline of indigenous education,andastohowitwascrushedinthePunjabwillform thesubjectmatterofthenextarticle.

. . .
COPYOFARTICLETAKENFROMYOUNGINDIA OF29THDECEMBER1920 HOWINDIGENOUSEDUCATIONWASCRUSHEDIN THEPUNJAB
18491886 The Punjab was the last of all the Provinces of India to come under the directinfluence of the English. TheHonourable the EastIndiaCompanyhadduringacoupleofcenturies,extended theirsphereofinfluencefromtheCapetotheJamuna;butits administratorsneverthoughtitworththetroubletogobeyond theMoghulCourt.TheMoghulCourtitselfwasjealousofany encroachments upon its northern provincethe gateway to Kabulwhichtheystilllookeduponastheirancestralhome. When the descendants of Aurangzeb began to bungle things in this province, the invaders from the North and the people from within threw in a state of anarchy and misrule. UndersuchcircumstancesthehardySikhbegantorealisehis ownimportanceandindividuality.Everafterwardstill1849,the Sikhskeptthe

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banksofBeasfreefromalldiplomaticormartialovertures.They preferredtheirownincapacitytogoverntoanestablishedorder of things where their liberty would be restrained and their religion interfered with. The Sikh like the Hindu is essentially devout, and his devotion always lands him on the side of conservatism; of respect for the past, its institutions and traditions. So that, when the reins of government and authority passedintothehandsoftheSikhs,bothfromlackofinitiative andrequirementsofdiplomacy,theyleftuntouchedalltheold village institutions. Whereas, British administrators in other provinces were changing and modifying ancient ways and manners to suit their own conceptions, the Sikh Sirdar was contenttoletthingshavetheirownway,solongashegotthe revenuethathewanted.Theresultofitallwasthatanetworkof village schools which traditions of a thousand years past had spreadalloverIndia,wasinitsfullstrengthhere.Ifanychange wasmadeatall,itwastoaddtheGranthiorBhai,totheMaulvi andthePandit.Insteadoftherebeingtwotraditionalteachersof villageyouth,nowtherebecamethree. The villageeducation was an essentialpartof the village administrationandtheprovisionforitwasmadeinthevillage expenses.Theschoolmastersfield,thewatchmansfieldnever disappearfromthevillagebooks.Therewasineveryvillagein the Punjab, a school of some sort, in which elementary education,havingadirectbearingonthesecularneedsofthe pupil,wasimpartedeitherfreeofcost,oratanominalrateof monthlyfee.Inadditiontotheseschools,therewerespreadall overtheprovincecollegesofvariousgradesanddenominations inwhichtheancientidealsoftheacademieswerekeptaliveand potent.Therewerecentresofadvancedstudiesofmetaphysics, astronomy, mathematics, grammar, philosophy and other sciences. Thatmuchgoodwasdonetoallsectionsofthecommunity bytheseindigenousschoolsandcolleges,isbeyonddoubtafact recognised even by the bitter antagonists of the indigenous system. From the advanced colleges, in which classical education (Arabic and Sanskrit) was imparted to students of matureageandthought, totheelementaryMahajani, Sharafi, and Lande Schools, there was a very large variety of quasi classicalvernacularandtechnicalschools.Theteachersalways kept in view the requirements of individual students and the professiontheywerequalifyingfor.

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Therewasnoclassinstruction,asinourschoolsreducing allintellectstothesamelevelandretardingtheindustriousfor the sake of the dullard. But recitations in Sanskrit and the systemofrepeatinglessonsinchorusonthedispersionofthe schoolencouragedsuchemulationasmaybenecessary,whilst theseparateinstructionofthepupilandhisdevotiontohiswork during the time that he was not reading with his tutor stimulated those habits of reflection and of private study, in which the students of present day schools are sadly deficient. Thenagainwhenthe studentgrewolder,he travelledtolearn philosophyunderonetutor,andlawunderanother,muchinthe samewayasstudentsofGermanUniversitiesvisitvariousseats oflearninginordertohear,say,internationallawatHeidelberg, thePandectsatBerlin. Itwouldnotbewithoutinteresttopointoutthatfromthe humblestbeginningsineducationuptothehighestcoursesin Hindu metaphysics and science great wisdom was displayed. TracesoftheKindergartensystemarestillfound.Thesimplest methods for arresting and keeping attention were resorted to and the moral and mental capacities of children, according to their spheres of life, were everywhere carefully studied and cultivated.Asforthemodeofinstruction,italsoboreinevery oneofitsfeaturestheemphaticallypracticalaswellasidealaim oftheHindulegislator. Thattheabovestatementisnotanunsupportedassertion, Iwillquoteaparagraphfromthefirsteducationaldespatchof theCourtofDirectorswhichwasissuedonthe3rdJune1814. TheDirectorspointoutthattheindigenousvillageschools are a part of the village system and that they have formed a model to schools in England. Again they point out this venerable and benevolent institution of the Hindus is representedtohavewithstoodtheshockofrevolutions,andto itsoperationisascribedthegeneralintelligenceofthenative. In 1848 the Government of the Punjab passed into the hands of the East India Company. The first Board of AdministrationinthePunjabrecognisedthefullvalueoftherich educationallegacy,whichtheyinheritedfromthedecayingand disintegrating Sikh constitution. Recognising the widespread character of the indigenous education, and the necessity of keeping up old educational traditions alive, Sir John and Sir HenryLawrencedefinedtheirpolicyinmattersofeducationin thefollowingwords:

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Weintendtosetuponeschool,ifnotineveryvillage,at leastineverycircleofvillages,sothatatleastthereshouldbe somethingthroughoutthelandinwhichthechildrendoattend somerudimentaryschool. Howfarpolicywasactuallycarriedoutwillbeexplainedin anotherarticle.

. . .
5,InvernessGardens,W.8. 17November1931

DearMrGandhi, I beg to acknowledge with thanks the undated letter received on November 14th, written on your behalf by Mr M. Desai in which were enclosed typed copies of two articles on IndianeducationbyMrD.R.GuptapublishedinYoungIndiafor 8thDecember1920and29thDecember1920. Iunderstand thatitisontheevidence adducedinthose articles and on a Punjab Administration Report to which you have not given me the reference, that you base the sweeping statementthat literacy had diminished inBritish Indiaduring thepastfiftyyears,andthatyoucouldprovethisfromofficial statements. Ihaveexaminedthearticlesandcanfindnothinginthem tosupportyourcontention.Thearticlesdonotcontainasingle percentageofliteracy.ThechiefauthorityquotedistheHistory of Indigenous Education in the Punjab by Dr G.W. Leitner, a PunjabOfficial.Ifeelsurethatwhenyoumadeyourassertion you cannot have been aware that that book was published nearlyfiftyyearsago,in1882.MrD.R.Guptadoesnotmention the fact.Nordoeshe pointoutthatsofarfrom regarding the Punjabastypical, LeitnercomparesthatProvinceeducationally toitsdisadvantagewiththeCentralProvincesandwithLower Bengal(loc.cit.p.3).Itisonlywithinthepasttenorfifteenyears that the Punjab has made the rapid advances in primary educationtowhichIreferredinmyletterof21stOctober. Iamstillawaitingthereferencewhichyoupromisedtoa Punjab Administration Report. I have consulted recent Punjab AdministrationReports,butcanfindnothinginthemrelatingto literacyinBritishIndia,anditisobviouslyunlikelythatany

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Punjab Report would deal with such a subject. If you find thereforethatyourreferencewasmadeinerror,mayIsuggest that you should now withdraw your statement in accordance withtheundertakinggiveninthelastparagraphofyourletterto meofOctober23rd? Yourssincerely, Sd/PhilipHartog P.S.: May I askfrom whatReportSir Sankaran Nairs Noteof Dissent referred to in Mr Guptas first article, is quoted? No referenceisgiveninthearticleitself. Sd/ P.H. M.K.Gandhi,Esq,. 88,Knightsbridge,W.

. . .
SirPhilipHartog,K.B.E. 5InvernessGardens,W.8. 88,Knightsbridge London,S.W.1, November19,1931

DearSirPhilip, Iammuchobligedtoyouforyourletterofthe17thinst. I do not propose just now to withdraw the statement I madeatthemeetingatChathamHouse.Atthepresentmoment Ihavenotgotanytimeforsearchingtherecordstowhichyou are making reference. I, however, promise not to forget the matter,andifIfindthatIcannotsupportthestatementmade bymeatChathamHouse,Iwillgivemyretractionmuchwider publicitythantheChathamHousespeechcouldeverattain. Meanwhile I am endeavouring to find out the references youwant. Yourssincerely, Sd/M.K.Gandhi SirPhilipHartog,K.B.E. 5InvernessGardens,W.8

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5,InvernessGardens,W.8. 20November1931 DearMrGandhi, Iammuchobligedbyyourletterofyesterdaysdate. Ithinkitmighthelpmattersifyoucouldsparemeafew momentsofyourvaluabletime;andIshouldbegladtocallon youifwouldsuggestadayandhour. Iam, Yourssincerely, Sd/PhilipHartog M.K.Gandhi,Esq,. 88,Knightsbridge,W.

. . .
5, Inverness Gardens,W.8. 22ndNovember1931 DearMrsNaidu, InaccordancewithyourkindsuggestiontodayIsendyou enclosedcopiesofmyletterstoMrGandhiof27thOctoberand 17thNovember. Theother letters frommedo notcontain any detailedinformation.Wouldyoukindlyreturntheenclosuresat yourconvenience? Withkindregards, Yourssincerely, Sd/PhilipHartog

MrsSarojiniNaidu, 7,ParkPlace, St.James,S.W.I.

. . .
ScarTop, BoarsHill,Oxford. November23,1931 DearSirPhilipHartog, I probably underrate the indigenous system of Indian education; at any rate, I have never thought it amounted to much.Mystatementisnottheusualextravagantclaimofthe Nationalist,butaprettymildone.

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However, you will get the evidence in F.E. Keay, Ancient IndianEducation,OxfordUniversityPress1918esp.pp.51,57, 107andpassim. DrLeitner, HistoryofIndigenousEducationinthePunjab , pp.14,21passim. AReportforthePunjabGovernmentissuedin1882. A.P. Howell, EducationinBritishIndiaPriorto1854 .And Ludlow,BritishIndia. The Madras Presidency made an enquiry, 18226, and calculatedthatratherlessthanonesixthoftheboysofschool goingagereceivededucationofsomesort.BombayPresidency, 18238, estimated it as one in eight, Bengal, 13.2 percent (Adamsenquiry1835).WilliamWardsupposedthataboutone fifthofthemalepopulationofBengalcouldread. Iknowthedifficulties.ButIfeelmoreandmorethatinthis matter,ofgeneraleducation,wedidpreciouslittletocongratu lateourselvesonuntilthelastdozenyears.Dontyouagree? CalcuttaUniversitywasdamnedbad.AndtheMiddleVernacular schools Yourssincerely, Sd/EdwardThompson P.S.Idonotbelievewedestroyedindigenousschoolsandindige nousindustriesoutofmalice(whichiswhatisstated,inAmeri caaswellasIndia).Itwasinevitable.

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INTERVIEWWITHMRGANDHIONDECEMBER2,1931
InmylastlettertoMrG.relatingtohisstatementattheRoyal InstituteofInternationalAffairsonOctober20ththatliteracyin India had diminished during the last 50 or 100 years (see Journal of International Affairs November 1931, pp.727, 728, 734,735).Ihadaskedhimforaninterview.Ireceivednoreply inwriting,butMrsSarojiniNaidu,towhomIhadspokenonthe matter,arrangedforaninterviewtoday,bytelephone,andIwent toseeMrG.at88,Knightsbridgeat4p.m.andstayedtillfive. Hewaslyingonasofacoveredwithhisshawlinfrontofabig fire, obviously tired, though he insisted on rising both when I came and when I went. He told me that he had thought his strengthwasequaltoanythingbutthathewasnowsaturated.I suggestedthathemightbetootiredtodiscussmattersbuthe said that it was a pleasure to meet me and he apologised sincerelyfornothavingwrittentooffermeanappointment. He admitted at once that he had at present no facts to substantiatehisstatementsanddidnotattempttoanswermy argumentthatthearticlesinYoungIndiaforDecember8thand 29th1920byDaulatRamGuptaofwhichhehadfurnishedme with typed copies, contained no literacy figures and that the mostrecentofficialreportinthem,DrG.W.LeitnersHistoryof Indigenous Education in the Punjab was written in 1882 and couldthereforefurnishnoevidencewithregardtotheprogress ordeclineofliteracyinIndiaduringthelast50years.Hetold me that Mr Mahadeo Desai who was present had been investigating the matter in the British Museum. Mr Desai admittedthathehadfoundnothingfreshuptothepresent.Mr G.saidthathewouldquestionthewriterofthearticlesin Young India andthatonhisreturnhewouldgetcompetentfriendsto investigatethematterforhimoverthereandthathewouldsend meacablegramwithregardtotheresult,andthatinithewould saywhetherhehadfoundmaterialthatwouldconvincemethat he was right, or that he would apologise handsomely for his mistake,and wouldmakehis withdrawalinsuchawayasto reachamuchwideraudiencethanhisoriginalstatement. IshowedhimLeitnersBookandpointedoutthestatement onp.3inwhichLeitnerhadpointedoutthatthePunjabwasnot typicalbutfarbehindtheCentralProvincesandLowerBengalin theproportionofpupilstopopulation,astatementnotreferred to by Mr Gupta though he had quoted figures in regard to Hushiarpurfromp.2.ItoldMrG.thatthepopulationofBritish

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Indiain1882wasroughlyspeaking210millionsandthatithad increasedin1931toabout270millions,i.e.about30percentin roundfigures,andthatduringthatperiodthenumberofpupils underinstructioninBritishIndiahadincreasedfromabout2 millionstoover11millions,i.e.morethan4times,andthatit wouldbesurprisingthereforeifliteracyhaddiminishedduring these50years. I also pointed out that it was impossible to draw any accurate conclusions on the other hand in regard to literacy from the numbers of pupils under instruction. Howell in his Education in British India had pointed out that for many reasons, including the early age at which the children are withdrawn it was almost worthless (loc. cit. p.7). I also mentionedthatduringtheyears19171927inBengalwithan increasedenrolmentofover3,00,000pupils(theactualfigureis about370,000)therehadbeenadeclineofabout30,000pupils in the number that reached Class IV where under present conditions,literacywasfirstattained. IalsoshowedMrG.certainfiguresofliteracyforBengal from Adams Report on Vernacular Education of 183538 and comparedthemwiththecensusfiguresfor1921Vol.5,p.302.I further showed him census figures for 1911 and 1901 taken fromthesamevolume,p.285,showingconsiderableincreasesin literacy in Burma, Bengal and Madras, though the Punjab, Bihar, Bombay and United Provinces had made little or no progressduringthoseyears.MrGandhisaid,Iknowverylittle aboutthesethingsinatoneofapology,towhichIrejoinedthat hehadnodoubtmanyotherthingstooccupyhisattention. TowardstheendoftheinterviewIsaidthatIhopedthathe was now on the side of peace. He replied that he had meant exactly what he had said on the previous day, that he would readthePrimeMinistersdeclarationoveragainandagain,and thathefelttheimmensepersonalresponsibilitythatrestedon his shoulders in advising Congress. He said that he had postponedhisdepartureinordertoseeSirSamuelHoareonthe followingFridayasSirSamuelhadsaidthathewouldhaveno free time during the debate in Parliament (on the Wednesday and Thursday).Isaid,Iamsureyoumustbeconvincedthat Englishmen are in earnest in wishing to give India everything possibleatthepresentmoment.Hesaid,Yes,butthereisone thing that the English sincerely believe, but which I cannot understand. They think us incapable of managing our own affairsevenwiththehelpofexperts.WhenIwasayoungman andmyfather

