Anatomy I

CANINE ANATOMY
Lecture Notes 1

INTRODUCTION

The term anatomy was derived from Greek words anatemnein which means to
dissect and temnein which means to cut. Literally, anatomy means the study of structures.
It is a branch of science inseparable from functions and an essential guide to pathology,
surgery and radiography and to other related fields in veterinary medicine. According to
Vesalius (1543), anatomy should be rightly regarded as a firm foundation of the whole
area of medicine (Getty, 1975).

Macroscopic or gross anatomy in contrast with microscopic anatomy pertains to

organs or structures that can be identified and classified using the naked eye through
direct examination and/or dissection of the specimen. Though broad in its scope, focus of
this course will be on canine (dog) anatomy as a basic anatomic reference. Practically, the
dog is cheaper, easier to acquire and easy to handle.

Taxonomically, the domestic dog belongs to the order Carnivora, family Canidae,
genus Canis and species familiaris. The order Carnivora includes intelligent, flesh-eating
mammals provident with prominent canine teeth, molars and claw used for catching,
crushing and cutting of prey. Canids are foxlike animals with strong built and limbs
designed for endurance running. Their behavior shows an alert, active predator with
strong family ties devoted to the care of their young. They are social animals that can be
readily adapted for domestication.

Dogs are widely distributed in all parts of the world. There are about 300 or more
breed of dogs developed for particular purposes. The Chinese were probably the earliest
breeders of purebred dogs. Dogs are used for hunting, sleigh, recreation and serve as a
companion. From ancient to modern times the dog remains a faithful companion. Hence,
attributed as man’s best friend.

Earliest History of Anatomy

1. Aristotle (384 – 322 BC) – founder of biological science and according to record
was the first scientist to attempt to study anatomy by dissecting plants and
animals.
2. Herophilus (335 – 280 BC) – established that the brain is the center of the nervous
system and the seat of intelligence
3. Erasistratus (310 – 250 BC) – studied the circulatory system
4. Claudius Galen (AD 131 – 200 BC) – showed that urine is formed by the kidneys
and showed that cutting the spinal cord leads to paralysis
5. Andreas Vesalius (1514 – 64) – introduced the modern era of anatomy; compared
anatomy of animals with that of humans; he produced a more accurate study of
the internal structures of the human body.
6. William Harvey (1578 – 1657) – he traced the flow of blood from the left side to
the right side of the heart to blood vessels, capillaries, etc.

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Assignment: List other scientists or researchers and their contribution to veterinary

anatomy.

Terminologies

The following are important terms to understand classifying anatomy.

1. Gross anatomy or macroscopic anatomy – deals with the study of structures

through visual examination and observation
2. Topographic anatomy – relate one part of the body to the other parts
3. Applied anatomy – refers to the application of the knowledge acquired from
treatment and diagnosis of a pathological or surgical condition
4. Microscopic anatomy – the study of minute structures with the aid of the
microscope
5. Ultrastructural anatomy – the study of the parts of a minute structure in greater
detail using the electron microscope
6. Morbid anatomy or pathology – the study of structure which deviate from normal
morphology and function
7. Embryology – the study of the development of individual from the fertilized
oocyte to birth
8. Developmental anatomy – the study of the development of the individual from
zygote to adult
9. Ontogeny – refers to description of the entire development of the individual
10. Teratology – the study of abnormal development/malformations
11. Comparative anatomy – describes and compares the different structures of animal
species
12. Special anatomy – specializes in the structure of a single type of species
13. Veterinary Anatomy – deals with the form and structure of the principal
domesticated animals
14. Paleoanatomy – study of structures of extinct organisms

Divisions of Systemic Anatomy

1. osteology – the description of skeleton

2. syndesmology – the description of joints
3. mycology – the description of muscles
4. splanchnology – the description of the viscera
5. angiology – the decriptions of the organs of circulation
6. neurology – the description of the nervous system
7. esthesiology – sense organs – relate the individual to the environment
8. dermatology – common integument – protects and envelops the entire body
9. endocrinology – endocrine system

Assignment: give other divisions of systemic anatomy not mentioned in the above list

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Lecture Notes 2

TOPOGRAPHIC TERMS

One aid to comprehend the language of anatomy is to fully understand the use of
descriptive terms which indicate the precise position and direction of the different parts
of the body. Topographic or directional terms are very helpful especially in the dissection
of the specimen. The following are adopted from Miller’s Guide to the Dissection of the
Dog.

1. Plane – a surface, real or imaginary, along which any two points can be conneted
by a straight line.
a. Medial plane: divides the head, body or limb longitudinally into equal
right and left halves
b. Sagittal plane: passes through the head, body or limb parallel to the medial
plane
c. Transverse plane: cuts across the head, body or limb at a right angle to its
long axis or across the long axis of an organ or a part
d. Dorsal plane: runs at right angles to the medial and transverse plane and
thus divides the body or head into dorsal and ventral portions
2. Dorsal – toward or relatively near the back and corresponding surface of the head,
neck and tail; on the limbs it applies to the upper or front surface of the carpus,
tarsus, metapodium and digits
3. Ventral – toward or relatively near the belly and the corresponding surface of the
neck and tail
4. Medial - toward or relatively near the median plane
5. Lateral – away from or relatively farther from the medial plane
6. Cranial – toward or relatively near the head; on the limbs it applies proximal to
the carpus and tarsus
7. Caudal – toward or relatively near the tail; on the limbs it applies proximal to the
carpus and tarsus
8. Rostral – toward or relatively near the nose; applies to the head only

Certain terms used in the description of organs and appendages

1. internal or inner – close to, or in the direction of the center of a hollow organ
2. external or outer – away from the center of a hollow organ
3. superficial – relatively near the surface of the body or the surface of a solid organ
4. deep – relatively near the center of the body or the center of a solid organ
5. proximal – relatively near the main mass or origin; in the appendages, the
attached end
6. distal – away from the main mass or origin; in the appendages, the free end
7. radial – on that side of the forearm in which the radius is located
8. ulnar – on that side of the forearm in which the ulna is located
9. tibial and fibular – on the corresponding sides of the leg, the tibial side being
medial and fibular lateral

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10. palmar/volar – the aspect of the forepaw on which the pads are located – the
surface that faces the grounds
11. plantar – the aspect of the hindpaw on which the pads are located – the ground
surface
 the opposite surface of both forepaw and hindpaw is known as the dorsal
surface
12. axis – the central line of the body or any of its parts
13. axial, abaxial – of, pertaining to or relative to the axis. In referring to the digits,
the functional axis of the limb passes between the third and fourth digits. The
axial surface of the digit faces the axis, the abaxial surface away from the axis

The following terms apply to the various basic movements of the parts of the body

1. flexion – the movement of one bone in relation to another in such a manner that
the angle formed at their joint is reduced. The limb is retracted or folded, the digit
is bent; the back is arched dorsally
2. extension – the movement of one bone upon another in such that the angle formed
at their joint increases. The limb reaches out or is extended; the digit is
straightened; the back is straightened. Extension beyond 180 degrees is
overextension.
3. abduction – the movement of a part away from the medial plane
4. adduction – the movement toward the median plane
5. circumduction – the movement of a part when outlining surface of a cone (for
example, the arm extended drawing a circle)
6. rotation – the movement of a part around its long axis (for example, action of
radius when using a screwdriver)
7. supination – rotation of the appendage so that the palmar or plantar surface of the
paw faces medially or dorsally
8. pronation – rotation of the appendage from supine position so that the palmar or
plantar surface is facing ventrally

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Lecture Notes 3

THE COMMON INTEGUMENT

The common integument is the protective covering of the body. It is composed of

the skin, hair, claws, pads and mammary glands.

SKIN (cutis)
The skin is the largest organ of the body comprising about 16% of the total body
weight. It is continuous with the mucous membranes of the respiratory, digestive and
urogenital tracts at the mucocutaneous junction. There are several functions of the skin
and are as follows:
1. protects the body from invasive microorganisms and noxious chemicals
2. prevents dessication and hydration – excessive evaporation of water and too much
water absorption are prevented (cells have more lipid contents)
3. acts as a sensory organ – received stimuli from the environment such as
perception of touch, pressure, heat, cold and pain
4. regulates temperature change – in dog, body cooling is limited to the presence of
sweat glands and superficial capillary beds in addition to thermal panting. When it
is hot the superficial capillaries dilate and draw more blood to cool the body
5. secretion of substances – presence of glands associated with the skin lubricate and
waterproof the skin. Also, recognition of some animal is possible through the
secretion of certain substance called pheromones
6. excretion of substances – sweat (watery), sebum (oily)
7. site of Vitamin D synthesis
8. reservoir of fats – subcutaneous tissue
9. reflects the general health condition of the animal

Layers of the skin

1. epidermis – the most superficial layer, nonvascular, composed of stratified
squamous epithelium in varying thickness. The thickest epidermis occurs on the
nasal skin and digital pads
2. dermis – lies immediately underneath the epidermis which is richly supplied with
vessels, nerves and glands
3. hypodermis – also called the subcutis or subcutaneous tissue which consists of
loose connective tissue. It is also where fat cells develop.

Layers of the epidermis

1. stratum basale – the layer of cells adjacent to the upper portion of the dermis
2. stratum spinosum – prickle-cell layer next to stratum basale, diamond-shaped;
flattened polygonal cells
3. stratum granulosum – or granular layer
4. stratum lucidum – or clear layer
5. stratum corneum – or horny layer

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In the nasal skin, the stratum granulosum and lucidum are absent. The nasal skin is
usually heavily pigmented, tough and moist.

Muscles of the skin

1. arrector pili muscle – or hair muscle. A band of smooth muscle attached to the
papillary layer of the dermis of the surrounding tissue sheath of the hair follicle. It
is well developed in the dorsal region of the neck, back and tail. This muscle is
responsible for the erection of hairs in animals in response to cold, fear or anger
2. cutaneous muscles – examples are the sphincter colli superficialis, platysma, and
sphincter colli profundus. Cutaneous trunci muscle, a large cutaneous muscle,
occur in the region of the thorax up to the abdomen. The muscles preputialis in
the male and supramammarius in the female contain some fibers originating from
the cutaneous trunci muscle. The cutaneous muscles when contracted tend to
move the skin and its associate structures.

Glands of the canine skin

1. sweat glands
a. eccrine – found only in the foot pads. It has watery secretion.
b. Apocrine – found mainly in association with hair follicle
2. sebaceous glands – it has oily secretion in association with hair follicle. Special
sebaceous glands are found in the eyelids, the meibomian or tarsal glands
3. glands of ear canal – secretes a brown waxy material called cerumen
4. circumanal glands – these glands are numerous in the vicinity of the anal orifice
5. glands of the anal sac – the anal sacs are pairs sacs that lie in the 4 and 8 o’clock
position of the anal canal. Combined secretions of the anal sac and the sebaceous
glands lead to formation of a viscous, liquid or pasty material with a foul odor.

Blood and Nerve Supply of the Skin

The arterial supply of the skin is via the cutaneous arteries. Innervation of the skin
comes from the cutaneous components of the trigeminal and facial nerves in the cranial
area of the body and the dorsal and ventral branches of the cervical, thoracic, lumbar,
sacral and caudal spinal nerves. In the forelimbs, cuteneous nerves originate from the
axillary, radial, ulnar, and median nerves of the brachial plexus. The gluteal, sciatic, tibial
and femoral nerves from the lumbosacral plexus send cutaneous branches to the skin of
the hindlimb.

HAIR (pili)
The hairs are slender keratinous filaments that cover almost all parts of the body.
It is denser in the dorsal and lateral parts of the body and thinner in the areas of the
abdomen, inside of the flanks and ears and the underside of the tail. While the nasal
surface, the carpal, metacarpal, tarsal and metatarsal and the digital pads are devoid of
hairs. Large tactile hairs are present on the muzzle, mandible and above the eyes. Hairs
are continually shed and replaced.

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Parts of the Hair
1. shaft (scapus pili) – the portion above the surface of the skin
2. root (radix pili) – the embedded portion in a tubular invagination of the epidermis
called the hair follicle which extends down to the dermis

Classification of Haircoat of Dog based on length

1. normal coat – resembles the hair covering of wild canidae (wold, jackal) and
typical of a german shepherd
2. short-hair type – e.g. boxer (pug)
3. long-hair type – e.g. chow. This type of hair has many variations such as wire
hair, tightly curly hair, and flat, long hair (cocker spaniel, poodle)

CLAWS (unguicula)
The claw is a modification of the epidermis as horny covering of the distal end of
the third phalanges of the digits. It is frequently heavily pigmented, curved and laterally
compressed. It grows rapidly and thus should be trimmed regularly to avoid long circular
claw that may pierce the area between the base of the claw and the footpad.

Parts of a Claw
1. sole
2. two walls
3. central dorsal ridge – has thicker horny material

DIGITAL PADS
Like the nasal skin, it is also heavily pigmented and is the toughest region of the
canine skin. The rough surface of the pads is due to the presence of heavily keratinized
conical papillae. Sweat glands are present in the digital pads

MAMMARY GLANDS
Presence of mammae is characteristics of mammals providing nourishment to the
young. In the male they are rudimentary but in the female they develop continually
especially during pregnancy and lactation, and perform specific functions. Mammary
glands extend from the ventral thoracic to the inguinal region. They present two rows of
bilaterally and symmetrically arranged teats. The number of glands varies from 8 to 12
comprising the thoracic, abdominal and inguinal or pubic mammae, the cranial and
caudal thoracic mammary glands, cranial and caudal abdominal mammary glands and
inguinal mammary glands

Blood and Nerve Supply

Mammary glands are highly vascular. Arterial supply comes from the sternal
branches of the internal thoracic arteries while venous supply arises largely from the
cranial and caudal epigastric veins. It was postulated that there could be interconnections
in the lymphatics and vascular system of the mammary glands. Hence, when one gland is
affected with a disease other glands are also expected to undergo pathological changes.
Innervation of the cranial thoracic mammary glands comes from the 4th, 5th, and
th
6 ventral cutaneous nerves. The caudal thoracic gland receives its nerve supply from the

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6th and 7th ventral cutaneous nerves. The abdominal and inguinal mammae are innervated
by the inguinal nerve and the ventral superficial branches of the first three lumbar nerves.

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Lecture 4

THE SKELETAL SYSTEM

The skeleton is made up of bones that comprise the framework of the body. Bones
are living structures containing blood vessels, lymphatic vessels and nerves. They support
and protect vital organs of the body like the heart enclosed by the chest bones and the
brain enclosed by the skull. They also provide levers for muscular action.

The skeletal system could further be divided into three majoy groups: the axial,
appendicular and visceral or splanchnic skeleton. The axial skeleton includes the skull,
vertebral column, ribs and sternum. Thoracic and pelvic limb bones comprise the
appendicular skeleton. There is only one visceral bone present in the dog, the os penis.

The skeletal system of the dog has an average total number of 321 bones. This
does not include the bones of the dewclaw since many of the breeds do not have ths.

Functions of Bone
1. supports and protects soft organs of the body
2. acts as levers for muscular action – e.g. position and mechanical movement of
muscle
3. stores calcium and phosphorus – the greatest drain of calcium and phosphorus
occurs during pregnancy while production and deposition are active during
growth. Bones of large breeds like St. Bernard and Great Dane may likely show
the health state of the animal. Brittle bones due to demineralization of the inner
substance of the bone may denote nutritional deficiency. Nutritional deficiency
may be brought by underfeeding, improper feeding or the inability of the animal
system to utilize the food taken in. on the other hand, overnutrition may also lead
to pathological changes in the skeleton. One example is osteochondrosis dissecans
or “wobblers” due to excessive calcium deposition of the bone.
4. encloses the blood forming elements (RBC, WBC, Hb, platelets) and in the adult,
the bone also stores fat.

Classification of Bones according to shape

1. Long bones (ossa longa) – these bones are found mainly in the limbs. Examples
are humerus of the forelimb and femur of the hindlimb. Typically, long bone has a
body or shaft or diaphysis and two ends, epiphyses. The body is a hollow
cylindrical structure containing bone marrow. During the early development of
long bone each epiphyses is separated from the body by the epiphyseal cartilate or
plate. For example in young pups, X-ray of long bones of the thoracic limb will
show that the bones are disconnected from each other. The epiphyseal plate could
also be mistaken as a fracture. When maturity is reached, the epiphyseal plate
stops to grow. Hence, in the adult bone there is no distinct division between the
diaphysis and the epiphyses since fusion is already achieved.
2. Short bones (ossa brevis) – these bones occur in the carpal (wrist) and tarsal
(ankle) regions which contain seven bones each. Their main function is associated

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with the spread of pressure exerted in these regions. Sesamoid bones may be
classified as short bone. These bones are formed in the capsule of some joints or
in tendons. The chief function is to protect tendons are the regions where greatest
friction is present.
3. Flat bones (ossa plana) – these bones are primarily found in the thoracia dna
pelvic girdles and in the head. They serve for muscular attachment and protext
delicate organs such as the brain and sense organs. Flat bones weigh less. If it is
not so, the heavy head will interfere in the locomotion of the animal. The flat
bones of the skull consist of an inner and outer table of compact bones untied by a
spongy bone called diploe. During growth, diploe is displaced by the extensions
from the nasal cavity protruding to the area. This results to the formation of
intraosseous air spaces separating the inner and outer tables of compact bones.
These intraosseous air spaces are called paranasal sinuses.
4. Irregular bones (ossa irregulata) – these bones include the vertebral column, all
bones of the skull except the flat type and the three types of the hip bone (os
coxae). They function for muscular and ligamentoous attachments and a little for
articulation. They also protect and support soft organs like the spinal cord and
partly the thoracic and abdominal viscera in the case of the spinal column. Jutting
or projecting processes are the characteristics features of irregular bones.

Macroscopic Structure of Bone

Two forms of bones are recognized based on structure: the cancellous or spongy
bone and the compact bone. Cancellous bone is numerous in the extremities of long
bones and forms the internal substance of short and irregular bones and is intersposed
between the two compact layers of the flat bone. Diploe is the term used to designate the
spongy bone of the skull. The cancellous bone consists of bony spicules (spike-shaped) or
trabeculae through which tiny spaces are formed and filled with bone marrow. It is absent
at the middle of the shaft of long bone. Compact bone on the other hand appears as a
solid mass. It is thicker in the shaft of long bones than in their extremity.
Typically, long bones can be divided into three general parts. The two extremities
pertain to the epiphyses and the adjoined portion is the diaphysis. In young animals, the
epiphyses are separated from the diaphysis by a cartilaginous epiphyseal plate. The
diaphysis is composed of a hollow bulk of compact bone with a voluminous central
medullary cavity.
The medullary cavity (marrow cavity) is a space occupying the hollow portion of
the bone surrounded by the cortex of the long bone. Cortex refers to the compact bone
surrounding the shaft of long bone. The marrow cavity is filled with red marrow in the
fetus and newborn. The adult marrow has two types – the red and the yellow marrow, the
latter being chiefly fat.
The periosteum is a layer of specialized connective tissue covering the outer
surface of the bone and lacking in the areas covered with articular cartilage. It is
responsible for increases in the diameter of bones and it functions in the healing of
fractures.
The endosteum is a thin fibrous membrane that lines the medullary cavity and
osteonal (Haversian) canals of a bone.

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Vessels and Nerves of Bone

Bone is highly vascular as compared to cartilage which is devoid of blood supply.
The long bones and many of the flat and irregular bones have nutrient artery and vein
entering the compact substance of the bone to supply the marrow via the nutrient
foramen. In the adult, terminal branches of the vessels reach the epiphyseal plate. Blood
supply of the bone is also attained through the anastomosing vessels of the epiphyseal
plate and the periosteum. Periosteal arteresi and veins supply the bone extremities and the
compact substance too.
Sensory nerves mainly supply the bone. They serve as an inner defense of the
bone against injury. The outer defense comes from the sensory nerves of the skin.

DESCRIPTIVE TERMS IN OSTEOLOGY

Surfaces of bones have numerous eminences, depressions and perforations. The

prominences and cavities in bones may be articular, or non-articular; they provide
attachment to structures like muscles, ligaments, tendons and fascia. The following
descriptive terms will allow for differentiation of the above structures in order to
facilitate the study of bones.

1. process – a general term for a prominence

2. tuberosity – a large, rounded non-articular projection
3. tubercle – similar to a tuberosity but is smaller in size
4. trochanter – refers to a few non-articular prominence e.g. the trochanter of the
femur
5. spine of spinous process – a pointed projection
6. crest – a sharp ridge
7. line – a very small ridge
8. head – is a rounded articular enlargement at the end of the bone; it may be joined
to the shaft by a constricted part, the neck
9. condyle – an articular eminence which is cylindrical
10. epicondyle – a non-articular projection in connection with a condyle
11. trochlea – a pulley-like articular mass
12. glenoid cavity – is a shallow articular depression
13. cotyloid cavity or acetabulum – a deeper articular depression
14. facet – commonly applied to articular surfaces of small extent, specially when
they are not strongly concave or convex
15. fossa, fovea, groove, sulcus and impression – are applied to various forms of
depression
16. foramen – a perforation for the transmission of vessels, nerves, etc
17. sinus – is an air cavity within a bone or bones; it is lined with mucous membrane
and communicates with the exterior

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Lecture 5

AXIAL SKELETON

The axial skeleton includes the skull, vertebral column, the ribs and sternum

The Skull (cranium)

The skull is a complex bony structure which houses the brain and the sense organs
for hearing, sight, smell, taste and equilibrium. It presents various foramina, canals and
fissures by which the cranial nerves and blood vessels pass through. It functions in
providing protection to the brain and the organs of special senses, it also gives attachment
for the teeth, tongue, larynx and associated muscles.
There are two types of bones in the skull according to shape: the flat bones and
the irregular bones. The flat bones comprise most of the bones of the skull and are
formed in membrane such as the dorsum of the skull or calvaria. The irregular bones like
the bones of the ventral part of the cranium are preformed in cartilage.
The skull is basically divided into facial and palatal regions and a neural or
braincase portion. The facial and palatal regions are composed of 36 bones providing a
large area for respiratory and olfactory functions and a long surface area for the
implantation of teeth.

THE BRAINCASE

The braincase or cranial cavity lodges the brain. This cavity is separated from the
nasal cavity because of a perforating bone, the cribriform plate. Caudally, at the occipital
region, there is a large opening called foramen magnum thru which the spinal cord and its
associated vessels pass. There are several openings and canals at the ventral portion of
the skull which allow passage of the nerves and blood vessels. The orbital cavities
housing the globe and its accessory structures are present at the junction of the facial and
cranial parts of the skull.
The form and size of the skull varies accordingly, depending on the breed of the
dog. In this regard breeds are generally classified based on head shapes such as
dolicocephalic, mesaticephalic and brachycephalic dogs. The dolicocephalic breed has
long and narrow head like the Collie dog. Mesaticephalic has a head of medium
proportion such as the German Shepherd. Brachycephalic dog has a short and wide head
like the Pekingese. In some brachycephalic breeds, the English bulldog for example, has
the lower jaw protruding rostrally than the upper jaw. This condition is known as
undershot or prognathism of the mandible. The reverse of prognathism is brachygnathism
or overshot of the mandible in which the lower jaw recedes. One example is the lower
jaw of Dachshund.

The bones of the braincase are as follows:

1. occipital bone 4. sphenoid bones
2. parietal bone 5. temporal bone
3. frontal bone 6. ethmoid bone

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OCCIPITAL BONE

The occipital bone is located at the caudal part of the cranium in which it forms
the caudal wall and part of the ventral wall or base of the skull. Dorsally it is formed by
its squamous part, laterally by its condylar parts and ventrally by the basilar part. These
bones contribute to the formation of the foramen magnum – a large oval opening in the
posteroventral portion of the skull thru which the spinal cord and its associated structures
pass.
The squamous part or supraoccipital bone is the largest division. Ventrally it is
either curved or notched to form the dorsal part of the foramen magnum. The lateral part
or exoccipitals bones bear the occipital condyles which are somewhat flattened and are
widely separated dorsally. The medial side of each condyle presents the condyloid canal.
The condyles articulate with the atlas at the atlanto-occipital joints. The basilar part or
basioccipital bone is unpaired and located at the caudal third of the cranial base.
The occipital bone presents the hypoglossal foramen located rostral to its ventral
condyloid fossa. It is the external opening of the canal for hypoglossal nerve (CN 12)
which is a direct passage through the ventral portion of the occipital bone.

PARIETAL BONE

The parietal bone forms the greater portion of the skull at the dorsolateral part of
the cranial wall. The right and left bones are separated by a prominent mid-dorsal
external sagittal crest which is continued rostrally to the frontal bones. This crest
develops with age.
The borders of the parietal bone are rostral, dorsal, ventral and caudal in position
since it is rhomboid in outline and is strongly curved. The rostral or frontal border
overlaps with the frontal bone to form the frontoparietal or coronal suture. The caudal or
occipital border meets with the occipital bone to form the occipito parietal suture. The
dorsal or sagittal border articulates with its fellow on the midline to form the sagittal
suture. The ventral or squamous border is overlaid by the squamous temporal bone
forming the squamous suture.
The squamous and the coronal sutures allow enough compression of the fetal
skull as it passes the pelvic canal during parturition.

FRONTAL BONE

The frontal bone has an irregular shape. It is broad caudally and tapers rostrally. It
is divided into orbital, temporal, frontal and nasal parts. The orbital part has an apex and
a base, the apex is positioned at the optic canal while the base forms the infraorbital
margin. Rostral to the optic canal are the ethmoidal foramina.
Caudal to the orbital part is the temporal surface of the frontal bone. The frontal
part forms the frontal squamous bounded caudally by the external frontal crest and
rostrally by the orbital margin. The nasal part is the rostral extension of the frontal bone.
It contains the septum of the frontal sinus which separates the right and left frontal

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sinuses. The frontal sinus is an air cavity located between the inner and outer tables of the
rostral end of the frontal bone. Ventrally and caudally, the 2 tables fused by a small
amount of diploe.

SPHENOID BONES

The sphenoid bones form the rostral two-thirds of the base of the neurocranium
between the basioccipital caudally and the ethmoid rostrally. There are 2 bones that
comprise the sphenoid bones – the presphenoid rostrally and the basisphenoid caudally.

TEMPORAL BONE

The temporal bone is located at the ventrolateral wall of the skull. It is divided
into petrosal, tympanic and squamous part in the young skull which fuse gradually. The
petrosal part or pyramid or pretosum is roughly pyramidal in shape which projects into
the cranial cavity and form the sharp, prominent petrosal crest. The petrosum houses the
osseous labyrinth which is divided into three parts: the cochlea, semicicruclar canal and
vestibule. The facial canal enters the pyramid in the dorsal part of the internal acoustic
meatus, the facial nerve (CN 7) passes in this canal.
The tympanic part or tympanicum is the ventral portion of the temporal bone. It is
easily identified by its largest component – the bulla tympanica. The tympanic bulla is
very large, rounded and smooth, the medial side is united to the basilar part of the
occipital bone. It forms a cavity which encloses the fundic (body) part of the tympanc
cavity (cavity of the middle ear).
The squamous or squamosum contributes to the formation of the zygomatic arch
by means of its zygomatic process; the zygomatic process overlies the caudal half of the
zygomatic bone. The petroccipital canal results from the union of the petrous part of the
temporal bone and the basal part of the occipital bone dorsal to the junction formed by
the medial part of tympanic bulla and the basilar part of the occipital bone. This canal
tranmists a vein from the floor of the cranium to the jugular foramen. The later transmists
the 9th, 10th and 11th cranial nerves.

ETHMOID BONE (olfactory)

An unpaired bone located between the cranial and facial parts of the skull. It is
bounded dorsally by the frontal bone; laterally by the maxillary, and ventrally by the
vomer and palatine bones. It consists of 4 parts: a median perpendicular plate or lamina; 2
lateral masses and a cribriform plate.
The perpendicular plate or mesethmoid is long and forms the bony nasal septum
which is prolonged rostrally by the cartilaginous nasal septum. The ethmoid labyrinths
(lateral masses) are greatly developed and project into the frontal sinus. It is composed of
delicate bony scrolls or ethmoturbinates. The ethmoturbintes may be divided into 4 large
deeply lying endoturbinates and 6 smaller superficially lying ectoturbinates.
The cribriform plate is a sievelike partition between the nasal and cranial cavities.
It has around 300 small foramina which serve for the transmission of olfactory nerve
bundle.

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Lecture 6

BONES OF THE FACE AND PALATE

1. incisive bone 7. palatine bone

2. nasal bone 8. lacrimal bone
3. maxilla 9. pterygoid bone
4. dorsal nasal concha 10. vomer
5. ventral nasal concha 11. mandible
6. zygomatic bone

INCISIVE BONE

The incisive bone or premaxilla is compressed dorsoventrally and contains here

alveoli or sockets for the three upper incisor teeth. It also presents a palatine process
caudal to the body of the incisive bone. Medial to this process is the processed is the
palatine fissure, which is the only large opening in each half of the bony palate between
the canine teeth.

NASAL BONE

The nasal bone is long, slender and wider rostrally than caudally; the external
surface or facial surface is concave and usually presents a small foramen for the passage
of a vein. The internal or ventral surface bears the nasal turbinate. The nasal bone
articulates caudally with the frontal bone forming the fronto-nasal suture. Laterally, it
articulates with the maxilla and the incisive bone thus, forming the nasomaxillary suture
and nasoincisive suture respectively.

MAXILLA

The maxilla is short and narrow rostrally but high and wide caudally. This bone
plus the incisive bone on both sides form the bone of the upper jaw. Maxilla is the largest
bone of the face and carries all of the upper cheek teeth. In its external surface, the
prominent infraorbital foramen can be seen. This foramen serves for the transmission of
infraorbital nerve and artery. Ventrolaterally, the bone presents alveolar process which
bears the teeth. The alveolar process has sockets for the roots of the teeth that it contains.

The incisivomaxillary canal carries the nerve and blood vessels to the first 3
premolar and the canine and incisor teeth. The palatine process is a short, wide caudally
and moderately arched transverse shelf of bone which, with its fellow forms most of the
hard palate. The palatine process separates the respiratory from the digestive passageway.

