National Academy of Sports Medicine

Chapter 4: Basic Biomechanics

Basic Biomechanics

Objectives
After completing this chapter you will be able to: Define basic anatomical locations, planes of motion, and joint motion. Describe the muscle action spectrum. Classify muscles as movers. Describe and understand levers. Describe and understand common muscle synergies.

Key Terms
Biomechanics Superior Inferior Proximal Distal Anterior Posterior Medial Lateral Contralateral Ipsilateral Sagittal Flexion Extension Frontal plane Abduction Adduction Transverse plane Internal rotation External rotation Scapular retraction Scapular protraction Scapular repression Scapular elevation Muscle action spectrum Eccentric Isometric Concentric Agonist Synergist Stabilizer Antagonist First-class levers Second-class levers Third-class levers

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Introduction to Biomechanics
Biomechanics uses principles of physics to quantitatively study how forces interact within a living body. Specifically, this chapter focuses on the motions that the kinetic chain produces and the forces that act upon it. (1, 2) This includes basic anatomical terminology, planes of motion, joint motions, muscle action, functional anatomy, levers, and common muscle synergies.
Biomechanics: The scientific study of internal or external forces placed upon the body.

Terminology
All industries have language that is specific to their needs. Because Health and Fitness Professionals deal with human motion and the human body, they must understand the basic anatomical terminology to allow effective communication. This section will review anatomical locations, planes of motion, and joint motions. Anatomical location refers to terms that describe locations on the body. These include medial, lateral, contralateral, ipsilateral, anterior, posterior, proximal, distal, inferior, and superior. Figure 4.1 Anatomical locations
Superior

Proximal Lateral Medial

Distal

Contralateral Ipsilateral

Inferior

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Superior: Positioned above a point of reference.

Superior refers to a position above a reference point. The femur (thigh bone) is superior to the tibia (shin bone). Inferior refers to a position below a reference point. The foot is inferior to the knee. Proximal refers to a position nearest the center of the body or point of reference. The proximal portion of the femur (thigh bone) is located at the hip. Distal refers to a position farthest from the center of the body or point of reference. The distal portion of the femur (thigh bone) is located at the knee. Anterior refers to a position on the front or toward the front of the body. The quadriceps are located on the anterior aspect of the thigh. Posterior refers to a position on the back or toward the back of the body. The hamstrings are located on the posterior aspect of the thigh.

Inferior: Positioned below a point of reference.

Proximal: Positioned nearest the center of the body, or point of reference.

Distal: Positioned farthest from the center of the body, or point of reference.

Anterior: On the front of the body.

Posterior: On the back of the body.

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Medial refers to a position relatively closer to the midline of the body. The medial side of the knee is the side closest to the other knee. Lateral refers to a position relatively farther away from the midline of the body or toward the outside of the body. The lateral side of the knee is the outside of the knee. Contralateral refers to a position on the opposite side of the body. The right foot is contralateral to the left hand. Ipsilateral refers to a position on the same side of the body. The right foot is ipsilateral to the right hand.

Medial: Positioned near the middle of the body.

Lateral: Toward the outside of the body.

Contralateral: Positioned on the opposite side of the body.

Ipsilateral: Positioned on the same side of the body.

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Planes of Motion and Joint Motions

The universally used method of describing human movements in three dimensions is based on a system of planes and axis. Three imaginary planes are positioned through the body at right angles so they intersect at the bodys center of mass. They include the sagittal, frontal, and transverse planes. Movement is said to occur more predominantly in a specific plane if it is actually along the plane or parallel to it. Although movements can be one-plane dominant, no motion occurs strictly in one plane of motion. Movement in a plane occurs on an axis running perpendicular to that plane, much like the axle that a car wheel revolves around. This is known as joint motion, or arthrokinematics. Joint motions are termed for their action in each of the three planes of motion. Figure 4.2 Planes of motion
Sagittal Plane Frontal Plane