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wasPrimeMinisterofanIndianState,IknewthePrimeMinister of another IndianState (Junagarh), whocould hardly sign his ownnamebutwhowasaveryremarkablemanandmanaged thestatewonderfully.Heknewjustwhoweretherightpeopleto advise him and took their advice. When I spoke to your own PrimeMinisterabouttheexchangevalueoftherupee,hesaidto me,thatheknewnothingaboutexchangevalues,thatthePrime Ministerhadofcoursetodothings inhisownnamebuthad really to depend on experts. We have had experience in governinginthepastandwecoulddoequallywell. Ididnotthinkitworthwhiletopursuethepoliticaltopicor topointoutthepoliticalchaosofIndiawhentheBritishentered onthescene,asmymainobjectwastosecurefromMrGandhi thewithdrawalofhisstatementaboutliteracy.Iendedupthe interviewbysayingthatIwasamanofpeace,andhadnodesire toenteronacontroversybutthatImuststatethefactsinthe Journal of International Affairs, and to this I understood Mr Gandhitoassent.IwishedhimapleasantjourneybacktoIndia andsaidIhopedIhadnottiredhim.Herepliedthatithadbeen arealpleasuretoseeme,andthathehopedtokeepintouch withme. TherewerepresentduringtheconversationMrDesai,atall youngmanwhosenameIdidnotknow,MissSladetowhomI wasintroduced,butwhowasinakindofbackdrawingroomfor most of the time, and another young Englishwoman, who brought Mr Gandhi some fruit atthe end ofthe interview.No oneintervenedintheconversation,butonceortwiceMrGandhi askedMr Desaiforinformation.ItappearedthatMrDesaihad been asked by Mr Gandhi to try to get information from the BritishMuseum,butthathehadbeenunabletogetthebooks he had wanted and had not been able to find any facts to support Mr Gandhis statements. Mr Desai accompanied me downstairs and showed me his British Museum slips for one bookdated1859,anotherbookof18678,andabookbyWilmot onhe Indigenous Systemof Education inIndia,of whichhe hadnotthedate. IfindIhaveomittedonestatementofsomeimportance.Mr GandhisaidthathehadnotaccusedtheBritishGovernmentof havingdestroyedtheindigenousschools,buttheyhadletthem dieforwantofencouragement.Isaidthattheyhadprobablylet them die because they were so bad that they were not worth keepingup.IntheUnitedProvincesMahomedanwitnesseshad toldmyCommitteethattheMahomedanschoolsnotorganised byGovernmentwerenotanaidbutahindrancetoMahomedan progressandIknewthereweremanyvoluntaryschoolsinother

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parts of the country of which this might be said. I told Mr GandhithatmyinterestinprimaryeducationinIndiawasno new thing; and that when as a member of the Sadler Commission I had seen Mr Montagu and Lord Chelmsford in 1918Ihadtoldthemboththatalthoughuniversityreformwas perhaps the most urgent matter, the problem of primary educationwasthefundamentaloneforIndia,althoughIcould not advise on it then. I said that India had probably not yet found the solution of the problem of giving the agricultural labourer an education that would make him a more efficient cultivatorwithoutmakinghimwanttobeaclerk,butthatthe Punjab,undertheinspirationofthelateMrRicheywhosework had been carried on by Sir George Anderson, had made great strides in the last ten or fifteen years. I described the system adoptedinPunjabandMrGandhisaidhehadheardofrecent progress in that province. I then told him that Bombay had probably the most efficient schools in some ways under the systeminitiatedbyDrParanjpye,butthatthecompletetransfer of control to local bodies by his successor had unfortunate results, as so many district boards were more interested in politicsthanineducationofwhichtheyknewverylittle. I next told Mr Gandhi that I could not accept his suggestionthatuniversalprimaryeducationmustnecessarilybe very remote, and that my Committee had estimated than an additionalrecurringexpenditureofabout19croreswouldbring about 80 percent of boys and girls into the primary school system. Mr Gandhi then asked me if I thought that primary education would be much use unless the children went on to middleschools.Isaidthatwasthenextstepthatwouldfollow, and that I regarded the encouragement of vernacular middle schoolsasofthegreatestimportancenotonlyforthesakeofthe children,butbecausetheyproducetheprimaryteachers.Isaid thatIwassorrythatBengaldespisedvernacularmiddleschools andinsistedonEnglishteachingmiddleschools. WethenspokeofgirlseducationandIquotedtheopinion of my Committee that in all schemes of expansion priority shouldbegiventotheclaimsofgirls.MrGandhisaidthathe entirelyagreed,butheaskedhimselfwhetherprimaryeducation wouldmakegirlsbettermothers.MrGandhisaidthathehad notreadtheReportofmyCommittee.Iaskedhimifhewould like to do so on his journey back to which he said yes and I promisedtosendhimacopy. (ThesenotesweredictatedonDecember2ndandDecember4th )

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5,InvernessGardens,W.8. 2December1931 DearMrThompson, Myapologiesfornothavingacknowledgedyourkindletter ofNovember23rdwithitsreferencesearlier.Iwasfamiliarwith AdamsReportsandLeitner,andwithHowellfromquotations.I havelookedatKeay,andImafraidhedoesntimpressme.Iwill askF.W.Thomaswhathethinksofthebook,butitallseemsto mesecondhand. AftergoingthroughyourreferenceIamstillindoubtasto whetherthestatementonp.255oftheReconstructionofIndia Neverthelesstherewasmoreliteracyifofalowkind,thanuntil thelasttenyearsisjustifiable.YoumentionfiguresforBombay schoolsandBengalschools.ButfrommyexperienceofIndian schoolsitisafarcryfromattendancetoliteracy. Inthe tenyears191727withanincreasedenrolmentof nearly370,000pupilsinBengal,thenumberinClassIV,where first you may expect permanent literacy, declined by 30,000. (SeeEDnComteeofSimonCommissionReport,p.59,including Tablexxxiv). IimaginefrommyreadingofAdam,andHowellandLeitner allpressingtheclaimsofindigenouseducationthatthiskind ofthingisnotnew. DidyounoticeinLongseditionofAdamp.268aquotation from a report of Mountstuart Elphinstone dated 25 October 1819inwhichhesays: Therearealreadyschools(intheDeccan)inalltownsand inmanyvillages,butreadingisconfinedtoBrahmans,Banyans, and such of the agricultural classes as have to do with accounts. AndHowell,p.7,inreferringtoAdamsestimatethatthere were100,000schoolsinBengalin1835andsimilarestimatesin MadrasandBombaysaysalthoughallauthoritieswereagreed thattheexistenceoftheseschoolswasasatisfactoryevidenceof ageneraldesireforeducation,therewasequalunanimitythat theinstructionactuallyimpartedinthemwas,owingpartlyto theutterincompetenceoftheteachers,theabsenceofallschool booksandappliances,andtheearlyageatwhichthechildren werewithdrawn,almostworthless. AllthepeopleIhavequotedwantedGovernmenttobuild upasystemonthebasisofthevillageschools.

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Adam gives some literacy figures which are worth examining in detail. I will look up the Census returns for the actualdistrictsforwhichAdamhasgivenfigures. Yourssincerely, Sd/P.J.Hartog

. . .
ScarTop, BoarsHill,Oxford. December5,1931 DearSirPhilipHartog, Iamreallynotclearastowhatwearedisputingabout. My statement is mild enough, moderate enough and its purpose is plain. I was obviously trying to go to the limits of concession that truth permitted, as to claims that I consider entirely wrong. That seems to me the only way to get a controversy forward. I never did believe in the method of belittling whatever case my opponent, whether British imperialistorIndiannationalist,mayhave.Thecontextmakesit clearthatIhaveneverthoughtthatIndianschoolsamountedto much.ItmakesequallyclearwhatIrememberquitewellwasin mymindwhenIwrotethatpassagethiswasthatIdonotagree with the steady crabbing of the last dozen years but to emphasise that on the whole they have been years far more progressivethananypreviousdecade. Ofcourseliteracyandschoolattendancearenotthesame thing.Theyarenotthesameevennow.Butthatistherealmof theimponderableandnotwortharguing.Ifitcomestothat,just nowIrankmereliteracylowenough.Itseemstomewearein for a rotten ten years of struggle to keep any sort of decency alive.Imaybeoverdepressed;butIsawtheutterwashthatthe literate populace of the United States read as their only gain fromeducation,andIcomebacktothiscountrytofindthatthe weekliesaredyingorrecentlydead,andthatDailyMail,Daily Express,andtheinfamousSundaypopularpapersareaboutall thereadingthatDemosdoes.Ibelievethemostpopularweekly is Competitions, which guides the huge mob whose sole intellectualrecreation (anabsorbingand costlyone)ismaking bulletsorcrosswordpuzzles(sendingupsixpenceatime).On theotherhand,Akbarwasilliterate. ThereareinIndiapoorfolkwhoneverwenttoanysortof schoolwhohavelearnttoread.Buttheseofcoursearefew.They

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payafewpicetobecoachedbysomestudent.Theremustbe moreliteracyinthesenseofreadingthevernaculars,thanthe numbers in schools indicate, or else how could every Bengal bazaarswarmwiththesefrightfullyprinted(butcheap)textsof Ramprasad, Chandidas, Krittibass Ramayana (before the War, according to Dinesh Sen, two hundred thousand sold every year), even of Bhadu songs (which are sung only in two divisions)? Sarat Chatterjee told me that in 1921 the twelve annaseditionofhisfictionhadbroughthimintwelvethousand rupeesinroyalties,whichIestimatetobeasaleoftwohundred thousand.Butthesemireligioustextsswarmandalwayshave done,irrespectivelyofthenumberinschools. IwillgointothematterwheninIndianextspring.Butmy impressionhassteadilydeepenedthatthefirstrealadvancewe madein most thingsbegan about 1917. I do not think you willbelievehowstagnantofficialdomwasbeforetheWar.WhenI startedineducationalworkinBengal,theM.V.Schoolsusedto pouranindescribablyturbidstreamintothefourthclassofour highschoolliterate,ifyoulike,butitwouldhavebeenalmost better if they were not. And the Education department was shocking. The acting Lieut. Governor was the notoriously inefficientSlack,andtheD.P.I.thenotoriouslylazyKuchler.Ido notbelievethatacenturyagotherewaswidespreadliteracy.But neither do I believe that anything we ever did for education beforeabout1917madeanyseriousdifferenceorimprovement. Wegiveourselvesmanyunjustifiedchits.ButIwillstandupfor what we have done since the unfairly abused Montagu ChelmsfordReforms. Previousto1917,whatwerethefiguresofliteracy?Fouror five per cent of the population? I believe they were higher a century ago. But the only way of proving this would be by findingoutwhatsalesintheverymuchsmallerpopulationof thatday(though the firstcensuswas1871,wasitnot?)were achievedforthepopularclassics. Yourssincerely, Sd/EdwardThompson

(INHANDFOLLOWINGTYPEDLETTER)
P.S.BanyanisausualwayofreferringtoBanias,inEastIndia Companydocuments. Ihaveagainreadcarefullythroughyourletter.Itseemsto methatweareinagreement.Obviouslyweboththinkthat(a)

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theliteracyofacenturyagoamountedtoverylittletojustifya songaboutit(b)thattheaverageM.E.orM.C.schoolsofprewar dayswasafarce.Weusedtobeaskedcontinuallytotakeover village M.V. schools, with a failed Inter Arts or even failed Matric,astheirhead,andtheirstudentsappalledme.Ourown highschoolboyswerebadenoughbut...Itellyouwhatitis.The prewar administration of India in many ways was appalling. I knowthedifficulties.Buttellmewhatisitthathasbeenwrong with Indian administration? I am reading old records by pre Mutiny residents. They teem with information that makes you hopetheCongresswallawillnevergetholdofit.Oxfordswarms with exI.C.S. I like and respect them very much indeed. But whathashappenedtotheoftenfirstclassrecordofintellectthey had before entering the I.C.S.? It seems to me the very hopelessnessof...hugeIndianjobusedtooppressand...us.We didnot doanything likeas muchasEnglishmen should have done. IscandalouslyranontothebackofthiswhichIneverdo hurriedlytokeepitshort.Yousee,IsailDecember24,andI amshockinglyoverworkeduntilIgetoff.

. . .
TO THE EDITOR, INTERNATIONAL AFFAIRS (Extract from International Affairs, the journal of the Royal Institute for InternationalAffairs,forJanuary,1932.p.151.) Sir, AtaverylargelyattendedmeetingatChathamHouseon October20thlast,MrGandhisaid: I say without fear of my figures being challenged successfullythattodayIndiaismoreilliteratethanitwas fiftyorahundredyearsago,andsoisBurma,becausethe Britishadministrators,whentheycametoIndia,insteadof taking hold of things as they were, began to root them out.1 It will be seen from the report of the meeting that Mr Gandhi did not at the time quote the figures to which he referred.Ithereforeaskedhimifhewouldgivehisauthorityfor thestatementthatliteracyhaddiminishedduringthelastfifty yearsandhereplied:

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thathisauthoritywasthePunjabAdministrationReports, andsaidthathehadpublishedinYoungIndiaastudyof thePunjabeducationalstatistics.2 I wrote at once to Mr Gandhi asking him for precise references.Inresponsetomyrequesthehasbeengoodenough tofurnishmewithtypedcopiesoftwoarticlesontheDeclineof MassEducationbyMrDaulatRamGupta,publishedinYoung India for December 8th and December 29th, 1920. These articles do not, however, contain a single literacy percentage eitherforthePunjaborBurmaorforIndiagenerally,nordothey containanydirectreferencetoPunjabAdministrationReports. Theydo,however,refertotheHistoryofIndigenousEducation inthePunjabbyDrG.W. Leitner,aneducationalofficialinthe Punjab,whichreferstosomeofthesereports.ButDrLeitners Reportwaspublishedfortynineyearsago,in1882,andIhave beenunabletodiscoverinitanyliteracypercentages. I have drawn Mr Gandhis attention to, these facts. The present position is that Mr Gandhi has so far been unable to substantiatehisstatementinanyway.Ihavetoaddthatinthe course of a friendly correspondence, and also at an interview which1hadwithhimonDecember2nd,hehasundertakento retractthatstatementifhecannotsupportit.Ithinkitbestto postponeanyfurthercommentonthequestionuntilIreceivehis promisedcommunication. Yoursfaithfully, Sd/P.J.Hartog 5InvernessGardens, VicarageGate,W.8. December14,1931

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LETTEROFMRM.K.GANDHITOSIRPHILIPHARTOG (COPY)
DearFriend, Iamsorry I wasunable, owing tocircumstances beyond mycontrol,tofulfillthepromiseIgaveyouaboutmystatement ontheconditionofPrimaryeducationinIndiaduringthepre Britishtime.ImmediatelyonmylandingIentrustedtheresearch toAdvocateMunshi,amemberoftheBombayUniversitysenate, and two other educationist friends. But they too like me find themselves civil resistance prisoners. I had asked Advocate Munshitoputhimselfindirecttouchwithyou.Buthisarrest came so soon after mine that I hardly think he could have corresponded with you. As I am permitted to carry on non politicalcorrespondence,IhavenowaskedProfShahtotestmy statementandgiveyoutheresultofhistest.AsIfoundinyoua fellow seeker after truth, I was most anxious to give you satisfactioneitherbyconfirmingmystatementorwithdrawingit aspubliclyasIhadmadeit.IthoughtthatIwouldtellyouwhat Ihaddoneinpursuanceofmypromise. AsIhavenotyourprivateaddressbyme,Iamsendingthis toyouundercareIndiaOffice. YoursSincerely, Sd/M.K.Gandhi.

YeravdaCentralPrison, Poona.15.2.32.