The dorsal surface of the palatine process forms part of the floor of the ventral
nasal meatus. The ventral surface form part of the roof of the oral cavity. Internally, the
lacrimal canal continues from the lacrimal bone into the maxillar, the maxillary sinus or
recess lies medial to the infraorbital and lacrimal canals.

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Suture between maxilla and other bones:

1. incisivomaxillary suture – maxilla articulating with incisive bone rostrally
2. nasomaxillary suture – maxilla attached to nasal bone dorsomedially
3. frontomaxillary suture – maxilla to frontal bone dorsocaudally
4. lacrimomaxillary suture – maxilla to lacrimal bone
5. zygomaticomaxillary suture – maxilla and zygomatic bone

DORSAL NASAL CONCHA

The dorsal nasal concha is a simple curved shelf of bone. It was formerly called
nasal turbinates and is the continuation of endoturbinate of ethmoid bone. It is located
ventral to the dorsal meatus.

VENTRAL NASAL CONCHA

The ventral nasal concha is short and very complex. It was formerly called the
maxilloturbinate. The space between the ventral nasal concha and the nasal septum is the
common nasal meatus. The space dorsal to the ventral nasal concha is the middle nasal
meatus. The conchae are composed of osseous or bony plates that are continued as soft
tissue folds which converge anteriorly.

ZYGOMATIC BONE

The zygomatic bone is very long and is strongly curved. It forms the rostral half
of the zygomatic arch and forms part of the orbital margin. The zygomatic bone is
sometimes called the jugal or malar bone.

The zygomatic arch is formed the zygomatic process of the maxilla, zygomatic
bone and the zygomatic process of temporal bone.

PALATINE BONE

The palatine bone is located caudomedial to the maxilla where it forms the caudal
part of the hard palate. It is divided into horizontal and perpendicular laminae or plate.
The horizontal lamina is extensive forming the posterior third of he hard palate. The
major palatine foramen is formed by uniting the lateral marginal notch of the horizontal
plate and the notch present in the maxilla. This foramen opens on the hard palate.

Caudal to the major palatine foramen are minor palatine foramina. All of these
openings are directed to the palatine canal which transmits the major palatine artery, vein
and nerve. The perpendicular lamine of the other hand leaves the horizontal plate at a
right angle. Medially it forms the lateral of the nasopharyngeal meatus. Laterally, it forms
the medial wall of the pterygopalatine fossa. The pterygopalatine fossa is located ventral
to the orbit.

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LACRIMAL BONE

The lacrimal bone is very small and located in the rostral margin of the orbit. At
the center of the bone is the fossa for the lacrimal sac. The lacrimal canal begins at the
fossa for the lacrimal sac containing the nasolacrimal duct. The lacrimal sac results from
slight dilatation of the two lacrimal ducts from each eyelid.

PTERYOID BONE

The pterygoid bone is very small, thin, slightly curved bone which articulates with
the bodies of the presphenoid and the basisphenoid bone.

VOMER

The vomer is an unpaired bone which forms the caudoventral part of the nasal
septum. It contributes to the roof of choana (choanae are the openings to the right and left
nasal cavities into the nasopharynx). This bone runs obliquely from the neurocranium to
the nasal surface of the hard palate.

MANDIBLE (lower jaw)

The mandible is divided into right and left halves which are united at the
mandibular symphysis. The body or horizontal part of the mandible bears the lower
incisive and molar teeth. The caudal non-tooth bearing vertical part or perpendicular part
of the bone is the ramus of the mandible. The lateral surface of the ramus contains a
prominent depression, the masseteric fossa where the masseter muscle is inserted.

BONES OF THE HYOID APPARATUS

The hyoid apparatus is composed of hyoid bones which act as suspensory

structures for the tongue and larynx. The hyoid ones are composed of paired stylohyoid,
epihyoid, ceratohyoid and thyrohyoid and unpaired basihyoid.

CAVITIES OF THE SKULL

1. cranial cavity
2. nasal cavity

CRANIAL CAVITY

The cranial cavity contains the brain and its covering and vessels. The roof of the
braincase is the calvaria. It is formed by the frontal and parietal bones. The rostral 2/3 of
the base of the cranium is formed by the occipital and temporal bones. The caudal wall is
the occipital bone and the rostral wall is the cribriform plate of the ethmoid bone. The
lateral walls are formed by the temporal, parietal, frontal and sphenoid bones. Internally,

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the cranium is marked by smooth depressions and elevations which are formed by the
gyri and sulci of the brain.

NASAL CAVITY

The nasal cavity is the facial part of the respiratory passages. It is composed of 2
symmetrical right and left nasal fossae which are separated by a medial partition called
nasal septum. Each nasal fossa is largely filled by the ventral nasal conchae rostrally and
the ethmoturbinates caudally. The dorsal nasal concha is less extensive and occupies a
little portion of the dorsal part of the nasal cavity. The conchae warm and cleanse
inspired air.

In each nasal cavity, the shelf-like dorsal nasal concha and the scrolls of the
ventral nasal concha divide the cavity into 4 primary passages knows as meatuses. The
dorsal nasal meatus lies between the nasal bone and the dorsal nasal concha. The middle
meatus lies between the dorsal and ventral nasal concha. The ventral meatus is dorsal to
the hard palate. A vertical space called the common nasal meatus is formed on each side
of the nasal septum.

PARANASAL SINUSES OR RECESSES

1. maxillary sinus or recess – large, lateral diverticulum of nasal cavity

2. frontal sinus – located between the outer and inner tables of the frontal bone
3. sphenoid sinus – located within presphenoid bone and is largely occupied by
endoturbinates IV.

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Lecture 7

THE VERTEBRAL COLUMN

Basic Movements
1. flexion
2. lateral flexion
3. extension
4. rotation

Function
1. protects spinal cord and associated structures
2. aids in the support of the head
3. provide muscular attachments for the muscles governing body movements
4. acts as flexible rod thru which the propelling force generated by the pelvic limbs
is transmitted to the rest of the body

The vertebral column is composed of approximately 50 irregular bones called

vertebrae. The vertebrae occupy the median axis of the body from the base of the skull to
the end of the tail. Some vertebrae are fused to each other and are called fixed or “false”
vertebrae in contrast with movable or “true” vertebrae.

For description, the vertebral column is arranges in 5 groups which are named
according to the part of the body in which the vertebrae are located. Hence, the vertebrae
are designated as cervical, thoracic, lumbar, sacral and coccygeal or caudal. The vertebral
formula of the dog is C7T13l7S3Cy20. The caudal vertebrae vary in number. Many dogs
have fewer caudal vertebrae. The three sacral vertebrae are fused to form a single bone,
the sacrum.

Parts of a typical vertebra

1. body
2. vertebral arch
3. process

Body
The body of a typical vertebra is constricted centrally. It consists of cranial and
caudal articular surfaces. Between the bodies of adjacent vertebrae is the intervertebral
firbocartilage or disc to which they are joined or articulated.

Vertebral Arch or Neural Arch

The vertebral arch consists of 2 lateral halves each containing a ventral pedicle
and a dorsal lamina or plate. Therefore there are 2 pedicles which form the ventral part of
the arch and 2 laminae which complete the arch dorsally. The right and left laminae meet
at the mid-dorsal line to form a single spine or spinous process. Together with the body,
the arch forms a short tube, the intervertebral foramen. All the vertebral foramina concur
to form the vertebral canal which contains the spinal cord and all of its coverings and

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vessels. The notches on either side of adjacent vertebrae form the right and left
intervertebral foramina. The intervertebral foramina transmit the spinal nerves, arteries
and veins.

Processes
Most processes arise from the vertebral arch. The spinous process is a single
unpaired process that projects dorsally from the middle of the vertebral arch. The
transverse process projects laterally on either sides of the arch from the junction of the
pedicle and the body. In the cervical region, the process is divided into dorsal and ventral
parts by the transverse foramen. The transverse foramen of the first six cervical vertebrae
gives passage for the vertebral artery and vein and a plexus of symphatetic nerves. The
seventh cervical vertebra is devoid of transverse foramen except in man and pig.

Cervical vertebrae
There are seven cervical vertebrae is most mammals. The first and second
cervical vertebrae are easily identifiable. The first is called the atlas and the second is
called the axis.
The atlas is atypical in structure and form. It articulates with the skull cranially
and with the axis caudally. It has the following characteristics:
1. modified articular processes
2. lack of spinous process
3. reduction of its body
The axis or the second cervical vertebra is an elongated ridgelike spinous process
which is bladelike cranially and expanded caudally. The presence of dens or odontoid
process which is a peglike eminence projecting from the cranial part of the body is the
prominent feature of this vertebra.

The third, fourth and fifth cervical vertebrae differ slightly from each other. The
spinous processes are low but gradually increase in length from third to fifth. The sixth
cervical vertebra possesses a higher spine than C3, C4 and C5. The main peculiarity is
the presence of expanded plate-like transverse processes. These plates extended
downward and outward, which represent the caudal portion of the transverse process
only. All of the first six cervical vertebrae are characterized by transeverse foramina. The
seventh or last cervical vertebra lacks transverse foramina and the spine is highest among
the others.

Thoracic vertetbrae
There are thirteen thoracic vertebrae. The first nine are similar and the last gour
have minor differences. The bodies of the thoracic vertebrae are shorter than cervical or
lumbar vertebrae. Each body possesses a cranial and caudal costal fovea or demifacets.
T11 frequently lacks caudal fovea. T12 and T13 have one complete fovea on each side.
The fovea on the bodies of the thoracic vertebrae articulates with the head of the ribs. The
spinous processes of the first nine thoracic vertebrae are very noticeable. The spine of T1
is more massive than the rest but of about the same length. The spine becomes shorter
and inclined more caudad through the 9th and 10th segments. The spine of T11 is nearly
perpendicular to its long axis. T11 is called the anticlinal vertebra since it is transitional

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segment of the thoracolumbar region. All spines caudal to T12 and T13 are directed
cranially, while the spines of all vertebrae cranial to T11 are directed caudally.

Lumbar vertebra
There are seven lumbar vertebrae. The bodies are longer than the thoracic. The
spinous processes are highest and most massive at the mid-lumbar region. The transverse
processes are longest also in this area.

Sacral vertebrae
The bodies and the processes of the three sacral vertebrae are fused in the adult to
form the sacrum.

Caudal vertebrae
The average number of caudal vertebrae is 20 but variations exist from 6 – 23.
The cranial coccygeal vertebra conforms to a typical vertebra but the caudal segments are
gradually reduced to simple rods.

Hemal Arches
They are present as separate bones which articulate with the ventral surfaces of
the caudal ends of the 4th, 5th and 6th caudal vertebrae. It has a V or Y shape. They protect
the median coccygeal artery which passes through it.

Ribs
There are thirteen pairs of ribs, with heads articulating with each thoracic vertebra
on both sides. Each rib is divided into a bony and a cartilaginous part. There are nine ribs
which articulate directly with the sternum. These are the sternal ribs. The last four are
called the asternal ribs. The thirteenth ribs are called the floating ribs since its cartilages
ends freely in the musculature. A typical rib presents a vertebral extremity, sternal
extremity and an intermediate shaft or body. This is exemplified by the seventh rib.
Sternum
Consist of 8 unpaired (single) segmental series of bones which are called
sternebrae which form the floor of the thorax. The first sternebra is called the manubrium
and the last is called the xiphoid process.

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Lecture 8

APPENDICULAR SKELETON
It comprise the thoracic and pelvic bones

Bones of the thoracic limb

a. pectoral girdle – clavicle and scapula
b. arm of the brachium – humerus
c. forearm or antebrachium – radius and ulna
d. forepaw or manus – carpus or wrist
- metacarpal
- digits
= phalanges
= palmar or sesamoid bones
A. Pectoral Girdle

CLAVICLE
It is small, thin, irregularly triangular bony or cartilaginous plate. It is embedded
in the brachiocephalicus and forms no articulation with the rest of the skeleton.

SCAPULA
It is the large, flat bone of the shoulder. It presents 2 surfaces (lateral- where the
spine of the scapula is located; medial or costal surface); 3 borders (cranial, dorsal, and
caudal); 3 angles (cranial, caudal, and ventral).

The lateral surface contains the spine which is the most prominent feature of the
scapula; the acromion is the distal expanded end of the spine; the supraspinous fossa
(where supraspinatus muscle is attached) is the fossa caudal to the spine. The medial
surface is where the serrated face and the subscapular fossa are located. The
subscapularis muscle arises from the subscapular fossa.

The cranial border presents the constricted part of the scapula or the scapular
notch; the rhomboideus muscle attaches here. The dorsal border is the base of the scapula
in between the cranial and caudal angles. The caudal border bears the infraglenoid
tubercle.

The angles of the scapula are formed by the following: cranial angle is formed by
the cranial and dorsal border; the caudal angle is formed by the caudal and dorsal border
and it is where the teres major muscle arises; the ventral angle contains the glenoid cavity
that received the head of the humerus in forming the shoulder joint.

The supraglenoid tuberosity is the largest tuberosity of the scapula; it is where the
single tendon of biceps brachiii arises. The coracoid process is a remnant of the coracoid
bone which is a small beaklike process that leaves the medial side of the scapular
tuberosity. The coracobrachialis muscle arises from the coracoid process.

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HUMERUS
Distally, the humerus articulates with the scapula to form the shoulder joint and it
articulates with the radius and ulna distally to form the elbow joint. It is divided into
head, neck, and body. It has 2 extremities and 4 surfaces (medial, lateral, cranial and
caudal).
The proximal extremity of humerus contains the head; intertubecular groove;
greater tubercle; and lesser tubercle.
The head articulates with the glenoid cavity of the scapula, it presents the
intertubercular groove where the bicipital tendon lies. The greater tubercle is the large
craniolateral projection of the proximal extremity of the humerus; it serves for the
insertion of the infraspinatus muscle. The lesser tubercle is a medially flattened
enlargement of the proximal medial part of the humerus; the subscapularis muscle
attached here.
The neck marks the line where the head and the tubercles have fused with the
body.
The body has 4 surfaces: lateral, medial and cranial and caudal. The lateral
surface is slightly spiral in shape with unites the proximal and distal extremities. It
presents the deltoid tuberosity which is the most prominent feature of the lateral surface
of the humerus and it serves for theinsertios of the deltoideus muscle. Also on the lateral
surface of the humerus is the brachial groove or musculospiral groove that begins in the
neck and it twist to the distal extremity. The brachialis muscle lies in this groove.
The medial surface presents the crest of lesser tubercle (it serves for the insertion
of the coracobrachialis muscle) and the tuberosity for teres major (teres tuberosity) where
the teres major and latissimus dorsi muscles insert.
The cranial surface begins at the crest of greater tubercle where the entire
pectoralis muscle attaches. The caudal surface begins at the neck of humerus and it is
where the accessory head of triceps arises. The distal half of the caudal surface is marked
by the presence of the nutrient foramen.
The distal extremity of the humerus presents the following features: 1. capitulum,
a small, lateral articular area of the distal extremity of the humerus for articulation with
the head of the radius; 2. trochlea, a larger, medial articular area of the distal extremity, it
articulates with the trochear notch of the ulna in forming the elbow joint; 3. lateral
epicondyle is known functionally as the extensor epicondyle of the humerus because it
gives origin to the common digital extensor, lateral digital extensor and ulnaris lateralis
muscles; 4. medial epicondyle is also known as flexor epicondyle; it gives origin to flexor
digitorum superficialis, digital flexor, flexor carpi ulnaris and flexor carpi radialis
muscles; 5. olecranon fossa is a deep excavation of the caudal part of the distal extremity
of the humerus, it received the anconeal process of the ulna and the anconeus muscle
arises from its margin; 6. radial fossa is the fossa opposite the olecranon fossa; 7.
supratrochlear foramen is the point of communication between the olecranon and radial
fossa but it may be absent when the humerus is small.

RADIUS
This is the main bone is the forearm. It articulates with the humerus proximally
and carpal bones distally and it also articulates with the ulna by its caudal surface and

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distally by its lateral border. It is divided into proximal and distal extremites with an
intervening shaft or body.
The proximal extremity is where the head of the radius is located. It presents the
articular fovea that articulates with the capitulum of the humerus. The neck joins the head
to the body.
The body has 2 surfaces and 2 borders (medial and lateral). The cranial surface is
convex and it provides attachment to the supinator muscles. The caudal surface is flat to a
concave, it presents the interosseous border. The interosseous ligament unites the radius
and ulna proximally.
The distal extremity articulates with the radial carpal bone. It presents the ulnar
notch and the styloid process.

ULNA
This bone has a body and 2 extremities. Proximally it articulates with the humerus
thru the trochlear notch and it articulates with the radius by the radial notch. Distally, it
articulates with the radius by the ulnar notch and also the ulnar carpal and accessory
carpal bones.
The proximal extremity presents the following features: 1. olecranon serves as the
lever arm or tension process for the powerful extensor muscles of the elbow joint; 2.
trochear othc or semilunar notch is a half-moon shaped concavity facing cranially; 3.
anconeal process is located proximal to trochear notch which fits in the olecranon fossa
of the humerus.
The body of the ulna is compressed laterally in its proximally 3rd; it is 3 sided
throughout its middle 3rd and cylindrical on its distal 3rd.
The distal extremity presents the styloid process which is the enlarged pointed end
of the ulna.

FOREPAW
The forepaw is composed of the carpus, metacarpus and the phalanges. The
carpus corresponds to the wrist and it is comprised of 7 bones arranged in 2 rows. The
proximal row is made of the radial, ulnar and accessory carpal bones. The distal row has
the 1st, 2nd, 3rd and 4th carpal bones.
The radial carpal bone is the largest among all 7 carpal bones. The ulnar is the
lateral bone of the proximal row. The accessory carpal bone is located on the palmar side
of the ulnar carpal bone. The 1st carpal bone is the smallest and the 4th carpal bone is the
largest bone of the distal row.
The metacarpus is the region between the carpus and the digits. There are 5
metacarpal bones numbered from the medial to the lateral side. A metacarpal bone has a
base, head and a body. The 1st metacarpal bone is usually present in the forelimb unlike
the hindlimb. The 2nd and 5th metacarpal bones are the main metacarpal bones and are 4
sided proximally while the 3rd and 4th are more triangular proximally.
The phalanges or digital skeleton are 5 in numbers; 4 are fully developed and one
is rudimentary. Each main digit is composed of a proximal phalanx, middle phalanx and
distal phalanx plus 2 palmar sesamoid bones at the metacarpophalangeal joints.
The sesamoid bones are located in the tendons of insertion of the interosseous
muscles. There are 2 sesamoid bones per main digit at the metacarpophalangeal joint.

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They articulate with each metacarpal bone and with the palmar tubercle of each proximal
phalanx.

Bones of the Pelvic Limb

Pelvic girdle – os coxae or hip bone is composed of 3 parts: ilium, ischium, pubis
Femur – thigh
Tibia and Fibula – crus or leg
Pes or hindpaw – tarsus or ankle
Metatarsals
Phalanges
Sesamoids

OS COXAE
It is composed of the ilium, ischium, pubis plus the acetabular bone. These are
fused bones. Together they form the acetabulum, a deep socket which receives the head
of the femur. The os coxae bound the pelvic cavity which is important during parturition
for the passage of the young.
The ilium is the most cranial of the bones. It has cranial expanded part called
wing and a laterally compressed body caudally. The ischium forms the caudal third part
of os coxae, it enters in the formation of the acetabulum, obturator foramen and
symphysis pelvis. It presents the ischiatic tuberosity at the caudolateral part. It is where
the end of the sacrotuberous ligament attaches. The pubis is dorsoventrally compressed. It
extends to the ilum and ischium laterally and the symphysis pubis medially.
The pelvic inlet or cranial pelvic aperture is bounded dorsally by the sacrum;
ventrally by the pubis and bilaterally by the arcuate line. On the other hand, the pelvic
outlet or caudal pelvic aperture is bounded dorsally by the 1st caudal vertebra; ventrally
by the ischiatic tuber on each side and the ischiatic arch and bilaterally by the
sacrotuberous ligament.

FEMUR
This is the largest bone of the skeleton. It articulates with the os coxae proximally
and with the tibia caudally. It has a head, neck and a body. The proximal part of the
femus presents the following: the head which is located on the proximal end and is
supported by the neck on the proximolateral side. The neck unites the head with the rest
of the proximal extremity and the three processes or trochanters (greater, lesser and 3 rd
trochanters).
The fovea capitis femoris is a small circular pit on the medial part of the head. It
serves for the attachment of the ligament of the head of the femur (round ligament). The
greater trochanter is the largest tuber of the proximal extremity of the bone in between
the femoral neck and greater trochanter is the deep trochanteris fossa.
Muscles inserting on the greater trochanter are: gluteus medius, gluteus
profundus, and piriformis. Muscles inserting on the trochateris fossa are: gemelli, internal
obturator and external obturator.

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The intertrochanteric crest converts the greater trochanter to lesser trochanter. The
quadratus femoris muscle inserts distal to this crest adjacent to the lesser trochanter. The
gluteus superficialis muscle inserts on the third trochanter.
The body of the femur is nearly cylindrical in form, straight proximally and
cranially arched distally. The cranial, lateral, medial surfaces are not demarcated from
each other but the caudal surface is flatter than the others.
The distal end of the femur is quadrangular in shape and protrudes caudally. It
had 3 main articular areas – a medial and lateral condyle and an articular groove on the
cranial surface. Each condyle articulates directly with the tibia; they are separated by the
intercondylar fossa. The facet on the lateral epicondyle articulates with the sesamoid
bones.
The femoral trochlea or patellar surface is the smooth wide articular groove on the
cranial surface of the distal extremity – this is where the patella or knee cap articulates.

Sesamoid bones of the Stifle Joint

Patella or Knee cap – the largest sesamoid bone in the body. It functions a) in altering
the direction of pull of the tendon of the quadriceps b) protects the tendon c) provides a
greater bearing surface for the tendon to play on the trochlea of the femur.

There are 3 sesamoid bones or fabellae on the stifle region; 2 are located in the head of
gastrochenemius muscle caudal to the stifle joint on the medial and lateral condyles and
the 3rd is intercalated in the tendon of the popliteus muscle and it articulates with the
lateral condyle of the tibia.

TIBIA
This is a long and strong bone which articulates proximally with the femur and
distally with the tarsus and on its lateral side with the fibula. The interosseous space
separates the tibia from the fibula. Its proximal end is flat and triangular. It has lateral and
medial condyles divided by an eminence, the intercondylar eminence. Between the lateral
and medial condyles at the more caudal aspect is the large popliteal notch (the name is
associated with the muscle which originates from the notch, the popliteus muscle). More
cranially at the proximal end of the tibia is the tibial tuberosity. It is where the powerful
muscles of the thigh (quadriceps femoris, biceps femoris, Sartorius) insert.
Distally from the tibial tuberosty is the cranial border of the tibia (formerly called
the tibial crest). It provides insertion for several muscles of the thigh such as the gracilis,
semitendinosus, parts of the Sartorius and biceps femoris muscles.

FIBULA
A long, thin, laterally compressed bone which serves mainly for muscle
attachment. It is divided into head, body and lateral malleolus. The head is flattened
transversely and a small tubercle projects from medial surface called the facies articularis
capitis fibulae which articulates with the caudolateral part of the lateral condyle of the
tibia. The body is slender and irregular. The distal end of the fibula is known as the
lateral malleolus.

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HINDPAW (pes)
The hindpaw is comprised of the tarsus, metatarsus, phalanges and sesamoid
bones.

Tarsus or hock
Has 7 tarsal bones arranged in such a way that the tibia and the fibula articulates
with the tibial tarsal bone. The proximal row consists of the fibular tarsal bone and the
tibial tarsal bone. The distal row consists of the 1st, 2nd, 3rd and 4th tarsal bones.
The tibial tarsal bone or talus is the 2nd largest of the tarsal bones; it articulates
proximally with the tibia and fibula and distally with the central tarsal and on the plantar
side with the fibular tarsal.
The largest and longest bone of the tarsus is the calcaneus (or calcis or fibular
tarsal bone); the proximal half or tuber calcanei serves for the insertion of the calcanean
tendon. On the distal end of the fibular tarsal is a large flat surface for the articulation
with the central tarsal and by a small facet with the tibial tarsal.
The central tarsal bone lies in the medial part of the tarsus between the proximal
and distal rows; it articulates with all of the other tarsal bones.
The 1st tarsal bone (os tarsale I or os cuneiform mediale) may exist as a separate
bone or it may be fused with the distally lying 1st metatarsal bone.
The 2nd tarsal bone (os tarsale II or os cuneiform intermedium) is the smallest of
the tarsal bones.
The 3rd tarsal bone (os tarsale III or os cuneiform laterale) is 3 x larger and 2 xs
longer than the 2nd tarsal bone.
The 4th tarsal bone (os tarsale IV or os cuboideum) is as long as the combined
dimensions of the central and 3rd tarsals with which it articulates medially.

Metatarsus (region of the pes or hindpaw)

- it is located between the tarsus and phalanges; there are 5 metatarsal bones designated
as M1 – M5. A typical metatarsal bone has a proximal base which is irregular and body
which is triangular proximally and oval distally.

Phalanges and Sesamoid Bones

- very similar to those of the forepaw thus will not be discussed in detail except for the
bones of the digit I.
- the term dewclaw is applied to the variably developed first digit of the hindpaw
(regardless of its degree of development). The term should not be applied to the 1st digit
of the forepaw because that appendage although rudimentary is always present.
- the first digit or dewclaw or hallux is usually absent in dog, when present it contains
only two phalanges.

OS PENIS OR BACULUM
The os penis is always present in the male dog and is classified as a visceral or
splanchnic skeleton. It forms a rigid axis of the glans penis passing thru the bulbous
glandis.

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Lecture 9

JOINTS OR ARTICULATIONS
- formed by union of 2 or more bones or cartilages by fibrous, elastic or cartilaginous
tissue or a combination of these tissues.