Transverse Plane

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Sagittal plane
The sagittal plane bisects the body into right and left halves and consists of predominantly front-to-back movements. Movements in the sagittal plane are termed flexion and extension. Flexion is a bending movement where the relative angle between two adjacent segments decreases. (2, 3) Extension is a straightening movement where the relative angle between two adjacent segments increases. (2, 3) Flexion and extension occur in many joints in the body, including vertebral, shoulder, elbow, wrist, hip, knee, foot, and hand. At the ankle, flexion is referred to as dorsiflexion, and extension is plantarflexion.(13) Examples of predominantly sagittal-plane movements include biceps curls, triceps pushdowns, squats, front lunges, calf raises, walking, running, vertical jumps, climbing stairs, and shooting a basketball. Figure 4.3 Vertebral flexion Figure 4.4 Vertebral extension
Sagittal: An imaginary bisector that divides the body into left and right halves.

Flexion: The bending of a joint, causing the angle to the joint to decrease.

Extension: The straightening of a joint, causing the angle to the joint to increase.

Figure 4.5 Shoulder flexion

Figure 4.6 Shoulder extension

Figure 4.7 Elbow flexion

Figure 4.8 Elbow extension Figure 4.9 Hip flexion

Figure 4.10 Hip extension

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Figure 4.11 Knee flexion

Figure 4.12 Knee extension

Figure 4.13 Ankle plantarflexion Figure 4.14 Ankle dorsiflexion

Frontal plane
The frontal plane bisects the body to create front and back halves and predominately consist of side-toside motions. Movements in the frontal plane include abduction and adduction in the limbs (relative to the trunk), lateral flexion in the spine, and eversion and inversion Frontal plane: at the foot and ankle complex. (14) Abduction is a movement An imaginary bisector that divides away from the midline of the body or, similar to extension, it the body into front and back halves. is an increase in the angle between two adjoining segments, but in the frontal plane. (14) Adduction is a movement of the segment toward the midline of the body or, like flexion, it is Abduction: a decrease in the angle between two adjoining segments, but Movement of a body part away in the frontal plane. (14) Lateral flexion is the bending of the from the middle of the body. spine from side to side. Eversion and inversion follow the same principle but relate more specifically to the movement of the foot and ankle in the frontal plane. Examples of predominantly Adduction: frontal plane exercises include side lateral dumbbell raises, side Movement of a body part toward the middle of the body. lunges, and side shuffling.

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Figure 4.15 Figure 4.16 Shoulder abduction Shoulder adduction

Figure 4.17 Hip abduction

Figure 4.18 Hip adduction

Figure 4.19 Foot eversion

Figure 4.20 Foot inversion

Figure 4.21 Lateral spine flexion

Transverse plane: An imaginary bisector that divides the body into top and bottom halves.

Transverse plane
The transverse plane bisects the body to create upper and lower halves and consists primarily of rotational movements. Movements in the transverse plane include internal rotation and external rotation of the limbs, right and left rotation of the head and trunk, and radioulnar (forearm) pronation and supination.(1, 2, 4) Examples of transverse plane exercises include cable rotations, turning lunges, throwing a ball, golfing, and swinging a bat.

Internal rotation: Rotation of a joint toward the middle of the body.

External rotation: Rotation of a joint away from the middle of the body.

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Figure 4.22 Shoulder external Figure 4.23 rotation Internal rotation

Figure 4.24 Hip external rotation

Figure 4.25 Hip internal rotation

Figure 4.28 Trunk rotation

Figure 4.26 Radioulnar pronation

Figure 4.27 Radioulnar supination

Scapular retraction: Shoulder blades are pulled together.

Scapular motion
Motions of the shoulder blade (or scapulae) are important for the fitness professional to be familiar with to ensure proper movement of the shoulder complex. Scapular movements are primarily retraction, protraction, elevation, and depression. Scapular retraction occurs when the shoulder blades come closer together. Scapular protraction occurs when the shoulder blades move farther apart. Scapular depression occurs when

Scapular protraction: Shoulder blades are pulled apart.

Scapular depression: Shoulder blades are pulled together and downward.

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the shoulder blades move downward while scapular elevation occurs when the shoulder blades move upward toward the ears. The photographs below illustrate these four scapular movements.

Scapular elevation: Shoulder blades are pulled apart and upward.