. . .
45,ChowpattyRoad,Bombay(7) 20thFebruary,1932 DearSirPhilip, IhavebeeninformedbyMahatmaGandhithatduringhis stay in London recently, and while speaking at some public meetingaboutthestateofeducationinBritishIndiabeforethe advent of the British in this country, he remarked that the extentofliteracywasgreaterinthosedaysthanatthepresent time. He adds that you had questioned the accuracy of that statement, and called upon Mr Gandhi to furnish proof in supportofthesame.Mahatmajihas,Iunderstand,referredyou tosomewritingsintheYoungIndia;butyoudonotconsider

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that sufficient proof; and sohas asked me if I could find any more acceptable substantiation for that observation. I am, therefore, addressing you this letter to try and offer that substantiation, as far as the records available could permit of mydoingso.IfyoucaretoacknowledgethislettertoMahatmaji, wouldyouatthesametimesendmeacopyofthesame? Tobeginwith,Ineedhardlypointouttoyouthat,atthe timeunderreference,nocountryintheworldhadanythinglike definite, authoritative, statistical information of the type one would now recognise as proper proof in such discussions. In Indiaparticularly,thankstothedistractedstateofthecountry, itwasimpossibletoprovideanysuchmaterialonanationwide basis, even supposing it had been customary to compile such informationfromtimetotime.Theelaboratedirectory,ifImay sodescribeit,oftheterritoriesunderhisrule,compiledbythe indefatigableMinisterofthegreatAkbarknownastheAyeeni Akbari, was prepared so long before the advent of the British that I feel a hesitation even in referring to it, apart from the furtherfactthatauthoritativeworksuffersfromotherblemishes intheeyesofatoocriticalreader.All,therefore,thatonecan expectbywayofproofinsuchmatters,andatsuchatime,can onlybeintheformofimpressionsofpeopleinapositiontoform ideas a little better and more scientific than those of less fortunately situated, or less well endowed, observers. Such official investigations as were ordered in connection with the periodical parliamentary enquiries before the renewal of the CompanysCharterin1793,1813,1833,and1853alsoafford somedata,thoughthesehavetheirowndefectasispointedout below. Other official enquiries, reports, or obiter dicta of qualifiedofficers,wereoriginallyforapurposedifferentfromthe one under reference here; and, therefore, discussion or observationoneducationalmattersthereinmustneedsbetaken as incidental rather than as the immediate subject of their concern, and consequently open to such defects as all such incidentalobservationsuffersfrom. Fortheimmediatepurposeofthisletter,willyoupermitme to begin by referring you to the reports of certain provincial enquiriesconductedaboutthetimewhentheBritishrulefirst beganinthoseprovinces?Letme,however,addaremarkasap pliedtothecountry,atlarge,ontheauthorityofMaxMueller, and another on the authority of the historian Ludlow,both mentionedinKeir HardiesworkonIndia.Max Mueller,onthe strengthofofficialdocumentsandmissionaryreports,

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concerningeducationinBengalpriortotheBritishoccupation, assertsthattherewerethen80,000schoolsinBengal,oronefor every 400 of the population. Ludlow, in his History of British India,saysthatineveryvillage,whichhasretaineditsoldform, Iamassuredthatthechildrengenerallyareabletoread,write andcipher;butwherewehavesweptawaythevillagesystem, therethevillageschoolhasalsodisappeared.(Cp.B.D. Basu, EducationinIndiaundertheE.1.Co.,p18). InBombay,whichcameunderBritishruleafterthefallof thePeshwasin1818,aReportoftheBombayEducationSociety for1819observes:Thereisprobablyasgreataproportionof personsinIndiawhocanread,write,andkeepsimpleaccounts, asaretobefoundinEuropeancountries.ThesameReportfor thefollowingyearnotes:Schoolsarefrequentamongthena tives,andaboundeverywhere.InApril,1821,MrPrendergast, member of the Executive Council of the then Government of Bombay, notes in a Minute on an application for 2 English schoolsinThanaorPanwellTalukas:Ineedhardlymention whateverymemberoftheBoardknowsaswellasIdothatthere ishardlyavillage,greatorsmall,throughoutourterritories,in which there is not at least one school, and in larger villages more;manyineverytownandinlargecitiesineverydivision whereyoungnativesaretaughtreading,writingandarithmetic, uponasystemsoeconomical,fromahandfulortwoofgrain,to perhapsarupeepermonthtotheschoolmaster,accordingtothe ability of the parents, and at the same time so simple and effectual,thatthereishardlyacultivatororpettydealerwhois not competent to keep his own accounts with a degree of accuracy,inmyopinion,beyondwhatwemeetwithamongthe lower orders in our own country; whilst the more splendid dealers and bankers keep their books with a degree of ease, conciseness,andclearnessIratherthinkfullyequaltothoseof anyBritishmerchants.(Cp.CommonsReport,1832,p.468). I shall come to Madras in a moment, and revert to statisticalproofsuchasIcanfind,thereafter.Letmehererefer youtotheclassiccaseofDr LeitnersReportonthesystemof IndigenousEducationinthePunjab,basedonaninvestigation carried out by the learned Doctor,principal of aGovernment College,becauseofasurprisingdifferencebetweenhisfiguresof thepeopleeducatedinindigenousschools,andthosesupplied by the Director of Public Instruction for the province, to the IndianEducationCommitteeof1882.DrLeitnerremarks,inhis

278

introduction to his Report,In short the lowest computation gives us 330,000 pupils (against little more than 190,000 at present)intheschoolsofthevariousdenominations,whowere acquainted with reading, writing and some method of computation;whilstthousandsofthembelongedtoArabicand Sanskrit colleges, in which oriental literature and systems of OrientalLaw,Logic,PhilosophyandMedicine,weretaughttothe highest standards. I would particularly commend to your attention this classic document of 650 odd pages (folio), the more so as Dr Sir Wm. Hunter, president of the Indian Education Committee, made aspecialMinute tothe Report of thatCommittee(pp.6212)inwhichhefoundthatDrLeitners estimate of 120,000 pupils in the Punjab was actually an underestimatebysome15,000,whiletheofficialfiguresupplied bytheD.P.I.oftheprovincewasbelowtheactualfigurebysome 80,000 pupils. Incidentally, this will suffice to show how imperfect,inaccurate,undependable,wastheofficialstatistical information for these early days, whenthe people viewed with easily intelligible suspicion enquiries of this nature, and so passivelyrefusedtoaffordthecorrectinformationwhereverand whenever they could help it. Without minimising in the least degree the value of statistical evidence, I cannot but add that such evidence is worse than useless, when we recall the conditions under which it was compiled, as also the temperament and training of the officials who helped in compiling the same in those primitive times of British rule in India. Let me now speak of Madras, that earliest settlement of BritishruleinIndia,andevennowsaidtobethebesteducated province in the Empire. Sir T. Munro, in a Minute dated 10.3.1826(CommonsReport,1832,p.506)observesthat,taking the male part of the population only, and taking children of between 510 years of age only, as school going population, (assumed to be oneninth of the total population) there were 713,000malepupilsthatwouldbeatschool.Theactualnumber ofpupilsinrecognisedschoolswasfoundbyhimtobe184,110 whichworksouttobealittleoverafourthofthetotalschool goingpopulation.SirThomas,however,wasofopinionthatthe actualproportionwasneareronethirdthanonefourth,owingto alargenumberofchildrenreceivinginstructionprivately,andso notincludedintheabovecalculation. InBengal,(Cp. AdamsReport,1838)thetotalnumberof childrenbetween514yearsofageistakenat87,629.Ofthese, 6,786 were returnedas receivinginstructioninthe recognised schools,or7.7%.Thisincludesbothmenandwomen,girlsas

279

well as boys, while in Madras only the male population was considered.Onthatbasis,thisfigurecouldbeeasilyraisedtoat least15% of the total. There is reason topreferthis basis for calculation, since,underthe conditions andideasofthetime, womencouldnotgoforeducationtoschoolspubliclyrecognised; andsoaproperindexforjudgingoftherealstateofliteracyis ratherthemalepopulationthanthetotal.Again,thepercentage of population receiving instruction, compared to the total of schoolgoingage,wouldbestillhigher,ifwewouldbearinmind thefactthatthesocalleduntouchablesformedpartofthetotal, but couldnot, necessarily, be includedin thepeoplereceiving instructionasthesewerenotadmittedintopublicinstitutions. In the Bombay Presidency, the total population was returnedin1829at4,681,735.Thetotalnumberofscholarsin schoolswas35,153.Ifwetake,withSirT.Munro,oneninthof the population to be of schoolgoing age, the total figure of schoolgoingagewouldbe520,190.Thisgivesapercentageof7 tothetotalofschoolgoingage;whileifweconfineourselvesonly to males, the percentage of scholars to the total population (male)ofschoolgoingagewouldbe14.Thisproportionismore thanborneoutbythelaterReportof 1841,relatingtoonly 9 selecteddistrictsinthePresidency. The following comparative position, between the state of thingsnowandahundredyearsago,wouldbeinstructive,ifnot conclusive. Percentages of population of schoolgoing age receiving primary education in 1921 (males only) and a 100 yearsago(roughly): Madras Bombay Bengal 42.5 45.1 37.2 33 14(highest28insomeparts) 16(highest32insomeparts)

Ihavealreadypointedoutthatthesestatisticaldataforthe earlier period are undependable, because (1) the figures for privatelyeducatedchildrenarenotavailable;(2)thepeoplewere aversetodisclosingwhattheythoughttobeunwarrantablebits ofinformation;(3)thecompilersofthisinformationwerenotof requisite efficiency or intelligence; (4) certain large sections of the population were necessarily excluded, and had to be excluded from these calculations, if they were to be at all reliable; and so the mere percentages, uncorrected, are of no use.Thecloserenquiryofthistypeconductedby Leitnerisfar morereliable,

280

andsoalsotheobiterdictaofpeopleinthepositiontohaveclear impressions. These people, also, generally obtained their impressions of the state of education in the area under their charge, only incidentally, while collecting information for Land RevenueSettlementoftheirdistricts;andtheprimaryobjectwas not to discoverthe real stateof education in thecountry, but something quite different. Hence even those impressions must be held togive rather anunderestimate than otherwise of the truestateofaffairsinthisbehalf,inviewoftheconsiderations mentionedalready. Yourstruly, Sd/K.T.Shah

. . .
5InvernessGardens, VicarageGate,London,W.8. 9March,1932 M.K.Gandhi,Esq., YervadaCentralPrison, Poona, India. DearMrGandhi, Many thanks for your kind letter of February 15, which reached me last night. I fully understand your difficulties in carryingoutyourpromise.Ireceivedbythesamepostasyour ownalongletterfromProfessorK.T.ShahdatedFebruary20, which he has no doubt sent to you, but the letter contains absolutely no data which would enable one to judge whether literacyhadadvancedordeclinedduringthelastfiftyyears;it containsnotasingleliteracypercentage.Ihavebeenverymuch pressedbyotherwork,butIhaveinaroughstatematerialfor twoorthreearticlesontheprogressofliteracyinBengalduring the last hundred years, of which I will send copies both to yourself and Professor Shah when they are completed. The positionisstillthatyouareunabletosupplythefiguretowhich you referred in your address at the Royal Institute of InternationalAffairsonOctober20.Ifeelsurethatyouwillbe convincedbythefactsasstatedinmyarticles,whicharenotin anywayconvertedbythestatementsinProfessorShahsletter.I encloseacopyofmyreplytoProfessorShahandalsoacopyofa letterdated

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December 14th which appeared in the Journal of the Royal InstituteforJanuary. Witheverygoodwish,Iam, Yourssincerely, Sd/PhilipHartog

. . .
5InvernessGardens, London,W.8. March10,1932 ProfessorK.T.Shah 45ChowpattyRoad, Bombay(7). DearProfessorShah, IammuchobligedforyourletterofFebruary20,andfor the great trouble, you have taken in this matter. I received a letter dated February 15 from Mahatma Gandhi by the same post,andamsendingtohimacopyofthisreplytoyou.Ienclose copies of my reply to him, and of a letter from me which appeared in International Affairs, (the Journal of the Royal InstituteofInternationalAffairs)forJanuary,1932. Whenyouhavereadthesedocumentsyouwillrealisethat yourletterdoesnottouchthemainquestionwhichIputtoMr Gandhi, viz., what authority he had for the statement that literacyhad diminishedduringthelast50yearsinIndia.The latest authority that you quote is Leitner, whose History of IndigenousEducationinthePunjabwaspublishedin188250 years agoand throughout your letter you do not give any literacypercentagesatall. Ontheotherhand,youappeartothinkthatthenumberof schoolsisaguidetoliteracypercentages.Iagreethatthatwould be a naturalconclusion, but, on the other hand, as has been pointed out in the census, a number of Indian schools in the past did not aim at literacy, and more recently the Education CommitteeoftheIndianStatutoryCommission,ofwhichIwas Chairman,pointedoutthatinthetenyears1917to1927the number of primary schools in Bengalwas increased bynearly eleventhousand, andthenumberofpupilsbynearly370,000 whereas in Class IV, the lowest class in which permanent literacy is likely to be attained under existing conditions, the number of pupils had actually diminished by nearly 30,000. I amafraid

282

that I am altogether unable to accept your conclusions with regardtothehistoryofliteracyinBengalduringthepast100 years,ofwhichthereremainsagooddealtobesaid. Thisisonlyapreliminaryreplytoyourletter;Ihopetobe abletowriteshortlyagain,bothtoMrGandhiandyourself. Yourssincerely, Sd/P.J.Hartog

. . .
20March1939 DearMrGandhi, Youwill,Ithink,rememberthatwhenyouwereinEngland fortheRoundTableConference,nowmorethansevenyearsago, wehadafriendlydiscussiononthesubjectofliteracyinIndia, whicharoseoutofastatementmadebyyourselfattheRoyal Institute of International Affairs to the effect that literacy had diminished in British India in the last fifty or hundred years. YouwillperhapsalsorememberthatIhadaninterviewwithyou on the subject at your rooms in Knightsbridge in December 1931,andthatyouwillinglyundertookpubliclytoretractyour statementifyouwereconvincedthattherewasnobasisforitin fact;andthatyouverykindlywrotetomeaboutitlaterwhen youwereinYervadaGaol.ThefileofcorrespondenceofwhichI encloseacopywillshowyouexactlyhowthematterrestedafter yourlastletterof15February1932andmyreplyof9March following. Ihadtoputthesubjectaside,owingtootherandurgent demands on my time, but I have recently concluded an investigationoftheauthoritiestowhichyouandProfessorShah referredmeandhavepublishedtheresultsinthreememoranda included,inthebookentitledSome AspectsofIndianEducation, PastandPresent,ofwhichIencloseacopyforyouracceptance. YouwillseethatinthePrefaceIhavereferrednotonlytoour controversy but to your Wardha scheme, in which I take the deepestinterest.IfyouwillreadthroughtheMemoranda,Ihave littledoubtthatyouwillfindthatacloseanalysisofthefacts revealsnoevidencetosupportthestatementwhichyoumadeat theRoyalInstituteofInternationalAffairsonOctober20,1931, andthatyouwillthereforefeeljustifiednowinwithdrawingthat statement.Asyouimpliedinyourletterof15February1932we arebothconcernedonlywithascertainingthetruth,and,I

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would add, in removing obstacles to good understanding betweentheBritishandtheIndianpeoples. Withallgoodwishes, Believeme, Yourssincerely, Sd/P.Hartog MahatmaM.K.Gandhi, TheAsram, Wardha, C.P.,India. P.S.IhadintendedsendingacopyofmybooktoProfessorK.T. Shah,butIhavebeenunabletofindhispresentaddressfrom anyofthebooksofreference.Perhapsyouwouldkindlyletme knowwhathasbecomeofhim? P.J.H .