Classification of joints (based on structure and materla that unite them)

1. fibrous joint or synarthrosis
2. cartilaginous joint or amphiarthrosis
3. synovial joint or diarthrosis

I. Fibrous Joint – fixed or immovable joint; there is no joint cavity; bound by fibrous
tissue
Types:
a. syndesmosis – bones are united by fibrous connective tissue forming a
ligament that allows slight movement
e.g. attachment of costal cartilages
attachment of hyoid apparatus to the mastoid process of the temporal
bone
b. suture – confined to the flat bones of the skull, bones that fuse eventually
ossify
Types of suture based on shaped of apposed edges
b.1. serrate suture – articulation of bones by means of alternating processes
and depressions or serrated edges of bones; very stable and are non-c
compressible. E.g. fusion of parietal bones
b.2. squamous suture – uniting bones overlap on their slanted edges; allow for
slight compression. E.g. pars squamosa of temporal bone and parietal
bone of fetal cranium
b.3. plane suture – edges of bones meet at a right angle edge or surface. E.g.
fusion of ethmoid with adjacent bones of the face
b.4. foliate suture – when edge of one bone fits in a fissure or recess of
another bone; very stable. E.g. fusion of parietal bone with occipital bone.
c. Gomphosis – e.g. the implantation of tooth in its socket by means of a
fibrous tissue, the periodontal ligament – the joint formed permits slight
movement of the tooth into the socket.
II. Cartilaginous – sometimes referred to as a SYNCHONDROSIS; bones of
cartilaginous joints are united by firbrocartilage or hyaline cartilage, the
cartilage is eventually converted into bone before or during early adult life;
the cartilage serves to allow growth.
Types:
1. hyaline cartilage joints or primary joints – temporary and represents part of fetal
skeleton. E.g. epiphysis and diaphysis of immature long bones are united by a
cartilaginous epihysela plate, they eventually fuse with disappearance of joint by
the process called synostoses

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2. fibrocartilaginous joints or secondary joints are characterized by the presence of a
plate of fibrocartilage that unites apposed bony surfaces. E.g. pelvic symphysis
and mandibular symphysis

III. Synovial Joints or true joints - characterized by the presence of:

a. Joint cavity
b. Joint capsule – consists of inner synovial membrane which is responsible
for synovial fluid production; and an outer fibrous membrane or capsular
ligament
c. Synovial fluid – lubricates contact surfaces of the joints and allows WBC
to circulate and phagocytose products of wear and tear of the articular
cartilage.
d. Articular cartilage – usually hyaline cartilage that covers the articular
surfaces bone; are not covered with synovial membrane; hyaline cartilage
is without blood supply thus the synovial fluid supplies nutrients and
removes waste materials; it should be elastic and compressible and act as
shock absorber to prevent fractures
e. Meniscus or disc – a fibrocartilage which divides the joint cavity into two
parts; protects bones and prevent concussion; present in the stifle and
temporomandibular joints
f. Ligaments – connective tissue bands (collagenous) that hold bones
together; support and strengthen joints may be:
i. Intracapsular/intra-articular – found within joints and are
surrounded by joint capsule e.g. cruciate ligament of stifle
ii. Extracapsular/periarticular – found outside the joint capsule
1. collateral ligaments on medial and lateral sides of a joint;
are thickenings of the fibrous layer of the joint capsule that
blends with the periosteum
2. dorsal/palmar – in front and behind a joint
3. annular ligament – surround the joint

Synovial joints of the extremities allow for greatest movement and are most commonly
involved in dislocations
*e and f components may or may not be present depending on the function of the bone

Classification of Synovial joints based on the shape or form of the articular surfaces:
1. plane joint – articular surfaces are flat e.g costo-transverse joint
2. ball and socket joint (spheroid) – a hemispherical head fits into a shallow glenoid
cavity in case of the shoulder joint or hip joint
3. hinge joint (ginglymus) – permits flexion and extension with a limited degree of
rotation e.g elbow joint
4. trochoid or pivot joint – movement is around a longitudinal axis thru the bones
forming the joint e.g atlantoaxial joint

Classification of synovial joints based on the number of articulating surfaces involved:

1. simple joint – formed by 2 articular surfaces within an articular capsule

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2. compound joint – formed by more than 2 articular surfaces e.g carpal and tarsal
joints

Movements of Synovial joints

1. flexion or folding
2. extension or straightening
3. adduction
4. abduction
5. circumduction
6. rotation

JOINTS OF THE AXIAL SKELETON

A. Ligaments and Joints of the Skull

a. Temporomandibular Joint – temporal bone and mandible
b. Joints of the auditory ossicles – allow for movement of the malleus, incus
and stapes
i. Ligament of auditory ossicles – function to hold the ossicles in
place and to limit their movement
c. Joints of Hyoid Apparatus
d. Intermandibular Joint e.g mandibular symphysis
e. Synchondroses of the skull e.g sphenoid and occipital bone
f. Sutures of the Skull
B. Ligaments and Joints of the vertebral column
a. Atlanto-occipital joint
b. Atlanto-axial joint – connects dorsal arch of atlas and neural arch of axis
c. Long ligament of the vertebral column
i. Nuchal ligament
ii. Supraspinous ligament
iii. Ventral longitudinal ligament
iv. Dorsal longitudinal ligament
d. Short ligament of the vertebral column
i. Intervertebral discs
ii. Fibrous ring
iii. Pulpy nucleus
iv. Interspinous ligament
v. Intertransverse ligament
vi. Yellow ligament

ATLANTO-OCCIPITAL JOINT
- formed by the occipital condyles and the concavities of the atlas

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ATLANTO-AXIAL JOINT
- a pivot joint which permits the head and atlas to rotate around a longitudinal axis
a. apical ligament of the dens (represents the remnant of the notochord) – the
ligament extends from the apex of the dens of axis to ventral surface of foramen
magnum
b. transverse atlantal ligament – a strong ligament which connects one side of the
ventral arch of the atlas to the other
c. dorsal atlanto-axial ligament – extends from the tip of spinous process of axis to
dorsal arch of atlas

LONG LIGAMENTS OF THE VERTEBRAL COLUMN

1. nuchal ligament – composed of longitudinal yellow elastic fiber which attach
cranially to the caudal part of the heavy spinous process of the axis. It extends
caudally to the tip of the spinous process of the first thoracic vertebra
2. supraspinous ligament – continuation of the nuchal ligament from the spinous
process of first thoracic vertebra to 3rd coccygeal vertebra
3. ventral longitudinal ligament – lies in the ventral surfaces of the bodies of the
vertebra; from the axis to the sacrum. Well developed caudal to the middle of the
thorax
4. dorsal longitudinal ligament – lies on the dorsal surfaces of the borders of the
vertebra; forms a part of the floor of the vertebral canal; heavier than ventral
longitudinal ligament

SHORT LIGAMENTS OF THE VERTEBRAL COLUMN

1. intervertebral discs – unites the bodies of the adjacent vertebra; they are
intersposed in every intervertebral space (except C1 and C2). Each intervertebral
disc is composed of an outer fibrous ring and a central amorphous gelatinous
center which is the pulpy nucleus
a. fibrous ring – consists of bands of parallel fibers which run obliquely from
one vertebral body to the next
b. pulpy nucleus (nucleus pulposus) – inner gelatinous core which is a
remnant of the notochord; situated on each end of the vertebral body
2. interspinous ligament – connects adjacent vertebral spine
3. intertransverse ligament – consists of bundles of fibers which unite the
craniolaterally directed transverse process of the lumbar vertebra
4. yellow ligament or interarcuate ligament – loose, thin elastic sheets between the
arches of adjacent vertebra

C. Ligaments and Joints of the Ribs

a. Costovertebral joint – formed by the articulation of the capitulum of each
rib with the costal facets of the appropriate vertebra and the articulation of
each tuberculum with the transverse process of the corresponding vertebra
b. Ligament of the head – small ligamentous band which passes from the
head of the rib to the lateral part of the disc

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c. Intercapital ligament – runs from the head of one rib over the dorsal part
of the disc, but under the dorsal longitudinal ligament of the head of the
opposite rib. It functions to hold the heads of opposite ribs tightly against
their articular sockets and to prevent excessive cranial and caudal
movement of the ribs. There is no intercapital ligament on the 1st pair or
the last 2 pairs of ribs; the intercapital ligament of the 11th rib is smaller
than the others
d. Ligament of the neck – extends from neck of rib to ventral surface of the
transverse process and the adjacent lateral surface of the body of the
vertebra
e. Dorsal costotransverse ligament or ligament of the tubercle – the strongest
single ligament uniting the rib to the vertebra
f. Sternocostal joints – synovial joints formed by the 1st eight costal
cartilages articulating with the sternum
g. Costochondral joints – joints between the ribs and the costal cartilages

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Lecture 10

LIGAMENTS AND JOINTS OF THE THORACIC LIMB

A. Shoulder Joint
- a ball and socket joint between the glenoid cavity of the scapula and the head of
the humerus
B. Elbow Joint
- articulation between the humeral condyle and heads of radius and the trochear
notch of the ulna
- joint presents the following ligaments
o lateral (ulnar) collateral ligaments – attaches proximally to the lateral
epicondyle
o medial (radial) collateral ligament – attaches proximally to the medial
epicondyle of the humerus and the radial tuberosity
o annular ligament of the radius – a thin band which runs transversely
around the radius
C. Radioulnar Joint
a. Proximal radioulnar joint – allows rotation of the radius in the radial notch
of the ulna
b. Interosseous ligament of the antebrachium – a short collagenous ligament
which extends across the interosseous soace from the apposed rough areas
of the radius
c. Distal radioulnar joint – extends between the radius and ulna distally
D. Carpal Joint
- composite articulations which include the proximal, middle, distal and intercarpal
joint surfaces
o antebrachiocarpal joint – between distal part of the radius and the ulna and
the proximal row of carpal bones
o middle carpal joint – between the two rows of the carpal bones
o carpometacarpal joint – between carpus and metacarpus
o intercarpal joint – between the individual carpal bones of each row
o flexor retinaculum – attaches laterally to the medial part of the accessory
carpal bone and the styloid process of the radius and on the palmar
projections of the radial and the first carpals
o palmar carpal fibrocartilage – attaches to all carpal bones except accessory
carpal bone
E. Metacarpal Joint
a. Intermetacarpal joint – between proximal ends of adjacent metacarpal
bone
b. Metacarpophalangeal joint – between distal ends of metacarpal bone and
proximal ends of proximal or first phalanges

Ligaments:
1. interosseous metacarpal ligament
2. collateral ligament

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3. intersesamoidean ligament
4. lateral and medial sesamoidean ligament
5. distal sesamoidean ligament
6. cruciate ligaments of the sesamoid bones

F. Phalangeal Joints
1. proximal interphalangeal joint
2. distal interphalangeal joint

Ligaments:
1. collateral ligament
2. dorsal ligament
3. interdigital ligaments

LIGAMENTS AND JOINTS OF THE PELVIC LIMB

A. Joints of the Pelvic Girdle

a. Pelvic symphysis
b. Sacroiliac joint

Ligaments:
1. ventral sacroiliac ligament
2. dorsal sacroiliac ligament
3. sacrotuberous ligament

B. Hip Joint
- presents acetabular lip which is a band of fibrocartilage

Ligament:
1. ligament of the head of the femur or round ligament – it extends from the fovea in
the head of the femur to the acetabular fossa

C. Stifle Joint
- articulation of the distal part of the femur and proximal part of the tibia

Ligaments:
1. four meniscal ligaments
2. femoral ligament of the lateral meniscus
3. intermeniscal ligament
4. femoro-tibial ligaments:
a. collateral ligaments – medial (tibial), lateral (fibular), cranial (cruciate) and caudal
(cruciate) collateral ligaments
b. cruciate – cross each other, the cruciate ligament of the stifle are located within joint
cavity

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5. patellar ligament – tendon of quadriceps femoris from the patella to the tibial
tuberosity, regarded as patellar ligaments
6. medial and lateral femoro-patellar ligaments – patellar ligaments
7. medial and lateral parapatellar ligaments

Note: Rupture of the cruciate ligament lead to free forward movement of the tibia the
joint extension. The cranial cruciate ligament is most torn or severed as a result of trauma
e.g hyperflexion.

D. Tibio-Fibular Joint
- fibula articulates with the tibia to each end by small synovial cavities

Joints:
1. proximal tibio-fibular joints
2. distal, tibio-fibular joints

Ligaments:
1. ligament of fibular head
2. cranial tibio-fibular ligament

E. Tarsal Joints
- composite articulations
1. talocrural with ankle joint
2. intetarsal joint

Note: The tarsal canal contains the tendon and sheath of the flexor hallucis longus
muscle; it is formed by the fibrous part of the tarsal joint capsule which is deeply
concave transversely and thickened distally to form the deep wall of the tarsal canal

Ligaments:
1. medial collateral ligament – with long and short parts
2. lateral collateral ligament – with long and short parts
3. proximal transverse ligament of the tarsus/proximal extensor retinaculum – this
holds the tendons of the extensor digitorum longus, extensor hallucis longus and
tibialis cranialis
4. distal transverse ligament of the tarsus/distal extensor retinaculum

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Lecture 11

GENERAL MYOLOGY

Muscular System – composed of contractile units (muscle fiber) of different

morphology
Functions:
a. provide motive power for locomotion, respiration, circulation,
alimentation, etc
b. indication of emotional state of the animal e.g barking, facial expression,
raising the hair or wagging the tail

Classification of Muscle Tissue:

1. Smooth-non-striated, involuntary – action is not under the control of will
- aggregation of spindle-shaped cells
- situated in hollow organs e.g. intestines and in blood vessels
2. cardiac-striated involuntary – action is not under the control of will
- with cross striations, fibers are arranged irregularly
3. skeletal-striated, voluntary – action controlled by will
- each fiber contains myofibrils inside a matrix called sarcoplasma bounded by thin
membrane, the sarcolemma
- fibers appear to be cross-striated due to the presence of thick and thin
myofilaments of the myofibrils. Fibers usually do not extend the entire length of
the muscle because they attach to connective tissues.

Various arrangements of skeletal fibers:

1. parallel fibers
2. fusiform fibers
3. unipennate fibers
4. bipennate fibers
5. multipennate fibers

Parallel fibers – bundles are perpendicular, oblique or horizontal in respect to entire

muscle
Pennate fibers – (uni, bi, multi) – parallel fibers attach to the tendon at an angle

Parts of a Muscle
a. Belly – expanded fleshy portion of a muscle
b. head – origin
c. tail – termination of a muscle
* A muscle may have more than 1 belly (digastric) or more than one head (triceps)

Muscle attachment:
Skeletal muscles may be attached by connective tissue to a bone or cartilage; they
may be attached to an organ, to another muscle or to the skin. Some skeletal muscles are

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found underneath the skin and act as sphincter of orifices. The connective tissue
attachments of muscles may be:
a. tendons – cordlike attachment
b. aponeurosis – flat or sheet like attachments
Some muscles may not have tendons or aponeurosis or they may be directly
attached to the periosteum of bones are thus called fleshy attachments.
The origin of a muscle is the fixed point of muscle attachment; and the more
movable point of attachment if the insertion or termination.

Functional Groupings of Muscles

Extensor muscles are muscles on the side of a hinge joint where contraction will
align the bones or straighten up the limb. Flexor muscles cross the surface whwere the
smaller angle between the bones is being formed.

Prime movers/agonists are muscles that produce characteristic movement of joint

e.g biceps brachii and brachialis are directly responsible for flexion of a limb or joint.
Other muscles that produce flexion are called synergists. Antagonists are muscles with
opposite action from the agonists e.g antagonists of flexor muscles are triceps and
anconeus, which are extensor muscles.

To produce skeletal movement, the muscle must pass at least one joint, except
certain muscles by which association with the superficial fascia and with firm cutaneous
anchorage move the skin (e.g. cutaneous trunci). Some muscles may surround natural
openings where they act as sphincters when they constrict especially when arranged as
walls of tubes or cavities (e.g. orbicularis oculi – sphincter of the eyelid).

Accessory Structures of Muscles

1. Sesamoid bones – located in certain tendons or joint capsules specifically at friction
points
Functions: a. protect tendons especially those passing over bony prominences
b. provide greater surface area for attachment of tendons over certain joints
c. divert the pull of tendons so that greater force is applied to the part being
moved

2. Bursae – are connective tissue sacs filled with a viscous fluid and they reduce friction;
they usually develop between tendons, ligament or muscle or between a bony growth and
the skin

3. synovial tendon sheaths – are double-layered sacs with synovia; they wrap tendons as
they pass bony or fibrous projections.

4. fascia – the connective tissue membranes separating muscles from each other and
binding them into position; may be:
a. superficial – loose connective tissue next to the skin
b. deep – attached to the muscles

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Functions: provides routes for the passage of blood vessels, lymphatics and nerves, stores
fat

MUSCLES OF THE BODY

A. CUTANEOUS MUSCLES
- thin interrupted sheet of muscles in the superficial fascia; rarely attached to the bones
1. sphincter colli superficialis – extends from near the sternum to the hyoid region; it is
best developed in the laryngeal region underneath the skin
2. platysma – extends from dorsal raphe of the neck ventrally and rostrally and ventral to
the ear to fuse with facial muscles at the corner of the mouth
3. sphincter colli profundus – situated deep to the platysma or the cheek and ventral to the
ear
4. cutaneous trunci – found at the lateral, ventral and dorsal portions of the thorax and
abdomen; some parts form the preputialis in the male and supramammarius in the female;
it is innervated by lateral thoracic nerve.

B. MUSCLES OF THE HEAD

1. longus capitis – this muscle extends from the transverse process of the 6th cervical
vertebra to the basioccipital bone
2. rectus capitis ventralis – extends from the ventral arch of atlas to the basioccipital bone
3. rectus capitis lateralis – extends from the wing of the atlas to the medial surface of the
paracondylar process
**muscles 1 – 3 flex the atlanto-occipital joint
4. rectus capitis dorsalis major – situated between the spine of the axis to the squamous
part of the occiput
5. rectus capitis dorsalis minor – extends from the dorsal arch of atlas and inserts above
the foramen magnum
** muscles 4 – 5 extend the atlanto-occipital joint
6. obliquus capitis caudalis – covers the atlas and axis dorsally; lies beneath the
semispinalis capitis and splenius mm; arises over the entire spinous process and the
caudal articular rotation and fixation of the atlantoaxial joint
7. obliquus capitis cranialis – extends obliquely craniolaterally over the atlanto-occipital
joint; lies under the splenius muscle; extends the atlanto-occipital joint

Muscles (1-6) extends from about the C1, attaching to the skull and deep to all
other muscles; covers the axis and atlas dorsally; supplied by dorsal or ventral branches
of the cervical spinal nerves.

C. MUSCLES OF THE FACE

1. orbicularis oris – considered as part of sphincter colli profundus; lies in the lips and is
the sphincter muscle of the mouth
2. incisivus maxillaris and incisivus mandibularis – located on the alveolar borders of
the bones containing the incisors; they raise and depress the respective lips

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3. levator labii maxillaris and caninus – lie next to each other like 2 parts of a single
muscle; the former is located dorsal and arises near the infraorbital foramen while the
latter is ventrally located. Both of these muscles are under cover of the levator
nasolabialis; together they dilate the nostril and raise the upper lip
4. buccinator muscle – forms the cheek; it has a buccal and molar parts; its contraction
causes the cheek to move medially
5. mentalis – has fibers radiating into the lower lip from the body of the mandible; it
stiffens the lower lip
6. malaris – fibers ascending to the lower eyelid to depress it
7. zygomaticus – pulls caudad the angle of the mouth
8. orbicularis oculi – sphincter of the eyelids; the dorsal portion is continous with
frontalis
9. digastricus – extends from jugular/paracondylar process of the occiput, inserts on the
ventral border of mandible; depresses the mandible
Nerve supply: caudal belly – supplied by facial nerve; rostral belly by the mandibular
nerve

*facial nerve – supplies the muscles of the face, orbit, external ear and cutaneous muscles
of the head

D. MUSCLES OF THE EXTERNAL EAR (divided into 4 groups)

1. rostral auricular muscles

- scutuloauriculares superficiales
- scutuloauriculares profundi
- frontoscutularis
- zygomaticoscutularis
- zygomaticoauricularis
2. dorsal auricular muscles
- interscutularis
- parietoscutularis
- parietoauricularis
3. caudal auricular muscles
- cervicoscutularis
- cervicoauricularis superficialis
- cervicoauricularis medius
- cervicoauricularis profundus
4. auriculares ventralis
- styloauricularis
- paratidoauricularis

Assign: read the description from Sisson and Grossman, Vol. 2. p 1510.

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E. MUSCLES OF MASTICATION (innervated by mandibular nerve; close the jaw)

1. masseter – forms a prominent bulge on the lateral surface of the vertical part of the
mandible; arises from the zygomatic arch to the masseteric fossa
2. temporalis – very large, bulging muscle, which occupies the entire temporal fossa and
inserts on the coronoid process of the mandible
3. pterygoideus medialis – occupies the pterygopalatine fossa, arises from pterygoid and
palatine and inserts on the medial and caudal surfaces of the angular process of the
mandible
4. pterygoideus lateralis – arises from sphenoid bone; inserts on the medial surface of
the condyle of the mandible

F. EXTRINSIC MUSCLES OF THE TONGUE (innervated by hypoglossal

nerve)

1. styloglossus – retracts the tongue

2. genioglossus – depress and protrude the tongue; lies within intermandibular space and
beneath the tongue
3. hypoglossus – retracts and depress the tongue; located at the root of the tongue

G. INTRINSIC MUSCLE OF THE TONGUE

1. lingua propria – many muscular bundles arranged longitudinally, transversely, and

vertically; protrude tongue; move tongue to prevent it from being bitten; organ of
taste

H. EXTRINSIC MUSCLE OF PHARYNX

1. Hyopharyngeus
- ceratopharyngeus
- chondropharyngeus
2. Thyropharyngeus
3. Cricopharyngeus
* Muscles 1 – 3 are constrictors of pharynx; innervated by vagus nerve
4. Palatopharyngeus
5. Pterygopharyngeus
* Muscles 4 -5 constrict the pharynx and draw it rostrad; innervated by vagus nerve
6. Stylopharyngeus caudalis – dilates and elevates the pharynx; innervated by
glossopharyngeal nerve

I. MUSCLES OF SOFT PALATE

1. tensor veli palatine – arises from the muscular process of the rostral margin of the
tympanic bulla going to the hamulus of the pterygoid bone; tenses the soft palate;
innervated by mandibular nerve

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2. levator veli palatine – arises from the muscular process adjacent to the tympanic bulla
and inserts on the caudal half of the soft palate lateral to the palatinus m; raises the
caudal portion of soft palate; innervated by vagus nerve
3. palatinus – constitutes most of the soft palate, arises from the palatine process of the
palatine bone to the caudal free border of the soft palate; innervated by vagus nerve

J. INTRINSIC MUSCLES OF LARYNX

1. cricothyroideus – tenses the vocal folds; innervated by cranial laryngeal branch of

vagus nerve
2. cricoarytenoideus dorsalis – abducts the arytenoid cartilage
3. thyroarytenoideus – relaxes the vocal folds by pulling the arytenoid cartilage
ventrally
4. vocalis – relaxes vocal folds
5. ventricularis – dilates the saccule or lateral ventricle
6. arytenoideus transversus – adducts the vocal folds
 muscles 2 – 6 are innervated by the recurrent laryngeal branch of the vagus
nerve
 vocal folds – folds of mucous membrane in the larynx that vibrate to produce
sounds

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Lecture Notes 12

MUSCLES OF THE TRUNK AND NECK

- also called axial muscles and are classified morphologically into hypaxial and epaxial
groups:
EPAXIAL – lie dorsal to transverse process of the vertebrae; function mainly as
extensors of the vertebral column
HYPAXIAL – include the muscles of the abdominal and thoracic walls

A. Muscles of the Neck

1. longus capitis – arises from transverse processes of cervical vertebrae and inserts on
the ventral surface of basioccipital bone of the skull
2. longus colli – covers the ventral surfaces of the vertebral bodies from the sixth thoracic
vertebrae to the atlas; can be felt when you insert your finger into the thoracic inlet
because of its location

B. Muscles of the Thoracic Wall

1. scalenus – a muscle of inspiration which attaches to the first few ribs and the
transverse processes of the cervical vertebrae; divided into several slips
2. serratus ventralis – large, fan-shaped muscle with extensive origin on the neck and
trunk; inserts on the serrated face of the scapula
3. serratus dorsalis – has 2 parts:
a. serratus dorsalis cranialis – arises from thoracolumbar fascia and inserts on the
craniolateral sufaces of the ribs. It lifts ribs during inspiration.
b. serratus dorsalis caudalis – arises from the thoracodorsal fascia and inserts on caudal
borders of the last 3 ribs; draws the last 3 ribs caudally during expiration
4. external intercostal muscles – fibers run caudoventrally from the caudal border of one
rib to the cranial border of the rib behind. They draw the ribs together during respiration.
5. internal intercostal muscles – can be differentiated from external intercostal muscles
because their fibers run cranioventrally from the cranial border of one rib to the caudal
border of the rib in front of it; draw the ribs together
6. retractor costae – thin triangular muscles deep the transversus abdominis; crosses the
space between the 1st few lumbar transverse processes and the last rib; arises from
thoracolumbar fascia
7. transversus thoracis – lies on inner surface of sternum and the sternal costal cartilages
(2nd to last segment); fibers came from sternum and insert into costal cartilages; aids
expiration
8. rectus thoracis – flat to rectangular muscle that runs caudoventral from 1st rib and
inserts by a fascia at distal end of 3rd and 4th rib; moves forward during inspiration
9. levatores costarum – spindle-shaped muscles; arise from transverse processes of first
12 thoracic vertebrae and run caudolaterally to insert on adjacent rib
10. diaphragm – a tendinous central sheet; fibers attach along costal arch; has 3 openings
which are:
a. aortic hiatus – opening for the aorta, vena azygous and thoracic duct
b. esophageal hiatus – opening for esophagus
c. foramen vena cavae – opening for the vena cava

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** the diaphragm serves as a divider between the thoracic and abdominal cavity; it also
contracts during inspiration; innervated by the phrenic nerve

C. Muscles of the Abdominal Wall

1. external abdominal oblique – covers the ventral half of the lateral thoracic wall and the
lateral part of the abdominal wall; fibers run caudoventrally; in the ventral abdominal
wall it forms a wide aponeurosis that inserts on the linea alba (linea alba – is the
midventral aponeurosis of the abdominal muscles from xiphoid cartilage to prepubic
tendon)
Caudoventrally, the aponeurosis of the external abdominal oblique separates into
2 parts to form the superficial inguinal ring. The superficial inguinal ring is the external
opening of a very short natural passageway through the abdominal wall which is called
the inguinal canal.
The inguinal canal is a slit between the abdominal muscles from the deep to the
superficial inguinal ring. The deep inguinal ring is formed on the inside of abdominal
wall by the annular reflection of transversalis fascia onto the vaginal process.
Structures that enter the inguinal canal in the male animal:
1. vaginal tunic – a thin membrane beneath the abdominal musles which is an extension
of the peritoneum
2. testes and spermatic cord – enclosed by the vaginal tunic
3. external pudendal artery and vein
4. genitofemoral nerve
Structures that enter the inguinal canal in the female animal:
1. vaginal process
2. round ligament of the uterus – eneveloped by the vaginal process
3. external pudendal artery and vein
4. genitofemoral nerve

2. internal abdominal oblique – fibers run cranioventrally; fibers from caudal border of
this muscle form the cremaster muscle which accompanies the vaginal tunic

3. transversus abdominis – fibers run transversely; lies medial to the internal abdominal
oblique and rectus abdominis

4. rectus abdominis – extends from the pubis to the sternum; has distinct transverse
tendinuos intersections; right and left muscles are separated by linea alba

Actions of Abdominal Muscles:

a. contract to increase abdominal pressure in defecation, urination, expiration and
parturition
b. flex vertebral column
Nerve Supply: ventral branches of spinal nerves

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EPAXIAL MUSCLES

Divided into 3 parallel longitudinal muscle masses on each side

1. iliocostalis system
2. transversospinalis system
3. longissimus system

ILIOCOSTALIS SYSTEM
1. iliocostalis lumborum – arises from wing of ilium and inserts on the transverse
processes of the lumbar vertebrae and the last 4 or 5 ribs; fused with longissimus
lumborum at the lumbar region.
2. iliocostalis thoracis – arises from the 12th rib to the transverse processes of C7

LONGISSIMUS SYSTEM
- lies medial to the ilocostalis; consists of three major regional divisions; thoracolumbar,
cervical and capital
Composed of the following muscles:
1. longissimus thoracic et al lumborum – arises from wing of ilium and inserts on various
processes of the lumbar and thoracic vertebrae; hard to separate from iliocostalis muscles
2. longissimus cervicis – cranial continuation of the longissimus into the neck
3. longissimus capitis – extends from he 1st thoracic vertebrae to the mastoid part of
temporal bone

TRANSVERSOSPINALIS SYSTEM
- most medial and deep epaxial muscle mass
- extends from the sacrum to the head; includes spinalis, semispinalis, multifudus,
rotators, interspinalis, intertransversarii (names of the different muscles depict
their attachment or their functions)

1. splenius – dorsolateral surface of the neck under rhomboideus capitis and serratus
dorsalis cranialis; extends from spines of first three thoracic vertebrae and inserts
on nuchal crest and mastoid part of the temporal bone
2. semispinalis capitis – cervical portion of the transversospinalis group; lies deep to
the splenius and extends from the thoracic vertebrae; consists of:
a. biventer cervicis – from thoracic vertebra and inserts on the caudal surface
of the skull; has tendinous intersection
b. complexus – ventral to the biventer and arises from cervical vertebra and
inserts on the nuchal crest

MUSCLES OF THE TAIL

- coccygeal or caudal vertebrae are enclosed by muscles

1. sacrocaudalis dorsalis lateralis – or long levator of the tail; attaches to mamillary

processes of lumbar vertebrae cranially and the sacral articular processes and
caudal vertebrae caudally

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2. sacrocaudalis dorsalis medialis – or short levator of the tail; continuation of
multifidus muscle of the tail; composed of short individual segments; situated
next to median plane on sacrum and caudal vertebrae extending from L7 to last
caudal vertebrae; function for extension and lateral flexion of tail
3. sacrocaudalis ventralis lateralis – begins on last lumbar vertebra to the sacrum and
caudal vertebra
4. sacrocaudalis ventralis medialis – attached on caudal portion of sacrum
5. intertransversarii caudae (dorsalis and ventralis) – dorsal and ventral segments lie
ventral to transverse processes from caudal end of sacrum
6. coccygeus – originate from ischiatic spine and insert on 2nd to 5th caudal vertebrae
7. rectococcygeus – smooth muscle fibers coming from rectal wall; right and left
portions that join together and insert in the midline on 5th and 6th caudal vertebrae

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Lecture 13

MUSCLES OF THE THORACIC LIMB

Extrinsic muscles – those that attached the limb to the axial skeleton
Intrinsic Muscles – the muscles that are attached to the limb

I. EXTRINSIC MUSCLES

i. Superficial pectoral – divided into 2: a) descending pectoral – superficial and

smaller than transverse pectoral; innervated by cranial pectoral nerve; b) transverse
pectoral – arises from 1st 2 – 3 sternebrae and inserts into greater tubercle of
humerus
ii. Deep pectoral – larger and longer than superficial pectoral from cranial pat of
sternum and humerus; innervated by caudal pectoral nerves
iii. Brachiocephalicus – extends from the arm to the head and neck; at the shoulder a
faint line crosses the muscle, this line is the clavicular intersection where the
clavicle is connected. Divided into: cleidobrachialis – attaches to the arm
Cleidocervicalis – attaches to the neck
Cleidomastoideus – attaches to the skull
Innervated by accessory nerve and ventral branches of cervical nerves
iv. Sternocephalicus – arises on the sternum and inserts on the head; ventral pat is
closely united with cleidomastoideus; cranial part divides into 2 parts:
a. sternomastoideus – ventral part
b. sternoccipitalis – dorsal part
Innervated by accessory nerve and ventral branches of cervical nerves
v. Omotransversarius – straplike and extends from the distal end of the spine of
scapula to the atlas; cutting at its middle will expose superficial cervical lymph
nodes; innervated by accessory nerve
vi. Trapezius – thin and triangular muscle with a cervical and thoracic part; extends
from the median raphe of the neck and the supraspinous ligament (C3 – T9) to the
spine of scapula; innervated by accessory nerve
vii. Rhomboideus – divided into 3 parts: capital – rhomboideus capitis
Cervical – rhomboideus cervicis
Thoracic – rhomboideus thoracis
Innervated by ventral branches of cervical and thoracic nerves
viii. Latissimus dorsi – large and roughly triangular; lies caudal to the scapula where it
covers most of the dorsatl and some of the lateral thoracic wall; innervated by
thoracodorsal nerve
ix. Serratus ventralis – a large, fan-shaped muscle that acts as a sling to support the
body between the limbs; from C5 transverse processes and first 7 or 8 ribs to the
serrated face of the scapula; innervated by ventral branches of cervical nerve and
long thoracic nerve

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INTRINSIC MUSLCES OF THE THORACIC LIMB
A. Lateral Muscles of the Scapula and Shoulder
1. deltoideus – from the spine and acromial process of the scapula to deltoid
tuberosity; divided into distal and proximal parts:
distal part – arises from acromnion and has fusiform shape; proximal part
– covers the infraspinatus; innervated by axillary nerve
2. infraspinatus – occupies the infraspinous fossa and is innervated by
suprascapular nerve
3. supraspinatus – occupies the supraspinous fossa and is innervated by
suprascapular nerve
4. teres minor – from infraglenoid tubercle to the teres minor tuberosity; a
small, wedge-shaped muscle; innervated by axillary nerve

B. Medial Muscles of the Scapula and Shoulder

1. subscapularis – occupies the entire subscapular fossa; innervated by
subscapular nerve
2. teres major – lies directly caudal to subscapularis; innervated by axillary nerve
3. coracobrachialis – a small spindle-shaped muscle from coracoid process of the
scapula to the crest of the lesser tubercle of the humerus; innervated by
musculocutaneous nerve

C. Caudal Muscles of the Arm

1. tensor fasciae antebrachii – a thin strap that extends from latissimus dorsi to
the olecranon
2. triceps brachii – has 4 heads: long head, lateral head, medial head and
accessory head. Only the long head arises from the scapula and the other three
from proximal end of the humerus. The long head extends from caudal border
of scapula to olecranon. The lateral head lies distal to the long head, caudal to
the acromial part of the deltoideus and lateral to the accessory head which it
covers. The accessory head lies between the lateral and medial heads. The
medial head lies caudally on the humerus medial to the biceps brachii.
3. anconeus – a small muscle located almost completely in the olecranon fossa

