CONSONANTS (PULMONIC)

Plosive Nasal Trill Tap or Flap Fricative Lateral fricative Approximant Lateral approximant

THE INTERNATIONAL PHONETIC ALPHABET (revised to 1993)

Dental Alveolar Postalveolar Retroflex Palatal Velar Uvular Pharyngeal Glottal

Bilabial Labiodental

p b m f v

t d n r s z l

Where symbols appear in pairs, the one to the right represents a voiced consonant. Shaded areas denote articulations judged impossible.

CONSONANTS (NON-PULMONIC)
Clicks

Dental (Post)alveolar Palatoalveolar Alveolar lateral

Bilabial

Voiced implosives Bilabial Dental/alveolar Palatal Velar Uvular

p t k s

Ejectives as in: Bilabial Dental/alveolar Velar Alveolar fricative

SUPRASEGMENTALS
Primary stress Long Half-long Extra-short Syllable break Secondary stress

fontn

i.kt

e e e

Minor (foot) group Major (intonation) group Linking (absence of a break)

VOWELS
Close

e e e e

TONES & WORD ACCENTS LEVEL CONTOUR Extra or Rising high High Mid Low Extra low Downstep Upstep

e e e e

Falling High rising Low rising Rising-falling etc. Global rise Global fall

i y

Front

Central

Close-mid

u o

Back

DIACRITICS Diacritics may be placed above a symbol with a descender, e.g.

Open-mid

Open

Where symbols appear in pairs, the one to the right represents a rounded vowel

Voiceless labial-velar fricative Alveolo-palatal fricatives wVoiced labial-velar approximant Alveolar lateral flap Voiced labial-palatal approximant Simulataneous and x Voiceless epiglottal fricative Affricates and double articulacan be represented by two Voiced epiglottal fricative tions symbols joined by a tie bar if necessary Epiglottal plosive kp ts

OTHER SYMBOLS

n d Voiced s t Aspirated t d More rounded Less rounded Advanced u Retracted i Centralized e Mid-centralized e Syllabic Non-syllabic e Rhoticity
Voiceless

Breathy voiced Creaky voiced Linguolabial Labialized Palatalized Velarized

b a Dental t d b a Apical t d t d Laminal t d t d Nasalized e n t d Nasal release dn t d Lateral release d Pharyngealized t d No audible release d ~ Velarized or pharyngealized Raised e ( = voiced alveolar fricative) Lowered e ( = voiced bilabial approximant) Advanced Tongue Root e e Retracted Tongue Root