. . .
ProfessorK.T.Shah, 45ChowpattyRoad, Bombay(7) DearProfessorShah, I sent to you a few weeks ago a book of mine recently publishedbytheOxfordUniversityPress,calledSomeAspects onIndianEducation,PastandPresent,whichIhopeyouhave dulyreceived.Iintendedtowritetoyouatthesametime,but havebeenworkingunderextremepressure. As youwillsee, the book includes three Payne Lectures given at the Institute of Education dealing with general problems, historical and actual, of Indian education, and also three memoranda in which I have examined in detail the argumentsintheletterwhichyouwrotetomeinFebruary,1932 at Mahatma Gandhis request, in support of his statement at ChathamHousethatliteracyhaddiminishedinIndiaduringthe previousfiftyorahundredyears. Youwillperhapsrememberthatinmyreply(of10March 1932)Ipointedoutthatyouhadnottouchedonthequestionof the previous fifty years, and that I was unable to accept your conclusionsinregardtothehistoryofliteracyinBengalinthe previoushundredyears,ofwhichthereremainedagooddealto besaid. 2May1939

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Ipromisedtowritetoyouagainbutdidnotdosobecause, owingtothepressureofotherwork,Iwasobligedtopostpone the detailed examination of the historical facts, of which the recordwasmuchtoolongtobecomprisedinaletterandisnow setoutinthebook. Yourssincerely, Sd/PhilipHartog

. . .
CONFIDENTIAL CopyofaletterfromMrGandhitoSirPhilipHartog.(Sentin envelopedated16August1939;thedateontheletteritselfis difficulttodecipher.) Segaon,Wardha. DearSirPhilip, Ihavenotleftoffthepursuitofthesubjectofeducationin the villages during the preBritish period. I am in correspon dence with several educationists. Those who have replied do support my view but do not produce authority that would be acceptedasproof.Myprejudiceorpresentimentstillmakesme clingtothestatementImadeatChathamHouse.Idontwantto writehaltinglyinHarijan.Youdontwantmemerelytosaythat theproofIhadinmindhasbeenchallengedbyyou.MeanwhileI sendyouacopyofanarticleinModernReviewonthesubject.I shouldlikeyourreactiontoitifyouhavethetime. Yourssincerely, Sd/M.K.Gandhi (Note:Thearticleof whichacopyhasbeensenttomebyMr GandhiisinmyopinionofnovalueP.J.H.)

. . .

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10September1939 MahatmaGandhi, SegaonWardha, CentralProvinces, India. DearMrGandhi, Manythanksforyourletterandenclosurerelatingtomy book. I will write to you on the subject later when I am less overwhelmedwithwork,butIcannotwaittoexpresstoyoumy profound gratitude, shared, I am sure, by an innumerable number of my fellowcountrymen, all over the world, for the attitudeyouhavetakenupinregardtothepresentWaratyour interviewwiththeViceroy,reportedintheTimes. I know how much it must have cost you to express an opinion involving any kind of approval of war; I hate war, perhaps as much as you do, but violence on the part of a policeman in trying to rescue a child from the clutches of a ruffian, is surely justifiable and it is to such action that I compare the war of Great Britain and France in support of Polandatthismoment. Witheverygoodwish, Believeme, Yourssincerely, Sd/PhilipHartog

. . .

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AnnexureG
ListofTanjoreTemplesReceivingRevenueAssignments 14.4.1843 No.6:ACCOUNTPARTICULARSOFTHEANNUALMOHINSTO THEPAGODASOFTANJOURFORFUSLEE1222 No. 1
1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. 8. 9. 10. 11. 12. 13. 14. 15. 16. 17. 18. 19. 20. 21. 22. 23. 24. 25. 26. 27. 28. 29. 30.

Name 2
CombaswaraSwamy NaugaswaraSwamy SomaswaraSwamy CailaheeteeswaraSwamy VissvanaudaSwamy GovotamaswaraSwamy SodasulingaSwamy CausevisswanadaSwamy AubemuttaswaraSwamy SaurungapaunySwamy ChacrapaunySwamy RaumaSwamy SaranarainaPermall KistnaSwamy HanumutSwamy AumortagataswaraSwamy NundanadaPermall CaravalanaudaSwamy HanumuntaSwamy BaunapooraswaraSwamy SevagoronaudaSwamy PrauvataswaraSwamy SuptaKetchaswaraSwamy MuhalingaSwamy BaunaporaswaraSwamy VencatachellaputtySwamy ManaganadaSwamy SudjunaswaraSwamy CampaharaswaraSwamy NauganandaSwamy Pagoda at do do do do do do do do do do do do do do do do do do do do do do do do do do do do do

Place 3
Combaconum do do do do do do do do do do do do do do TeroculasaNellor Nundavanum Keerungoody Saucottah Varnahtoray Sevaporum Daunakpoorum Sausevarum bakporum Murdearjenum Govindaporum Govindapoorum Trenalagoody Caravaly Trebovum Vooppalapuncovil

Amount Ch. Fs. 4

1,349 666 100 90 22 22 18 125 18 2,120 766 666 270 36 50 77 53 36 138 33 48 240 1,575 3,000 240 120 240 18 1,000 291 4 6 2 5 2 6 6 8 5 3 6 8 16 24 24 20 20 28 16 6 20

287

1
31. 32. 33. 34. 35. 36. 37. 38. 39. 40. 41. 42. 43. 44. 45. 46. 47. 48. 49. 50. 51. 52. 53. 54. 55. 56. 57. 58. 59. 60. 61. 62.

2
Vencatachallaputtee Swamy YadoottadynaudaSwamy SomanadaSwamy RaujagopaulaSwamy RaumaSwamy VeelenadaSwamy SolapareswaraSwamy SoochumanaudaSwamy AupachagaswaraSwamy CodundaraumaSwamy GanaswaraSwamy Woottarasweedaswara Swamy CholaswaraSwamy VouncauluswaraSwamy MunnaduswaraSwamy SuptaratchaswaraSwamy Causevissvanauduswara Swamy AudecaswaraPermall SomanaudaSwamy VerdarajaPermall VeroopauchySwamy TeroomoolenaudaSwamy SoondaraswaraSwamy VencatachellaputteeSwamy BrumhapooraswaraSwamy ChamundaswaraSwamy NauradaverdaPermall SoondaraswaraSwamy SingauraTotulPilliar Nutanaporuswaraswara Swamy NuganaudaSwamy RetnanadaswaraSwamy Pagoda at do do do do do do do do do do do do do do do do do do do do do do do do do do do do do do

3
Vooppalapuncovil Wootturoinnum boor Poundareeca poorum do Adumbaur Terovalynalala TrepaumBoorum Theelasaragoody Tocayachee do Codevassels Coottaulum do do do do do do Tevomungach arny do Saragoody Poladagooda Naicoopadenpady Naicoopadenpady Abraumapoorum Cholanelaugum Cudalungoody do Cadalungoody Munemady Teruchetumbalm Terovaluputtoor 144 18 6 9 54 226 38 2 36 18 36 466 240 12 6 1 4 25 18 28 18 15 15 7 30 7 75 73 9 30 9 75

4
9 8 5 5 6 5 5 1 5 5 9 14 16 20 16 24

288

1
63. 64. 65. 66. 67. 68. 69. 70. 71. 72. 73. 74. 75. 76. 77. 78. 79. 80. 81. 82. 83. 84. 85. 86. 87. 88. 89. 90. 91. 92. 93. 94. 95. 96.

2
VidonuudaSwamy VerdaraujaPermall VisswanaudaSwamy NeelacuntaswaraSwamy KylausanadaSwamy JemboonaudaSwamy VomamahaswaraSwamy VeeratunduswaraSwamy PadupataswaraSwamy AudeecasavaPermall HunnumuntaSwamy Pillyar VissvanaudaSwamy BrumhapooraswarSwamy Vencatachellapattay Swamy TolasaswaraSwamy SoondaraswaraSwamy Sheraubdenaurauyana Permall PaulanaudaSwamy CodundaraumaSwamy Aumoortagataswara Swamy YesraumanaswaraSwamy KeelacauttoorPermall AgusteeswaraSwamy Vencatachellaputty Permall DurmaporaswaraSwamy SoobbramannaSwamy Vencatachellaputtay Swamy AronaujataswaraSwamy SuptagerenaudaSwamy PunchavurnaswaraSwamy Pranavadanganauda Swamy VadaporuswaraSwamy AucheyanaudaSwamy Pagoda at do do do do do do do do do do do do do do do do do do do do do do do do do do do do do do do do do

3
Virdouganellore Puupaugoody Satungoody Covelady Morogumungalam Vyel Trenalum Veeraucum Pundanellor do Pundanelloor do do Vatatoty Covanoor Cauvennour Treloky do Terovaupaudy Corochy Corochy Keelacauttoor Keelacauttoor Malacautoor do Darmaporum Govinthanallocherr y Terovembanellore Teropanental Senganellore Manecoody Pranavedencum Trecaulatulla Tremandery 18 18 1 75 12 5 37 18 666 144 18 18 7 35 3 2 13 20 149 62 5 5 5 90 150 60 3 12 533 14 30 220 9 90

4
5 5 4 3 6 5 6 5 8 1 5 3 12 20 16 16 16 8

289

1
97. 98. 99. 100. 101. 102. 103. 104. 105. 106. 107. 108. 109. 110. 111. 112. 113. 114. 115. 116. 117. 118. 119. 120. 121. 122. 123. 124. 125. 126. 127. 128. 129.

2
Sooregunaurauyana Swamy YadancondaswaraSwamy VeadooroondaPermall CarnaudaswaraSwamy Kylausanaudaswara Swamy VerdaraujaPermall AugnaswaraSwamy CodundaramaSwamy VissvanaudaSwamy TrecataswaraSwamy SoondaraswaraSwamy Buddracauly VissvanaudaSwamy BaujacholaswaraSwamy KylausanaudaSwamy BrumkapooraswaraSwamy KylauswanadaSwamy VissvanaudaSwamy GoporaswaraSwamy Kaumaswamy BoodaswaraSwamy TautacaswaraSwamy SoondaraswaraSwamy Vencatachellaputtee Swamy KylausanaudaSwamy Vencatachellaputtee Swamy NauganautaswaraSwamy SondaraujaPermall Raumaswamy ChendrasucraSwamy Kristnaswamy SaranataSwamy VydenataSwamy Pagoda at do do do do do do do do do do do do do do do do do do do do do do do do do do do do do do do do do

3
Sooreanercovil do Veeterondapermal covil Cornadaropoor Asoor do Cunjanoor do do Trecottacauvul Naugamungalum Candeyoor Valoor Coottanoor Codeyalum Nullataday do Annacoody Terocolumbium Ramaswarapoorum Darany Nainassel Davastanumca ropoor do Solavanum Solavanum Maunumbaudy Caduchembaudy Valangam Chendrqasacor apoorum Trechara Trechara Veroopauchi poorum 288 9 3 30 50 58 216 90 18 47 12 18 7 4 2 6 2 107 270 480 19 1 266 18 97 13 9 106 48 36 24 300 36

4
6 9 5 5 2 6 4 7 1 5 1 5 5 5 6 5 20 16 24 24 20

290

1
130. 131. 132. 133. 134. 135. 136. 137. 138. 139. 140. 141. 142. 143. 144. 145. 146. 147. 148. 149. 150. 151. 152. 153. 154. 155. 156. 157. 158. 159. 160. 161. 162. 163. 164.

2
VerdaraujaPermall KylausanaudaSwamy VoodayananPermall AupashayaSwamy DoondabaswaraSwamy KylausanaudaSwamy JemboonaudaSwamy BilvanaudaSwamy PautalaswaraSwamy VerdaraujaPermall CauracotaswaraSwamy SauchynandySwamy ParamaswaraSwamy GunanaswaraSwamy JemboonaudaSwamy MauyavaranautaSwamy SoobbramanneyaSwamy PatoraVisswanadaSwamy Toracauttovullur VurdaraujaPermall SemmendaranadaSwamy AgneeswaraSwamy SittumbalanadaSwamy Veerataswara MaurgasaheyaIsswarar AupanaIsswarar SoobbramunnaSwamy Vaudeeswarar Ramaswamy Cholasworar GopaulaKistnaSwamy Voduvundanada Pooraswarar VerdarajaPermall RenganaudaSwamy Raumaswamy Pagoda at do do do do do do do do do do do do do do do do do do do do do do do do do do do do do do do do do do

3
Veroopauchi poorum Kylausanada Cuttay Noodiavercovil Aulungoody Singalapoorum Voga Coottoor Terocaulumboor Karadavaramun galum do Aravoor Navorulloor Nauloor Teromungalum Andancovil Myaveram do do Valanagur do Semmandaran covil Keleyannoor Sittumbalana deyar Valoor Moovulloor Auluntore Pavamoor Davastanumparen chary Terovalungoody do Trevalungoody Kooleyempata do Trevalundoor do 33 8 37 33 4 14 36 33 4 18 9 18 33 56 1,725 525 18 100 40 14 40 4 150 36 4 75 30 75 18 18 2 7 833 240

4
2 5 9 2 5 5 9 9 6 2 9 3 7 4 3 16 16 28 8 4 12 28 24 4 8 16 16 20

291

1
165. 166. 167. 168. 169. 170. 171. 172. 173. 174. 175. 176. 177. 178. 179. 180. 181. 182. 183. 184. 185. 186. 187. 188. 189. 190. 191. 192. 193. 194. 195. 196. 197. 198. 199. 200. 201. 202. 203.

2
Taundoneeswarar Soondareeswarar Somanataswarar Soondaraswarar Suttapooreeswarar Vadaneeswarar Kylausanaudaswarar Naugunaudaswarar Kylausanaudaswarar Boolocanaudaswarar SovaSevalocanauda swarar Taundonaswarar Alegenaudaswarar StreenevassaPermall NoodvaneswaraSwamy MuddanaswaraSwamy Manavalaswarar Kylausanaudaswarar VerdaraujaPermall Veerateeswarar Mactetaswarar AubachahayaIsswarar CoottumpoorottaIsswarar Kylausanaudaswarar VencatachellaputtySwamy ValumborenaudaSwamy NauganandaSwamy YellummahDavy Sovaraparaswarar Comarasaumy Yerataswarar Agnaswarar Muddanaswarar CustoryKengaPermall SomanaudaSwamy Amortagutaswarar AmoortanaurayanaPermall SoyembonaudaSwamy VerdaraujaPermall Pagoda at do do do do do do do do do do do do do do do do do do do do do do do do do do do do do do do do do do do do do do

3
Trevalundoor Palaroyeepitta Needoor Manacody Coromocamau dumpata Vullalaurcovil Solasacavanelloor Pogacoddy Cunnahnuttum Tremungalum covilput Manacody Solampata do do Teromunjasra covilput Teromunjara Teroovalacody Moolungoody do Corocacovilput Varagade Anneyoor Talanauyer Vadavaunjayar do Terovalumboor Naugonaudum covilput Modecondanelloor Sembavarcovilput Maharaujaporum Paraselloor Nullada Elapayore Permalcovilput Vulunpodacody Trecauttayoor do Praulacuttly Koottungoody 29 11 32 10 22 240 2 17 120 21 5 12 18 4 34 12 90 2 2 90 15 60 52 7 7 180 9 23 33 3 47 38 2 26 3 1,157 38 450 1

4
2 5 5 8 5 7 2 4 9 5 5 5 5 9 9 3 2 2 7 7 5 5 2 8 9 16 4 16 16 22 24 14 8 16 28 28 24 24 30 16 8 15 24 28

292

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204. 205. 206. 207. 208. 209. 210. 211. 212. 213. 214. 215. 216. 217. 218. 219. 220. 221. 222. 223. 224. 225. 226. 227. 228. 229. 230. 231. 232. 233. 234. 235. 236. 237. 238. 239. 240. 241. 242. 243. 244. 245.