D. Cranial Muscles of the Arm

1. biceps brachii – a fusiform muscle that lies on the medial and cranial surfaces
of the humerus. It arises on the supraglenoid tuberosity and inserts on
proximal ends of the radius and ulna; innervated by musculocutaneous nerve
2. brachialis – lies in the brachialis groove of the humerus; innervated by
musculocutaneous nerve

E. Cranial and Lateral Muscles of the Forearm (antebrachium). Extensors

located at the lateral side:
1. extensor carpi radialis – largest of the craniolateral antebrachial muscles; lies
on the cranial surface of the radius; innervated by the radial nerve

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2. common digital extensor – lies caudal to the extensor carpi radialis on the
lateral side; has 4 individual tendons that leave the muscle; innervated by
radial nerve
3. lateral digital extensor – lies between common digital extensor and ulnaris
lateralis; about half the size of common digital extensor; innervated by radial
nerve
4. ulnaris lateralis – behind lateral digital extensor; the only flexor that arises
from extensor group of muscles; innervated by radial nerve
5. supinator – short, broad and flat, obliquely placed across the lateral side of the
flexor surface of the elbow from the lateral epicondyle of the humerus to the
cranial surface of the proximal fourth of the radius; innervated by the radial
nerve
6. pronator teres – extends obliquely across the medial surface of the elbow from
the medial epicondyle of the humerus to the proximal middle 3rd of the radius;
innervated by the median nerve
7. abductor pollicis longus – lies primarily in the groove between radius and ulna
and is triangular

F. Caudal and Medial Muscles of the Forearm

1. flexor carpi radialis – lies between the pronator teres cranially and superficial
digital flexor caudally; innervated by the median nerve
2. superficial digital flexor – lies on the caudomedial side of the forearm from
the medial epicondyle of the humerus to the palmar surface of the middle
phalanges of digits I, II, III, IV and V; covers the deep digital flexor;
innervated by the median nerve
Palmar annular ligament holds the deep digital flexor and superficial
digital flexor tendons firmly at the metacarpophalangeal joints
3. flexor carpi ulnaris – has 2 heads: ulnar and humeral heads; ulnar dead arises
from caudal body of the proximal end of the ulna; humeral head arises from
medial epicondyle of humerus; lies cranial to the ulnar head and inserts on the
accessory carpal bone
4. deep digital flexor – humeral head has several belliws; xtends from medial
epicondyle of the humerus; ulnar head extends from caudal border of the ulna
and radial head which is the smallest extends from medial border of the
radius; innervated by the median and ulnar nerves
5. pronator quadratus – fills in the space between the radius and ulna; the fibers
of which run transversely; innervated by median nerve

G. Muscles of the Forepaw – small special muscles between the flexor tendons
which lie on the palmar surface of the paw
1. interflexorious – innervated by the median nerve
2. flexor digitorum brevis – ulnar nerve
3. lumbricales – ulnar nerve
4. interossei – ulnar nerve

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Associated with the first digit are three very small muscles which are situated side by side
on the palmar surface of metacarpal I. From medial to lateral they are:
1. abductor digiti I brevis
2. flexor digiti I brevis
3. adductor digiti I
All 3 arise from palmar carpal ligament and insert on the sesamoid bone or the proximal
phalanx

3 special muscles of digit V

1. abductor digiti V
2. flexor digiti V
3. adductor digiti V

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Lecture 14

MUSCLES OF THE HINDLIMB

A. Muscles of the Loin, Hip and Thigh

1. Iliopsoas – consist of a) Psoas major and b) iliacus; these 2 muscles unite to insert on
the trochanter minor of the femur
Psoas major – situated lateral to psoas minor, ventral to quadratus lumborum, as it
continues caudally it becomes thicker and wider and is reinforced by muscle fibers of
iliacus from ventral surface of the ilium.
Action: Iliopsoas flexes hip joint and vertebral column and laterally rotates the limb

2. Psoas minor – located ventral to the quadratus lumborum; more cranial than the psoas
major; arises from lateral thoracic vertebrae/lumbar vertebrae; tendon will insert on the
arcuate line.
Action: flexor of the vertebral column
**These sublumbar muscles are supplied by the ventral branches of the lumbar nerves

3. Tensor fasciae latae – triangular muscle from coxal tuber, spreads out laterally to
quadriceps femoris at the level of the greater trochanter, it joins the fascia lata
Action: tenses the fascia lata thus flexes the hip joint; it is an extensor of the stifle by
means of fascia attaching to the patella
Fascia lata – continues distally lateral to the quadriceps to the patella

4. Gluteus superficialis – extends from sacrum and 1st caudal vertebra and the proximal
part of the sacrotuberous ligament; inserts on the trochanter tertius; most caudal of the
gluteal group; innervated by caudal gluteal nerve

5. Gluteus medius – largest of the gluteal muscles; extends from entire gluteal surface of
the ilium; inserts on the trochanter major of the femur; innervated by cranial gluteal nerve

6. Gluteus profundus – completely covered by the gluteus medisu and the piriformis;
arises from the lateral border of the shaft of the ilum from the wing to the ischiatic spine;
inserts on the trochanter major of the femur; innervated by cranial gluteal nerve

7. Piriformis – extends from lateral border of the sacrum and the dorsal end of the
sacrotuberous ligament in the region of the major ischiatic notch; lies deep to the inserts
with the caudal portion of the gluteus medius; innervated by cranial gluteal nerve
**gluteal muscles and piriformis are extensors of the hip joint

B. Lateral Rotators of the Limb – lie caudal to the hip joint

1. Obturatorius internus – arises from the inner surface of the pelvic floor; covers the
obturator foramen

2. Gemelli – arises from the lateral border of the ischium

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3. Quadratus femoris – arises medial to the ischiatic tuber

C. Caudal Muscles of the Thigh (Hamstring Muscles) arise from the ischiatic tuber and
insert medial and lateral to the popliteal fossa
Actions: extend the hip joint
Flex stifle joint when limb is not supporting weight
Extends the hip, stifle and tarsus (thru the association with common calcaneal
tendon) when weight is supported by limb
Nerve Supply: ischiatic nerve

1. Biceps femoris – the largest, most lateral of the caudal muscles of the thigh, extends
into the buttock and legs; arises from the ischiatic tuber and distal 3rd of sacrotuberous
ligament
2. Abductor cruris caudalis – abducts the limb; lies deep to the caudal portion of the
biceps
3. Semitendinosus – forms the caudal contour (shape) of the thigh; arises from ischiatic
tuber
4. Semimebranosus – a fleshy muscle; arises from ischiatic tuber; situated caudal and
medial to semitendinosus but becomes cranial to semitendinosus as it turns medially to
insert

D. Cranial Muscles of the Thigh – innervated by the femoral nerve

1. quadriceps femoris – large, strong muscle which lies cranial, medial and lateral on the
femur; has 4 heads that insert on the tibial tuberosity, they are:
a. rectus femoris – longest head; acts by extending the stifle joint and flexes the hip; the
only muscle which arise from the os coxae
b. vastus medialis
c. vastus lateralis
d. vastus intermedius
**lateral to the quadriceps is the fascia lata

2. Sartorius – situated medially; consists of 2 long strap-like portions from the coxal tuber
to the medial surface of the stifle joint
Cranial part – inserts with rectus femoris and vastus medialis on the medial side of the
thigh, thinner, wider and longer
Caudal part – inserts on the cranial margin of the tibia

3. Gracilis – broad, flat muscle which lies on the caudal portion of the medial surface of
the thigh; acts by adducting the thigh and extends the hip and tarsus

4. Pectineus – most cranial of the deeper group of medial muscles of the thigh; relatively
small and fusiform; arises from prepubic tendon; adducts the thigh and rotates the limb
laterally

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5. Adductor – forms the caudal part of the deep medial muscles of the thigh
a. adductor magnus et brevis – between pectineus and semimebranosus
b. adductor longus

6. Obturatorius externus – fan-shaped muscle which lie ventral tot h sichium deep to the
adductor and covers the obturator foramen ventrally; arises from ventral surface of the
pelvis caudal to obturator foramen

Femoral triangle – triangular space where femoral vessels pass to and from the leg; it is
bounded at its base by the femoral ring, cranially by the sartorius, caudally by the
pectineus and laterally by iliopsoas
Femoral artery and vein plus lymphatics are superficially covered by the medial
femoral fascia and skin
Due to the superficial position of the femoral artery in the femoral triangle, it is a
favorable site for taking the pulse in the dog

Muscular lacuna – an opening for the passage of the iliopsoas muscle and the femoral
nerve; located ventral to the hip joint but medial to the femur

Vascular lacuna – situated craniomedial to muscular lacuna; contains the femoral vessels
(artery and vein) and the saphenous nerve

Iliopectineal arch – separates muscular lacuna from vascular lacuna

E. CRANIAL MUSCLES OF THE LEG (Crus)

- these muscles lie lateral to he cranial margin of the tibia

1. tibialis cranialis – most medial and superficial of the group; arises along the lateral
surface of the cranial margin of the tibia; at the distal third of the tibia, this muscle
becomes a thin, flat tendon which crosses the dorsal surface of the tarsus; innervated by
the peroneus nerve

2. extensor digitorum longus – spindle-shaped muscle; lies in the group of the digital
extensors on the tibia between the tibialis cranialis and peroneus longus muscles; it is
innervated by the peroneus nerve

3. extensor hallucis longus – a delicate muscle; elliptical in cross-section and covered by

the extensor digitorum longus and peroneus longus muscles; also innervated by peroneus
nerve

4. fibularis (or peroneus) longus – arises from the lateral condyle of the tibia; short
bellied and with long narrow tendon halfway down the leg; it acts as a medial rotator of
the hindpaw

5. extensor digitorum lateralis – a small muscle; tendon crosses from middle of fibula to
the lateral digit; it flexes the tarsus, extends and abducts the 5th digit

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6. Fibularis (or peroneus) brevis – a thin muscle together with muscle #5 are located
beneath the fibularis longus on the lateral side of the leg

F. CAUDAL MUSCLES OF THE LEG

1. Gastrocnemius – arises as 2 heads on the medial and lateral supracondylar tuberosities

of the femur; it flexes the stifle joint and extends the tarsus

2. Flexor digitorum superficialis – arises just deep to the lateral head of the
gastrocnemius from the popliteal surface of the femur

3. Popliteus – lies caudal to the femorotibial joint capsule and attaches to the medial half
of the proximal third of the tibia

**common calcaneal tendon or Achille’s tendon – consist of the tendon of

gastrocnemius, tendon of flexor digitorum superficialis; these tendons cross medially to
cap the calcanean tuber; acts by extending the hip, stifle and tarsal joints

G. MUSCLES OF THE HINDPAW

Dorsal Surface
1. External digitorum brevis muscle – flat muscle, lies on distal row of tarsal bones and
on metatarsal bones; innervated by peroneus nerve

Plantar surface
1. Interossei
2. Adductor digiti II
3. Adductor digiti V
4. Lumbricales
5. Interflexorii

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Lecture 15

THE DIGESTIVE SYSTEM

The digestive or alimentary system functions for reception and digestion of food;
absorption of nutrients; and for expulsion/elimination of unabsorbed portions or wastes. It
is divided into the following segments: mouth, pharynx, alimentary canal (extends from
the pharynx to the anus and it includes the esophagus, stomach, small and large
intestines) and accessory organs (e.g. teeth, tongue, salivary glands, liver and pancreas).

The Mouth and its Accessory Structures

1. Mouth (os)
- first part of digestive system
- bounded laterally and rostrally by the cheeks and teeth; dorsally by the hard palate;
ventrally by the mandible and tongue and caudally by the soft palate
*In a restricted sense, it will include only the opening between the lips. In a broader
sense, it designates the oral cavity (cavum oris) in which the tongue and teeth are located

Oral cavity – it divided into a vestibule and the oral cavity proper
Vestibule – the space external to the teeth and gums and internal to the lips and cheeks; it
communicates with the oral cavity proper
Oral cavity proper – it is bounded dorsally by the hard palate and a small part of the soft
palate; laterally and rostrally by the dental arches and teeth; ventrally (serves as the floor)
by the tongue and the mucosa under it

2. Lips (labia oris)

- form the rostral and most lateral boundaries of the vestibule
- upper and lower lips meet at the angle of the mouth forming the commissures of the lip
- they close the entrance to the mouth
- are tin and mobile with numerous tactile hairs
Upper lip – has a bare area which forms part of the muzzle and is marked by a central
groove, the philtrum
Lower lip – presents a rounded prominence, the chin or mentum

3. Cheeks (buccae)
- form the caudal portion of the lateral walls of the vestibule
- small in dogs because of the large mouth opening
- loose and capacious
- form the lateral boundary of the mouth

4. Palate (palatum)
- partly bony, partly membranous partition separating the respiratory and digestive
passages
Hard palate (palatum durum)
- located rostrally; formed by processes of the palatine, maxillary, incisive bones

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- 6 – 10 ridges and depressions cross it transversely on either side of the median
raphe

Soft palate (palatum molle)

- lies caudal to the hard palate
- long in the dog
- in brachycephalic breeds, the soft palate may be so long as to interfere with the
passage of air into the larynx

5. Teeth (dentes)
- serve as weapons of offense and defense; for procurement of food; for cutting and
crushing of food

Parts of the tooth

Crown – exposed part; portion above the gums
Neck – area between the crown and root; it is the constricted part of the tooth
Root – contained within the alveolus (socket); the portion below the gums
Apex of the root is the pointed end of root

2 sets of teeth
1. Deciduous teeth (temporary/milk teeth)
- present during puppyhood
- fully erupted and function at 2 months
- shed and replaced by permanent teeth as early as 2 months depending on the type of
teeth
Formula: 2(I3/3 C1/1 PM3/3) = 28
2. Permanent teeth
- persist throughout adult life
- larger than temporary teeth
Formula: 2(I3/3 C1/1 PM 4/4 M2/3) = 42

Tooth Surfaces
1. vestibular surface or labial or buccal surface – faces the lip of cheek
2. lingual surface – faces the tongue
3. contact surface – adjacent to the next tooth
4. occlussal surface – masticatory surface

Tooth Groupings
1. Incisor teeth – attached to sockets in incisive bone
- are designated as central incisor or incisor I
- intermediate incisor or incisor II
- corner incisor or incisor III
2. Canine teeth – longest and pointed
- adjacent to corner incisors
3. Premolar teeth – upper 4th premolar teeth are the largest

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- also called cutting teeth or carnassials teeth or sectorial or shearing teeth
4. Molar teeth – no deciduous predecessors
- 2 on each side of the upper jaw and 3 on each side of the lower jaw
*3 and 4 are also called cheek teeth

Structure of Teeth
1. enamel – pearly white outer layer of the crown; hardest substance in the body
2. cementum – thin covering found only on the roots
- grossly, the cementum cannot be differentiated from dentin which it
covers
3. dentin – also called “ivory”
- yellowish white in color
- forms the bulk of the tooth; encloses the pulp cavity
4. pulp – the only soft tissue contained in a tooth; composed of sensory nerves, arteries,
veins, lymphatic capillaries and connective tissue which holds the said structures together

Different types of dentition

1. homodont dentition – all teeth are similar
2. heterodont dentition – the teeth have undergone differentiation into molars, premolars,
incisors, etc
3. bunodont dentition – when several primitive cones come together to form one tooth
e.g. cheek teeth of pig
4. lophodont dentition – when cones become ridges as in the cheek teeth of horse
5. selenodont dentition – when ridges become sharp e.g. cheek teeth of the ox
6. brachydont dentition – when enamel of tooth is restricted to the crown e.g. teeth of dog
7. hypsodont dentition – much of the crown is embedded in the gum as in the cheek teeth
of horse

6. Gums
- composed of dense fibrous tissue
- extends around the neck of the teeth and down into the alveoli to be continous with
alveolar periosteum
- breeds with pigmented oral mucosa have pigmented gums too because the gums are
continous with the mucosa of the oral vestibule and with the oral cavity proper or of the
hard palate

7. Tongue
- appears embryonically as a mesodermal swelling on the floor of stomodaeum and
rostral foregut.
Parts:
a. root – caudal part; attached to hyoid bone, soft palate and pharynx
b. body – middle part; has dorsal, lateral, ventral surfaces
c. apex – free-end (spatula-shaped)
*lingual frenulum – connects the body of the tongue to the floor of the mouth

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Functions:
1. intake of solid and liquid food (licking and sucking)
2. tactile organ (touch organ – enables dog to feel the texture of its food)
3. bearer of the organs of taste
4. for grasping, sorting and tasting of food
5. aids in swallowing.deglutition
6. used for self-grooming

The tongue is consists of:

1. mucous membranes
2. glands
3. muscles
4. nerves and vessels

1. mucous membranes – present several lingual papillae

a. filiform
- concentrated on the dorsum and rostal 2/3 of the tongue
- most numerous and smallest in size among the papillae
- fine, threadlike projections with tips pointing caudally
- subdivided into primary, secondary and tertiary serrations
- cornified in cats (rough tongue), soft in dogs
b. fungiform
- occur primarily at the lateral border of the tongue but also scattered at the dorsum of the
tongue; absent on caudal part of the dorsum and on the root
- mushroom-shaped papilla with rounded free end supported by a neck
- second most numerous lingual papillae
c. vallate
- located on the caudal 3rd of the dorsum of the tongue
- there are 3-6 vallate papillae in the dog (commonly 4)
- rounded, broader at their exposed part than at their attached surfaces
- with sunk-in depression
d. foliate
- located on the dorsolateral aspect of the caudal 3rd of the tongue rostral to the
palatoglossal arch of soft palate
- form rounded eminence, oval in shape and crossed by about 6 fine fissures
e. conical
- found in the dorsum of the caudal 1/3 of the tongue
- has wide circular base and narrows to thin, hard point at its apex
f. marginal
- present in newborn dogs which functions in suckling
- disappears as pups change from liquid to solid diets
- help in preventing milk from spilling over the tongue and aid in sealing the lips around
the nipple for suction
- located along the margin of the rostral half of the tongue
Taste buds – pear shaped group of epithelial cells located in the gustatory papillae

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o communicates with oral cavity thru the taste pore at the apex of the taste
bud
o has 4 types of cells:
1. dark or type I
2. light or type II
3. type III cell
4. basal cell

Lyssa – a rod-like body composed of fibrous tissue, muscular tissue and fat and lies on
the median plane of the ventral tip of the tongue; may act as a stretch receptor

2. Glands of the Tongue

a. salivary glands (glandulae linguales) – with both serous and mucous glands
b. gustatory or von Ebner’s glands (glandulae gustatoriae) – these glands are associated
with the base of vallate or foliate papillae and are purely serous; their ducts open into the
gustatory furrow
c. serous glands – found in between intrinsic muscle bundles in the caudal one third of
the tongue
d. mucoserous glands – distributed in the lingual submucosa at the caudal one-third of the
tongue as well as the submucosa on its latera margins

3. Extrinsic Muscles of the Tongue

a. styloglossus
b. genioglossus
c. hyoglossus
d. lingua propria

4. Nerves and Vessels

- nerve supply come from the lingual nerve, chorda tympani, glossopharyngeal and
hypoglossal nerve and the blood supply comes from the lingual and sublingual arteries

8. Salivary glands
a. parotid salivary gland – largest and located at the junction of the head and neck at the
basal portion of the auricular cartilage
b. mandibular salivary gland – ovoid in shape, lying between the external and internal
maxillary veins just caudal to the angle of the jaw
c. sublingual salivary gland – smallest of the 4 major glands
d. zygomatic salivary gland – or the orbital gland; located ventral to the zygomatic arch
and found only in dogs and cats

The Pharynx
- belongs to digestive and respiratory tracts; continued by the esophagus caudally
- presents 7 openings
o 2 openings directed to the Eustachian tube
o 2 openings directed to the posterior nares
o Isthmus esophagi – directed to esophagus

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o Isthmus laryngis – directed to the larynx
o Isthmus faucium – directed to the oral cavity
- Air and food pass thru the pharyngeal cavity:
o During respiration – air passes from rostrodorsal to caudoventral and vice-
versa
o During food intake – food passes from rostroventral to caudodorsal route
Function: directs air and food properly to avoid choking during the passage of food thru
this space.

The Esophagus
- The first part of alimentary canal
- Connects the pharynz and the stomach
- Ends in the cardiac portion of the stomach
- Passes thru the esophageal hiatus of the diaphragm

Divisions:
- Cervical
- Thoracic
- Abdominal

Limen pharyngoesophageum – a ridge of mucosa which is an internal demarcation

between pharynx and esophagus

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Lecture 16

THE ABDOMEN
- It extends from the diaphragm to the pelvis
- Contains the abdominal cavity (largest cavity) which contains the abdominal
viscera to which belongs the rest of the alimentary canal

Boundaries of the abdomen:

Cranially: diaphragm
Dorsally: lumbar vertebra, lumbar muscles and crura of the diaphragm
Bilaterally: diaphragm, oblique and transverse abdominal muscles and a small part of
shaft of ilium
Ventrally: right and left rectus abdominis muscles
Caudally: the abdominal cavity communicates with the pelvic cavity at the pelvic inlet

3 single openings in the diaphragm

1. esophageal hiatus – serves for the passage of esophagus, vagal nerve trunks and vessels
2. caval foramen – serves for the passage of caudal vena cava
3. aortic hiatus – opening for the aorta, thoracic duct, azygous vein and hemiazygous vein

Abdominal openings:
1. umbilical aperture – large in the fetus which serves for the passage of umbilical blood
vessels, small vitelline duct, stalk of the allantois; it closes rapidly after birth that results
to the formation of a faint scar called umbilicus located at the midventral line of the
abdomen

2. inguinal canal – paired; located on each sides at the caudoventral part of the abdominal
wall; gives passage to the following structurs:
In male animals In femal animals
a. vaginal process a. vaginal process
b. spermatic cord b. round ligament of uterus
c. ext. pudendal vessels c. ext. pudendal vessels
d. genitofemoral nerve d. genitofemoral nerve

3. vascular lacunae – paired caudal part of abdominal openings and serve for the passage
of femoral artery and vein, lymphatics and saphenous nerve

Peritoneal cavity
- A closed cavity and almost non-existent; no organs or tissues are contained in this
cavity except for a small amount of fluid to moisten the apposed peritoneal
surfaces and ovum at the time of rupture from the ovary

Peritoneum
- A serous membrane which lines the abdominal cavity; it forms the potential
peritoneal cavity

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- Serves to reduce friction of adjacent organs thus, it secretes a small amount of
viscous fluid for this purpose

Classification:
1. parietal peritoneum – cover the inner surface of the walls of the abdominal, pelvic and
scrotal cavities
2. visceral peritoneum – covers the organs of the abdominal, pelvic and scrotal cavities
3. connecting peritoneum – double sheets of peritoneum connecting the organs to the
parietal peritoneum; they are referred to as:
a. mesentery/ies – any wide serous fold which attaches organs to a wall and serves as a
route by which nerves and vessels reach the organs
b. omentum – particularly the greater omentum is a fat-streaked, lacy, double refelction
of peritoneum which covers most of the abdominal contents ventrally and on the sides
c. ligaments – passes from a wall to an organ, or from an organ to another organ; usually
narrow with a few vessels

Common Dorsal Mesentery

- The peritoneal fold which leaves the dorsal abdominal wall and reflects around
most of the freely movable organs of the abdominal cavity
- Has specific name depending on the organ to which it is attached
E.g. mesentery of the stomach – mesogastrium
mesentery of the duodenum – mesoduodenum
mesentery of the colon – mesocolon

Pelvic Peritoneal Pouches

1. pubovesical pouch – formed by the peritoneum dorsally on the neck of the bladder of
female or on the prostate gland of male animals
2. rectovesical pouch – cranial reflection of the peritoneum on the ventral surface of the
rectum; it is extended caudally to form the:
a. vesicogenital pouch – ventral extension
b. rectogenital pouch – dorsal extension

These pouches are divided in ventral and dorsal parts by the presence of the vagina and
uterus and the right and left broad ligaments which attach these organs to the pelvic wall
laterally.

Peritoneal folds that leave the greater and lesser curvature of the stomach are known as
greater and lesser omentum respectively.

A. Greater Omentum or Epiploon

- exists as a lacy apron that extends from the stomach as far as the urinary bladder
- it covers the intestinal coils ventrally and on the sides
- it forms one of the mahor fat storehouses in obese animals
- has 2 layers: the superficial layer or ventral layer and the deep layer or dorsal layer
between these 2 layers is a potential cavity called the lesser peritoneal cavity or the

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omental bursa. The omental bursa is a closed sac except for a large constant opening
called the epiploic foramen.

Epiploic foramen – a narrow passage which lies to the right of the median plane bounded
by the caudal vena cava dorsally and the portal vein ventrally.

Divisions of the greater omentum

a. bursal portion
- attaches cranioventrally to most of the greater curvature of the stomach
- runs from the stomach extending caudally to the urinary bladder then goes back again to
the dorsal portion of the stomach thereby forming 2 layers of greater omentum which
covers the intestinal coils
b. splenic portion or gastrosplenic ligament
- an extension of greater omentum from the diaphragm and stomach to the spleen
c. veil portion
- smallest of the 3 divisions of the greater omentum
- the only portion that does not form a part of the omental bursa

B. Lesser Omentum
- extends from the lesser curvature of the stomach to the duodenum and liver
- the segment of the lesser omentum that extends from the liver to the duodenum is the
hepatoduodenal ligament while the portion from the liver to the stomach is the
hepatogastric ligament

Functions of the Omentum

1. protects the organs it covers
2. for holding and isolating of foreign materials (omental lymphatics)
3. the greater omentum is used by surgeons to vascularize tissues which have impaired
blood supply

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Lecture Notes #17

THE STOMACH
- a musculoglandular organ situated between the esophagus and the intestine
- it is C-shaped and is highly elastic and can adjust to its size to the volume of its
contents
- it lies in a transverse position more to the left of the median plane
- when empty, it is located cranial to the thoracic outlet; when enlarged it touches
the abdominal wall and pushes other organs caudally
- considered the largest dilatation of the alimentary canal that functions for:
o storage and partial mixing of food
o production of enzymes, mucus and hydrochloric acid by its numerous
glands

Regions of the Stomach

1. cardia or stomach inlet – blends with the esophagus; thickened layer (cardiac
sphincter)
2. fundus – dilated portion on the left and dorsal to the cardia
3. body – the enlarged middle portion extending from the fundus to the pylorus
4. pylorus or stomach outlet – distal portion of the stomach that unites the body to the
duodenum; guarded by pyloric sphincter

During gastric filling, the pylorus is the last portion to dilate. It functions mainly as an
ejection mechanism by which the chime (or partly digested stomach contents) is
propelled thru the pyloric canal into the duodenum

*carnivores – monogastric type of stomach

* In dogs, food remains in its stomach from 10 – 16 hours and has a capacity of 0.5 – 8
liters

Curvature of the stomach

1. greater curvature
2. lesser curvature

*Plica gastricae – longitudinal folds which consist of the mucosa and the submucosa
seen in a contracted empty or a moderately distended organ

Blood supply to the stomach

The main arteries to the stomach are the left and right gastric arteries that run
along the lesser curvature and the left and right gastroepiploic arteries that run along the
greater curvature of the stomach.
Blood from the stomach enters the liver thru the portal vein while lymphatic
vessels from the stomach drain into the hepatic lymph nodes.

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Nerve supply to the stomach
The vagus nerve gives off parasympathetic fibers while sympathetic fibers from
from the celiac plexus.

THE INTESTINES
Divided into:
1. small intestine (s.i.) consist of: duodenum, jejunum, ileum
2. large intestine (l.i.) consist of: cecum, colon, rectum and anal canal

Small Intestine
- extends from the stomach to the ileocolic orifice leading into the large intestine
- longest portion of the alimentary canal (ave. 3.5x the length of the body)
- has 3 main parts:
o duodenum – short proximal loop
o jejunum – long distal portion; freely movable
o ileum – very short terminal part

Function: serves for chemical digestion and absorption

transport of intestinal contents and indigestible material

Duodenum
- the first and most fixed part of the s.i.
- both pancreatic and bile ducts open into the duodenum
- the acid chime which enters it from the stomach is mixed with alkaline secretions
from liver, pancreas and glands of small intestine
- because of the high nutritive content of the material ingested, most free-living
parasites are found in the duodenum

4 portions of the duodenum

1. Cranial portion – arises from pylorus with the right wall longer than the left thus
creating the cranial duodenal flexure
2. Descending portion – caudal extension of the cranial portion to the pelvic inlet;
cranially, its lateral surface is in contact with parietal peritoneum of the flank and the
right lateral and right medial lobes of the liver; dorsally, it lies in contact with the right
lobe or limb of the pancreas. Medially, it is related to cecum caudally and the ascending
colon cranially.
3. Transverse portion – also known as the caudal flexure of the duodenum; connects the
descending and ascending portions of the duodenum
4. Ascending portion – the last part of the duodenum; runs forward and to the left of the
caudal flexure; approaches the descending colon on the left and makes a sweeping curve
ventrally to form the duodenojejunal flexure where the jejunum continues duodenum
ventrally, caudally and to the left and enters to the formation of numerous coils

Jejunum and Ileum

- make up the bulk of the s.i.; the most mobile and free part of the entire alimentary
canal

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- jejunum begins at the duodenojejunal flexure and is the middle part of the small
intestine while the ileum is the terminal part
- the 2 segments are suspended by long mesentery known as the mesenteric portion
of the small intestine or great mesentery of the jejunum or mesojejunoileum
- the great mesentery is in the form of a large fan hanging from the cranial part of
the sublumbar region; in its free distal border is located the convoluted jejunum
and ileum
- the thickest portion of the great mesentery where the cranial mesenteric artery,
intestinal lymphatics and the mesenteric plexus of nerves are located is called the
root of the mesentery; the free end of the mesentery is its intestinal border

Blood supply to the small intestine

Jejunum – supplied by jejunal arteries which are branches of cranial mesenteric artery
Duodenum – duodenal branches of cranial and caudal pancreaticoduodenal arteries
Ileum – its mesenteric side is supplied by a branch of accessory cecal artery
- its antimesenteric side is supplied by ileal branch of ileocecocolic artery

Lymphatic Supply:
Lymph vessels from the jejunum drains into the right and left mesenteric lymph nodes;
from the duodenum, lymph drains into the hepatic lymph node and the duodenal lymph
node

LARGE INTESTINE
- the dog’s (as well as the cat’s) large intestine resembles that of man than any
other domestic animals
- a simple tube that is only slightly larger than the small intestine; it begins at the
ileal sphincter and ends at the anus
- composed of the cecum, colon, rectum and the anal canal

Function: for dehydration of its fecal contents

For excretion of waste materials or feces

Cecum
- said to be the first part of the large intestine; however, this is not true with dogs
because the ileum (terminal part of the small intestine) communicated only with
the colon and not with cecum
- it exists as a diverticulum of the proximal portion of colon
- the openings of the ileum and cecum into the colon are closely associated. The
cecocolic orifice serves as the only communication of the cecum with the
ascending colon; an iner muscular coat called the cecocolic sphincter guards the
cecocolic orifice
- it may be sigmoid in shape or it may have an irregular corkscrew shape with a
large U-shaped twist
- it is located to the right of the median plane; often within the duodenal loop; it lies
dorsal and partly surrounded by the coils of the jejunum and it is ventral to the
right transverse processes of the 2nd to 4th lumbar vertebrae

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Colon
- divided into: ascending, transverse and descending portions
- it is situated in the dorsal part of the abdominal cavity and it shaped like a
shepherd’s crook or a question mark; the cranial part of the crook is the transverse
colon, the short right portion is the ascending or right colon, these parts are united
by the right colic flexure; the transverse colon is continued by the descending
colon at the left colic flexure
- the descending colon is the largest segment of the colon which extends from left
colic flexure up to the pelvic inlet where it is continued by the rectum without
demarcation
- mesentery of the colon is called mesocolon and it is divided into the same
portions as the colon (i.e. ascending mesocolon, transverse mesocolon and
descending mesocolon which is continued by the mesorectum).