Figure 4.29 Figure 4.30 Scapula retraction Scapula protraction

Figure 4.31 Scapula depression

Figure 4.32 Scapula elevation

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Muscle Actions
Muscles produce a variety of actions to effectively manipulate gravity, ground reaction forces, momentum, and external resistance. The three different contractions that muscles produce are:
Muscle-action spectrum: Combination of eccentric, isometric, and concentric muscle actions.

Eccentric Isometric Concentric

This range of muscle action is known as the muscle-action spectrum and is necessary to produce efficient movement.

Eccentric
When a muscle contracts eccentrically, it is exerting less force than is being placed upon it. This results in a lengthening of the The lengthening of a muscle. muscle. In reality, the lengthening of the muscle usually refers to its return to a resting length and not actually increasing in its length as if it were being stretched. (3) An eccentric motion is commonly referred to as the negative in gym and health club settings. An eccentric motion is synonymous with deceleration and can be observed in many movements, such as landing from a jump. More commonly, it is seen in a gym when lowering a weight during a resistance exercise.
Eccentric:

Isometric
When a muscle contracts isometrically, it is exerting force equal to that placed upon it. This results in no appreciable change A muscle maintaining a certain length. in the muscle length. (2, 3) In functional activities, such as daily movements and/or sports, isometric actions are used to dynamically stabilize the body. For example, the rotator cuff muscles help stabilize the shoulder joint during a pushup. An isometric contraction can easily be observed when an individual pauses during a resistance-training exercise in between the lifting and lowering phases.
Isometric:

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Concentric
When a muscle contracts concentrically, it is exerting more force than is being placed upon it. This results in a shortening of the muscle. A concentric muscle action is synonymous with acceleration and can be observed in many movements, such as jumping upward and the lifting phase during resistance-training exercises.
Concentric: The shortening of a muscle.

Lets use the example of a bicep curl exercise to illustrate muscle actions. The initial movement requires the bicep to shorten to generate force to overcome the weight of the dumbbell in the individuals hand, allowing the dumbbell to move up toward the front of the shoulder (see Figure 4.33). This is the concentric phase of the exercise. Once the dumbbell is raised to the front of the shoulder, the individual holds this position. Because the length of the muscle does not change while holding this position, this is considered the isometric portion of the exercise. As one lowers the dumbbell back down to the starting position, the muscle must now lengthen (under the control of the nervous system) to decelerate the force of lowering the dumbbell. This is the eccentric portion of the exercise (see Figure 4.34). Figure 4.33 Bicep curl concentric Figure 4.34 Bicep curl eccentric

Concentric force production is emphasized in many traditional routines. It is important, however, for Health and Fitness Professionals to train muscles to be strong not only concentrically, but also eccentrically and isometrically to maximize strength potential, maintain proper joint range of motion, and prevent injury. In essence, the entire muscle action-spectrum must be emphasized.

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Functional Anatomy
The traditional perception of muscles is that they work concentrically and predominantly in one plane of motion. However, in order to more effectively understand motion and design efficient training programs, it is imperative to view muscles functioning in all planes of motion and through the entire musclecontraction spectrum (eccentrically, isometrically, and concentrically). The following section describes the origin (proximal attachment toward the center of the body), the insertion (distal attachment away from the center of the body), and muscle-action spectrum of the major muscles of the body. (5, 6)

Anterior tibialis
Origin: Outside the tibia Insertion: Top of foot below the big toe

Muscle actions
Concentrically accelerates dorsiflexion Eccentrically decelerates plantarflexion Isometrically stabilizes the arch of the foot Anterior tibialis

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Gastrocnemius
Origin: Back and lower portion of femur Insertion: Back of the heel (calcaneous)

Muscle actions
Concentrically accelerates plantarflexion Decelerates ankle dorsiflexion Isometrically stabilizes the foot and ankle complex Gastrocnemius

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Quadriceps
Origin: Front of pelvis, front of femur Insertion: Front and top of tibia

Muscle actions
Concentrically accelerates knee extension, hip flexion Eccentrically decelerates knee flexion, hip extension Isometrically stabilizes the knee, hip and low back Quadriceps