2
Vissawanaudaswarar Paurvataswarar CasavaPermall Tremacanaudaswarar Agustaswaraswamy Mauguleeswarar Seveporanaudaswarar CrepausambodvaPermall Paulavaraudaswarar Kylausanaudaswarar Nithamanavaulaswarar Prauvataswarar Soobbramunnaswarar Naugunaudaswarar Amoortagaswarar Sevalocanaudaswarar Audilingaswarar Brumhaporaswarar VeetorondaPermall Brumhaporaswarar VeetorondaPermall Maugaunlaswarar SoureraujaPermall AgneeswaraSwamy VoottarauputyIsswarar RaumanautaSwamy TeroovulumboorIsswarar Somanaudaswarar Retnageraswarar Sovurnageraswarar Anundaswarar Vulmenaudaswarar CullanasoondraPermall PanasayerIsswarar Raumaswamy AupachayaIsswarar Gomacutaswarar Visswanataswamy Vatarennaswarar Soyembonaudaswarar Pusoopataswarar Vadaporaswarar Pag.at do do do do do do do do do do do do do do do do do do do do do do do do do do do do do do do do do do do do do do do do do do

3
Alugepilliumpata Iyengoody do Treverachoor do Maungoodycutty Keevannoor Sarapoleyoor do Kylausanadacada lungoody Nudangolum Trecottaurum Covilcundangoody Munnahgoody Yarvedy Koottapaudy Paranelloor Polagoodycovil Keelacadaneengoody Ambul do Covileromaulm Trecennapoorum Trepogalore Trechencaut tengoody Ramanaudasgoody Yanangoody Bundauravaudah Teromarogul Teyatamunga Anuntanelloor Tundumbauluyore do Condaga do Corttaulum Terovaudotory Curayacundom Terovaulungod Narasingumpata Nullavoor Taralundoor Isswarauncovilput 1 60 4 296 27 9 240 188 1 15 7 15 24 15 1 19 7 2 15 150 18 240 1,125 1,020 533 20 4 3 133 30 2 20 3 8 4 9 416 25 82 9 20 90

4
9 9 1 5 9 9 7 9 5 9 4 8 8 5 3 5 6 3 5 2 8 6 5 28 22 30 30 28 30 28 30 4 4 8 14 28 4

293

1
246. 247. 248. 249. 250. 251. 252. 253. 254. 255. 256. 257. 258. 259. 260. 261. 262. 263. 264. 265. 266. 267. 268. 269. 270. 271. 272. 273. 274. 275. 276. 277. 278. 279. 280. 281. 282. 283. 284. 285. 286. 287.

2
AurnavaPermall GovindaraujaPermall Ganaswarar Vytalaswarar Prauvataswarar Aupachahayuswarar Suttunaudaswarar Naugaswarar Valavadenaudaswarar Vadanguswarar Lechmenaurauyan Permall Tennulucotaswarar Kylausanadaswarar Munnoolaudeeswarar Visswanaudaswarar Lotchmananaurayana Permall Kylasanadaswarar VerdarajaPermall SoondaraswaraSwamy AupachahayaIsswarar Terolaulamoodiyar Isswarar Vadaporaswarar NacrarpanaIsswarar Taulaporaswarar Valavadanaudaswarar TeveraumaSwamy Raumaswamy Agasteeswarar Coondulearunaswarar Maudalaswarar Runganadaswamy Gungauparamaswarar Sevalocanaudaswarar Teromanealagur VidenaudanaudaSwamy Parandaswarar YacanaudaSwamy Brumhaporaswarar Lutchmeswarar Cunnauromoodiyer Isswarar KistnaSwamy Letchmennarauyana Permall Pag. at do do do do do do do do do do do do do do do do do do do do do do do do do do do do do do do do do do do do do do do do do

3
Paroomalcovilput Turadundet Teromunganum Maratagoody do Nadavaujapoorum Shellay Sumbungoody Terocarungauvoor Tellynaudungun Setturaudapurm Tennalagoody Varauyeropocom arapillasastry Nunnalungarum Yaracoor do Sedeyacoody do Tremalundy Saumyan Putcho Vadavundungoody Kentanayarcovilput Coviltrecolacah Koelatoracoragauvoor Taudaurungovil do Aulunjary Malatrecolacah Maudelevaloor Vadarangum Apparcovil Trepungoor Manepullum Valoor Paucusula Yogeswarum Cundattoor Tremundeyore Corovaunucoody Moradoor Cunjuhnagur 85 18 36 90 36 36 1,153 1 1 2 3 2 6 1 1 2 2 1 225 3 50 1 3 7 9 220 80 9 9 18 112 9 125 5 4,050 4 6 3 15 4 3 2

4
2 1 5 7 5 5 5 5 4 6 8 5 8 5 8 5 8

294

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288. 289. 290. 291. 292. 293. 294. 295. 296. 297. 298. 299. 300. 301. 302. 303. 304. 305. 306. 307. 308. 309. 310. 311. 312. 313. 314. 315. 316. 317. 318. 319. 320. 321. 322. 323. 324. 325. 326. 327. 328. 329.

2
Cadumodeswarar Polagaswarar SwatuurunnaSwamy Aurunnaswarar Raumaswamy Gopaulaswamy PaurataswardaPermall NorasimmaPermall Prauvataswarar AudicasuvaPermall Chayavamaswarar Pullavanaswarar Comaraswamy PreyavadangumSwamy MootteeApperswamy RaujanaurayanaPermall RagantaPermall Agusteeswarar Tauladanaswarar Latchmennaurauyana Permall SencauranaSwarar TeronadaPermall Nurteneswarar NaurayanaSwamy PoroshotmaSwamy PulecondaPermall YsicondanaudaSwamy SumpanaNaurayana Permall VerdaraujaPermall CoodunacoottarPermall Mutanguswarar NaucayaPilliar ComaraSwamy NauganadaSwamy AnnaPermall MaudavaPermall Temungayalvar NurasingaPermall Cumbaranaudaswamy NarasingaPermall Marcandaswarar Brumhaporaswar Pag.at do do do do do do do do do do do do do do do do do do do do do do do do do do do do do do do do do do do do do do do do do do

3
Keelagoor do Trevencaud Teroocautoopully do Cauvalumbaudy Prartumpully Mungamadum Paretotum Parecototum Chayavanum Malayore do do do do do Kellayore do do Noodeyavana covilput Bundauyavauda Punja Keelanaugoor do do do do do do do do Malanaugoor Sempadareyener spotumpaudy Malusaula Keelasaula Trenugery Sennalymailpaudy Vellupullum Coravulloor Munamado Teromengod 18 1 1,628 5 6 21 12 35 12 7 50 12 4 4 2 6 3 3 2 1 17 25 15 92 162 75 24 25 10 37 8 3 6 18 78 130 337 2 2 2 5 47

4
6 9 1 2 5 5 5 5 5 5 5 5 2 5 5 5 5 7 5 16 16 16 16 4 30

295

1
330. 331. 332. 333. 334. 335. 336. 337. 338. 339. 340. 341. 342. 343. 344. 345. 346. 347. 348. 349. 350. 351. 352. 353. 354. 355. 356. 357. 358. 359. 360. 361. 362. 363. 364. 365. 366. 367. 368. 369. 370. 371. 372. 373. 374.

2
Aubemoctaswarar Todaraputteswarar Raujagopaulaswamy Agaswarar SoobbramunneyaSwamy VerdarajaPermall Cholaswarar Taundonaswarar RaujagopaulaSwamy NauganautaSwamy NittevenocaraSwamy DurbanunnaSwarar NalanaurauyunaPermall TrelocunaudaSwamy Agusteeswarar CaucataSwarar VeelenataSwamy Puttarauvepermall Taundonaswarar Chohareswarar Maudeeswarar Yacuumbaraswarar MauranautaSwamy Siddaswarar RaujagopaulaSwamy Taundoneswarar Kylausanaudaswamy Bramusteeswarar NauganaudaSwamy VerdaraujaPermall Teromunealagur SittanaudaSwamy MoolavanaudaSwamy VerdaraujaPermall RaujagopaulaSwamy TolasaswararWoodiyar Neelacuntuswarar ChaconautaSwamy JayamcondanaudaSwamy NauganaudaSwamy KylausanaudaSwamy SomanaudaSwamy SacteporawaraSwamy AnnamalanaudaSwamy VennaswaraWoodiyar Pag.at do do do do do do do do do do do do do do do do do do do do do do do do do do do do do do do do do do do do do do do do do do do do do

3
Pillapermahnelloor Cauluyapanelloor do Panahary Terovadecolly do Gooduloor Aucoor do Precaulachary Sauttenoor Trenallum do Tuccaloor Seloor Caucomally Valudeyore do Nullumbalum Tennongoody Maudiyar Covilputtosatoor Yalayangoody Saittoor do Nadangod Scoramavalunga Caranbagaram Causugoody Varehegoody Trevettagoody Poovum Tremalavausel do Mannargoody do do do Singanarcovil Paumany Kylausanau dacovil Sangolum Trechittamuttum Annahmalana dacovil Saramungalum 3 2 70 2 125 18 3 21 40 45 25 1,100 17 16 17 3 12 8 24 20 28 36 16 120 60 36 18 60 36 12 36 6 125 10 3,333 4 4 5 120 120 35 1 6 30 5

4
5 5 4 4 4 6 6 4 3 8 8 1 1 2 6 17 10

296

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375. 376. 377. 378. 379. 380. 381. 382. 383. 384. 385. 386. 387. 388. 389. 390. 391. 392. 393. 394. 395. 396. 397. 398. 399. 400. 401. 402. 403. 404. 405. 406. 407. 408. 409. 410. 411. 412.

2
Chotorungavallaboor aswarar VurduraujaPermall CurpagaPilliar RaumanaudaSwamy Agasteeswarar KylausanaudaSwamy VisswanaudaSwamy VurduraujaSwamy VundoornaudaSwamy Aumarauvataswara Swamy Raumaswamy RutnapooraswaraSwamy AulagunattaSwamy AugusteeswaraSwamy Sawmeyanausay anaswamy VisswanaudaSwamy Letchmenaurauyana Permall VerdaraujaPermall TrenegaswaraSwamy MaduchendaswaraSwamy SevanaudaSwamy ConaunaswaraSwamy PonvadaudaSwamy RunganaudaSwamy Detchnagocurnoswara Swamy Vencatachellaputtee Swamy KylausanaudaSwamy KylausanaudaSwamy TeyagaraujaSwamy CundaRow ParevattuncuttyIsswarar VeedavadungaIsswarar CurpoorucuttyIsswarar Terocnaundacutty Isswarar CamalauyaAmmen NduvanayanarIsswaar VissvanaudaSwamy EgnaswaraSwamy Pag. at do do do do do do do do do do do do do do do do do do do do do do do do do do do do do do do do do do do do do

3
Poovunnoor do Narasingamun galum Toly Koppauchary Keelayore do Keyennoor Sinnacotanelloor Vootteyana Raumanaudapoorum Natalaungogoody Alagenaudancovil Pinnavaucel do Agratopo Munula Tittachary Sundangoody Covilputt Sevanudercovil Munacar Settamboor do Pelevalum do Voya Elangoorgoody Trivalore do do do do do do do do do 140 104 1 6 3 2 3 3 18 15 6 5 7 5 5 7 9 3 2 6 5 2 30 15 360 360 7 18 5,050 26 18 30 6 20 12 9 3 18

4
8 2 7 1 2 7 7 5 2 5 5 7 5 * 16 16 8 16 16 16 16 16 16

297

1
413. 414. 415. 416. 417. 418. 419. 420. 421. 422. 423. 424. 425. 426. 427. 428. 429. 430. 431. 432. 433. 434. 435. 436. 437. 438. 439. 440. 441. 442. 443. 444. 445. 446. 447. 448. 449. 450. 451. 452.

2
VissvanaudaSwamy VissvanaudaSwamy SoobbramunneyaSwamy VissvanaudaSwamy VellayPilliar TovauninarSwamy VeropauchiswaraSwamy PrautaupaVisvanauda Swamy TaradyKylausanada Swamy VissvanaudaSwamy Raumaswamy AubemoctaswaraSwamy Runucauday TeromunganasawrySwamy AunundaPilliar Capelaswarar Trenedaswarar KylausanadaswaraSwamy LetchmenaurayanaPermall CaraveeranaudaSwamy AugusteeswaraSwamy KylausanadaSwamy VerdaraujaPermall RaumanaudaSwamy VanogopaulaSwamy Raumaswamy RoodracateeswaraSwamy Padenchelly Vegraporaswara VissvanaudaSwamy BrumhaporaswaraSwamy VissvanadaSwamy SoobramunnaSwamy KylausanaudaSwamy KylausanaudaSwamy Volaragocurnaswarar ChocanautaSwamy PonnauguswaraSwamy VerdaraujaPermall VulmecuswaraSwamy SounderayaSwamy Pag.at do do do do do do do do do do do do do do do do do do do do do do do do do do do do do do do do do do do do do do do

3
Trivalore Tengara do do Tencara do do do do Roumgaya do Maradunpata Vejayaporum do do do Pillatarno Palavanacody Teyagaraujapo rum Karaveerun Nagacoody Moongacoody do Ramalingacovil Madapoorum do Roodracoty Vadamala Calecara Pavetramaunum Sandamungalum Danaporum Malemaugalum Pullevauraswamy Vandampauly Vaurecody Podopatoor Podopatoor Tremayoporum Malayore 18 18 6 9 3 27 3 180 3 288 252 12 180 6 1 1 6 12 6 54 12 9 9 18 180 27 180 36 36 12 4 6 6 6 6 8 1 9 6

4
2 5 7 5 16 16

298

1
453. 454. 455. 456. 457. 458. 459. 460. 461. 462. 463. 464. 465. 466. 467. 468. 469. 470. 471. 472. 473. 474. 475. 476. 477. 478. 479. 480. 481. 482. 483. 484. 485. 486. 487. 488. 489. 490. 491.

2
VissvanadaSwamy SomanaudaSwamy NaugaswaraSwamy CauranautaSwamy KylausanaudaSwamy Maudavaporaswarar VissvanadaSwamy SoundaraswaraSwamy SoundaraswaraSwamy RoodracatuswaraSwamy RaujagopaulaSwamy Letchmennaurauyana Permall Letchmennaurauyana Permall Caulahustaswarar ChocunaudaSwamy CotyIsswarar SoobbramunnaSwamy VredachellaSwamy NauganaudaSwamy BrumhaporaswaraSwamy NaugaswaraSwamy VencatachellaSwamy KylausandaSwamy BuctavechalaSwamy SoondaraswaraSwamy DurmapuraSwamy VurdaraujaSwamy AubemuctaswaraSwamy VycontanaurayanaPermall Agusteeswarar Sashaporaswarar Agusteeswarar KylausanadaSwamy PermalnaudaSwamy NartanaporaswaraSwamy NeelamagaPermall Soondaraswarar SomanaudaSwamy VaunchanaudaSwamy Pag.At do do do do do do do do do do do do do do do do do do do do do do do do do do do do do do do do do do do do do do

3
Cooneyore Numbupaudy Kaudanelloor Cauranautumcovil Pooselungoody Ponavassel Panutteyore Trepanapata Vedeaporam Valecoody do Poolungoody Cannalaporum Vauttoogoody Curevanoor Coodeyamungalum Yencon Malateremdecon non Keellapoleyore Tundaly Parandaracody Ammiupen Keelumocondanel loor Trecanumunga Couttoor Vadacundum Yalayulunelloor Pempata do Manacaul Raupetaswarum Deevangoody Paramunnayore do Tulayalungaddoo Mulayoor Nairecunnamunga lum Atcheyalumunga lum Streevamchem 3 15 3 1 24 18 12 3 6 6 3 3 23 3 18 50 1 18 484 18 10 6 9 3 3 3 10 1 6 9 9 12 666

4
5 7 2 6 6 6 6 2 6 5 5 6 16 8 20

299

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492. 493. 494. 495. 496. 497. 498. 499. 500. 501. 502. 503. 504. 505. 506. 507. 508. 509. 510. 511. 512. 513. 514. 515. 516. 517. 518. 519. 520. 521. 522. 523. 524. 525. 526. 527. 528. 529. 530.