Rectum
- begins at the pelvic inlet and ends ventral to the 2nd or 3rd caudal vertebra
- dorsally, it is attached to the ventral surface of the sacrum by the thin mesorectum
- boundaries of the rectum:
o laterally by the levator ani muscle
o dorsally by the right and left ventral sacrocaudalis muscle
o ventrally by the vagina in the female and by the urethra in the male
o
- an important feature of the rectal mucosa is the presence of around 100 solitary
lymph nodules which are about 3 mm in diameter and 1 mm high; the free surface
of each nodule forms a crater or rectal pit

Anal canal
- the terminal portion of the alimentary canal
- it extends from the termination of the rectum to the anus
- it lies ventral to the 4th caudal vertebra and is surrounded by both the smooth and
the striated anal sphincter muscle which aids in propelling fecal materials

Anus
- the terminal opening of the alimentary canal
- it is situated below the root of the tail; it is covered by a thin, hairless integument

*Anal Sacs – are spherical sacs found on each side of the anal canal in between the inner
smooth and the outer striated sphincter muscle of the anus. Of clinical importance since
they may become enlarged due to accumulated secretion. Results to constipation and thus
may require surgical removal called anal sac ablation.
Function: serve as reservoir for the secretion of the glands on the walls of the sac

Glands of the anus:

1. circumanal glands – glands located around the anus
2. anal glands – are tubuloalveolar glands in the anus with a fatty secretion

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3. glands of the anal sac – composed of large, coiled, apocrine, sudoriparous tubules

Vessels and nerves of Anal Canal

It receives blood from right and left caudal rectal arteries and from cranial rectal artery
Nerve supply comes from pudendal nerve, pelvic plexuses, pelvic nerves from 1st, 2nd and
3rd sacral nerves and hypogastric nerve

Special Muscles of the Rectum and Anal Canal

Internal anal sphincter – caudal, thickened part of the anal canal, composed of smooth
muscles
External anal sphincter – it is made up of striated voluntary muscles that guards the
lumen of the anal canal
Pars analis of the retractor penis muscle – a band of smooth muscle fibers arising
from each side of the ventral surface of the sacrum or 1st caudal vertebral running
caudoventrally; crosses the rectum obliquely and gives off some fibers to it and
spreads out between the anal sac and the internal anal sphincter
Rectococcygeal muscle – a paired smooth muscle at tits origin composed of
longitudinal fibers from each side of the rectum. Important for stabilizing the anal
canal and rectum; prevents its from being pulled cranially by a peristaltic wave
and it contracts during defecation to move the anal canal and rectum caudally

Perineum
- area surrounding the anus, bounded dorsally by the tail, ventrally by the scrotum
or vulva

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Lecture Notes #18

LIVER (hepar)
- the largest gland in the body
- it has both an exocrine (bile production) and endocrine (production of substances
needed for metabolic processes) functions

Lobes of the liver

1. left hepatic lobe – divided into:
a. left lateral lobe
b. left medial lobe
2. right hepatic lobe – divided into:
a. right lateral lobe
b. right medial lobe
3. quadrate lobe
4. caudate lobe – divided into:
a. papillary process
b. caudate process

Left hepatic lobe lies entirely to the left of the median plane. If forms nearly half
of the liver mass. The right hepatic lobe lies completely to the right of the median plane
and is smaller than the left hepatic lobe. The quadrate lobe lies interposed between the
right medial and left medial lobes. The caudate lobe presents two processes with the
papillary process being tongue-shaped and lies in the lesser curvature of the stomach. The
caudate process forms the most caudal portion of the liver.

Surfaces of the Liver

1. diaphragmatic surface – that part of the liver which is in contact with the
diaphragm
2. visceral surface – that part in contact with the stomach, duodenum, pancreas and
right kidney

Liver impressions
1. gastric impression
2. duodenal impression
3. renal impression

The gastric impression is formed by the portion of the stomach that comes in contact
with the whole left half of the visceral surface of the gland. The duodenal impression on
the other hand parallels and lies dorsal to the right ventral border of the liver. Renal
impression is formed by the cranial pole of the right kidney and this is located at the most
caudodorsal portion of the liver.

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Other Features of the Liver

The liver presents the porta of the liver which is the hilus (root) of the organ
where the hepatic artery and vein, hepatic nerves and the bile duct communicate.

The falciform ligament of the liver which is a remnant of the ventral mesentery
connects the liver and the diaphragm and the ventral body wall caudal to the umbilicus.
This structure should be removed during surgical closure of the abdomen since it may
interfere with the healing process. Example, herniation of the falciform ligament may
happen thus creating an open hole in the abdomen to which other abdominal organs
especially the intestines may herniate too.

You may also notice that gall bladder as a pear-shaped vesicle medial to the
quadrate lobe and lateral to the right medial lobe. This organ stores and concentrates bile.

The extrahepatic bile passages consist of the hepatic ducts from the liver, the
cystic duct to the gall bladder and the bile duct to the duodenum. Bile duct is the main
excretory channel of bile from the hepatic ducts down to the duodenum. The cystic duct
is the beginning of the biliary duct system.

Blood Vessels and Nerves

The portal vein collects blood from the stomach, intestines, pancreas and spleen to
the liver. The liver is supplied by hepatic artery. The liver is innervated by the vagus
nerves and sympathetic fibers from the celiac plexus.

PANCREAS

The pancreas is an elongated, coarsely lobulated gland that lies caudal to the liver
and is closely associated with the ascending part of the duodenum by way of its right
lobe. The pancreas presents three parts: the right lobe or limb, the body and the left lobe.

Just like the liver, it also has both exocrine and endocrine function. The exocrine
portion secretes pancreatic juice which is the most important of the digestive secretions.
The pancreatic juice contains three principal enzymes as follows: protease, pancreatic
lipase and pancreatic amylase which reduce protein, fats and carbohydrates respectively.
These secretions are brought down to the duodenum via the pancreatic ducts. The
endocrine portion pertains to the Islets of Langerhan’s which secrete the hormone insulin.
Insulin is secreted particularly from the beta cells of the islets which is responsible for
glucose utilization. Lack of insulin in the circulating blood will increase blood level of
glucose and this may lead to diabetes mellitus.

Blood Vessels
Right lobe – pancreatic branches of cranial and caudal pancreaticoduodenal arteries
Left lobe – pancreatic branch of splenic artery
Small branches of common hepatic artery
Branches from gastroduodenal artery

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Pancreatic branches directly from the celiac artery

Lymphatics from the pancreas drain into the duodenal lymph node when present and to
the hepatic, splenic and mesenteric lymph node

Nerve Supply
This comes from the sympathetic fibers from the celiac and cranial mesenteric plexus

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Lecture Notes #19

THE RESPIRATORY APPARATUS

The respiratory system or apparatus consists of the lungs and the air passageway
which are responsible for gaseous exchange. The different structures in the air
passageways perform a number of functions which are: regulate or modify flow or air,
serve as olfactory receptors; facilitate water and heat exchange and make phonation
possible.
These various structures include the nasal cavity and conchae (turbinates) that
warm and moisten air and remove foreign materials; the pharynx that serves as
passageway for both respiratory and digestive systems; the larynx on the other hand,
guards the entrance to the trachea, functions in vocalization and regulates inspiration and
expiration of air; and the trachea which is a non-collapsible tube, lines by ciliated
epithelium, it divided into principal bronchi and is continued in the lungs as lobar
bronchi, segmental bronchi, bronchioles, alveolar ducts, alveolar sacs and alveoli.

Parts of the Respiratory Apparatus

Nose – include the external nose and its associated nasal cartilages plus the nasal cavity
or internal nose

External Nose

The external nose consists of a bony immovable case and a cartilaginous movable
portion. The bony portions of the nose are formed by the incisive bones. The maxillae
and the paired nasal bones. The rostral ends of these bones form the boundary of the
bony nasal aperture, which is the largest opening into the skull. The muzzle refers to
the facial portion of the respiratory system and the rostral portions of the upper and lower
jaws.
The movable portion of the external nose consists of nasal cartilages namely:
unpaired septal cartilage, paired dorsal parietal and ventral parietal cartilages and paired
accessory cartilages. These cartilages are attached to the bony portion of the external nose
by the dorsal nasal ligament which is a single band of collagenous tissue running from
the dorsal accessory cartilage to the dorsum of the nasal bones and the pared lateral
nasal ligament that run from the bony case to each sides of the cartilaginous portion.
The paired nostrils are located in the apex of the nose. They are comma-shaped
openings which are separated by philtrum and are bounded by medial and lateral wings
or alae. The skin around and between the nostrils is hairless and usually pigmented. It
forms the nasal plane. Its surface is kept moist by the secretions of the glands in the nasal
mucosa which are the nasal glands and lacrimal glands.

Nasal Cavity or Internal Nose

The nasal cavity is divided into right and left halves by the nasal septum. The
nasal septum is partly bony and partly cartilaginous. The nasal cavity is narrow and

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elongated depending upon the type of skull. Each nasal cavity is occupied by the nasal
conchae.
The nasal conchae are cartilaginous with slightly ossified scrolls covered with
nasal mucosa which occupy a major portion of each half of the nasal cavity. The dorsal
nasal concha is long and narrow with a smooth surface. It extends from the cribriform
plate of the ethmoid bone to the rostral border of the nasal bone. The ventral nasal
concha is shorter and broader with an irregular or lamellated surface. It extends from the
level of the 3rd or 4th cheek tooth to the level of the canine tooth. The middle nasal
concha or second endoturbinate bone lies ventral to the dorsal nasal concha.
The presence of the nasal conchae divide the nasal cavity into passages called
meatuses. The dorsal meatus lies between the dorsal nasal concha and the roof of the
nasal cavity and extends into the cribriform plate. It is narrow and shallow. The middle
nasal meatus is short and narrow, lying between the dorsal and ventral nasal conchae.
The ventral nasal meatus is larger than the first two meatuses; it is situated between the
ventral nasal concha and the floor of the cavity. The ventral meatuses lead into the
nasopharyngeal meatus that lead into the nasopharynx thru a common caudal opening or
choana. Thus, the ventral meatuses form the direct pathway for air passing to the larynx
and the tracheobronchial tree.

Nasal Mucosa
The mucous membrane lining the nasal cavity is called the nasal mucosa. The
peripheral portion of the nasal mucosa has a respiratory type of epithelium (or respiratory
portion) which is reddish in color and bears pseudostratified columnar ciliated epithelium
with goblet cells. The deeply lying portion has an olfactory epithelium (or olfactory
portion) and is grayish yellow in color. The respiratory portion is richly supplied with
blood vessels.
The vomeronasal organ or Jacobson’s organ consists of paired tubular structures
of olfactory epithelium which are enveloped by a cartilage. They are located on the
rostral base of each sides of the nasal septum. The tubes open in an incisive duct which
connects the nasal and oral cavities. The vomeronasal organ is believed to function for
olfation; sexual behavior (Flehmen reaction or lip curl or olfactory reflex) and in kin
recognition.

Nasopharynx

This is the nasal portion of the pharynx also called the nasal pharynx. It extends
from the choanae to the intrapharyngeal ostium or pharyngeal isthmus. The pharyngeal
isthmus is formed cranial to the larynx by the crossing of the digestive passageway and
the respiratory passageway.
The boundaries of the nasopharynx are: rostral part bounded by hard palate
ventrally, vomer dorsally and the palatine bones bilaterally; middle and caudal portions
are bounded dorsally by the base of the skull and the muscles attached to it; ventrally it is
bounded by the long soft palate.
On each lateral wall of the nasopharynx above the middle of the soft palate is a
slit-like opening which is the pharyngeal opening of the auditory tube. The auditory tube
or Eustachian tube or pharyngotympanic tube is a narrow channel that connects the

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middle ear with the nasopharynx. It serves to equalize pressure on either side of the
tympanic membrane.

Larynx

A cartilaginous valvular apparatus which connects the pharynx and the trachea. Its
functions include:
a. to regulate air volume in respiration
b. to prevent aspiration of foreign bodies
c. acts as organ of voice

The larynx consists of the following cartilages: epiglottis, cricoid, thyroid,

arytenoid, sesamoid and interarytenoid. Only the arytenoid cartilage is paired.

a. cricoid cartilage – is signet-ring shaped and is situated just rostral to the first tracheal
cartilaginous plate; it is the only cartilage that forms a complete ring
b. thyroid cartilage – is a broad, thin cartilaginous plate bent in the shape of a U; it is the
largest of the laryngeal cartilages
c. epiglottic cartilage – forms the basis of the epiglottis which appears as a sharp pointed
spade
d. arytenoid cartilage – has an irregular shape, it includes the corniculate and cuneiform
cartilages which are regarded as separate structures in other mammals, thus it is
described as a compound cartilage
e. sesamoid cartilage – is an oval or dumbbell shaped structure located cranial to the
cricoid lamina and between the arytenoid cartilages
f. interarytenoid cartilage – a small and flat cartilage; it lies cranial to the cricoid and
caudodorsal to the transverse arytenoid muscle and sesamoid cartilage

The cavity of the larynx connects the cavity of the laryngopharynx with that of
the trachea. It is divided into 3 segments: the vestibule which opens in the pharynx via
the aditus laryngis; the glottis which is a middle, narrow portion; and the infraglottic
cavity located caudal to the glottis.
The glottis consists of the paired arytenoid cartilages dorsally and the paired
vocal folds ventrally which form a narrow passageway into the larynx called the rima
glottidis. This is the most important part of the larynx because it is the narrowest part of
the laryngeal passageway and it contains the vocal folds which are essential for
vocalization – barking, whining and growling in dogs.

Trachea

A cartilaginous and membranous tube which extends from the larynx to the hilus
of the lungs where it divides into right and left bronchi. The point where the trachea
divided into 2 principal bronchi is the tracheal carina. It is divided into cervical and
thoracic parts.
It is composed of approximately slender C or U shaped tracheal rings that are
made up of hyaline cartilage. Dorsally, the ends of the tracheal rings are bridged by fibers

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of the tracheal muscle and connective tissue. The tracheal rings keep the trachea
permanently open.

Bronchial Tree

Begins at the bifurcation of the trachea by the formation of a right and left
principal bronchus which divides into secondary bronchi (lobar bronchi). These lobar
bronchi supply the various lobes of the lung and are named according to the lobe
supplied.
Within the lobe it divides into tertiary bronchi or segmental bronchi. The tertiary
bronchi plus the lung tissue which they ventilate comprise the bronchopulmonary
segments. Tertiary bronchi further branch into small bronchi till respiratory bronchioles
are formed. Respiratory bronchioles give rise to alveolar ducts, alveolar sacs and
pulmonary alveoli.

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Lecture Notes #20

THE THORACIC CAVITY AND ASSOCIATED STRUCTURES

To understand how lungs function passively in the art of breathing, let us first
understand the morphology of the cavity that contains it; which is the thoracic cavity and
its lining membrane, the pleura.

Thoracic Cavity
The walls of the thoracic cavity are formed by intercostal muscles, bones (ribs and
thoracic vertebrae) and ligaments. The thorax is a laterally compressed cone with the
diaphragm as base which is convex and oblique in position.

The thoracic inlet is an oval opening into the cranial part of the thoracic cavity. It
is bounded bilaterally by the first pair of ribs and their costal cartilages, dorsally by the
first thoracic vertebra and the paired longus colli muscles, and ventrally by the
manubrium.

The thoracic cavity contains the lungs, heart, thymus gland and lymph nodes. The
structures that pass the thoracic cavity include the aorta, cranial vena cava, caudal vena
cava, azygous and hemiazygous veins, thoracic duct, lymph vessels, esophagus, vagal,
phrenic and symphatetic nerves.

Mediastinum

Mediastinum is the space between the right and left pleural sacs which envelopes
the thymus, heart, aorta, trachea, esophagus, vagus nerves and other nerves and vessels.
The caudal vena cava, certain lymph vessels, and the right phrenic nerve are enclosed by
separate folds as they pass the thoracic cavity. The thymus, trachea, and thoracic duct are
located primarily in the cranial portion.

It is divided by the heart into three divisions:

a. cranial mediastinum – lies in front of the heart
b. middle mediastinum – the portion containing the heart
c. caudal mediastinum – the portion caudal to the heart

Pleura
The pleura is the serous membranes which cover the lungs, line the walls of the
thoracic cavity, cover the structures in the mediastinum or in some places form the
mediastinum. The two sacs (right and left) formed by the pleura are called the pleural
cavities.

Pleural Cavity
The pleural cavity is only a potential cavity which contains only a very small
amount of fluid which moistens its surfaces. No organ is situated inside the cavity, except
when fluid or gas collects between the pulmonary and parietal pleura. The right and left

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pleural cavities do not communicate with each other. The pleura is divided into parietal
and pulmonary pleura.

A. Parietal Pleura – forms the walls of the pleural cavities; it is further divided into:

1. Costal pleura – the portion that attaches to the inner surfaces of the lateral wall of the
thoracis cavity
2. Mediastinal Pleura – is divided into 4 parts:
a. ventral mediastinal pleura – composed of the ventral portions of the 3 other parts of
mediastinal pleura
b. cranial mediastinal pleura – covers most of the thymus glands which is large in young
dogs but persists as fatty remnants of the gland and vessels in old dogs
c. middle mediastinal pleura – leaves the sternum as a delicate membrane which is a
continuatin of the costal pleura; it enclosed the heart, a portion of the thmus gland when it
is well developed
d. caudal mediastinal pleura – lies caudal to a transverse plane passing through the apex
of the heart

3. Diaphragmatic Pleura – is the pleural covering of the diaphragm

B. Pulmonary Pleura – it is tightly attached to the surfaces of the lungs; it is the visceral
portion of the pleura

Plicae Vena Cavae – is a thin loose fold of pleura which surrounds the caudal vena cava

Histologically, the pleura are more delicate in the dog than in other domestic animals. It
contains smooth muscle fibers. In live animals, the pleura is covered by a thin film fluid
that serve to reduce friction between the pulmonary pleura and parietal pleura or between
adjacent layers of the pulmonary pleura. Elastic fibers are also present in the parietal
pleura that is why both pulmonary and parietal pleura are capable of stretching.

Lungs
The lungs are the organs where oxygen and carbon dioxide exchanged. They are paired
structures which occupy the greater part of the thoracic cavity. Their contour follows that
of the walls of the cavity and the neighboring organs.

The texture of the lung is soft and spongy; it crepitates when pressed; it is normally bright
pink in color in live animals and it floats in water. In contrast, the foetal lung is much
smaller, firmer to touch and does not crepitate; it is pale gray in color and it does not float
in water.

The lungs presents 2 surfaces – costal and mediastinal; 3 borders – dorsal, ventral and
basal borders. The right lung is larger than the left. It has 4 lobes; the cranial, middle,
accessory and caudal lobes. The left lung is divided into cranial and caudal lobes (or
diaphragmatic lobe); the cranial lobe is further subdivided into a cranial part (or apical
lobe) and a caudal part (or cardiac lobe)

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Pulmonary vessels
Pulmonary arteries – carry non-aerated blood from the right ventricle of the heart to the
lungs for gaseous exchange
Pulmonary veins – return aerated blood from the lungs to the left atrium of the heart

Pulmonary Lymphatics – the efferent lymph vessels from the lobes of each lung run to
the tracheaobronchial lymph nodes.

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Lecture Notes #21

THE HEART AND ASSOCIATED STRUCTURES

The heart is enveloped by the pericardium or heart sac which is fibrous in

consistency; it contains a small amount of fluid to moisten the heart.
In ruminants, it is oftentimes injured in traumatic reticulopericarditis or “hardware
disease” because the heart is in close proximity to the reticulum. The disease results from
ingestion of pointed metals like nails, wires, etc.

Divisions of the Pericardium

a. Fibrous Pericardium – a thin, tough sac which contains the heart, serous pericardium
and a small amount of fluid
*outer surface covered by pericardial mediastinal pleura; in young dogs, thymus is in
contact with cranial surface
*inner surface lined by the parietal layer of the serous pericardium
b. Serous Pericardium – has a visceral layer and a parietal layer
Visceral layer – outer covering of the heart, also called epicardium; attached firmly to the
heart muscle
Parietal layer – covers the inner surface of the fibrous pericardium; firmly fused to
fibrous pericardium; no separation possible

Pericardial Cavity
- located between 2 layers of the serous pericardium
- the smallest of the 3 great body cavities
- contains a clear, light yellow fluid – the liquor pericardii

The Aorta and Pulmonary Trunk are united by a tube of epicardium and areolar tissue at
their origins caudal to them; a part of pericardial cavity curves transversely across the
base of the heart. This is called the TRANSVERSE SINUS of PERICARDIUM which is
a U-shaped passage between the right and left sides of the pericardial cavity.

The Heart (cor)

- the main pump of the cardiovascular system; composed of muscles (myocardium) and
conducting system. It is the largest organ located in the mediastinum and it extends
from the 3rd rib to the caudal border of the 6th rib (varies among breeds of dogs). It has a
base and an apex. The base is the hilus of the organ which is positioned dorsally where
great vessels are attached. The apex is formed by the muscles of the left ventricle and it
ventrocaudally located.

The heart consists of 4 chambers: the right and left atrium are the blood receiving
chambers while the right and left ventricles are the pumping chambers.

The left atrium and the left ventricle are located at the caudodorsal part of the heart. They
receive blood from the lungs and pump it to the rest of the body. At the cranioventral part

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of the heart is where you will find the right atrium and right ventricle which received
blood from all parts of the body and pump it to the lungs.

Surface Features of the Heart

1. Coronary Groove
- located on the surface of the heart and separates atria from ventricles; contains large
amount of fats which surrounds the coronary vessels; encircles the heart except
cranioventrally where the dorsal part of the right ventricle intervenes.

2. Interventricular Groove
- indistinct marks on the surface of the heart; separates left from right ventricle; this
groove is hardly seen because there is no indentation or presence of fat that may indicate
its precise position

3. Paraconal Interventricular Groove (or left, ventral or cranial longitudinal sulcus or

groove)
- it begins at the base of the pulmonary trunk where it is covered by the left auricle and
ends before reaching the apex of the heart

4. Subsinuosal interventricular groove (or right, dorsal, caudal longitudinal sulcus)

- it lies caudodorsally on the atrial surface and marks the postion of the interventricular
septum

Surfaces of the Heart

a. Auricular surface (facies auriculares) – the side of the heart facing the left thoracic wall
b. Atrial surface (facies atriales) – the side of the heart facing the right thoracic wall
*facies auriculares – facies sternocostalis in man; faces toward the sternum and ribs

THE CHAMBERS OF THE HEART

THE ATRIUM
- it has two parts which are no distinctly separated on the surface of the heart, the right
and left atrium. Internally, they are separated by interatrial septum.

Right Atrium
It receives blood from the systemic veins and from most of the heart itself. It is divided
into a main part, sinus venarum cavarum and a blind part, the right auricle.

Four Main Openings

1. coronary sinus – smallest and enters the atrium from the left
2. caudal vena cava – enters heart from behind. It returns blood from abdominal
viscera, abdominal wall and pelvic limbs
3. cranial vena cava – enters heart from behing. It returns blood from the head, neck,
thoracic limb and ventral thoracic wall. Azygous vein enters the cranial vena cava
although in some dogs it enters the atrium directy. This vein drains blood back to
heart from parts of lumbar region and caudal ¾ of the thoracic wall.

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4. right atrioventricular orifice – large opening from right atrium into the right
ventricle

*Intervenous tubercle – present on the dorsal wall of the right atrium which diverts the
flow of blood from the cranial and caudal vena cava into the right ventricle through the
atrioventricular orifice. Caudal to this intervenous tubercle on the medial wall of the
atrium is a slitlike depression called fossa ovalis. In the fetus, there is an opening at the
site of the fossa which allows blood to pass from right to left atrium. It is called foramen
ovale. This foramen usually closes during the first few weeks after birth.

Right Auricle
It is an ear-shaped pouch of the right atrium which extends cranioventrally. Its internal
surface is strengthened by pectinate muscles which could also be found in the lateral wall
of the atrium proper.

Most of the pectinate muscle radiate from a thick ridge of tissue in between the entrance
of the cranial vena cava and the atrioventricular opening. This is called crista terminalis.
It is a thick portion of the heart muscles shaped like a semilunar crest at the entrance into
the auricle.

Left Atrium
Located on the left dorsocaudal part of the base of the heart dorsal to the left ventricle.
Five or six openings mark the entrance of the pulmonary veins into the atrium. Two or
three veins from the right lung and three veins from the left. Pectinate muscles are
confined to the left auricle. On the cranial part of the interatrial septal wall is a thin flap
of tissue called the valve of foramen ovale. It is a remnant of the passageway for blood
from the right atrium to the left atrium in the fetus.

THE VENTRICLES
- they form the bulk of the heart and are very muscular

Right Ventricle
It receives systemic blood from the right atrium through the right atrioventricular orifice
and pumps blood to the lungs via the pulmonary orifice and received by the pulmonary
trunk.

Right Atrioventricular Orifice

It is guarded by the right atrioventricular valve (tricuspid valve). The valve consists of 2
cusps: parietal and septal cusps. The parietal cusp is a wide but short flap of the valve that
arises from the parietal margin of the orifice. The septal cusps arise from the septal
margin of the valve. The parietal and septal cusps are continued to the septal wall of the
ventricle by means of the chordae tendinae. Chorda tendinae are filamentous cords that
connect the atrioventricular valve and the apices of the papillary muscles on the septal
wall. Papillary muscles are small conical muscular projections (3 – 4) on the wall of the
ventricle.

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Pulmonary trunk
The pulmonary trunk leaves the right ventricle at the conus arteriosus, a funnel-shaped
dilatation of the right ventricle at the elft craniodorsal aspect of the heart. The opening of
the pulmonary trunk is guarded by valves consisting of right, left and intermiedaite
semilunar cusps. These prevent the backflow of blood from the pullomnary trunk to the
right ventricle. The pulmonary trunk divides into a right and left pulmonary arteries
slightly caudal to the aortic arch. Shortly before its branching, it is connected to the
descending aorta by a fibrous connection, the ligamentum arteriosum which is a remnant
of the ductus arteriosus in the fetus. Ductus arteriosus is patent or open during the fetal
life and it serve to shunt the blood destined for the nonfunctional lungs to the aorta. This
structure remains open in puppies less than 4 days or age and closes at 7 – 8 days. Patent
ductus arteriosus is abnormal and fatal.

Left Ventricle
It forms the apex of the heart. Its walls are three to four times thicker and ore muscular
than the right ventricle. It is conical in shape and it has 2 large dorsal and ventral
papillary muscles. These are heavy, smooth rolls of myocardium coming from the wall of
the left ventricle that give rise to the chordae tendinae of the left ventricle. It receives
oxygenated blood from the lungs by way of the left atrium, and pumps it to most parst of
the body through the aorta.

Left Atrioventricular Orifice

This is a large opening between the left atrium and the left ventricles, guarded by the left
atrioventricular valve or bicuspid or mitral valve. It prevents blood from returning to the
atria during the systolic phase of the cardiac cycle. When the ventricles contract, valves
are kept from being pushed into the atria by chordae tendinae. It is similar to the right
atrioventricular valve except that it is heavier. Since the blood leaving the aorta is under
about four times more pressure than that which leaves the right ventricle through the
pulmonary trunk, the left atrioventricular valves are more heavily constructed.

CONDUCTING SYSTEM
It consists of:
1. Sinoatrial node
2. Atrioventricular bundle
3. Atrioventricular node

Sinoatrial Node or SA Node initiates the heartbeat and regulates the interval between
beats. It is compsed of Purkinje fibers located at the terminal crest of the cranial vena
cava and the sinus venarum cavarum and auricular orifice.

BLOOD VESSELS TO THE HEART

Arterial blood to the heart is supplied by the right and left coronary arteries and their
branches
Most of the blood to the heart is retunred to the right atrium via the coronary sinus which
is the dilated terminal end of the great coronary vein.