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Hamstrings
Origin: Ischium Insertion: Tibia and fibula

Muscle actions
Concentrically accelerates knee flexion, hip extension, and lower leg external rotation Eccentrically decelerates knee extension, hip flexion, and lower leg internal rotation Isometrically stabilizes the hips, low back, and knee Hamstrings

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Adductors
Origin: Pubis (lower portion of pelvis) and ischium (lower back part of hip bone) Insertion: Inside and back of femur

Muscle actions
Concentrically accelerates hip adduction, flexion, and internal rotation Eccentrically decelerates hip abduction, extension, and external rotation Isometrically stabilizes the hip, low back, and knee Adductors

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Gluteus maximus
Origin: Ilium (dorsal, upper, and largest of the three principal pelvic bones) sacrum (lower part of the vertebral column) Insertion: Back and top of femur and IT band (large piece of fascia running down the lateral aspect of the thigh)

Muscle actions
Concentrically accelerates hip extension and external rotation Eccentrically decelerates hip flexion and internal rotation Isometrically stabilizes the hips, low back, and knee Gluteus maximus

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Gluteus medius
Origin: Side of the ilium (dorsal, upper, and largest of the three principal pelvic bones) Insertion: Side and top of femur

Muscle actions
Concentrically accelerates hip extension and external rotation Eccentrically decelerates hip flexion and internal rotation Isometrically stabilizes the hips, low back, and knee (during side-to-side movements) Gluteus medius

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Erector spinae
Origin: Pelvis, thoracic, and cervical spine Insertion: Spine and back of skull

Muscle actions
Concentrically accelerates spine extension Eccentrically decelerates spine flexion Isometrically stabilizes the hips and low back Erector spinae

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Multifidus
Origin: Sacrum, lumbar, thoracic, and cervical spine Insertion: Lumbar, thoracic, and cervical spine

Muscle actions
Concentrically accelerates spine extension and rotation Eccentrically decelerates spine flexion and rotation Isometrically stabilizes the spine Multifidus

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Rectus abdominus
Origin: Pubis Insertion: Ribs and sternum

Muscle actions
Concentrically accelerates spine flexion Eccentrically decelerates spine extension Isometrically stabilizes the hips, low back, and trunk Rectus abdominus

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Internal oblique
Origin: Top and back of ilium, thoracolumbar fascia (fascia covering deep muscles of low back) Insertion: Pubis, ribs, linea alba (fibrous band in the center of the anterior abdominal wall)

Muscle actions
Concentrically accelerates spine flexion, rotation Eccentrically decelerates spine extension, rotation Isometrically stabilizes the spine and pelvis Internal oblique

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Transverse abdominus
Origin: Top and back of ilium Insertion: Pubis, linea alba (fibrous band in the center of the anterior abdominal wall)

Muscle actions
Isometrically stabilizes the pelvis and lumbar spine (low back) Transverse abdominus

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External oblique
Origin: External surface of ribs 5 through 12 Insertion: Anterior iliac crest of pelvis, linea alba (fibrous band in the center of the anterior abdominal wall)

Muscle actions
Concentrically accelerates spinal flexion, lateral flexion, and contralateral rotation Eccentrically decelerates spinal extension, lateral flexion, and rotation Isometrically stabilizes the hips and low back External oblique

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Latissimus dorsi
Origin: Pelvis, ribs, lumbar, and thoracic spine Insertion: Front of humerus, scapulae

Muscle actions
Concentrically accelerates shoulder extension, adduction, and internal rotation Eccentrically decelerates shoulder flexion, abduction, and external rotation Isometrically stabilizes the shoulder and low back Latissimus dorsi

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Pectorals
Origin: Clavicle and sternum Insertion: Front of humerus

Muscle actions
Concentrically accelerates shoulder flexion, horizontal adduction, and internal rotation Eccentrically decelerates shoulder extension, horizontal abduction, and external rotation Isometrically stabilizes the shoulder Pectorals

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Deltoids (anterior, middle, posterior)