2
VurdaraujaPermall AudeporaswaraSwamy Soondaraswarar KylausanadaSwamy KylausanadaSwamy KylausanadaSwamy SomanaudaSwamy Soobbaramanneeswara Swamy PosoopatuswaraSwamy CodombenaudaSwamy SoundaraswaraSwamy Raumaswamy AupauhayaswaraSwamy VerdaraujaPermall AugusteeswaraSwamy Vudaporaswarar ModovanaswaraSwamy KylausanadaSwamy SemboonaudaSwamy SowreyaraujaPermall Agusteeswarar VissvanaudaSwamy TrecaulacutaswaraSwamy VeeruttuswararSwamy CaulahusteeswararSwamy Caulahusteeswarar Agusteeswarar NauganaudaSwamy VeeraraugaPermall TrepuyanaudaSwamy VerdaraujaPermall SevalocanaudaSwamy CurchaIsswarar VerdaraujaPermall SoondaraswaraSwamy AugusteeswaraSwamy NauganaudaSwamy SoondaraswaraSwamy CaulahusteeswaraSwamy Pag.at do do do do do do do do do do do do do do do do do do do do do do do do do do do do do do do do do do do do do do

3
Streevamchem Keelagum Sauranandoor Nadanchary Covilput Andeeyoor Sangannoor Sennahnelloor Trecundaswaraum Codamaninar cottoor Trepanyyoor Moodecondan Roodracanaca Poontotum do Pillamungalum Nunnellumcovilput Nauplacopum Vypoor do Malanaduncautaun goody Vadapaudy Tremaulumpoga Veecoody Pareyacunnumun galum Poracalacoody Keelasoranoor Vengaduncovil do Trepayatungoody Cadabungoody Trevedauramun galum Cutchen do Colupaud Pillayengoody Paumbodunda nulloor Paungul Curumbeyore 18 3 6 5 3 6 6 4 180 18 18 25 18 4 4 3 6 3 6 6 12 12 6 18 3 4 6 6 9 3 6 110 18 18 36 3 2 2

4
5 5 5 5 5 5 5 4 4

300

1
531. 532. 533. 534. 535. 536. 537. 538. 539. 540. 541. 542. 543. 544. 545. 546. 547. 548. 549. 550. 551. 552. 553. 554. 555. 556. 557. 558. 559. 560. 561. 562. 563. 564. 565. 566. 567. 568. 569. 570. 571.

2
VerdaraujaPermall AuroonauchellaSwarar KylausanaudaSwamy Runganaudaswamy SocanaudaSwamy TeyagaraujaSwamy VerdaraujaSwamy TeyagaraujaSwamy CuranjuswaraSwamy Amarauvataswarar NauganaudaSwamy Canacaubaranaswarar Caulahusteeswarar Soondaraswarar Auroonauchellaswarar Swamy MuhalingaswararSwamy Vurtamaunaswarar Runganautaswamy AlagenataSwamy CarajotaswaraSwamy SemboorautaSwamy TopanauyakeeAmmen AudasiddaswaraSwamy NertananaudaSwamy CaulahaustaswaraSwamy KylausanaudaSwamy ChocanaudaSwamy YucambaraswararSwamy SovernageraswararSwamy TaundonaswararSwamy SevalokanaudaSwamy Mundataundaswarar Swamy VerdaraujaPermall VissvanaudaSwamy Calahausteeswarar Mangambalanadaswamy Vencatachellaputtee Swamy Paurejautavanaswarar RunganautaSwamy NauganautaSwamy Brumhaporaswarar Pag.at do do do do do do do do do do do do do do do do do do do do do do do do do do do do do do do do do do do do do do do do

3
Paungul Keelayore do do Vaulacara Trecohala do Trevoyamoor Vadoor Cundentelly Maurauchury Panatanoo Sembayavaloor Neelmola Munenedacundum Trevademaradoor Sagul Auderangum Deepumbahputnum Madaporum Yalanauyalady Sagul Treterapoondy Tundlachayry Paumany do do do Valoor Pulluncovil Covelungalandy Pareyasingalandy Pareyasingalandy Vettoocuttee Coottoor do do Trecaulur Valacoly Tolauchary Terovalunjoly 2 60 12 143 60 250 18 100 6 3 1 40 1 1 1 1 58 25 3 1 6 36 220 24 5 5 5 5 3 3 3 3 3 3 135 18 18 75 18 3 24

4
4 2 2 2 2 2 7 2 5 5 5 5 16

301

1
572. 573. 574. 575. 576. 577. 578. 579. 580. 581. 582. 583. 584. 585. 586. 587. 588. 589. 590. 591. 592. 593. 594. 595. 596. 597. 598. 599. 600. 601. 602. 603. 604. 605. 606. 607. 608. 609. 610. 611.

2
Suptarelehaswarar VissavanautaSwamy Letchmenaurauyana Swamy RajitaswaraSwamy AgraswaraSwamy SoondaraswaraSwamy VerdaraujaSwamy KylausanaudaSwamy AuronachellaswaraSwamy Aumuraswarar Trecaulasoonduraswarar RaumanaudaSwamy VencatauchellaPutty PulagerynaudaSwamy RaumanadaSwamy MauyournaudaSwamy AgusteeswaraSwamy AuronachellaswaraSwamy SoondaraswaraSwamy AmbalanaudaSwamy PuromaunecaPermall Mahacaulaswarar Andonaswarar VissvanaudaSwamy Esalocanaudaswamy VulmecasunaudaSwamy Vaudaswarowoodyar VurdaraujaSwamy KylausanaudaSwamy AupachahaswaraSwamy AgusteeswaraSwamy SudgonaswaraSwamy CurpanaudaSwamy AgusteeswaraSwamy CullananaudaSwamy Caumaswarawoodiar SocundavanaswaraSwamy CaulahusteeswaraSwamy EnayaluncunnaPermall Amaravataswarar Pag.at do do do do do do do do do do do do do do do do do do do do do do do do do do do do do do do do do do do do do do do

3
Yallattoor Paneyacottamun galum do Tretangoor Trecolacaud Audunoor Alevalum Aundandory Alevalum Trenellicauvil Pooryeyoor Poottoor do Tunneerecunnum Terooramaswarum Karechendraporum Sinnacorawaudy Ammunnoor Kouttoor Talanayer Talanayer Trecaulum Mancoody Vanamanachary Vauttaugoody Vulmecanauda nellore Voombalachary Gopenaudaporum do Parcyemala Vanyemadoo Yadambavanum Carpanarcovil Trepoondy do do Poospavanum Padapully Covilput Naulevalaputto 45 90 36 90 30 3 3 3 3 3 60 3 3 3 3 95 6 3 3 60 20 60 18 6 3 3 7 10 10 3 3 37 18 150 15 7 65 10 22 7

4
2 5 5 5 5 5 16

302

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612. 613. 614. 615. 616. 617. 618. 619. 620. 621. 622. 623. 624. 625. 626. 627. 628. 629. 630. 631. 632. 633. 634. 635. 636. 637. 638. 639. 640. 641. 642. 643. 644. 645. 646. 647. 648. 649. 650. 651. 652.

2
Yacambaraswarar Agusteeswarar SevalocunaudaSwamy AlugenaudaSwamy AunacattaPermall Kylausanaudaporum Gungaudaraswarar VanagopaulaSwamy YacambraSwamy VeerataswaraSwamy TeroverundaPermall PasopataswaraSwamy Autmanauda Sobbramancanauda Swamy Vencatucellaputta SomanaudaSwamy GnanaporaswaraSwamy RanganaudaSwamy Muntraporaswarar PatauIsswarar AlagenaudaSwamy YellamaswaraWoodiyar DutchnaCaussevi ssvanaudar SoobbramunnaSwamy VadaporaswaraSwamy ByravanaudaSwamy VurdarajaparPermall Vadaurannaswarar Agusteeswarar VurdarajaSwamy AmortagataswaraSwamy SomanautaSwamy VissvanautaSwamy Sooreyunaurauyuna Swamy KanumuntaSwamy Vancatachelluputtee Yellummadavy VellayPilliar HanumuntaSwamy Sambomahadavy Swamy MalapataVissvanada Swamy Pag.at do do do do do do do do do do do do do do do do do do do do do do do do do do do do do do do do do do do do do do do do

3
Vullumbalum Prataparaumapoda pattanum Vadagarayaropoo Navacalapul do Cauiltobolypaul Paundy do Ammaneyore Curaca do Auyamoor Talacaudo do do Veerattee Teemayacotta do Covilcota Bundauravauda calatoor Auyacaurumbalum do Panchanadycolum do Cullemadoo Taguttoor do Vadaurunneyam do do do do Trivalore do Munnagody Sarungalum Muhadavaputtanum do do do do 7 7 7 18 12 12 6 3 3 20 9 9 72 6 12 9 12 6 44 12 6 9 6 9 6 18 6 341 90 119 90 5 54 54 36 90 18 9 9 54 36

4
5 5 5 5 4 2 2 9 6 16 22 26 8

303

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653. 654. 655. 656. 657. 658. 659. 660. 661. 662. 663. 664. 665. 666. 667. 668. 669. 670. 671. 672. 673. 674. 675. 676. 677. 678. 679. 680. 681. 682. 683. 684. 685. 686. 687. 688. 689. 690. 691. 692. 693.

2
KellavaudyVissvanada Swamy MalavaudyVissvanada Swamy MeelauvatauchyAmmen SwatavenaugaSwamy VadavenauyaSwamy JagedretcheaSwamy SoondaraswaraSwamy RunganautaSwamy Raumaswamy RaumalingaSwamy Taurdraswarar RunganautaSwamy SauchynaudaSwamy VijianaugaSwamy BilvanaudaSwamy SaumtnaudaSwamy SevundanaudaSwamy MalavidenaudaSwamy KylausanaudaSwamy VurdaraujaPermall SoondaraujaPermall Vagaraporaswarar Grataporaswarar Brumhaporuswarar PillamungeBrunha poraswarar Pasopataswarar MaradaswararSwamy CullanaSoondaraSwamy SoondraraujaPermall CauremauneyaPermall Pasopataswarar Danaporaswarar VissvanaudaSwamy ParasonaudaSwamy RaumanadaSwamy KylausanaudaSwamy GopenaadaPermall SomenaudaSwamy TeromatalingaKylass naudaSwamy DarmaporaswaraSwamy HarchendraswaraSwamy Pag.at do do do do do do do do do do do do do do do do do do do do do do do do do do do do do do do do do do do do do do do do

3
Muhadavaputtanum do do Terovalunjoly Treehettory Audotory Audannoor do Pillumbadungoody do Mauraupanellor Alvarcovil Teroparembeyem Vejiamunga Trevauyavoor Sevamimala Cullanapado Bauporaujaporum Tingalore do Parampolyore do Tillastanum Parammoor Pillamungalum Pasopatagoody Mautoor Mulloor Chandrapenmal goody Podapadavadoo Auvoor Puttuswarum Molayore Raumanaudancovil Kylassanaduncovil Gopenauduncovil Keelapeleyore Teromatalega Venaduncovil Hareechendraporum Nauduncovil 36 18 420 273 43 12 4 9 62 1 1 9 525 15 30 250 4 4 20 22 37 35 36 3 36 12 9 240 102 9 75 195 6 18 4 3 9 12 5 4 1

4
3 7 5 5 5 9 7 5 5 5 5 5 5 5 5 10 16 16

304

1
694. 695. 696. 697. 698. 699. 700. 701. 702. 703. 704. 705. 706. 707. 708. 709. 710. 711. 712. 713. 714. 715. 716. 717. 718. 719. 720. 721. 722. 723. 724. 725. 726. 727. 728. 729. 730.

2
JaganaudaSwamy SevalocundaswarySwamy Streenevassapermall KistnaSwamy RaumalingaSwamy MahaporaswaraSwamy NavenetaKistnaSwamy MoloovanaudaSwamy Mauleyatadulsoondra Swamy ChittaKistnaSwamy VasistaswaraSwamy KylausanaudaSwamy VaneatasaPermall StrenevassaSwamy SiddanaudaSwamy RaumanaudaSwamy Appumboromoul SovarnaparaswaraSwamy AgrapanaswaraSwamy AubemuetaSwamy ChocanaudaSwamy VasistawaraSwamy BactavechalaswaraSwamy VencatasaSwamy NauganaudaSwamy VurdaraujaPermall CodundarumaSwamy BrumhaporaswaraSwamy Possoopavanaswara Swamy VajraporaswaraSwamy VanenadaSwamy VadaporaswaraSwamy RunganaudaSwamy CaulahusteeswaraSwamy do BrumhaporaswaraSwamy CaravenduswaraSwamy Pag.at do Pag.at do do do do do do do do do do do do do do do do do do do do do do do do do do do do do do do do do do

3
Trechittumottem Paupanassum Vengfaurumpata Vengaurumpata Moollattomseva laum Covildavarauyem pata Vaumbatovaly Terocaracauvoor Mauteatadul Titta do Solamalega Naucheyagoody Teronarayor do Appandcovil Alagadrepotoor Tencaracogoor Amurtaswarum Goodalove Caratataungoody Naugatty Vadapady Keelanemmaly Malanemaly Vudavoor Nelletopoo do Poondey Aravendoporum Sadyarcovil Trevadygoody Trebovanum Cutterenuttum Salemangalum Alungoody Vadayacovil 45 47 375 18 100 12 166 270 10 90 12 4 4 666 133 75 2 18 18 90 270 157 30 54 162 36 333 90 12 12 3 15 12 9 15 144 15

4
6 5 5 5 6 3 5 3 5 5 5 9 24 24 8 12 30

305

1
731. 732. 733. 734. 735. 736. 737. 738. 739. 740. 741. 742. 743. 744. 745. 746. 747. 748. 749. 750. 751. 752. 753. 754. 755. 756. 757. 758. 759. 760. 761. 762. 763. 764. 765. 766.

2
MoodanduswaraSwamy VurdaraujaPermall VasistaswaraSwamy Cullengamurdana Kistnaswamy LetchmenaurayanaPermall KeertavadaswaraSwamy VurdaraujaPermall VurdaraujaPermall RaujagopaulaSwamy Vejeavadungaswara Swamy SrauvataswaraSwamy CarambuswaraSwamy SoondarswarSwamy Aununtapudmanada Swamy KylausanadaSwamy AgnaswaraswanSwamy VeerahanumuntaSwamy VatamoolaswaraSwamy Kylausanaudur VurdaraujaPermall YacumbaraswaraSwamy Callymunglungnaswara Swamy SevanaudaSwamy AupachayaswaraSwamy Raumaswamy Vumsoodaranaswara swamy Soobbramunnaswara Swamy GanasaSwamy Brumhaswaracuntaswara Swamy Harensapauvamoo sunapermall PoospavanaswaraSwamy VerdaraujaPermall AppaulRanganauda swamy DevaganaswaraSwamy Prataupaveerahanumunta JemboocaswaraSwamy Pag.at do do Pag.at do do do do do do do do do do do do do do do do do do do do do do do do do do do do do do do do

3
Marttoor do do Voottoocundoo do Solamungalum do Trecalvoor Nullychary Adayar Namum Trecaumoor Sendala do Vuncatasamoo drum Terocattopully do Terovaulumbawly Parumboor do Vellumparumboor Calemungalum Chittaragoody Poodaloor do Alloor Selleppumpata Pilliarputty Candoor do Teropuntory do Covelady do Cullany Cassanaud 54 18 36 108 36 54 36 54 20 18 18 18 240 37 25 150 36 18 54 45 36 18 27 108 36 18 18 5 37 25 87 18 180 18 72 90

4
5

306

1
767. 768. 769. 770. 771. 772. 773. 774. 775. 776. 777. 778. 779. 780. 781. 782. 783. 784. 785. 786. 787. 788. 789. 790. 791. 792. 793. 794. 795. 796. 797. 798. 799. 800. 801. 802. 803. 804. 805. 806. 807.