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Lecture Notes #22

SYSTEMIC ARTERIES

I. BLOOD SUPPLY TO THE HEAD, NECK, THORAX AND THORACIC LIMB

AORTA - has a descending and ascending portiosn separated by the aortic arch.
Ascending aorta – the first part of the aorta embedded within the pericardium
Descending aorta – the remaining part of the aorta from the aortic arch down into the
body

2 Parts of the Descending Aorta

1. Thoracic Part
2. Abdominal Part

The aortic arch gives off 2 great vessels, the brachiocephalic trunk and the left subclavian
artery to supply the head, neck and thoracic limbs.

A. Brachiocephalic trunk – the first large artery from the aortic arch; it terminates in the
right common carotid artery and the right subclavian artery

B. Common Carotid Artery

1. left common carotid artery
- is the first branch to leave the brachiocephalic trunk
2. right common carotid artery
- the common carotid artery (left and right) give off the following branches:
a. caudal thyroid arteries (left and right)
b. cranial thyroid arteries – arises from the common carotid opposite the caudal part of
the larynx; the largest and constant branch of the common carotid artery

Branches of Cranial Thyroid Artery

1. thyroid branch – thyroid lobe
2. pharyngeal branch – esophagus, larynx, constrictor muscles of pharynx
3. cricothyroid branch – sternohyoideus, sternothyroideus, thyrohyoideus,
cricothyroideus
4. muscular branches – supply sternocephalicus and brachiocephalicus

*The common carotid artery terminates as internal and external carotid artery

C. Caudal thyroid artery

- may arise in the brachiocephalic trunk between the origin of the common carotid artery;
it is inconstant in its origin since it may arise directly from the brachiocephalic artery, left
subclavian or the ascending cervical artery. The caudal thyroid artery supplies the
esophagus, trachea and nerves in the region of thoracic inlet

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D. External carotid artery
- the main continuation of the common carotid artery to the head
- branches of external carotid artery after its bifurcation from the internal carotid
1. occipital – most frequently the first branch; supplies longus capitis, rectus capitis
ventralis, rectus capitis lateralis, the dura matter and the medial retropharyngeal lymph
node

2. cranial laryngeal – usually the 2nd branch; divides into:

a. dorsal pharyngeal – supplies hyopharyngeus, thyropharyngeus, cricopharyngeus
b. ventral laryngeal branch – supplies intrinsic laryngeal muscles

3. ascending pharyngeal – supplies palatine muscles, glands and mucosa; pharyngeal

muscles and mucosa and the rostral end of the longus capitis

4. lingual – usually the largest collateral branch of the external carotid artery; has the
following branhces
a. perihyoid branch – supplies hyoid and pharyngeal muscles
b. deep lingual branch – supplies tongue muscles and palatine tonsils

5. Facial – arises from the external carotid artery 1 cm from lingual artery and supplies
digastricus, pterygoideus medialis, masseter, mandibular gland, orbicularis oris, levator
nasolabialis

6. caudal auricular – circles around the caudal half of the base of the ear to supply the
sternocleidomastoideus

7. parotid artery – main blood supply to the parotid gland; also sends branches to
mandibular lymph node and skin

8. superficial temporal – the smaller terminal branch of the external carotid artery;
supplies the masseter muscle, auriculares dorsales and rostrales, inferior eyelid and
superior eyelid

9. maxillary artery – one of the 2 terminal branches of the external carotid artery and is
the main continuation of the external carotid artery; divides into infraorbital and palatine
arteries

E. Internal carotid
- arises with the external carotid as the smaller of the two terminal branches of the
common carotid artery. Enters cranial cavity to supply the brain together with the basilar
artery

*Arterial circle of the brain (on the ventral surface)

- formed by the right and left internal carotids and basilar artery; from this arterial circle
arises three vessels which supply the cerebrum: rostral, middle and caudal cerebral
arteries

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F. Subclavian artery
- left subclavian artery – arises from aortic arch
- right subclavian artery – arises as a terminal branch from brachiocephalic trunk
- it is continued at the cranial border of the first rib on each side by the axillary artery

Branches of the Subclavian artery

1. vertebral artery – branch off into dorsal and ventral muscular branches:
a. dorsal branch – supplies scalenus, intertransversarius colli, serratus ventralis
and omotransversarius
b. ventral branch – supplies longus capitis, longus colli, brachiocephalicus and
sternocephalicus
c. 1st cervical spinal branches – arise from medial surface of vertebral artery
opposite the muscular branches and form the ventral spinal artery that supply the
gray and white matter of the spinal cord
d. right and left vertebral artery form the basilar artery

2. costocervical trunk – branches :

a. dorsal scapular branch – supply serratus ventralis
b. deep cervical a. – supply deep neck muscles e.g. semispinalis capitis,
multifidus cervicis, etc.
c. thoracic vertebral a. – send branches to intercostal spaces
d. 1st intercostal artery – supplies 1st 2 – 3 intercostal spaces

3. superficial cervical artery – branches into:

a. deltoid branch – supplies deltoideus, superficial pectoral muscles,
brachiocephalicus, etc
b. suprascapular – supplies the scapula, subscapularis, suprastpinatus etc
c. asceding cervical artery – supplies rhomboideus, omotransversarius, scalenus,
etc
d. supraspinous artery – supraspinatus, infraspinatus
e, prescapular branch – supplies trapezius, cutaenous muscles and superficial
fascia

4. internal thoracic artery – lies parallel to sternum under the transverse thoracic and ends
at the thoracic outlet by dividing into small musculophrenic and the large cranial
epigastric artery
Branches:
a. pericardiacophrenic a – courses with phrenic nerve and supplies it
partially; gives off branches to the mediastinum and thymus
b. bronchial branches – may also arise from pericardiacophrenic nerve;
goes to the root of the lung to supply the bronchi, bronchial lymph
node; often absent
c. mediastinal branch – supply mediastinum; send off branches to the
transversus thoracis, pericardium and diaphragm

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d. perforating branches – give off sternal branches; also supply internal
intercostals and pectoral muscles and mammary glands
e. ventral intercostal branches – supply ventral part of costal pleura,
intercostal muscles and costal cartilages
f. musculophrenic a – also gives off ventral intercostal branches
g. cranial epigastric – large medial branch; primary blood supply to
middle part of rectus abdominis muscle
h. superficial cranial epigastric a – chief blood supply to cranial
abdominal mammae

ARTERIES OF THE THORACIC LIMB

A. AXILLARY ARTERY
- a continuation of subclavian artery

Branches
1. external thoracic
- usually the first branch of axillary; supplies the superficial pectoral mm
2. lateral thoracic
- supplies latissimus dorsi, deep pectoral and cutaenous trunci
- mammary branch supplies cranial and caudal thoracic mammae
3. subscapular
- branches into:
a. thoracodorsal – supplies latissimus dorsi
b. caudal circumflex humeral – supplies 4 heads of biceps brachii deltoideus
c. circumflex scapular – supplies subscapularis, teres major, latissimus dorsi,
deltoideus, infraspinatus, coracobrachialis, teres minor
d. collateral radial – supplies brachialis, heads of triceps, coracobrachialis, teres
minor, infraspinatus
4. cranial circumflex humeral
- supplies biceps, coracobrachialis, teres major, latissimus dorsi, joint capsule

BRACHIAL ARTERY
- continuation of the axillary artery
- becomes the median artery in the antebrachium or forearm where it becomes the main
arterial blood supply to the forepaw
Collateral branches:
1. deep brachial – to the medial and long head of triceps
2. bicipital artery – also called the muscular ramus, supplies the biceps brachii
3. collateral ulnar artery – arises from the caudal surface of the brachial artery in the
distal end of the forearm. Supplies primarily the pouch for the elbow joint capsule
and the flexor muscles of the antebrachium
4. superficial brachial artery – formerly called the proximal collateral radial; it
supplies the skin of the medial surface of the forearm and continues as the cranial
superficial antebrachial artery

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5. transverse cubital artery – also called the distal collateral radial artery. It supplies
the extensor carpi radialis, supinator, common digital extensor and the brachialis
6. recurrent ulnary artery – supplies the humeral head of the deep digital flexor, may
also arise from the collateral ulnar artery
7. common interosseous artery – the last branch of the brachial artery arising slightly
distal to the elbow joint. This supplies the flexor carpi ulnaris, deep digital flexor
and gives off the following branches:
a. ulnar artery – or accessory interosseous artery; together with the common
interosseous artery may arise directly from the brachial artery; it courses
distally between the humeral head of the deep digital flexor and flexor
carpi ulnaris with the ulnar nerve
- the ulnar artery supplies the ulnar and humeral heads of the deep digital
flexor and the heads of the flexor carpi ulnaris
b. caudal interosseous artery
c. cranial interosseous artery

C. MEDIAN ARTERY
- the largest artery of the forearm and the principal blood supply to the forearm and the
paw; it is the distal continuation of the brachial artery
- it passes through the carpal canal between the superficial and deep digital flexor
tendons. At the proximal end of the metacarpus, it forms the superficial palmar arch with
a branch of the caudal interosseous artery. The arch give off the palmar common digital
arteries that run to the palmar surface of the forepaw.
Branches:
1. radial artery – arises from the median artery; divides into dorsal and palmar carpal
branches
a. dorsal carpal branch – divides into superficial and deep branches; the
superficial branch contributes to the formation of the dorsal carpal rete
which is a network of delicate arteries in the dorsal aspect of the carpus.
From this network arise the dorsal metacarpal arteries II, III, IV which
descend in respective intermetacarpal spaces

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Lecture Notes #23

SYSTEMIC ARTERIES

II. BLOOD SUPPLY TO SME AREAS OF THE THORAX, THE ABDOMEN AND
THE PELVIC LIMB

THORACIC AORTA

The thoracic aorta continues from the aortic arch, opposite the 4th thoracic vertebra and
extends to the caudal border of the second lumbar vertebra then it becomes the abdominal
aorta. It is accompanied by the azygous vein, thoracic duct and cisterna chyli as it passes
thru the aortic hiatus of diaphragm. It lies to the left of the median plane at its most
proximal end then it is displaced by the esophagus to the right median plane as it courses
downwards. It is divided into visceral and parietal branches.

Visceral Branches:
a. bronchial - lungs
b. esophageal – intrathoracic esophagus
*main trunk is bronchoesophageal artery

Parietal Branches:
a. intercostal artery – 12 pairs; 1st 3 or 4 arises from thoracic vertebral artery while last 8
– 9 are branches of the thoracic aorta (aortic intercostals artery). The pair coursing caudal
to the last rib is not intercostal and is called dorsal costoabdominal. Each dorsal
intercostal artery gives off:
i. dorsal branches – supply the epaxial muscles and skin they give off spinal branches that
contribute to the formation of ventral spinal artery and they terminate as dorsal cutaneous
branches
ii. lateral cutaneous branches – perforate the external intecostal muscle and the thoracic
part of the serratus ventralis, latissimus dorsi, cutaneous trunci and skin
iii. collateral branches – arise from the intercostal arteries near the beginning of the
ventral half of the thorax; they anastomose with the ventral intercostal artery; supply the
ventral halves of the intercostal mm which lie cranial to the ribs
b. dorsal costoabdominal a
c. lumbar artery – last branches of the thoracic aorta

ABDOMINAL AORTA

- the part of the aorta that enters the abdominal cavity after passing thru the aortic hiatus
- it is median in position at the cranial abdominal region then caudally it is displaced to
the left by the caudal vena cava
- it terminates opposite the seventh lumbar vertebra by bifurcating into 2 internal iliac
arteries and median/middle sacral arteries

Unpaired Visceral Branches of Abdominal Aorta

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A. Celiac Artery – 1st visceral branch
Branches: hepatic, splenic, left gastric – may arise from a common trunk

1. hepatic artery terminates into: right gastric and gastroduodenal arteries

a. right gastric artery – supplies the pylorus, pyloric antrum, lesser omentum
b. gastroduodenal artery – gives off branches to pylorus and left limb of pancreas and
terminates as: right gastroepiploic artery (gastric branch supplies greater curvature of
stomach while the epiploic branch supplies the greater omentum) and cranial
pancreaticoduodenal artery (pancreatic branch supplies the right limb of the pancreas and
the duodenal part supplies the duodenum).

2. splenic artery gives off: pancreatic and splenic branches

a. pancreatic branch supplies the left limb of pancreas and
b. splenic branch supplies the spleen, the main part of the splenic artery upon reaching
the distal half of the spleen becomes the left gastroepiploic artery which supplies the
greater curvature of the stomach; it anastomoses with the right gastroepiploic artery.

3. left gastric artery – the smallest terminal branch of celiac artery; may be double but
when a single branch is present it forms a common trunk with splenic artery; gives off
branches to the fundus of the stomach, lesser omentum (epiploic branch), caudal part of
the esophagus (esophageal branch)

B. Cranial Mesenteric Artery

- the largest visceral branch of the aorta; unpaired
Branches:
- ileocolic
- caudal pancreaticoduodenal
- jejunal
1. Ileocolic – divides into: middle colic, right colic and ileocolic
a. Middle colic – may arise directly from the cranial mesenteric artery;
supplies descending or left colon
b. Right colic – arises as the last branch of the ileocolic; supplies the right
colon and part of transverse colon
c. Ileocolic or ileocecocolic artery supplies ileu, cecum and colon; branches
into:
i. Colic branch – supplies the right colon
ii. Mesenteric ileal branch – supplies ileocolic junction and
mesenteric border of ileum
iii. Ileocecal artery – continues from ileocolic junction; gives off ileal
branches (supplies the ileum) and cecal branches (supplies the
cecum)
2. caudal pancreaticoduodenal artery branches into:
a. pancreatic branch – pancreas
b. duodenal branch - duodenum
3. jejunal arteries – supplies jejunum

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*Cranial mesenteric artery terminates as ileal and jejunal branches

C. Caudal Mesenteric Artery

- arises from the ventral surface of the aorta cranial to the termination of aorta or opposite
the caudal part of the 5th lumbar vertebra
- no veins or lymph vessels accompany the artery
- gives off left colic artery and cranial rectal artery
1. left colic a – colon
2. cranial rectal artery or hemorrhoidal – rectum

Paired Visceral Branches of the Abdominal Aorta

1. Renal Arteries
- arises from aorta, supplies the kidneys
- right renal artery is more cranial than the left renal artery
- each renal artery supplies 2 or 3 branches to the caudal pole of the suprarenal gland and
a small cranial ureteral branch of the ureter

2. Suprarenal (adrenal) Arteries

- supply the adrenal glands
- usually arise from phrenicoabdominal artery, aorta or renal artery
- commonly, cranial pole of adrenal gland receives a branch from cranial mesenteric
artery and occasionally from celiac artery, renal and lumbar arteries

3. Testicular Artery or Internal Spermatic Artery

- the only artery supplying the testis and epididymis
- leaves the aorta in the midlumbar region and crosses the ventral surface of the ureter

4. Ovarian Artery (female) or Utero-Ovarian Artery

- homologous to the testicular artery of the male
- arises from aorta halfway between the renal and external iliac arteries
- supplies the ovary, ovarian bursa, uterine tube and horn
- anastomoses with uterine artery

Terminal Portion of Aorta

1. Internal Iliac Arteries
- paired arteries ariding from terminal part of abdominal aorta ventral to the caudal end of
the 7th lumbar vertebra
Branches:
- umbilical artery
- caudal gluteal artery
- internal pudendal artery
a. Umbilical artery – the main artery of pelvic cavity in the fetus carrying blood to
the placenta via the umbilicus; becomes remnant in adult; arises near the origin of
the internal iliac; the distal segment of the artery forms the round ligament of the
bladder

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b. Caudal gluteal artery – supply the biceps femoris, adductor, semimebranosus and
semitendinosus; has several branches:
a. Iliolumbar – gives off branches to iliopsoas, psoas minor, Sartorius, tensor
fasciae latae, gluteus medius, quadratus lumborum and abdominal muscles
b. Cranial gluteal artery – supply the gluteus muscles and piriformis muscles
c. Lateral caudal artery – gives branches to fascia and skin
d. Dorsal perineal artery – supply the anal sphincter and the cutaneous area
of the perineum
c. Internal pudendal artery – smaller terminal branch of the internal iliac
Branches:
a. Urogenital artery (prostatic artery – male; vaginal artery – female)
i. Prostatic artery has several branches in the male
1. caudal vesical artery
2. artery of the ductus deferens
3. urethral and ureteral branches
4. middle rectal branches
5. ventral perineal artery
6. caudal rectal artery
7. artery of the penis
ii. Vaginal artery branches:
1. urethral artery
2. uterine artery
3. vaginal branches
4. caudal vesicle artery
5. ureteral and urethral branches
6. middle rectal branches
7. artery of the clitoris

2. Median Sacral Artery – continuation of the abdominal aorta beyond the origin of the
internal iliac arteries at the level of the 7th lumbar vertebra
Branches:
a. 1 (unpaired) median caudal artery
b. 2 (paired) ventral caudal arteries
c. 2 (paired) dorsal lateral caudal arteries
d. 2 (paired) ventrolateral caudal arteries

Parietal Branches of Abdominal Aorta

1. lumbar arteries
- paired arteries, 7 in number
- 1st 2 pairs, comes from the thoracic aorta; last 5 pairs from the abdominal aorta
- supply the sublumbar muscles and gives off spinal branches
2. phrenicoabdominal artery
- common trunk for caudal phrenic artery and cranial abdominal artery
- caudal phrenic artery supply the diaphragm and the cranial abdominal artery
supply the transversus abdominis and internal abdominal oblique muscles
3. deep circumflex iliac artery

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- arises from the aorta close to the origin of the external iliac artery
- supply the psoas major and quadratus lumborum
- terminates as deep and superficial branches; deep branch supply the caudodorsal
portion of abdominal wall; superficial branch supply the skin of the caudal
abdominal area, flank and cranial thigh

ARTERIES OF THE PELVIC LIMB

A. External Iliac Artery

- lies on the iliopsoas muscle
- largest parietal branch of the abdominal aorta
- continued outside the abdominal wall as femoral artery

Branches:
1. Caudal abdominal artery – supply the internal abdominal oblique, external
abdominal oblique, transversus abdominis and rectus abdominis muscles
a. Cremasteric artery – supplies the fat surrounding the abdominal inguinal
ring; enters the inguinal canal and supplies the cremaster muscle; it
continues to the testes together with the artery of the ductus deferens
2. Deep femoral artery – arises from caudomedial surface of external iliac; passes
thru the vascular lacuna; gives off branches to levator ani muscle and iliopsoas
a. pudendoepigastric trunk – principal intra-abdominal branch of deep
femoral artery gives off caudal epigastric artery and external pudendal
artery
i. caudal epigastric a – supplies rectus abdominis
ii. external pudendal a – ventral terminal branch of pudendoepigastric
trunk; gives off caudal superficial epigastric artery (supply the
scrotal lymph node, prepuce and skin in male, mammary lymph
nodes, cranial and caudal and inguinal mammae, vulva and
surrounding skin
3. Medial circumflex femoral artery – continuation of the deep femoral artery after
it leaves the abdomen
a. obturator branch – gives off branches to levator ani, coccygeus and
internal and external obturator muscles; supply adductor

B. FEMORAL ARTERY
- lies superficial in the femoral triangle (favored site for taking the pulse in the dog)
- it is the continuation of the external iliac artery from the vascular lacuna through the
thigh
Branches:
1. superficial circumflex iliac – tensor fasciae latae, rectus femoris, sartorius
2. lateral circumflex femoral – rectus femoris, tensor fasciae latae, gluteus and
vastus lateralis
3. muscular branches – pectineus, Sartorius
4. proximal caudal femoral – pectineus, adductor, gracilis
5. middle caudal femoral – adductor and semimembranosus

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6. saphenous – semimebranosus, Sartorius, gracilis
a. genicular branch – skin and superficial fasciae on medial side of stifle
joint
7. descending genicular – vastus medialis, semimembranosus; main blood supply of
stifle joint
8. distal caudal femoral – last branch of femoral artery; adductor, vastus lateralis,
biceps femoris, semimebranosus, semitendinosus, gastrocnemius and flexor
digitorum superficialis

C. POPLITEAL ARTERY
- continuation of the femoral artery between the lateral and medial heads of the
gastrocnemius
- terminates in the interosseous space between the tibia and fibula
- divides into:
a. genicular arteries – small vessels that supply the caudal surface of the stifle joint,
collateral and cruciate ligaments
b. muscular branches – gastrocnemius, collateral ligament, popliteal muscle, flexor
hallucis longus
c. caudal tibial – divided into medial and lateral branches that supply the nutrient artery
of the tibia
d. cranial tibial a – larger; supply tibialis cranialis, extensor digitorum longus, extensor
digitorum lateralis

Arteries of the Hindpaw

A. Cranial tibial artery

- gives off the superficial cranial tibial artery which anastomose with cranial saphenous
branch and supply the dorsal surface of the paw
- continued at the talocrural joint as the dorsal pedal artery

B. Perforating Metatarsal artery – continuation of dorsal pedal artery as it passes from

the dorsal to the plantar surface of the hindpaw

*Arteries of the metatarsus and digits are similar to those of metacarpus and digits e.g.
dorsal common digital arteries II, III, IV.

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Lecture Notes #24

VENOUS SYSTEM

Generally, veins accompany arteries in their course. They may however differ in
their size, number and direction. Veins are described as having thin walls with large
lumen; the pressure inside veins is low and blood flow is slower. The pulse is absent in
the venous system and the movement of blood is dependent on the pressure exerted by
the thorax and from muscular contractions. Pressure in veins propels blood towards the
heart. Negative pressure in the thorax during inspiration and presence of semilunar valves
in most of the veins enhance the effect of skeletal and visceral muscle contractions.

Classification of Veins
a. satellite veins – veins that accompany arteries (vena comitantes); they take the name of
the artery they accompany
b. sinuses – venous passages in the dura of the CNS
c. superficial veins – found in the extremities; common sites for venipuncture or for
drawing blood or injecting liquids; also act in cooling the blood because they are in
contact with the extensive subcutaneous, venous plexuses and deep veins. When the
animal is cooled, the superficial veins and plexuses contract so that blood from the
extremities will be returned to the heart thus, heat is preserved. On the other hand, when
the animal is warmed, the veins will dilate so that excessive hear is released.
d. deep veins – also found in extremities

Cranial Vena Cava or Precava

- unpaired vessel; lies ventral to the trachea and in contact with the esophagus on the left
side
- when the thymus is fully developed, it is also in contact with this vein
- at the leve cranial to the thoracic inlet it is formed by the union of right and left
brachiocephalic veins
The following veins empty into cranial vena cava
1. costocervical vein – runs lateral to the left subclavia artery; may terminate in the
left brachiocephalic vein; collects blood from the neck, trunk muscles and
extrinsic muscles of the thoracic limb
2. internal thoracic vein – unpaired, in some animals it is paired; when paired, the
right vein enters cranial vena cava while the left enters left brachiocephalic vein
- cranial epigastric vein of the abdomen is an extension of internal thoracic vein
3. brachiocephalic vein – formed by the mergin of the external jugular and
subclavial vein
 Unlike in the arterial systems, where the right subclavian artery arises from
the brachiocephalic trunk and the left directly from the aortic arch.
 Another vein entering the brachiocephalic vein is the internal jugular veins.
Internal jugular vein usually terminates in the caudal part of the external
jugular vein.
4. external jugular vein

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- is the main channel for venous return from the head. It begins with the union of
maxillary and linguofacial veins. It is the site for blood collection when the veins
of the extremities are not accessible. It receives the omobrachial and cephalic
veins at the cranial border of shoulder.
Tributaries:
a. linguofacial vein – confluence of lingual and facial veins; receives blood
from mandibular gland, nose and angular vein of the eye
b. maxillary vein – collects blood from ear, eye and oral cavity

Right Azygous Vein

- drains blood back to the heart from part of the lumbar region and caudal ¾ of the
thoracic wall
- enteres the cranial vena cava although in some dogs, it enters the right atrium directly
Tributaries:
a. lumbar – 1st 2 pairs
b. costoabdominal
c. dorsal intercostal
d. bronchoesophageal

Veins of the Thoracic Limb

I. Superficial veins

A. Cephalic vein
- a branch of the external jugular, the only large superficial vei of the thoracic limb
- returns blood from flexor muscles of antebrachium
- upon reaching the cranial surface of the forearm it is known as antebrachial part of
cephalic vein. At the angle of the elbow joint, it is the point where this vein is commonly
compressed to raise the vein, because of its size, location and ease of compressibility
- it is the favored site for venipuncture in dogs
- the antebrachial part receives the accessory cephalic vein which begins on the dorsum
of metacarpus
- brachial part of cephalic vein continous the antebrachial part from the flexor angle of
the elbow joint and enters the external jugular vein
- returns blood from the major tubercle of humerus, brachiocephalicus and pectoral
muscles

B. Axillobrachial vein
- formerly considered a continuation of the cephalic vein
- return blood from triceps
- terminates in the axillary vein

C. Omobrachial vein
- leaves the axillobrachial vein
- receives blood from skin and fascia

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D. Median Cubital Vein

II. Deep Veins of the Thoracic Limb

A. Radial Vein
- exhibit satellitism with radial artery; arises from deep palmar venous arch; receives
blood from carpus and metacarpus

B. Ulnar vein
- receives blood from flexor muscles in the antebrachium

C. Median vein
- receives the bicipital vein, proximal collateral ulnar and deep brachial vein
- continues in the axilla as axillary vein and becomes the brachial vein in the arm
- receives the palmar antebrachial vein

D. Axillary vein
- Continuation of the brachial vein
- receives the axillobrachial, cephalic and cranial circumflex humeral veins

III. Veins of the Forepaw

- divided into dorsal and palmar set similar to arteries, nerves and lymphatics

Caudal Vena Cava or Postcava

- intrathoracic, abdominal portion; passes foramen vena cava in the diaphragm
Tributaries:
A. Lumbar veins – 7 branches; supply sublumbar muscles
B. Deep circumflex iliac vein – satellite of corresponding artery
C. Right testicular vein – collects blood from right ovary
D. Right ovarian vein – collects blood from right ovary
E. Right and left renal veins – begins at the hilus of respective kidneys; the left renal
vein receives the left testicular vein or left ovarian vein; also receives the left
cranial ureteric vein and right renal vein receives the right cranial ureteric vein
F. Phrenicoaabdominal vein – receives adrenal vein
G. Hepatic vein – receives blood from liver
H. Phrenic vein – receives blood from diaphragm

Portal Vein
- arises from the capillary bed and ends in the liver; receives branches from the viscera
and form the portal system
- collects blood from the pancreas, spleen and all of GIT except anal canal
- terminates at the porta of the liver; formed by the union of the cranial and caudal
mesenteric veins and splenic vein; cranial mesenteric vein being the largest

A. Cranial mesenteric vein – satellite of CMA; collects jejunal and ileal veins

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B. Caudal mesenteric vein – not a satellite of caudal mesenteric artery – begins in the
pelvic cavity as cranial rectal vein which continues as the left colic vein
Ileocolic vein – enters the caudal mesenteric vein after receiving cecal, right colic and
middle colic veins
Right colic vein – drains right colon, right colic flexure and transverse colon
Middle colic vein – drains transverse colon
C. Splenic vein – drains the spleen; confluence of left gastric and splenic veins
Left gastric vein – from lesser curvature of stomach; anastomoses with right gastric vein
Pancreatic vein – may also terminate in the splenic vein
D. Gastroduodenal vein – main tributary is cranial pancreaticoduodenal vein which has
pancreatic part and duodenal part

Veins of the Pelvic Limb

A. Lateral saphenous vein
- cranial branch crosses lateral surface of the distal end of the tibia at which venipuncture
is frequently done
B. Medial sapheous vein – has cranial and caudal branches
C. Femoral vein – accessible for venipuncture as it lies in the femoral triangle

II. Deep Veins of the Pelvic Limb

A. Cranial tibial veins – a continuation of dorsal common digital vein II; receives blood
from cranial crural group of muscles (tibialis cranialis, external digitorum longus, let.
External hallucis longus, peroneous longus et brevis); unites with caudal tibial vein to
form popliteal vein
B. Middle caudal femoral vein – receives blood from gastrocnemius, adductor,
semimembranosus, rectus femoris
C. Lateral circumflex femoral vein or cranial femoral vein – the largest and last branch of
the femoral vein which enteres laterally.
*external iliac vein – continuation of femoral vein as it passes into the abdominal wall
ventromedial to the iliopsoas muscle; unites with the internal iliac vein to form the
common iliac vein
* left and right common iliac veins joint together to form the caudal vena cava
*deep femoral vein – a large tributary of the external iliac vein; drains the hamstring
muscles (semimambranosus, semitendinosus, biceps femoris muscles); receives
pudendoepigastric trunk

D. Internal Iliac vein – not divided into visceral and parietal parts like that of iternal
iliac artery; formed caudally by the confluence of internal pudendal and caudal gluteal
veins
1. caudal gluteal – arises in the biceps femoris with smaller branches from
semimbranosus, semitendinosus and internal obturator muscles
2. internal pudendal vein – receives blood from penis (male) and clitoris (female)
3. lateral caudal vein – the main venous drainage from the tail

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4. prostatic vein (M)/vaginal vein (F) – formerly known as urogenital vein; vaginal vein
drains blood from vagina; receives the uterine vein, caudal vesical vein with ureteral
branch, middle rectal vein
5. cranial gluteal – drain blood from middle gluteal muscle
6. iliolumbar vein – drain the lumbar muscles
7. median sacral vein – unpaired vein; receives middle caudal vein from the tail and
terminates in both right and left common iliac vein or in only one

Veins of the Hindpaw

- main vessels could be: branches of medial, lateral saphenous, cranial tibial

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Lecture Notes 25

THE LYMPHATIC SYSTEM

The lymphatic system is consists of the following: a network of permeable

capillaries; collecting ducts, lymph nodes and conducting channels. Blood and tissue
fluid are bding returned from the capillary bed and tissue spaces to the general circulation
via the venous system and the lymphatics.