Origin: Clavicle and scapulae Insertion: Side of humerus

Muscle actions
Anterior: Concentrically accelerates shoulder flexion and internal rotation Anterior: Eccentrically decelerates shoulder extension and external rotation Anterior: Isometrically stabilizes the shoulder girdle Middle: Concentrically accelerates shoulder abduction Middle: Eccentrically decelerates shoulder adduction Middle: Isometrically stabilizes the shoulder girdle Posterior: Concentrically accelerates shoulder extension and external rotation Posterior: Eccentrically decelerates shoulder flexion and internal rotation Posterior: Isometrically stabilizes the shoulder girdle Anterior deltoid Medial deltoid Posterior deltoid

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Trapezius (upper, middle, lower)

Origin: Bottom of skull and cervical and thoracic spine Insertion: Clavicle and scapulae

Muscle actions
Upper: Concentrically accelerates scapular elevation Upper: Eccentrically decelerates scapular depression Upper: Isometrically stabilizes the cervical spine and scapula Middle: Concentrically accelerates scapular retraction Middle: Eccentrically decelerates scapular elevation Middle: Isometrically stabilizes the scapulae Lower: Concentrically accelerates scapular depression Lower: Eccentrically decelerates scapular elevation Lower: Isometrically stabilizes the scapulae Upper trapezius Middle trapezius Lower trapezius

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Biceps brachii
Origin: Scapulae Insertion: Radius (lateral forearm bone)

Muscle actions
Concentrically accelerates elbow and shoulder flexion Eccentrically decelerates elbow and shoulder extension Isometrically stabilizes the elbow and shoulder girdle Biceps brachii

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Triceps brachii
Origin: Scapulae and back of humerus Insertion: Ulna (medial forearm and elbow bone)

Muscle actions
Concentrically accelerates elbow and shoulder extension Eccentrically decelerates elbow and shoulder flexion Isometrically stabilizes the elbow and shoulder girdle Triceps brachii

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Muscles as Movers
Now that we have a better understanding of the individual capabilities of the major muscles of the body, lets take a closer look at how muscles work together to perform movement. Muscles provide the human body with a variety of functions that allow for the manipulation of forces placed on the body, such as producing and decelerating movement. These muscle functions categorize a muscle as an agonist, antagonist, synergist or stabilizer. Agonist muscles are muscles that act as prime movers; in other words, they are the muscles most responsible for a particular movement. For example, the triceps muscle is an agonist for elbow extension (as seen in a triceps extension exercise). Figure 4.35 Triceps extension

Agonist: Muscles that act as prime movers.

Antagonist muscles perform the opposite action of the prime mover. For example, the triceps are the antagonist of elbow flexion (as seen in rowing). See Table 4-1 for more examples. Figure 4.36 Row

Antagonist: Muscles that perform the opposite action of the prime mover.

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Synergist: Muscles that assist prime movers during movement.

Synergist muscles assist prime movers during movement. For example, the hamstrings are synergistic with the gluteals during a squat.

Figure 4.37 Squat

Stabilizer: Muscles that support or stabilize the body.

Stabilizer muscles support or stabilize the body (or joint), while the prime movers and the synergists perform the movement patterns. For example, the rotator cuff stabilizes the shoulder joint during a pushup. Figure 4.38 Pushup

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Table 4-1 Muscles as Movers Muscle Type Agonist Muscle Function Prime mover Exercise Chest press Overhead press Row Squat Synergist Assist prime mover Chest press Overhead press Row Squat Stabilizer Stabilize while prime Chest press mover and synergist Overhead press work Row Squat Antagonist Oppose prime mover Chest press Overhead press Row Squat Muscle(s) Used Pectoralis major Deltoid Latissimus dorsi Gluteus maximus, quadriceps Anterior deltoid, triceps Triceps Posterior deltoid, biceps Hamstrings Rotator cuff Rotator cuff Rotator cuff Transversus abdominus Posterior deltoid Latissimus dorsi Pectoralis major Psoas (hip flexor)