2
BaskaraswaraSwamy SoondaraswaraSwamy Auroonaujataswaraswamy VullabaswaraSwamy AkylaundaswaryAmmen BrahateeswaraSwamy BrahateeswaraSwamy Prasunnavencataswarar Caulecaudavy KeelasingaPermall Suncaranaurayanar TelagaswaraSwamy SevaganagaPilliar VomamanaPilliar NauganaudaPilliar Sunnadysoondara Suntanapilliar SoobbramunnaSwamy Baddraculy Cassievisswanaudaswamy NadavanaudaSoonda rapilliar ArcasolaPilliar TeppaurumcuttyPilliar YellamahDavy Veerabuddrar MunnarSwamy Tercaveedevissvanauda swamy AnundaPilliar CurpooraPilliar Vissvanaudur Vijayaraumachendray Swamy NavaneetaKistnaswamy MuddanaGopaulaswamy LutchmyDavy PrataupaVeeraha numuntur Raumaswamy ColayheavencatasaPermall GoronauttaSwamy GovindaraujaSwamy BolakaKistnaswamy Amortavencataswara ChaturbojaVurdarauja swamy do do do Pag.at do do do do do do do do do do do do do do do do do do do do do do do do do do do do do do do do do do do do do

3
Keelavenganad Soondaranad Vaugaranaud Voratanaud Jembocaswarum FortofTanjour do do do do do FortofTanjore do do do do do do do do do do do do do do do do do do do do do do do do do do do do do 93 36 18 34 36 5,550 1694 780 72 120 322 90 3 3 7 90 36 17 90 54 3 7 126 9 18 3 3 3 45 214 90 17 3 640 180 90 3 60 13 3 3

4
6 8 7 7 2 0 2 7 2 7 7 7 4 7 7 5 7 7 24 28 16 16 12 0 16 16 12 16 16 16 28 24 16 16 16 16

307

1
808. 809. 810. 811. 812. 813. 814. 815. 816. 817. 818. 819. 820. 821. 822. 823. 824. 825. 826. 827. 828. 829. 830. 831. 832. 833. 834. 835. 836. 837. 838. 839. 840. 841. 842. 843. 844. 845. 846. 847. 848. 849. 850. 851. 852.

2
Senjevyroyer CodundaramaSwamy GorocaulSenjeevyPermall AdicusavaPermall VurdaraujaSwamy PuttaubyRaumySwamy JanardanaSwamy Vadamaurdasangenyroyer DutchunaSengeveroyer RunganattaSwamy TeertasenjaPermall NoottalooPermall Aunundavully CausanadaSwamy Siddavenooyeaswamy Soodaraswarar Caulahusteeswarar Soondraswarar Codiamah ChocanaudaSwamy MalasingaPermall NeelamagaSwamy ManecundaPermall Totumhanumuntur Cullanaveneyataswamy PadetoryVencatasaswamy Codundaramaswamy MaureummahDavy ChendrasacaraSwamy Casstvisswanaudaswamy Kylausanaudaswamy Yanayaluncunnapermall NaudyAmmen MalamaureAmmen MaraduswararSwamy Maureammen Pareanyniar RaumalingaSwamy Tremanenaudaswamy TerepanencaraWoodiyar Moottoomaureeummen Cassevisswanaudar Veeramahacally SoondararaujaPermall Baulahanamunt Pag.at do do do do do do do do do do do do do do do do do do do do do do do do do do do do do do do do do do do do do do do do do do do

3
FortofTanjore do do do do do do do do do do FortofTanjore do do do do do do do do do do do do do do do do do Puttoocottah do do do Naivaly do do do do Vabataroovoo do do Veettoovaucotta Ardungy do 3 3 7 17 180 9 6 3 3 3 3 6 958 102 90 54 17 36 9 7 800 495 163 90 72 3 360 250 54 18 16 36 52 1 10 5 330 13 13 2 180 135 65 6

4
7 7 2 4 8 7 7 7 7 8 2 9 4 2 4 7 5 5 5 6 5 2 5 5 2 2 1 3 16 16 12 24 8 16 16 16 16 8 28 24 24 12 16 28 8 16 16

308

1
853. 854. 855. 856. 857. 858. 859.

2
Veerahanamunt Ponnombalanaubar Vurdammah KouttaPilliar Raujandracholaswarar Ponavausalaswarar Pinnamaureammen Pag.at do do do do do do

3
Ardungy do do Arendangy do Poonanassol do Total EqualtoStarPagodas Pag.at Vadarenneyumfor AssumedSalt Pans 12 50 3 3 1 24 85,149 35,479 1,848 37,327

4
9 4 1 1 4 5 6 2 2 16 16 16 8 27 39 39

860.

VadarennaswaraSwamy

SOOBAHSOFTANJOURGRAINMOHINS
861. 862. 863. 864. 865. 866. 867. 868. 869. 870. 871. 872. 873. 874. 875. 876. 877. 878. 879. 880. 881. 882. 883 CompatuswaraSwamy CodundavaumaSwamy SaneeswaraBuhavan NalanaurauayanaPermall NinarcharryPilliar PataPilliar KeelamanaPilliar PodoponamoolaPilliar MoopayataSwarar CurgungoodyPilliar ValattamungalaPilliar SoobaroyaporumPilliar NullatundaSwarar AmbagavatoorIsswarar Cunnappooraswarar Puttagoduswarar Danummahporaswarar Soracodaswarar CausagoodyPilliar CoottoogoodyPilliar CarambacaraPilliar do Covilputteeswarar Pag.at do do do do do do do do do do do do do do do do do do do do do do Treboovuni Munreammencovil Trenellaur do Nainachary Pata Keelamana Podoponamala Moopayulungoody Curgungoody Valattamungalum Soobaroyapoorum Nullatundoor Ambagavatoor Cunnappoorum Puttagoody Davamahporum Soragoody Causagoody Coottagoody Carambagum Poottagarum Covilputt Garee 69 69 12 11 M 328 328 356 119 79 79 39 39 39 19 19 19 79 79 19 79 59 79 19 19 39 39 39 M 6 5 6 6 7 7 7 7 7 7 6 6 7 6 6 6 7 7 7 7 7

309

1
884. 885. 886. 887. 888. 889. 890. 891. 892. 893. 894. 895. 896. 897. 898. 899. 900. 901. 902.

2
Muttaugoodaswarar KeleyennnooraSwarar Paumpataswarar Vadamottaswarar Abeshacaswarar Coutacaharaswarar Coutacaharaswarar TrelocanaudaSwamy Satoagusteeswarar Caacataswarar Velanauda TaundanaswaraSwamy SoundaraswaraSwamy Mautacovil Moottoomaureammun Naivalemaureammun Jyanar TanjoreMaureammun ValangolaMaureammun Pag.at do do do do do do do do do do do do do do do do do do

3
Muttaulagoody Keleyennoor Paumpattee Vadamottum Abeshacacutty Colacoody Coatachary Trecauloor Savattoor Caucamooly Valadyan Nellumbalum Tennengoody Trenellaur Vettoovahcottah Naivaly do Tanjore Valangolum TotalGrain Mohins 9 167 S.Pgs. 3,238 37,327

4
39 39 79 39 79 39 99 99 199 59 179 179 158 39 9 2 19 3 1 200 F. 33 2 7 7 6 7 6 7 5 5 3 6 3 3 4 7 5 3 1 3 2 4 C. 29 39

@191484StarPagodasperGaree BroughtForward TotalMoneyandGrainMohins intheProvinceofTanjoreinStarPagodas

40,565

35

68

EUROPEANPOSSESSIONOFNEGOREMONEYMOHINS
Ch.
903. 904. 905. 906. 907. 908. 909. 910. 911. 912. 913. NauganaudSwamy PrusunnavencatusPermall AucheyanaudaSwamy PadetoraVissvnauda swamy Anuntuswarar Annamagulaswarar VencatuchellaPermall Durmaporaswarar Vadaporaswarar Chittumbaraswarar Nauganaudaswamy Pag.at do do do do do do do do do do Nagore do Keevalore do do do do Poottoor Covilvaduauchary Attypolenyore Neelapude 360 360 491 3 3 5 40 7 5 13 3

Fs.
2 6 4 2 2 6 2

C
14

310

1
914 . 915 . 916 . 917 . 918 . 919 . 920 . 921 . 922 . 923 . 924 . 925 . 926 . 927 . 928 . 929 . 930 . 931 . 932 . 933 . 934 . 935 . 936 . 937 . 938 . 939 . 940

2
Cudgaporaswarar Agusteeswarar Bilvanaudaswamy Vudaporaswarar Polangodaswarar Brumhaporaswarar NavaneetaSwarar VaumanaPermall VissvanadaSwamy VarattaPermall NatanaIsswarar AununtanaurayanaPermall AlungoodyIswarar Caulahusteeswarar DaumodaraNarayana Permall Covoraswarar Naunoottenauyacar Davoporaswarar Pasopataswarar VoottaRaswarar DavanaurauyanaPermall Elopayooraswarar PermallCovil Sootavanaswarar Poledacoodaswarar Puttamungalaswarar VudacaulatoorIsswarar VadacauluttaPermall Tercaulatooraswarar Raudaumungalaswarar Eroocaswarar Keeluvenmanaswarar Anacodeeswarar ModdannoorIsswarar Paasopataswarar VencatachellaPermall VissvanaudaSwamy Nadagodaswarar Podacharaswarar Caunoraswarar SamungalaPermall Kvedacumbulanaudaswamy YacachacaraPermall CauragoodyPermall TeyagaraujaSwamy Pag.at do do do do do do do do do do do do do do do do do do do do do do do do do do do do do do do do do do do do do do do do do do do do

3
Coprocotty Auttoor Yeroyamohary Vodayaporum Poolangoody Tovaracody Sichel do Varatoor do Podochary Malobaranadavy Alungoody Trecanacody do Covoor Pareyacadumbanoor Tavoor Covilputt Bundauravaudy do Elopayoor Elopayoor Sottanam Poledacoody Puttamungalum Vudacullatoor do Teraulatoor Raudaumungalam Erca Keelvenmany Anacoody Moddannoorwoo coodal Adeyacamungalum do do Nadacoody Poduchary Cunnoor Samungalum Velevalum do Cauragoody Trecallyvassel 16 1 1 19 1 2 203 28 16 12 24 28 12 24 88 16 12 233 15 14 17 12 12 2 16 2 13 12 4 1 24 1 1 1 10 4 40 6 4 2 4 263 6 1 720

4
2 8 2 6 2 8 2 6 4 5 6 2 8 2 4 2 6 8 4 4 2 28 24

311

. 941 . 942 . 943 . 944 . 945 . 946 . 947 . 948 . 949 . 950 . 951 . 952 . 953 . 954 . 955 . 956 . 957 . 958 .

312

1
959 . 960 . 961 . 962 . 963 . 964 . 965 . 966 . 967 . 968 . 969 . 970 . 971 . 972 . 973 . 974 . 975 . 976 . 977 . 978 . 979 . 980 . 981 . 982.

2
Covilcunnaswarar Naguswarar Keelacoodaswarar KeelacoodyPermall Vedumgulloraswarar Vadaporaswarar Maunellooraswarar MaunelloorPermall KeelacavadcoodaIsswarar Kylausanaudaswamy RaujagopaulaPermall Teromanealagur VissvanaudaSwamy Singemungalaswara Vadallooraswarar VadalloorPermall eranjeyooraswarar MaugaulaswaraSwamy MaugauleyPermall Chintaumanaswarar Caurapadaugaswarar MudaporumPermall AnduporaPilliar Condeyooreeswerm Pag.at do do do do do do do do do do do do do do do do do do do do do do do

3
Covilcunnaporum Nagulloor Keelagoody do Vedumgullor Settyacoody Munaloor do Keelacavergody Sembayamahadavy Raujagopalaporum Oyvanilloor Cinnatumboor Singanamungalum Vadalore do Eranjeyoor Maugally do Chintaumany Caurapadauga Mudaporum Andaporum Condeyore 72 2 23 4 36 55 3 3 36 166 17 36 16 30 12 12 2 21 6 1 4 1 2

4
8 6 6 6 6 3 5 5 4 3 2 2 2 7 8 4 24

3,813
1588

33

30
11

40565 42153

35 68

68 79

313

NEGAPATAMMONEYMOHINS
983 . 984 . 985 . 986 . 987 . 988 . 989 . 990 . 991 . 992 . 993 . Meelauyatausheummen TeyagaraujaSwamy PodotoraVissvanaudur Cutteapper ComaraSwamy AlageyarSoondaraswarar Veerabuddraswamy Amaranaudaswarar Hemeteeswarar NadavanaudaSwamy Settyapper Pag.at do do do do do do do do do do Negapatam do do do do do do do do do do

Chs.
394 89 10 6 77 11 6 31 6 54 32

Fs.
1 2 8 8 8 8 8 8 3 8

Cs.
19 14 14 16 14 14 10 14 20 24

314

1
994. 995. 996. 997. 998. 999. 1000. 1001. 1002. 1003. 1004. 1005. 1006. 1007.

2
SoundaraujaPermall Agusteeswarar Kistnaswamy Kylassanauduncovil VootooraSwarar KylassanauduSwamy Corocanaudur ComalunaudaSwamy MageeswaraPilliar SettunaudaSwamy Valeporaswarar ManumanyPilliar Talegaswarar Annahmalanaudaswamy Pag.at do do do do do do do do do do do do do

3
Negapatam do do do do do do do do do do do do do 45 109 7 45 9 3 4 4 7 12 2 3 1

4
2 1 5 4 2 1 9 2 9 6 6 2 3 20 21 24

979
EqualtoStarPagodas Broughtforward 407 42,153

1
40 68

20 79

42,56 1

08

99

DEEVECOTTAHMONEYMOHINS
1008.

Sevalocatogur

Pag.at

Aucheyapoorum

12
5

equaltoStarPagodas BroughtForward

42,56 1 42,56 6

08 08

99 99

GRAINMOHINS
1009. 1010. 1011. 1012. 1013. Sevalogatogur CodundavaumaSwamy Teromungalugaswarar Codunduraumaswamy Subaubaty Pag.at do do do do Anchauporum Nelloor Mahandrapully Deevecottah do

Garee
15 3 2 2

M
262 74 295 121 173

M
3 5 4 7 5

TotalGrainMohins
@19148StarPagodasperGare BroughtForward

24
471

128
20

40

42,56 6 43,03 7

08 29

99 39

CutcherryoftheCollectorofTanjour 14thApril1813

JohnWallace Collector

315

ListofIndividualsinTanjorereceiving RevenueAssignments No.7:ACCOUNTPARTICULARSOFPENSIONSINTHE PROVINCEOFTANJOREFORFUSLEE1222(Pro22.4.1813)

SincethecessionofTanjoretotheCompany NameofPensioners AmountofthePension perAnnum

S.Pgs
SoobbahSastryTrecaulaseven BrumhanundaByroyee SooreyanaurauyanaSastry RunjunshawFukeer Anayaroovan Ayachittoo VencataDeechadar TonapaBauvahjosee ArnauchellaSastry PuttoocottahSastry RumdassBaugavat SoobbahBhut TrimalaBaugavat SaumaBaugavat KistnaAvaduny CumbaloorSeenevassauCharry CundayveenaBaugavat AluheryBhut RaumaswarumAnnachuttrum CundyveenaBaugavat ChittqadyVencatunaraisimmaCharry TadokoseenevassauCharry VissvaputtaLetchmanauCharry AuntauCharry NarasimmaCharry NariyennaDeechadar RaumgayaSoobbahbut TaroonauganyDeechadar AuyachitSoobahbut NarasimmaCharry Vencatabut MauselaumoneyPundaurum Ogandepundaurum RaumagaNarayanaDeechadar PareyamadumPundaurum MahadavaBhut ChidumbraPundaurum 22 7 15 22 10 6 6 3 3 3 3 1 1 1 1 15 1 10 208 2 14 1 1 1 1 7 3 5 3 2 2 5 3 4 2 5 5

F.
22 22 22 11 11 5 5 5 5 25 25 25 25 30 18 15 41 26 11 11 11 11 36 5 9 10 3 3 9 5 22 3 9 24

C.
40 40 40 20 20 50 50 50 50 25 25 25 25 60 20 20 20 20 20 20 45 50 30 25 60 60 30 50 40 60 30 30

316

NameofPensioners

AmountofthePension perAnnum S.Pgs 5 5 5 5 1 96 75 75 15 82 22 18 6 6 3 3 60 12 9 12 3 20 16 12 20 7 7 6 2 1 1 4 4 90 30 22 16 15 7 3 3 7 7 15 37 F. 9 9 9 9 25 22 22 33 11 11 5 5 22 16 22 5 30 22 22 22 25 22 39 25 7 7 22 39 22 33 33 22 22 22 C. 30 30 30 30 25 40 40 60 20 20 50 50 40 70 40 50 40 40 40 25 4 30 25 40 40 40 30 40 60 60 40 40 40