Functions of the Lymphatic System

1. alternate route for fluid from interstitial/tissue spaces to blood
2. carries protein from tissue spaces and also large particulate matter
3. absorbs nutrients from the digestive tract
4. lymph nodes filter lymph thus removing and destroying bacteria

LYMPH
- the clear colorless fluid in the lymphatic system which is returned to the heart by means
of the lymphatic ducts which empty into the jugular or cranial vena cava
- contains RBCs, WBCs, histiocytes, tissue fluids and proteins
- numerous lymph vessels are found in the skin, mucous membranes, spleen, intestines
and liver, etc. but are absent in the brain, spinal cord, bone marrow within skeletal
muscles and the capsule of the spleen

LYMPHATIC VESSELS
- large lymph vessels have thinner walls than the veins of the same size
- have more valves than veins
- blockage results to lymphedema
- have remarkable regenerative capacities

THORACIC DUCT
- the chief channel for the return of lymph from lymphatic capillaries and ducts to the
venous system
- begins in the sublumbar region between the crura of the diaphragm as a cranial
continuation of the cisterna chyli which is a dilated structure formed by the fusion of the
visceral lumbar trunks (they are the efferent lymph vessels of the medial iliac lymph
nodes); the cisterna chyli receives drainage from the viscera and pelvic limbs
- runs cranially on the right dorsal border of the thoracic aorta and ventral border of
azygous vein to the lelve of 5th thoracic vertebra
- it crosses obliquely the 5th thoracic vertebra and runs on the left side of the middle
mediastinal pleura
- continous cranioventrally through the mediastinum into the left brachiocephalic vein
where it usually terminates
- receives lymph drainage from the left thoracic limb and left tracheal duct (they are
efferent lymphatic vessels of the medial retropharyngeal lymph node) from the left side
of the head and neck and right tracheal duct from the right side of the head and neck.

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LYMPH NODES
- the structural and functional unit of the lymphatic system; lymph nodule is the structural
unit of a lymph node
- functions for: a. filtration of blood
b. lymphocyte production in its germinal center
- usually located in those areas where they are protected but produce minimal
intereference with the function of the skeletal, muscular and vascular systems
- located in the course of lymph vessels and at angles formed by large blood vessels
- those vessels which enter the lymph ode are called afferent lymph vessel and they
perforate the capsule of the node
- those vessels which leave the node are called efferent vessels

Parts of a Lymph node

1. hilus – concave area but not prominent; it is where the efferent vessel leaves
2. cortex – the outer portion
3. medulla – inner portion

LYMPH FOLLICLES
- may be solitary or aggregated and mainly found in the wall of digestive tract, e.g.
cecum, rectum and anal canal where they are numerous
- they are different from lymph nodes because lymph vessels arise in them rather than
pass thru them, therefore they contain only the efferent lymphatics

DIFFERENT LYMPH NODES OF THE BODY

1. lymph nodes of the head and neck

a. parotid – located near the parotid salivary gland
b. mandibular – lies ventral to the angle of jaw; around 2 – 3 nodes
c. medial retropharyngeal – largest node found in the head and neck; elongated and found
near the ventral border of the pharynx and larynx
d. superficial cervical – located near the right side of the trachea
e. deep cervical lymph node located close to the cervical portion of the trachea

2. lymph node of the thoracic limb

a. axillary – usually the only lymph node of the thoracic limb; bounded laterally by teres
major; medially by transverses thoracis and ventrally by deep pectoral muscles

3. lymph nodes of the thorax

a. sternal – cranial to transverses thoracic medial to 2nd costal cartilage
b. intercostals – lies at the vertebral end of either 5th or 6th intercostals space
c. mediastinal – mostly associated with large vessels of the heart
d. tracheobronchial – all nodes that lie on the initial parts of the bronchi at the bifurcation
of the trachea
e. pulmonary – often absent

4. lymph nodes of abdominal and pelvic walls

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a. lumbar aortic – small, lies along the aorta and caudal vena cava from the diaphragm to
the deep circumflex iliac arteries
b. renal – associated with renal vessels
c. medial ilial or external iliac – located between the deep circumflex iliac and external
iliac artery
d. hypogastric or internal iliac – small, located between the angle formed by internal iliac
and the median sacral artery
e. sacral – located ventral to the body of sacrum
f. deep inguinal – lies on ventral surface of the tendon of psoas minor

5. lymph nodes of abdominal viscera

a. hepatic
b. splenic
c. cranial mesenteric – largest of the lymph nodes of the abdominal viscera
d. colic

6. lymph nodes of the pelvic limb

a. popliteal – largest node of pelvic limb
b. femoral – inconsistent in occurrence
c. superficial inguinal

Other lymphatic organs

SPLEEN
- lies parallel to the greater curvature of the stomach to the left of the median plane
- is bright red to dark purple in color
- has a tongue or elongated shape
- a lymphoid tissue that acts as a storage of blood, takes part in blood cell formation,
filtration and phagocytosis
- also called the graveyard of RBC

THYMUS
- a light gray lobulated organ in preserved specimen; pinkish in fresh material
- composed of right and left lobes
- located in the precardial mediastinal septum
- lymphoid in structure and is large at birth but may decrease in size as he animal
matures; its lymphoid structure is replaced by fat
- small lymphocyte or thymocyte – the basic cell unit of thymus

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Lecture Notes #26

THE UROGENITAL SYSTEM

- composed of the urinary organs and the reproductive/genital organs which are
embryonically and anatomically closely related
- urinary organs produce and excrete urine while genital organs serve for the
formation, development and expulsion of the products of the reproductive glands

Urinary Organs
a. kidneys
b. ureters
c. urinary bladder
d. urethra

Kidney (G: nephros; L: ren)

- reddish brown; paired (left and right), bean-shaped structures
- important for maintaining ionic balance in the blood by reabsorbing about 99% of
filtrate and excreting urine as waste.

Right kidney – more cranial than left kidney and is usually situated opposite the bodies of
1st 3 lumbar vertebrae; its cranial pole is embedded in the fossa on the caudate lobe of the
liver. Medially, it lies close to caudal vena cava. Ventrally, it is in contact with right limb
of the pancreas and ascending colon.

Left kidney – usually located at the level of the 2nd, 3rd and 4th lumbar vertebrae (when
the stomach is nearly empty); but when the stomach is full, it is situated one vertebra
caudad so that it’s cranial extremity is opposite the hilus of the right kidney; subject to
variation in position depending on the degree of fullness of the stomach because it is
loosely attached by peritoneum. Cranially, it is in contact with the pancreas and left
adrenal gland; caudally, the left kidney of a female is in contact with the descending
colon and mesovarium and in male, it is related to the descending colon, mesocolon and
ascending duodenum.

- each kidney has a cranial and caudal poles; medial and lateral borders and dorsal
and ventral surfaces
- the medial border is indented by oval opening, the hilus which opens to the renal
sinus; the hilus transmits the ureter, renal a. and v., lymph vessels and nerves
- a fibrous capsule covers the surface of the kidney

Detailed Gross Structures of the Kidney

1. renal sinus – the cavity of the kidney
2. renal hilus – the opening of the renal sinus on the medial border of the kidney
3. renal pelvis – a funnel-shaped, saclike structure that collects urine from the
collecting ducts of the kidney. Urine collects in the pelvis before it passes in the
ureter.

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4. medulla – internal parenchyma of the kidney (when cut longitudinally); it appears
striated and lighter than the cortex
5. renal crest – the portion of the medulla closest to the renal sinus; projects into the
renal pelvis
6. cortex – outer parenchyma of the kidney; granular in appearance due to the
presence of renal corpuscles and convoluted tubules

Functional and Structural Unit of Urinary System

Nephron – made up of the renal or malphigian corpuscles (glomerulus + capsule),

convoluted and straight tubules
- unit for urine production

Glomerular capsule or Bowman’s capsule – the beginning of the renal tubule

Glomerulus – spherical assembly of blood capillaries

Vessels and Nerves

The kidney is highly vascular. Blood enters the kidney from the aorta to the renal
artery which branches into interlobar arteries, then to arcuate arteries and to interlobular
arteries accompanied by corresponding veins (interlobular, arcuate and interlobar veins)
that drain into the renal vein.
The nerve supply to the kidney comes from the vagus nerve.

Ureters
- are fibromuscular slightly flattened tubes that carry urine from the kidneys to the
bladder
- length depends on the size of the animal
- right urether is slightly longer than the left (because of the more cranial position of the
right kidney than the left kidney); it is also longer in the male than female dogs
- begin at renal pelvis and run into urinary bladder entering it obliquely thru slitlike
openings
- lies closely to caudal vena cava and lateral aorta

Blood Supply
- comes from the renal a and prostatic or vaginal arteries

Urinary Bladder
- a hollow musculomembranous organ; stores urine
- size, form and position is variable, depending on the amount of urine it contains; when
empty, it lies entirely within the pelvic cavity
- divided into 2 parts: a. neck – connected with urethra
b. body
- bladder wall consists of 3 layers of muscles: outer and inner longitudinal layers and a
thick middle circular layer

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- internally, a triangular area near the neck of the bladder is called trigone; its apex is the
urethral orifice and the base is indicated by a line connecting the urethral openings

Supporting Structures of the Bladder

The reflections of the peritoneum from the lateral and ventral surfaces of the
urinary bladder to the lateral walls of the pelvis and to the ventral abdominal wall are
known as ligaments of the bladder. They are responsible in holding or fixing the
bladder in place. These are:

a. median ligament of the bladder – the largest peritoneal fold and is triangular in
shape; is reflected from the ventral surface of the bladder to the symphysis pelvis and
the midventral line of the abdominal wall up to the umbilicus
b. middle ligament of the bladder – in the fetus it contains the urachus (stalk of the
embryonic allantois that forms a connection with the bladder). This structure normally
disappears after birth leaving only the peritoneal fold
c. lateral ligaments of the bladder – connect the lateral surfaces of the bladder to the
lateral pelvic walls
 structures a and b may be considered as one particularly in adult animals
wherein the remnant of the urachus is considered a part of the median
ligament

Blood Vessels, Nerves and Lymphatics

Blood supply comes from the cranial vesical artery and the caudal vesical a. the
internal pudendal veins drain blood from the bladder.
Lymphatic vessels drain into the hypogastric and lumbar lymph nodes
Nerve supply comes from the pudendal n, hypogastric n and pelvic n.

Urethra
- expels the urine from the body
- also a part of the genital system

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Lecture Notes #27

REPRODUCTIVE OR GENITAL ORGANS

Male Reproductive Organs

1. scrotum
2. testes
3. epididymis
4. deferent ducts
5. prostate gland
6. penis
7. urethra
8. prepuce

1. Scrotum
- a membranous pouch that enclosed the testis
- it is divided into 2 cavities by the presence of a median septum, each cavity is occupied
by the: a. testis
b. epididymis
c. distal part of spermatic cord
- the left scrotum is more caudad than the right thus allowing each testis to glide more
easily and with less pressure to each other

Layers of the Scrotum

a. skin – pigmented with fine scattered haird and well developed sebaceous and
tubular glands
b. tunica dartos - a layer of smooth muscle mixed with collagenous and elastic
fibers; encloses both halves of the scrotal cavities including the median septum
partially
- contraction of tunica dartos retracts the scrotal skin and draws the testis close to
the body
* Cremaster muscle – arises from caudal border of intestinal oblique muscle and inserts
on the parietal vaginal tunic at level of testis; together with tunica dartos, it acts by
pulling the testis closer to the body

c. Spermatic fascia – are evaginated portions of the peritoneum

As the testes descends from the abdominal cavity it results to evagination
of the peritoneum that passes thru the inguinal canal at same time it is covered by the
transversalis fascia as it enters the deep inguinal ring and by the deep and superficial
abdominal fascia as it exits from the superficial inguinal ring. These fascias form the
spermatic fascia.
d. parietal vagina tunic or superficial or common vaginal tunic – outer wall of
evaginated portion of peritoneum
e. visceral vaginal tunic or deep or proper vaginal tunic – inner wall of evaginated
portion or peritoneum closely attached to testis

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*The parietal vaginal tunic and the visceral vaginal tunic are separated from each other
by a space called vaginal cavity. Together, these two structures are called vaginal
process.

Blood Vessels and Nerves

The blood supply to the scrotum comes primarily from the external pudendal artery
and also the cremasteric artery and the scrotal arteries.
The nerve supply is from the genital ramus which is a branch of the genitogemoral
nerve and the perineal nerve.

2. Testis
- also called the male gonads; located inside the scrotum
- are oval in shape and are somewhat thicker dorsoventrally than from side to side
- the epididymis is attached along the dorsolateral surface with the tail located at the
caudal extremity of the testis and its head at the cranial end
- the ligament of the tail of the epididymis attaches the tail of the epididymis to the
scrotal wall

Envelopes of the Testis

a. visceral vaginal tunic – a continuation of the parietal peritoneum of the abdominal
cavity
b. tunica albuginea – a dense white fibrous capsule connected to the mediastinum testis
by means of connective tissue lamellae called septuli testis which join together
centrally. The mediastinum testis is a cord of connective tissue situated lengthwise
through the middle of the testis.
Lobuli testis is the main lobule which contains the testicular parenchyma and the
seminiferous tubules (a large collection of twisted canals where the spermatozoa are
formed. The union of seminiferous forms the straight tubules that fuse to form the rete
testis.

Blood vessels and lymphatics enter and leave the testes by means of the mediastinum.

Function: the testes are responsible for the production of spermatozoa and the hormone,
testosterone.

Blood and Nerve Supply

Blood supply to the testes and the epididymis comes from the testicular artery and the
artery of the ductus deferens while blood is collected by the testicular vein. Nerve supply
is via the testicular nerve.

3. Epididymis
- the most heat sensitive region of the male reproductive tract
- it is the site of maturation and storage organ for spermatozoa before ejaculation; has
circular smooth muscles that aid in transport of sperm to ductus deferens
- it is divided into:
a. head – largest part

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b. body – runs along the dorsolateral surface of the body
c. tail – continuation of the body to the caudal end of the testis and is attached to it by the
proper ligament of the testis; it is continued in the spermatic cord as the ductus deferens
- is attached medially to the testis by visceral vaginal tunic; the head and tail portions are
attached tightly to the testes; beneath the body of the epididymis, a space is formed called
the sinus epididymis.

4. Ductus deferens (or deferent duct or vas deferens)

- continuation of the epididymis from its tail, up to the spermatic cord and enters the
abdominal cavity thru the inguinal ring; it curves upward passing between the ureter and
the urinary bladder dorsally to penetrate the prostate gland and then opens into the urethra
- has several layers: the tunica adventitia, muscularis and mucosa

Spermatic Cord
- refers to all the structures enclosed in the evaginated peritoneum
- begins at the deep inguinal ring where its various structural components come together
and ends at the attached border of the testicle
- consist of: a. ductus deferens
b. testicular artery, vein and nerve
c. artery and vein of the deferent duct
d. mesoductus deferens – structure that attaches the ductus deferens to the
mesorchium
e. mesorchium – fold of peritoneum or a part of the visceral vaginal tunic
that covers that vessels and nerve

Descent of the Testis

- migration of the testis from the abdominal cavity into the scrotal sac occurs in the
following manner:
a. expansion of the caudal or extra-abdominal part of the gubernaculums beyond the
external inguinal opening toward the scrotal sac
b. traction on the proximal or intra-abdominal part of the gubernaculums pulling it
distally into the inguinal canal
c. expansion of the proximal part of the gubernaculums thud pulling the testis toward the
internal inguinal ring
d. rapid descent of the testis through the inguinal canal due to sudden increase in intra-
abdominal pressure
e. regression of the core of the gubernaculums resulting to formation of the proper
ligament of the testis and the ligament of the tail of the epididymis

Gubernaculum – a mesenchymal structure which prior to testicular migration extends

from the caudal pole of the testis to the inguinal area. Its caudal or extra-abdominal part
lies within the inguinal canal with its tip extending into the external inguinal opening
(superficial inguinal ring), it is enveloped by the peritoneum

5. Prostate Gland
- the only accessory gland in dogs

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- encloses the neck of the bladder, prostatic urethra and the ductus deferens
- it lies in the abdominal cavity until the animal is 2 months after which it is confined in
the pelvic cavity

Function: prostatic secretion contains citrate, lactate, cholesterol and enzymes believed
to be essential in providing an optimum environment for sperm survival and motility

6. Penis
- the male copulatory organ
- divided into: a. root (radix penis)
b. body (corpus penis)
c. distal portion (glans penis) – further divided into:
1. bulbus glandis
2. pars longa glandis
- the root and body which are continuos are composed of:
a. corpora cavernosa penis – contains enlarged cavernous spaces
b. corpus spongiosum penis – ventrally located and contains the penile urethra and the
proximal end of the penis
- the root of the penis is attached to the tuber ischii via its left and right attachments
called crura, blending of the crura forms the body
- the corpus spongiosum has a bilobed expansion called the bulb of the penis (or urethral
bulb)
- the bulbus glandis of the glans penis is the cavernous expansion of the corpus
spongiosum and is rich in venous supply; it is capable of great expansion

Extrinsic Muscles of the Penis (paired):

a. retractor penis muscles – primarily contains smooth muscle fibers
b. ischiocavernous muscles – short, broad muscles covering the crura of the penis
c. bulbospongiosus muscles – cover the superficial of the bulb of the penis
d. ischiourethralis muscles – originates from the dorsal surface of the ischial tuberosity

Blood Vessels and Nerve Supply

Blood supply is from the internal and external pudendal arteries
External and internal pudendal veins collect blood from the penis
Nerve supply is from the pudendal and pelvic nerves

Os penis or Baculum
- the only visceral bone in the dog
- it is long and tapered, the proximal end is broad and is located in the body of the penis
caudal to the bulbus glandis
- the distal end of the bone is small and in diameter and is continued by a curved
cartilaginous projection
- divided into: a. apex – the tapered end wherein a cartilaginous tip is attached by a
fibrous strand
b. body – elongated part with the urethral groove located along the ventral
surface of the base and body

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c. base – short portion attached to the outer layer of the cavernous bodies

Mechanism of Penile Erection and Stages of Coitus

1. Erection – filling with blood of cavernous spaces in erectile tissues with
stimulation of pelvic nerves resulting to increase blood pressure to penis and
inhibition of venous drainage; dilatation of arteries
2. intromission – with contraction of ischiocavernous m., ischiourethralis m., and
bulbospongiosus m and venous occlusion
3. ejaculation then relaxation of muscles, decrease arterial pressure and venous
drainage.
 in the dog, delayed erection is due to slow engorgement of the bulbus glandis
and the pars longa glandis.

 some authors may divide coitus into 2 stages:

1. mounted
2. lock or tie – longer duration

7. Urethra
- serves as a common passage for both urine and sperms
- has several parts:
1. prostatic urethra – passed thru the prostate gland
2. membranous portion of the urethra – part between the prostate and the bulb of
the penis
3. penile urethra – portion from the bulb to the external opening

8. Prepuce
- a tubular sheath of skin that covers the pars longa glandis and part of the bulbus glandis
when the penis is not erect
- attached to the ventral abdominal wall; its distal open end is free
- has 3 layers of tissues, the outermost part is the skin; middle parietal layer and inner
visceral layer except in the dorsal portion where there are only 2 layers
- contains the preputial muscle which is a part of the cutaneous trunci muscle extending
from the area of the xiphoid cartilage to the dorsal wall of the prepuce; they are relaxed
during erection

Functions: prevents the free end of the prepuce from hanging loosely during non-
erection and pulls the prepuce back over the glans penis after erection

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Lecture Notes #28

FEMALE REPRODUCTIVE/GENITAL ORGANS

Female reproductive organs

1. ovaries
2. uterine tubes/oviduct/fallopian tubes
3. uterus
4. vagina
5. vulva

Attachment of the internal genitalia

The internal genitalia are attached to the lateral walls of the pelvic cavity thru the
so called right and left broad ligaments. Broad ligaments are peritoneal folds; they
unite the components or maintain the arrangement of the structures (ovary, uterine tubes,
uterine horns, vessels and nerves) but do not suspend the caudal part of the vagina. Each
ligament is divided into 3 parts:

1. mesometrium – arises from the lateral wall of the pelvis and lateral part of the
sublumbar region and attaches to the lateral part of the cranial end of vagina, uterine
cervix, uterine body and uterine horn.

2. mesovarium – the cranial part of the broad ligament which is a continuation of the
mesometrium; begins at a transverse plane thru the cranial end of the uterine horn and
attaches the ovary to the dorsolateral region of the abdominal wall

3. mesosalpinx – encloses the ovary and attaches the uterine tube to the mesovarium and
forms with the mesovarium the wall of the ovarian bursa (ovarian bursa – a thin walled
peritoneal sac enclosing the ovary formed by the mesovarium and mesosalpinx

1. Ovaries
- female gonads; paired oval organs located in the abdominal cavity caudad to kidneys
- counterpart of testicles; serve as the site of occyte maturation and as a source of many
hormones
- smooth in appearance before estrus (estrus usually occurs in dogs between 6 – 9 months
of age) but are rough and nodular bitches which have had several whelpings
- the ovary is divided into:
a. an inner part called the medulla or zona vasculosa and contains blood vessels, nerves
and lymphatics
b. an outer part which is the cortex that consists of connective tissue stroma which
contains a large number of follicles; the connective tissue condenses to form the tunica
albuginea. The tunica albuginea is covered by peritoneum called the superficial
epithelium of the ovary.
Deep into the tunica albuginea are follicles which consist of oocyte (developing
ovum) and granulosa cells. With each estrus, a number of follicles mature. The
maturation sequence of follicles occur as follows:

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1. primordial follicle – smallest and most numerous of the follicles found on the
periphery of the cortex beneath the tunica albuginea
2. primary follicle – consists of a single layer of cuboidal granulosa cells around the
oocyte; eventually, several layers of granulosa cells are formed around the oocyte as
maturation advances
3. vesicular follicle or graafian follicle or secondary follicle – has a cavity filled with
follicular fluid within the granulosa cell mass; this follicle will have a hillock or elevated
portions at one end of the cavity called cumulus oophorus that contains the maturing
ovum. Surrounding the ovum is a clear membrane called the zona pellucida. A layer of
radially arranged granulosa cells around the ovum is called the corona radiata.
As the follicular fluid increases, the follicles migrate to the periphery of the ovary
and with further increase in pressure and tension, the follicle ruptures releasing the ovum
into the ovarian bursa (an outpocketing of the peritoneal cavity), to the uterine tubes
going to the uterine horn.
After ovulation, slight hemorrhage into the follicular cavity or antrum occurs
forming the corpus hemorrhagicum. As this is cleared or resorbed the corpus luteum
or yellow body forms from the granulosa and theca internal cells. The corpus luteum
degenerates into a scar called corpus albicans if fertilization does not take place.
However, if fertilization occurs the corpus luteum remains throughout pregnancy and will
degenerate after parturition. The corpus luteum secretes the hormone progesterone.

In addition to the mesovarium, it has 2 more ligamentous attachments which are:

1. suspensory ligament of the ovary – attached cranially to the middle and ventral
thirds of the last one or two ribs, caudally, it is attached to the ventral aspect of the
ovary and mesosalpinx.
2. proper ligament of the ovary – short and attaches ovary to the cranial end of the
uterine horn

Blood Supply
Blood supply comes from the ovarian artery which arises directly from the aorta;
it may anastomose with the uterine artery which supplements blood supply to the ovary.
The left ovarian vein drains blood into the left renal vain while the right ovarian
vein draines into the caudal vena cava.

2. Uterine tube or oviduct or Fallopian tube

- transports oocytes or ova to the uterus
- the ovarian end of the oviduct is near the edge of the ovarian bursa called the
infundibulum. The infundibulum presents finger-like structures along its edge which are
termed fimbriae. During ovulation, the fimbriae become swollen and are capable of
movement so that they may engulf the ovulated oocyte into the uterine tube.
- has several layers – tunica serosa, tunica muscularis and tunica mucosa which is the
innermost layer made up of ciliated columnar epithelium; movement of the cilia is
directed toward the uterine horns.

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3. Uterus
- hollow muscular organ that serves as the site of fetal development and maturation;
providing attachment to the developing ovum and nourishment to the fetus.
- a tubular Y-shaped organ that communicates with the oviduct cranially and the vagina
caudally

Parts:
1. neck or cervix – thickened portion; may be open or close depending on the stage
of reproduction (in pregnant animals – close ; non-pregnant – open); it opens into
the body of the uterus at the internal uterine orifice and opens into the vagina via
the external uterine orifice.
2. body or corpus – usually located at the abdominal and pelvic cavities but a large
part lies within the abdomen
- it extends from the point where the 2 horns meet up to the cervix
3. horns or cornu – entirely located within the abdominal cavity; right horn is
slightly larger than the left
- musculomembranous tubes which are flattened dorsoventrally
- the tips of the horns are connected to the ovary by the proper ligament and
indirectly by the broad ligament

- the walls of the uterus consists of tunica serosa, t. muscularis and t. mucosa; the t.
muscularis consist of thin longitudinal outer layers of muscle and a thick circular inner
layer which are oblique muscles and vessels.

- contraction of the uterine muscles during labor properls the fetus from the body of the
uterus into the vagina; contraction of abdominal muscles and vaginal muscles results to
final expulsion of the fetus

4. Vagina
- female copulative organ
- a highly dilatable, musculomembranous canal extending from the body of the uterus to
the vestibule
- cranially it is demarcated by the fornix, a slitlike space cranioventral to the uterovaginal
part of the cervix, caudally it ends just cranial to the urethral opening
- its length and diameter may increase during pregnancy and parturition
- its mucosa presents longitudinal folds or rugae
- its walls consist of t. mucosa, t. muscularis, t.serosa

Blood Vessels and Nerves

Supplied by the vaginal artery which is a branch of the internal pudendal artery
while the vaginal veins collect blood from it. The pudendal nerve innervates the vagina.

5. External Genitalia
- has 3 parts:
a. vestibule – space connecting the vagina to external genital opening
b. clitoris – homologue of the penis; divided into:

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1. roots or crura
2. body or corpus
3. glans clitoridis
- the roots plus the body are similar to the male corpora cavernosa penis
and the glands clitoridis is similar to the glans penis
- body of the clitoris consists primarily of fatty tissue instead of erectile
tissue
- elongated erectile tissue called vestibular bulbs lie deep to the vestibular
mucosa near the corpus clitoridia and they correspond to the bulb of the
penis in the male
c. vulva – consist of two labia and the external urogenital orifice (rima pudenda); the
labia are homologous to scrotum; the labia fuse dorsally and ventrally to form the dorsal
and ventral commissure, respectively

Vulvar Muscles
a. constrictor vestibule muscles – constricts the vestibule
b. constrictor vulvae muscle – lift the labia dorsally prior to intromission
* These 2 muscles together are homologous with the bulbospongiosus mscles
in the male
c. ischiourethralis muscles
d. ischiocavernous muscles – small in female

5. Urethra
- structurally resembles the male urethra; but does not serve as a common passage of
urine and ova
- shorter compared to male urethra

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Lecture Notes #29

THE ENDOCRINE SYSTEM

The Endocrine System is a very important system because it controls and

integrates most of the metabolic functions of the body. The term endocrine was derived
from two words: endon- within and krinein – to separate, meaning to separate internally.
The various endocrine organs are scattered throughout the body, thus, the
endocrine system refers to a functional relationship of various cells, tissues and organs
and not to an aggregate set of component organs. The endocrine organs primarily
function for hormone synthesis. Hormones are the secretory products by parenchymal
cells of endocrine organs released in minute amount into the circulation in response to an
internal or external stimulus.
Hormones are carried by way of blood vessels, lymphatic vessels and tissue
fluids. They are received by receptors which may be cells, tissues or entire organs. The
sites affected are called target organs (hormones are trophic substances). Hormones may
excite or suppress the activity of target organs or tissues according to need.
Endocrine organs have no secretory duct unlike exocrine glands so that the tissue
fluids immediately surrounding the secreting cells become the transport media for the
secretions of the endocrine organ.

Components of the Endocrine System

a. Primary Endocrine Organs – function for hormone production
ii. Hypophysis (pituitary gland)
iii. Thyroid gland
iv. Parathyroid gland
v. Pineal gland (epiphysis)
vi. Adrenal gland
b. Organs with Endocrine and Exocrine Functions
i. testis
ii. ovary
iii. pancreas
iv. placenta
c. Organs with Endocrine Functions Secondary to their Primary Functions
i. kidney
ii. liver
iii. thymus

* Prior to birth, endocrine structures of fetus are under the direct influence of the
maternal endocrines. Although endocrines are developed at birth, variations will occur
post-natally as the animal becomes mature. This system upon maturity will regulate
growth, sexual maturity, metabolism and homeostasis or balance in all functions.
Malfunction of the system will results to dramatic changes in body form, functions and
behavior.

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I. Hypophysis or pituitary gland
- a small organ, reddish in color and attached to the ventral midline of the brain
- hypo- under; physis – growth; hypophysis literally is growth on the undersurface of the
brain
- though small in size, it plays a major role in the entire endocrine system due to its
position the function of the nervous syetem and endocrine system are interrelated.