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Levers
In addition to identifying the classification of muscles during movement, understanding human movement also requires a rudimentary knowledge of levers. The musculoskeletal system is comprised of bones, muscles, tendons, and ligaments, all of which create a series of levers and pulleys that generate force against external objects. Skeletal muscles are attached to bones by tendons and produce movement by bending the skeleton at moveable joints. Joint motion is caused by muscles pulling on bones, because muscles cannot actively push. Particular attachments of muscles to bones will determine how much force the muscle is capable of generating. For example, the quadriceps muscles can produce more force than muscles of the hand. Most motion uses the principle of levers. A lever consists of a rigid bar that pivots around a stationary fulcrum (pivot point). In the human body, the fulcrum is the joint axis, bones are the levers, muscles create the motion (effort), and resistance can be the weight of a body part or of an object (such as a barbell and dumbbell). (7) Levers are divided into first, second, and third class, depending upon the relations among the fulcrum, the effort, and the resistance.
First-class lever: Has the fulcrum in between the effort and resistance.

First-class levers have the fulcrum in the middle, like a seesaw. Nodding the head is an example of a first-class lever, with the top of the spinal column as the fulcrum (joint axis). Figure 4.39 First-class lever

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Second-class levers have a resistance in the middle (with the fulcrum and effort on either side), like a load in a wheelbarrow. The body acts as second-class lever when one engages in a full-body pushup. The foot is the fulcrum, the body weight is the resistance, and the effort is applied by the hands against the ground. Figure 4.40 Second-class lever

Second-class lever: Has the resistance in between the fulcrum and effort.

Third-class levers have the effort placed between the resistance and the fulcrum. The effort always travels a shorter distance and must be greater than the resistance. Most limbs of the human body are operated as third-class levers. (7) An example of a third-class lever is the human forearm: the fulcrum is the elbow, the effort is applied by the biceps, and the load is in the hand, such as dumbbell, when performing a biceps curl. Figure 4.41 Third-class lever

Third-class lever: Has the effort in between the resistance and fulcrum.

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Muscle Synergies
Now that we have an understanding of muscle actions, levers, and classification of muscles as movers, it is equally important to understand how muscles work together in a synergistic fashion to produce optimum movement. Muscles produce a force that is transmitted to bones through connective tissues (tendons). However, muscles rarely work in isolation, but rather, in groups (controlled by the nervous system). This simplifies movement by allowing muscles and joints to operate as a functional unit. In the end, through practice of proper movement patterns (proper exercise technique), these synergies become more fluent and automated. Table 4-2 illustrates common muscle synergies for some popular exercises. Figure 4.42 Squat Figure 4.43 Overhead press Figure 4.44 Cable row Figure 4.45 Chest press

Table 4-2 Common Muscle Synergies Exercise

Muscle Synergies Quadriceps, hamstrings, gluteus maximus Deltoid, rotator cuff, trapezius Latissimus dorsi, rhomboids, posterior deltoid Pectoralis major, anterior deltoid, triceps brachii

Squat Overhead press Cable row Chest press

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Summary
Biomechanics uses principles of physics to quantitatively study how forces interact within a living body. In order to understand the body and communicate about it effectively, a Health and Fitness Professional must know the terminology for the various anatomical locations. It is also important to know and express how the body moves in all planes of motion and associated joint motions, the muscle-action spectrum, levers, and muscle synergies.

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References
1. Hamill J, Knutzen JM. Biomechanical Basis of Human Movement. Baltimore: Lippincott Williams & Wilkins; 1995. 2. Norkin CC, Levangie PK. Joint Structure and Function: A Comprehensive Analysis. 2nd ed. Philadelphia: FA Davis Company; 1992. 3. Luttgens K, Hamilton N. Kinesiology: Scientific Basis of Human Motion. 9th ed. Dubuque: Brown & Benchmark Publishers; 1997. 4. Kendall FP, McCreary EK, Provance PG. Muscles Testing and Function. 4th ed. Baltimore: Lippincott Williams & Wilkins; 1993. 5. Brooks VB. The Neural Basis of Motor Control. New York: Oxford University Press; 1986. 6. Gambetta V. Everything in Balance. Training and Conditioning. 1996;1(2):1521. 7. Harman E. The Biomechanics of Resistance Exercise. In: Baechle TR, ed. Essentials of Strength Training and Conditioning. Omaha: Human Kinetics; 1994:2527.

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