StreevassauCharry AuyachutNundeecaswaraBhat DavoroyaSastry MahaganaputyDeechadar Aunayarovan ChickapNaick(1806January9th) Raumaswamy VeeroonduuvanaRaumaswamy RamayanaKistnaSastry BrummahNundaPyrauye Soobbarow DurmaseravanaDonduBhut AsooruttyPurducmunaBramoney SaumyvadaSoobramoneyajosee YadoovadeeSoobbahAvadany RoogvadaRaugoovabhut MoocoondaBrummahCharry Gopaulavencajosee SurvoottamaGosamy SoobaunogaryGosamy SuncaraDavur NamunvencataRaumaBagavat RauchoorSeenevassaucherry Kistnacharry VidinaudunpattahDunnepundal Keelavunganaud&VerotanaudTunnyPundal NineNaudTunnipundal AnnicutTunnipundal NadovacottahVidenaudaSastry PooraunumGopaulachary PooraunumSeenevassahcharry MunnargoodyBagavut ForLeathjeringNagarausinNayoorMusque ForKeepinglightintheChurchof Ranganaudaswamy ForTolusyArchanyofRanganaudaswamy ForTausoogadiesorClockStrucker SincaraPundary ForAnomarChurchintheCauvaryBank ForCurtallangoodyVassestoowavarChurch NarrianyAuchary ViendramadumNarrianyCharry Ahelandasenen Gungadarapundit PundarapoorVittalagosamy WoodavachittanaBauljeeGosamy

317

NameofPensioners

AmountofthePension perAnnum S.Pgs 20 1 5 5 5 5 3 1 2 5 3 2 1 5 1 2 5 2 2 3 3 5 7 1 1 2 5 5 5 2 2 2 1 2 5 2 5 2 1 5 5 2 3 2 2 6 5 F. 11 33 11 22 33 22 11 11 22 22 22 33 33 22 11 11 22 22 22 22 11 22 22 22 11 22 33 22 22 11 0 C. 20 60 20 40 60 40 20 20 40 40 40 60 60 40 20 20 40 40 40 40 20 40 40 40 20 40 60 40 40 20 0

TrevaulungaudBaskaraDeechadur Vignaswarar SaurungapaunySwamy SuckrapaunySwamy MungalanauyakyDavy VaunatoryRaumeuCharry ChuckraPaunyKistnaCharry TummunnalCharry DummuntryVencautauCharry WoopaucaryKistnaCharry JuyateertauCharry PoornauCharry MooloovaugaVencannauCharry RaumayanaNursimmaCharry AlageryAucharry YudoorvadyVencatauCharry AnuntaTeertauCharry MoodgulNursimmaBhut GovindauCharry Jnaucharry AppanaCharry PudmanauCharry AppanaBhut ButtuvuchulaSaragfeveyaCharry MutaporaunumKistnaCharry CauskeerRamBhut RanganaudaCharry KoamalacadaStreenevassaBhut TautauCharry PooraunaRagapadyIyengar DodaCharry BauradaRungayengar AurauvomothyIyengar StreemunnaurauyanaIyengar JoseKistnayengar VydaRogaputtyengar Soobbauvadauny JoseeVencataputtyIyengar SadagopaIyengar SauvatryporumVydanaudiah KistnaSastry YalundoryTreyembaubut MungaputtySastry NurrainBhut KoombaswaraPadetoryGungadariah MullaharaBhut SadasevaBhut

318

NameofPensioners

AmountofthePension perAnnum S.Pgs 5 1 5 3 7 7 7 7 7 3 2 2 2 5 5 5 2 2 2 7 7 3 5 3 3 3 6 3 3 5 1 2 3 3 7 6 3 5 6 12 6 15 7 7 1926 F. 11 33 22 22 22 22 22 33 22 22 22 22 22 22 22 22 33 33 33 33 11 33 33 11 22 33 33 22 11 33 22 22 30 C. 20 60 40 40 40 40 40 60 40 40 40 40 40 40 40 40 60 60 60 60 20 60 60 20 40 60 60 40 20 60 40 40

ChuckrapaunyDeechadur KistnaDeechadur PudmanaubaSastry DabeerAgraharumRutnagerachitto KistnaBhut BaubakistnaSastry Cooppauvadauny Jembhut TeromalaSastry Appausaustry NairainSastry ChentaumanyBhut Vadavaudiar Anuntajosee Vencataraumajosee DondaBhut RaumakistnaDeechadur SoobbauSastry YalundoryTrecaulaSeven VadavassauCharry TatucsreenevassauCharry Jnaucharry StremoortyNaraharyCharry AgnehotryNaraharyCharry AnnuntaleertauCharry SuncaranarainCharry StreenevassauCharry BheemaroyaCharry MuddarjanahansmuntapoojauRaumauCharry AvadanyNarainCharry SamaCharry VecunnahCharry VencataroyCharry DavaluNarainBhut ConareBhua VausoodavabhutSonofRaujanBhut SoodarenaIyengar SoobbaramunnaSastry JembookaswaraAkelaundaswaryAmmen AupasencaraSunnassaBhut CoveladyStalapooraunecumPoornauCharry PttaswaraBahateeswaraPukeer TirvengadaRaumalingaSastry AnoosoorlahFakeer SencarauCharry

319

NameofPensioners

AmountofthePension perAnnum S.Pgs 20 1 8 3 8 8 6 3 1 4 6 2 5 12 11 11 12 8 13 13 20 1 2 2 8 21 3 2 2 1 1 2 2 3 6 3 F. 37 11 42 15 5 15 1 15 6 44 2 37 25 28 7 25 22 28 9 22 44 24 9 15 9 33 37 11 16 30 40 39 40 30 8 38 30 24 4 3 43 37 25 7 34 5 C. 40 20 75 50 70 75 45 42 65 40 25 10 40 25 40 10 30 40 5 30 30 30 60 40 20 70 38 25 30 25 38 35 30 30 45 45 60 10 40 60 40 55 50

ToolaucauveryBrumony NadungollyStreemenassauCharry KistnumbhutofKeelaunaModo KavoorKistnaBhut KuntaveenawBaugavut ChananamCaupoorAggraurumBramin VallavoorSushageryjosee ManacoodyVencataswaraDeechadur TrelaceKusbaVencataBhut AluncharyRoockoodIyengar SooramoolaYeggaswaraDeechadur CholavurLetchmanaCharry CurputtycharryVencataSastry AmmayapenStreenevassauCharry CarnaudapoorRaujaGopauliyengar TutvacharyVeerraugavaAvadauny VadagoodyNursimmabhutter TrelackaRagavabhutter KuntavanaBagavat LetchamanaSastryofCoatcharyMauganum SeallayRaumawSastry TrevengaudRaugavaSastry AmbalaMagaunumAununtaubuttar MunangoodyLetchmanaNauraunaSastry TertoneporumNursimmahCharry ForTausoogadeesClockStucker TolucauveryBramany TrivendoorStalaporaunikumStreenevassau Charry PundanulloorLetchmanaCharry ArasoorKistnaBhut NoyjeeTreyembucofmahoba NadottaVencaCharry Letchmanacharry ValatotyAnuntaBhut SaraswateeVidee Kistchauvidee TreavembanelloorKistnaBhut Poottamungalavadavadaunier StreeMoortyVaraharyCharry KadagumRaumaSastry KadagumraumaSastry KallyNarsimmaBhut AlungoodyarBhut TrivendanellorKistnaBhut trichittumbalumKistnaBhut BhootungoodyVencataroyaSastry

320

NameofPensioners

AmountofthePension perAnnum S.Pgs 3 2 6 1 5 3 2 2 7 1 1 1 1 1 4 1 3 2 1 4 1 5 1 1 3 11 F. 18 24 11 7 19 26 8 8 30 34 41 25 15 11 8 1 1 16 41 15 37 3 30 28 41 19 9 22 39 15 37 7 30 7 1 30 28 31 19 9 18 C. 60 30 20 40 55 20 35 35 55 20 25 20 35 70 70 3 20 75 40 60 48 20 17 30 40 2 70 2 70 10 31 55 30 60

SereyadumboorCadumbaswaraSastry ValatotySincuraSastry DurmySuncaraSastry KoolasacavanulloorSoobbramunnaSastry IlooppaputtayVittalachary AgrapolamungoodyVeeraraugovaLitchada Agnehotry ValetoryKistnaSastry KooroocheyKistnaBhut VacauramaureSashageryauchaury CurpoorRaumahBhut CauvuttoorMunnariengar AlungoodySashaBhut PoledagoodyRaumauSastry SellapumpatahArealoorStreenevassah Bhut CurpoorRaumah KylausaBhut NadotillooRaumaucharryintheVillageof Iluppaputty TrimangacharyOblayengar doKistnyengar doRaumayanaVencataputty doVencatyengar doChengamyah doRaujagopaulyengar doStalanassaBramony TerkamuttooryNarrainjosee KeelamundoorNarainjosee VakauramaureVencatauCharry SelluppumpataStalaporaunikumNursimma Charry SelluppumpataySuttayPundaurum KayooryeggaswaraSastry AtepaurumPrasunnaRaumaDeechadar TervamaudauporumSoobbaumalaseven ValutoteepresunnaRaumaDeechadar doTrimulauchary CauvanoorPrasunnaRaumaDeechadar AulunjaryPrasaraumajosee NeeopaPrasunnaraumaDeechadar PoottamungalumGupapatechul AdettamungalumNarrainSastry ValatotySullyPuttaurum IlooppaputVencatacharry CansungoodyVencataraumaSastry

321

NameofPensioners

AmountofthePension perAnnum S.Pgs 8 2 4 4 5 2 3 1 2 2 1 2 1 2 1 1 1 1 2 144 96 180 120 60 60 46 24 F. 1 22 18 41 22 22 22 22 22 11 3 39 3 3 5 19 30 30 18 18 37 22 26 18 18 37 33 22 C. 70 40 60 20 40 40 40 40 40 20 60 30 60 60 50 55 60 60 40 40 20 60 60 60 60 40

VencataswaraAvadany&NursimmaAvadany PoottoorKistnaucharry RaumakistnaSastry AnuntaraumauSastry VencataSoobbauSastry Vencapiah VissvanaudSastry MoodiahSastryu CullanaRaumaBaugavat PunchanateeSastry Seven SoobaravauraCutty Teroovadenaudavanum MauselaumanyPundaurum YettungoodyValur Raumalingum NavarautryBramin DeepavalaBramin Vencutarauchelliah Yeswaripiah Tumberan Sarusvateepoojuh Venauyacachatoorly Teroovaudetory MoodegalahSastry VencatachellaSastry YacaudoseCutty SunerantyBraminy VadapraunaBramin CouttaySoobbahSastry Cachalapien Varahachurry SavoorPermalIengar WidowMossel(1812October9th) MrsAler(1812October9th) Mr.Battger(1805March30th) WidowSwanseyer(1805January22nd) WidowSwart(1806July6th) WidowSaulfield(1806March1st) VencatauchelliahHurcaurah KistnaureddyDeloyets

322

NameofPensioners

AmountofthePensionperAnnum S.Pgs F. C.

CARRICAUL
WidowFernandez(1805 March30th) P.Clement(1810August 10th) G.Gaudart(1810August 8th) WidowBrindell(1812April 3rd) AntonySantoLaflair(1812 April3rd) S.P gs TotheAnnadauna ChettrumatTrivalore fortheBenefitof Pilgrimsto Raumaswarum @191483/4Star PagodasperGaree ToaChottarumonIslandof Raumaswarumforthe BenefitofPilgrims ToTeyagaraujaporum Chuttrum ToStrepaudaswamyChurch atNauchiargoody ToPunchaupeshacaSastry ToRamahSastry ToTreyembackIsswrar CalenderBramin ToMirtinjaJose ToGopaulaJose ToVencataJose ToChundracaraJose ToBaulakistnaJose ToSoobbahJose ToJyaviyengoorJose ToAunayarovan Paroomparien TotalGrainPensionsof Tanjore TotalTanjoreProvince 308 74 51 51 34 17 6 19 19 12 6 72 22 22 68 34

GRAINPENSIONSTANJOUR
F. 18 C. 34 Garee 15 M. 380 M. 0

219 119 141 11 5 18 18 18 18 12 12 12 12 2 34 11 27 11 19 33 33 33 33 22 22 22 22 15 46 66 53 20 74 60 60 60 60 40 40 40 40 53 11 6 7 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 933 5,929 146 67 129 232 112 387 387 387 387 258 258 258 258 48 4 2 2 4 6 5 7 7 7 7 4 4 4 4 4 26

CutcherryoftheCollectorofTanjore14thApril,1813

42 26 John Wallace Collector

323

INDEX
AdamWilliam,2,3,6,18,39,4660,63,6568,70,73,82,355, 365,370,371,378 AdamsReports,46,47,63,69,270342,371 Akbar,MughalEmperor,4,66,371,376 Anderson,SirGeorge,369 Aurangzeb,MughalEmperor,74,359 Bacon,Francis,8 Bailly,JeanSylvan,14 Banks,SirJoseph,61n Basu,B.D.,377 Bell,Andrew,10 Bentinck,LordWilliam,48,63,67,82 BritishIndology,birthof,1417 Campbell,A.D.,67,81,82 Chatterjee,Sarat,372 Coomaraswamy,AnandaK.,64,86 Cornwallis,Lord,17n Desai,Mahadeo,353,362,366,368 Dharampal,Gita,13n Dobbs,A.E.,8,82 Dundas,Henry,15 EducationinEngland,stateof,813 Ellis,F.W.,15 Elphinstone,Monstuart,67,370 Ferguson,Adam,14,15 Gandhi,M.K.,36,6270,80,348385 Gupta,DaulatRam,63,354,36263,366,374 Hardie,Keir,19,376 Hartog,SirPhillip,35,21,47,6370,81,348385 Hoare,SirSamuel,367 Hunter,SirWilliam,377 Jaffar,S.M.,2 Jahangir,MughalEmperor,4,66,74 Jones,William,11n,15 Lancaster,Joseph,10

324

Leitner,G.W.,3,1719,5670,81,356366,370,374,379,382 Lothian,Lord,62 Macaulay,T.B.,48,82,84,85 Maconochie,A.,1416 Macpherson,John,14 Marx,Karl,60,62,73,83,85 Metcalfe,Charles,73,74 Mill,James,62,8385 Moreland,W.H.,4,66 Mueller,F.Max,2,19,65,376 MunroThomas,18,26,42,46,65,67,7276,7985,354,355,378 Naidu,Sarojini,366 Naik,J.P.,1,2 Nair,SriSankaran,356,363 Nalanda,1,7,11 Nurullah,S.,1,2 Playfair,John,14 Pendergast,G.L.,18,65 Prinsep,H.T.,76 RanjitSingh,Maharaja,356 Raynal,Abbe,14 Robertson,William,14 SchoolsofLearning,297316;Backergunge,305306;Beerbhoom, 308310,Burdwan,297298;Chittagong306;DaccaandJalal pur,305;Dinajpur,312314 Scott,DrH.,61n Shah,K.T.,65,69,375,380383 Smith,V.A.,66 Taxila,7,11 Thomas,F.W.,370 Thompson,Edward,64,68,365,370,372 UniversityofCambridge,11 UniversityofEdinburgh,11,14,16 UniversityofLondon,13n UniversityofOxford,11,14,16;ListofProfessorships15461803, 1112 Varanasi,15 Voltair,14 Walker,Alexander,5,10,32,76 Wilberforce,4,16,48,62,84

325

Wilkins,Charles,15

326