Divisions of the Hypophysis

a. anterior pituitary or adenohypophysis
b. posterior pituitary or neurohypophysis

Adenohypophysis – is composed of glandular parenchyma and has extensive blood

supply; contains the hpophyseal cleft which is a large compressed vesicle that appears as
a cleft
Neurohypophysis – pale and fibrous in texture

Developmental Anatomy – from the oral ectoderm and ventral surface of the neural tube

Blood Supply: major source – internal carotid artery

Caudal communicating arteries

II. Thyroid Gland

- paired structures, elongated, dark red mass attached to outer laterovental surface of
proximal portion of the trachea
- largest amont the ductless glands which perform only an endocrine function
- can be palpated during physical examination especially when enlarged
- function in the major control of the metabolic processes of the body and affect more
body systems
- intimately related structurally to the parathyroid glands which lie near the cranial
dorsolateral margin of the gland
Developmental Anatomy: develops from pharyngeal entoderm
Blood Supply: primary cranial and caudal thyroid arteries
Nerve Supply: thyroid nerve from the cranial cervical ganglion and cranial laryngeal
nerve

III. Parathyroid Gland

- related structurally with thyroid
- composed of 4 independent glands in close association with thyroid; one gland applied
to the surface and one embedded within each thyroid – external gland – parathyroid III;
internal gland – parathyroid IV, number designation refers to their pharyngeal pouch
point of origin
Blood Supply: cranial thyroid artery

IV. Pineal Gland (epiphysis)

- an unpaired, wedge-shaped, cream-colored outgrowth on dorsal midline surface of the
brain

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- function is still uncertain

V. Adrenal Glands
- paired organs, the left adrenal gland is larger; it is situated at the lumbar level of the 2nd
vertebra; the right adrenal gland is situated at the level of last thoracic vertebra
- located near the craniomedial border of the kidney
- composed of a. an outer cortex and
b. inner medulla

Description of:
a. adrenal cortex – white or faint yellow in fresh preparation due to large amount of lipid
storage
- major steroid producing organ for mineral regulation and carbohydrate metabolism
b. adrenal medulla – dark brown or black in color
- produces norepinephrine/epinephrine in response to stress

Developmental Origin
a. adrenal cortex – first to develop than adrenal medulla; arises from the mesenchymal
cells of the coelomic mesoderm which results to the formation of fetal cortex and is
eventually replaced by the adult cortex as the fetal cortex regresses
b. adrenal medulla – arises from the neural crest cells
c. adrenal capsule – condensation of mesenchyme at the periphery of the cortex

Blood Supply
Arterial branches from phrenicoabdominalis and rami adrenals craniales; branches from
abdominal aorta – middle adrenal artery; branches from renal artery – rami adrenaleis
caudales

VI. Pancreas
- has endocrine and exocrine function
- regulates blood sugar level
Pancreatic islets – term used to describe endocrine cell groups; arise from foregut
entoderm; distributed among the exocrine acini but with different cellular components;
alpha, beta cells
- additional endocrine cell type – delta cells; F cells

VII. Ovaries
- with endocrine and exocrine function
- endocrine functions: synthesis of estrogenic hormones and progesterone
FSH stimulates follicular growth  continued maturation of follicles  rupture to
discharge the oocyte (ovum or egg) from the ovary leading to the formation of the layer
of theca interna – mainly composed of epitheliod cells from the stromal support tissues of
the ovary
- endocrine cells of the theca produce estrogens after ovulation and the formation of
corpus hemorrhagicum, cell of internal theca and of follicular epithelium = will

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accumulate large amounts of lipid to form corpus luteum (yellow body) = productes
progesterone during gestation or pregnancy
 cells arising from internal theca are called theca lutein endocrine cells
 cells arising from granulosa cells are called follicular lutein endocrine cells

VIII. Testis
- with endocrine and exocrine functions
- for production of spermatozoa and testosterone – active of component of androgens

IX. Kidney
- granules of juxtaglomerular cells contain the hormone rennin which regulates:
a. blood volume
b. blood pressure
c. ionic concentration
- renin acts on protein to form angiotensin II

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Lecture Notes #30

THE CENTRAL NERVOUS SYSTEM

The central nervous system consist of the brain and the spinal cord

The Brain
It develops from the rostral cephalic portion of the neural tube. It has 5 major
parts and these are:
e. telencephalon
f. diencephalon
g. mesencephalon
h. metencephalon
i. myelencephalon
This is based on the early development of the rostral part of CNS wherein 3 vesicles
develop first which are:
a. prosencephalon (forebrain) which give rise to the telencephalon and diencephalon
b. mesencephalon (midbrain) which do not divide
c. rhombencephalon (hindbrain) which give rise to the metencephalon and
myelencephalon (medulla oblongata)

Telencephalon
- forms the cerebrum

Diencephalon
- the most rostral portion of brainstem
- forms the lateral walls of the 3rd ventricle along the midline
- subdivided into epithalamus on the dorsal midline; thalamus which is the largest part in
the center; the hypothalamus which is the base of the diencephalon on the midline and
the subthalamus lies caudal and lateral to the hypothalamus

Mesencephalon
- region of the brainsterm between the diencephalon rostrally and the pons and the
cerebellum caudally

Metencephalon
- lies between the mesencephalon and the myelencephalon

Myelencephalon
- the caudal most portion of the brain stem

Macroscopically, the brain is subdivided into:

a. cerebrum – the largest and most rostral part of the brain is derived from the
telencephalon
b. cerebellum – is located on the dorsal aspect of the caudal part of the brain sterm and it
developed from the dorsal part of the metencephalon

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c. brain stem – includes the diencephalon and mesencephalon and ventral portion of
metencephalon and the entire myelencephalon

The CNS is structurally consist of gray matter, white matter and reticular formation
1. gray matter – which is formed by localized aggregations of cells bodies of neurons
located within the CNS; in the brain, the columns of gray matter are interrupted by white
matter and reticular formation and form separate gray matter; this aggregation of cell
bodies within the CNS are known as nuclei; in addition they gray matter which is
peripherally located in the cerebral hemisphere become the cerebra cortex and in the
cerebellum it is known as cerebellar cortex
2. white matter – consists of myelinated nerve cell processes or segments of processes in
side the nervous system; in some parts, it is arranged in fiber groups with common
connections and functions known as tracts or fasciculi
3. reticular formation – extends throughout the brain stem and it includes the network
of nerve fibers and scattered nerve cell bodies

The cerebral cortex presents distinct grooves and elevations. The elevations and
convolutions are termed as gyri and the depression between the gyri are the sulci.

The Cranial Nerves

The cranial nerves arise from the brain. There are 12 pairs of cranial nerves which are as
follows:
CN Type
I – Olfactory Se/SVA
II – Optic Se/SSA
III – Oculomotor Mo/Se
IV – Trochear Mo/GVE
V – Trigeminal SA/SVE
VI – Abduscent Mo/Se
VII – Facial SVE/GVE/SVA
VIII – Vestibulococchlear SSA/SP
IX – Glossopharyngeal SVE/GVE/SVA/GVA
X – Vagus SA/VA/SVA
XI – Accessory SVE
XII – Hypoglossal Se

The anatomical organization of cranial nerves is similar in many ways to that of the
spinal nerves. Spinal nerves are attached to the spinal cord by a dorsal and ventral root.
The dorsal roots conduct impulses from the periphery of the body to the spinal cord and
are referred to as afferent fibers, while the ventral roots conduct impulses away from the
spinal cord and are referred to as afferent fibers.

Cranial nerves can be further subdivided according to the types of structures which they
supply:
a. somatic fibers – innervate striated muscles, tendons, joints, ligaments and include the
sensory fibers from nerve endings located in the skin

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b. visceral fibers – innervate internal organs, smooth muscles, glands and vessels

4 Classifications of Nerve Fibers (for cranial and spinal nerves)

a. somatic afferent (SA) – the fibers that transmit impulses from the skin and mucous
membranes to the brain stem
b. visceral afferent (VA)- fibers in the cranial nerves conduct sensory impulses from the
internal organs
c. visceral efferent (VE) – fibers whose cells bodies aggregate to form nuclei in the brain
sterm
d. somatic efferent (SE) – fibers arising from the nuclei

3 Additional Types of Fibers in Cranial Nerves (not found in spinal nerves)

a. special visceral afferent (SVA) – fibers from visceral sensory organs (taste and
olfaction) incorporated in CN I, V, VII and X; carry impulses from olfactory mucosa and
mucosa of tongue.
b. special somatic efferent (SSA) – come from special sensory organs (eye and ear)
c. special visceral efferent (SVE) – or brachial motor, fibers found in CN V, IX, X and
XI; they supply motor fibers to striated muscles of brachial arch origin.

Muscles of brachial arch origin:

1. First brachial arch musculature – give rise to the muscles of mastication; supplied by
the mandibular division of CN - V
2. 2nd brachial arch musculature – give rise to muscle of facial expression as well as
stapedius and caudal portion of digastricus, supplied by CN VII
3. 3 – 6 branches of brachial arch musculature – give rise to muscles of the pharynx,
larynx, and cranial portion of esophagus; supplied by CN IX and X; some branches give
rise to muscles of neck and trapeziums and are supplied by CN XI

Description of Cranial Nerves

CN – I or Olfactory Nerves – classified as SVA, supply the olfactory mucosa of the
nasal cavity
CN – II or Optic Nerve – contains ganglion cells of retina; arise from the eye bulb,
courses into the orbit, penetrates optic canal and joins its fellow from the opposite eye
forming the optic chiasma
CN – III or Oculomotor Nerve – the principal nerve of the muscles of the orbit; divides
into: dorsal ramus which enter the dorsal rectus muscles and levator palpebrae muscle;
the ventral ramus gives off branches to medial rectus, ventral rectus and ventral oblique
muscles of the eye
CN – IV or Trochlear Nerve – smallest of the cn and supplies only the dorsal oblique
muscle of the eye
CN – V or Trigeminal Nerve – largest of the cn; its sensory fibers (somatic afferents)
receive impulses from the cutaneous muscles of the head, nasal and oral cavities; the
motor fibers (SVE) supply the muscles of mastication; divides into:
a. ophthalmic branch – smallest branch, the principal sensory nerve to the orbit; skin on
the dorsum of the nose, mucous membrane of the nasal cavity and paranasal sinuses it
gives off 3 branches:

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1. frontal nerve – the sensory nerve to the middle portion of the upper eyelid and adjacent
skin
2. lacrimal nerve – ends in the lacrimal gland
3. nasociliary nerves – the continuation of the ophthalimic division into the orbit which
reaches the dorsal part of the optic nerve where it gives off the long ciliary nerve which
in turn gives off the infratrochlear and ethmoidal nerves

b. maxillary branch – largest of the trigeminal nerve divisions; sensory nerve to the skin
of the cheek, side of the nose, muzzle, mucous membrane of nasopharynx, maxillary
sinus, soft and hard palate and the teeth and gingival of the upper jaw; gives off the
following branches: zygomatic nerve, pterygopalatine nerves, infraorbital nerve

c. mandibular branch – receives all the motor fibers (SVE) from the motor root; supply
muscles of mastication and sends branches to the parotid salivary gland; it has 8
branches:
- pterygoid
- buccal
- deep temporal
- masseteric
- auriculotemporal
- mylohyoid
- mandibular alveolar
- lingual

CN VI or Abduscent Nerve – conveys motor impulses to the retractor bulbi and the
lateral rectus muscles

CN VII or facial Nerve – a mixed nerve containing SVE (brachial motor) and afferent
fibers and VE (parasymphatetic and afferent fibers)
- SVE fibers are distributed to the auricular, facial and other musculatures derived from
the 2nd brachial arch
- the SVA, VA and VE make up the nervus intermedius
- the VE fibers (preganglionic parasymphatetic) are motor to the postganglionic nerve
cells supplying the glandular cells of the nasal cavity, mandibular and sublingual
salivary glands and lacrimal gland
- the sensory fibers, both VA and SVA are distributed to the taste buds and the rostral 2/3
of the tongue
- terminal branches of the facial nerve
a. auriculopalpebral nerve – gives off auricular and palpebral branches
b. dorsal buccal branch
c. ventral buccal branch

CN VIII or Vestibulococchlear Nerve – formerly known as auditory, acoustic or

statoacoustic nerve; composed of:
a. vestibular part/nerve – involved with sense of balance

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b. cochlear part/nerve – distributed to the hair cells in the spiral organ of the cochlea;
concerned with sense of hearing

CN IX or Glossopharyngeal Nerve – mixed nerve; sends motor fibers to

stylopharyngeus muscles, parotid and zygomatic salivary glands; sends sensory fibers to
the pharynx and a portion of the tongue

CN X or Vagus Nerve – the longest of the cranial nerves; passes the neck, thorax up to
the abdomen; composed of:
GVE – these are the preganglionic, parasymphatetic nerve fibers that supply the muscle
of the heart and the smooth muscle and glands of thoracic and abdominal viscera
SVE – supply motor innervation to the musculature derived from last 3 brachial arch
(pharyngeal, laryngeal, esophageal muscles)
GVA – sensory nerve transmits impulses from the base of the tongue, pharynx,
esophagus, stomach, intestines, larynx, trachea, bronchi, lungs, heart and other viscera
SVA – few sensory fibers come from taste buds on the epiglottis and pharyngeal wall
GSA – the fibers which come from the skin of the external ear canal
Branches from the head and cranial cervical region
a. auricular ramus – distributed to external acoustic meatus
b. pharyngeal ramus – distributed to pharyngeal muscles and esophagus
c. cranial laryngeal nerve – supply cricothryoideus muscles, thyroid gland, larynx
d. recurrent laryngeal nerve (right and left) – supply esophagus and trachea;
terminates as the caudal laryngeal nerve which is the motor nerve to the intrinsic
muscles of the larynx except the crithyroid muscle

CN XI or Accessory Nerve – has a spinal root formed by fibers from the 1st seven
cervical segments of the spinal cord and a cranial root from the medulla oblongata; has
ventral and dorsal branches; ventral branches supply the cleidomastoideus and
sternomastoideus and the dorsal branch supply motor branches to the trapezius

CN XII or Hypoglossal Nerve – supply the styglossus, hyoglossus, geniglossus and

geniohyodeus

Spinal Cord and Meninges

Spinal cord begins at the caudal end of the medulla oblongata and it is enclosed by the
vertebral column. It is derived from the remainder of the neural tube from which the brain
developed. The lumen of the neural tube remains inside the CNS as cavities and
connecting canals from which develops the central canal of the spinal cord, the
ventricular system of the brain which is filled with cerebrospinal fluid.

3 General Functions of the Spinal Cord

1. monitors receptor from skin, muscles, joints, viscera and discharges impulses that
control muscles and glands
2. acts as a reflex center which integrates afferent (sensory) information and initiates
appropriate responses in muscles and glands

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3. conducts information to and from the brain through a series of fiber tracts by which
the CNS regulates posture, movement, secretion and afferent activity

Morphology
It contains spinal nerves which are attached to the spinal cord by dorsal and ventral spinal
roots
Dorsal roots – composed of afferent fibers which transmit information from receptors in
the body
Ventral roots – bundles of efferent fibers which conduct nerve impulses to effector
organs

Spinal roots and nerves constitute a basis for dividing the spinal cord into segments.
Segments are designated numerically according to region:
a. cervical 1 - 8
b. thoracic 1 – 13
c. lumbar 1 – 7
d. sacral 1 – 3
e. coccygeal 1 – 5
Spinal cord and spinal roots are located within the vertebral canal protected by 3 covering
layers termed as Meninges
1. dura mater – most superficial meningial coat, tough and fibrous sheath
2. arachnoid membrane – lies in contact with the inner surface of the dura matter; deep
to this is the subarachnoid space containing the CSF
3. pia matter – deepest, most vascular layer

In the spinal cord, the gray matter is located centrally, displays a butterfly shape
substances in transverse section. It has bilateral expansions each divided into dorsal horn,
lateral intermediate substance and ventral horn. Located in its center is the central canal.
The white matter surrounds the gray matter in the spinal cord. The spinal cord also has
sulci (grooves) and fissures. The spinal cord terminates at caudal lumbar or cranial sacral
levels of vertebral column.
With respect to the vertebral column, the spinal cord may be divided into 4 regions:
a. cranial cervical region
b. caudal cervical thru thoracic region
c. thoracolumbar region
d. caudal lumbar thru caudal region

*the longest spinal cord segment in C3

1st spinal nerve – passes thru a foramen in the dorsal arch of the atlas
Spinal nerves C2 – C7 exit thru intervertebral foramina formed by the cranial margins of
respective vertebra
C8 leave the vertebral canal cranial to T1 vertebra
T1 – Cd5 exit thru intervertebral foramina formed by the caudal margin of respective
vertebra
*segmentation of spinal cord do not occur but innervation is organized in a segmental
pattern

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* in spinal reflexes – excitable pathway starts with a receptor and a peripheral afferent
(sensory) neuron continued by neurons in the spinal cord and ends with an afferent
(motor) neuron that leaves the cord to activate the muscle or gland – described as the
reflex arc
*simple reflex arch – monosynaptic; 2 neurons are involved in the synapse; most of the
reflex arcs involves 3 or more neurons thus, polysynaptic

Meninges
- protective membranes of the CNS within the cranium and vertebral canal
- dura mater or pachymeninx – the most superficial layer; enclosed the brain, spinal cord
and leptomeninges (pia mater and arachnoid membrane)
- arachnoid membrane and pia mater are separated by a subarachnoid space with CSF
that flows from the ventricular system into the subarachanoid space and surrounds the
brain and spinal cord
- the brain contains cavities, ventricles which are remnants of the embryonic neural tube

Cerebrospinal Fluid
- derived from the blood circulation by means of choroid plexus and is drained into the
blood thru the arachnoid villi which are extensions of leptomeninges that project into
dural venous sinuses
- grossly, the arachnoid membrane appears delicate, translucent and avascular; forms the
outer wall of the subarachnoid space

Ventricular System
- formed from the lumen of the embryonic neural tube that persists as the ventricular
system of the brain and the central canal of the spinal cord
- by means of foramina and canals, the chamber of the ventricular system are in
communication with one another with the canal and with the subarachnoid space
- the brain has 2 lateral ventricles, one within each of the cerebral hemispheres and a 3rd
ventricle surrounds the interthalamic adhesion and separates the diencephalon into
symmetrical halves
- the 4th ventricle is located in the hindbrain and it communicates with the central canal
and with the subarachnoid space by means of paired lateral recesses and apertures

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Lecture Notes #31

THE PERIPHERAL NERVOUS SYTEM

A. THE SPINAL NERVES

- usually there are 36 pairs

- each spinal nerve is attached to the spinal cord by means of the dorsal and ventral
rootlets or root filaments
- dorsal filaments carry sensory or afferent impulses while ventral filaments carry motor
or efferent impulses
- afferent fibers are collectively calles as dorsal root and efferent fibers as ventral root of
the spinal nerve
- the spinal ganglia are clusters of unipolar nerve cells which are located in the dorsal
root within the corresponding intervertebral foramen

Branches of a Typical Spinal Nerve

1. dorsal branch – innervate epaxial mm; gives off medial and lateral branhces
2. ventral branch – innervate hypaxial structures and limbs; also give off
a. medial and lateral branches
b. communicating or visceral branches

Cervical Spinal Nerves

- 8 pairs although there are only 7 cervical vertebrae (designated as cervical s.n. 1, 2, 3 or
C1, C2, C3, etc)
- All cervical nerves leave the vertebral canal cranial to the vertebra of the same number
with the exception of the first and last which pass through the intervertebral foramina

C1
- its dorsal branch reaches the cranial portion of the neck to supply the obliquus capitis
muscle, rectus capitis dorsalis, intermedius and minor, cranial ends of the semispinalis
capitis and splenius
- its ventral branch sends branches to sternohyoid and sternothyroid muscles

C2
- dorsal branch sends branches to the semispinalis capitis and splenius muscle and the
skin covering the caudal portion of the temporal muscle and the base of pinna
- ventral branch is divided intotransverse cervical nerve to supply the skin of mandibular
space and great auricular nerve to supply the apex of the ear

C3 to C7
- dorsal branches send branches into the multifidus cervicis muscle

The phrenic nerve which supplies the diaphragm regularly arises from the 5th, 6th and 7th
cervical nerves, occasionally, from the 4th cervical spinal nerve

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BRACHIAL PLEXUS
- it gives origin to the nerves which supply the thoracic limb
- it is formed by the ventral branches of the 6th, 7th and 8th cervical and the 1st and 2nd
thoracic spinal nerves

The Brachial Plexus gives off the following nerve branches:

1. suprascapular – arises from C6, C7 rarely C5
- primarily a motor to the supraspinatus and infraspinatus muscles
2. subscapularis – from C6 and C7; supplies subscapularis mm
3. axillary – from C7 and C8; supplies the muscles of the shoulder
4. musculocutaneous – arises mainly from C7; supplies the coracobrachialis, biceps
brachii and brachialis
- it is continued in the forearm as medial cutaneous antebrachial nerve
5. radial – C6 and C8, T1 and T2
- it is the largest nerve of the brachial plexus; it supplies all extensors of
the elbow, carpal and digital joints, supinator, abductor pollicis longus,
muscles of skin of the antebrachium and hindpaw
6. median – C8, T1 and T2
- supplies the pronator teres, pronator quadratus, flexor carpi radialis,
flexor digitorum superficialis mm and the radial, ulnar and humeral heads
of the flexor digitorum profundus
7. ulnar – C8, T1 and T2
- supplies the skin and muscles of the forearm
8. dorsal thoracic – C8, T1 or C7
- a motor nerve to latissimus dorsi
9. lateral thoracic – C8 and T1
- supplies the deep pectoral mm and is the sole motor supply to cutaneous
trunci mm
10. long thoracic – C7; supplies the thoracic part of serratus ventralis mm
11. pectoral nerves
a. cranial pectoral – from C6, C7 and C8; supplies the superficial pectoral
mm
b. caudal pectoral – from C8, T1 and T2; supplies the deep pectoral mm

Thoracic Nerves
- there are 13 pairs with same serial number as the corresponding vertebra
- has dorsal branch which further divides into medial and lateral branches; ventral branch
does not divide
- medial branch of the dorsal branch supplies the multifudus thoracic, longissimus dorsi
and semispinalis
- lateral branch of the dorsal branch supplies the serratus ventralis, iliocostalis dorsi and
cutaneous trunci
- ventral branch or the intercostal nerve supplies the abdominal and thoracic wall

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Lumbar Nerves
- there are 7 pairs
- dorsal branch divides into medial and lateral branches; the ventral branch does not
divide
- medial branch supplies longissimus lumborum, lateral branch supplies iliocostalis
muscle
- ventral branches are referred toas lumbar nerves
- the last 5 lumbar nerves (L3-L7) and all the sacral nerves are joing to form the
lumbosacral plexus which innervate the pelvic limb

L1 – represents the cranial iliohypogastric nerve

L2 – represents the caudal iliohypogastric nerve
L3, L4, L5 – contribute to femoral nerve
L3, L4 – contribute to genitofemoral nerve
L5, L5, L6 – contribute to obturator nerve
L6, L7, S1 – contribute to cranial gluteal nerve
L6, L7, S1, S2 – contribute to sciatic nerve
S1, S2, S3 – contribute to pudendal nerve

Genitofemoral nerve
- is called the external spermatic nerve
- send branches to the external iliac artery, cremaster muscle, spermatic cord, skin of
scrotum and prepuce or inguinal mammary gland in the female

Femoral Nerve
- sends branches to iliopsoas, quadriceps femoris mm
- gives rise to the saphenous nerve

Saphenous Nerve
- the only superficial branch of the femoral nerve
- supplies the Sartorius muscle, skin of the medial surface of the thigh

Obturator Nerve
- sends branches to the external obturator, pectineus, gracilis, adductor mm
- leaves the pelvis thru the obturator foramen

Sacral Nerves
- arises from the three sacral segments of the spinal cord
- sacral plexus is formed by the ventral branches of the last 2 lumbar nerves (L6, L7) and
ventral branches of the three sacral nerves (S1, S2, S3)

Lumbosacral Trunk
- the largest and most important part of the lumbosacral plexus
- continued outside the pelvis as the sciatic nerve
- branches into cranial and caudal gluteal nerve;

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o cranial gluteal nerve supplies the deep and middle gluteal and tensor
fasciae latae mm
o caudal gluteal nerve supplies the superficial gluteal, middle gluteal,
piriformis mm

Pudendal Nerve
- arises from all 3 sacral nerves
- give rise to caudal rectal and perineal nerve and nerves to the external genital organs
- caudal rectal nerve is the sole supply to the external sphincter of the anus
- perineal nerve terminates as caudal scrotal nerve in the male and caudal labial nerve in
the female

Sciatic or Ischiatic Nerve

- the largest nerve in the body which is a continuation of the lumbosacral trunk
- consists of tibial and fibular nerves
- other main branches are lateral cutaneous sural and caudal cutaneous sural nerves
- supplies the hamstring muscles and the abductor cruris caudalis muscle

Tibial Nerve
- supplies all muscles caudal to the tibia

Fibular (common peroneal) Nerve

- supplies the peronenous longus, peroneous brevis and lateral digital extensor mm

Caudal or Coccygeal Nerves

- there are 4 – 7 pairs; each pair is numbered according to the number of the
corresponding vertebra where it runs
- supplies the sacrocaudalis muscles

B. The Autonomic Nervous System

- also known as the general visceral efferent

- it is the portion of the nervous system concerned with the motor innervation of the
smooth muscles, cardiac muscles and glands
- its counterpart is the somatic efferent system which is concerned with the major
innervations of the skeletal muscles

Divisions:
Symphatetic
Parasymphatetic
- both these 2 divisions are 2 – neuron systems which connect the central nervous system
(CNS) to the structure being innervated
- both have preganglionic and postganglionic neurons

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Preganglionic Neurons
- are located in the CNS; they send myelinated axons as part of the Peripheral Nervous
System (PNS)
- they synapse with the second neuron of the chain, the postganglionic neuron

Postganglionic Neurons
- contain non-myelinated axons that end on glands, cardiac muscles or smooth muscle
cells
- they occur in cluster referred to as ganglia

Sympathetic Division of the Autonomic Nervous System (ANS)

A. General Characteristics
- the preganglionic cell bodies of neurons are found in the gray matter of the thoracic and
the first 5 lumbar spinal cord segments and is thus called the thoracolumbar portion
- the axons of the preganglionic neurons leave the spinal cord via the spinal nerve that
gives off a branch, the ramus communicans (communicating branch) which will join the
symphatetic trunk
- a symphatetic trunk ganglion is formed at each site where the ramus communicans joins
the symphatetic trunk; the ganglion contains the cell bodies of postganglionic neurons
- most of the postganglionic nerve endings in this division release a humoral transmitter
substance called norepinephrine

B. Function
- helps the body cope with stressful or emergency situations

C. Components
1. Symphatetic trunk
- are paired structures that course in a craniocaudal direction lateral to the vertebral
column
- both structures are continued cranially into the cervical region where each is joined by
the vagus nerve to form the vagosymphatetic trunk
- the vagosymphatetic trunk together with the common carotid artery are enclosed by the
carotid sheath
- each trunk ends in the cranial cervical ganglion

2. Cranial Cervical Ganglion

- found deep to the tympanic bulla ( or at the lelve of the base of the ear) and the
proximal portions of cranial nerves IX, X, XI and XII
- postganglionic fibers from this ganglion follow arteries as plexuses to the head region
and they supply symphatetic stimulation to sweat and salivary glands, nasal glands,
smooth muscles on walls of blood vessels, nictitating membrane, pupil, iris, cornea,
ciliary body, ciliary process, retina and erector pili muscles

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3. Cervicothoracic or Stellate ganglion
- this is seen as an irregular enlargement of the sympathetic trunk on the lateral side of
the longus colli; the largest autonomic ganglion in the dog
- formed by a collection of cell bodies from the fusion of caudal cervical and the first 2 or
3 thoracic ganglia
- postganglionic axons may leave this ganglion and run directly to the heart

4. Ansa Subclavia
- a branch of the symphatetic trunk cranial to the cervicothoracic ganglion that encircles
the subclavian artery
- the symphatetic trunk and the ansa subclavia reunite and join at the middle cervical
ganglion

5. Middle cervical ganglion

- a thickened structure found at the junction of the ansa subclavia and the
vagosymphatetic trunk
- several nerve branches called cardiac nerves arise from the ansa and the middle cervical
ganglion to supply the heart

6. Splanchnic Nerves (major, minor and lumbar)

- arise from the thoracic and lumbar portions of the symphatetic trunk to run into the
abdominal cavity
- they form plexuses around the major blood vessels of abdominal organs
- symphatetic ganglia are associated with these plexuses and blood vessels

7. Abdominal Symphatetic Ganglia

- they contain cell bodies of symphatetic postganglionic axons
- include the:
a. celiac ganglia
b. cranial mesenteric ganglion
c. caudal mesenteric ganglion
- preganglionic axons in the splanchnic nerves must synapse in one of these ganglia (for
preganglionic parasymphatetic axons, they do not synapse in the ganglia but pass through
the plexuses only going to the wall of the organ supplied
- postganglionic axons follow the route of blood vessels in order to reach the organ they
innervate

8. Right and Left Hypogastric Nerves

- arise from the caudal mesenteric ganglion
- they carry symphatetic fibers to the pelvic viscera via the pelvic plexuses

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Parasymphatetic Division of the autonomic Nervous system

A. GENERAL CHARACTERISTICS
- the preganglionic cell bodies are found in nuclei in the brain stem assodicated with
cranial nerves (CN) III, IV, IX, X and Xi and in the 3 sacral segments of the spinal cord,
thus it is known as the craniosacral portion
- cell bodies of postganglionic axons are located in terminal ganglia on or in the wall of
the structure innervated, others are found in specific ganglia near the innervated structure
- axons in cranial nerves III, VII and IX are distributed to the cervical, thoracic and
abdominal viscera
- the postganglionic nerve endings of this division release a humoral transmitters
substance which is acetycholine

B. FUNCTION
- this system is involved in the maintenance of normal homeostatic activity of visceral
organs as well as the conservation and restoration of body resources and reserves

C.COMPONENTS

I. CN III or Oculomotor Nerve

- preganglionic neurons are found in the nucleus of Edinger-Westphal
- the axons runs as part of CN III going to the ciliary ganglion where it will synapse with
postganglionic neurons
- postganglionic axons become the short ciliary nerves and supply the ciliary muscle and
the sphincter of the iris

2. CN VIII or Facial Nerve

- preganglionic axons are from neurons near the motor nucleus of CN VII and from the
rostral salivatory nucleus; they run with the pars intermedia of the said cranial nerve
- axons of neurons from the motor nucleus of CN VII join the major petrosal nerve and
synapse in the pterygopalatine ganglion; some postganglionic axons supply the lacrimal
gland, some supply the glands and smooth muscles of the nasal and oral cavities via
branches of CN V
- axons of neurons from the rostral salivatory nucleus join the facial nerve; joins the
chorda tympani and synapse at the submandibular ganglion; postganglionic axons of
nerves in the ganglion supply the sublingual and submaxillary salivary glands

3. CN IX or Glossopharyngeal Nerve
- axons of nerve cell bodies found in the caudal salivatory nucleus join the tympanic
branch of the ninth cranila nerve, the tympanic plexus and lesser petrosal nerve; synapse
at the otic ganglion
- postganglionic axons supply the parotid salivary gland

4. CN V or Vagus Nerve
- attached on the lateral side of the myelencephalon and exits via the jugular foramen

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- runs along the neck area with the symphatetic trunk
- at the level of middle cervical ganglion, the nerve separates from the vagosymphatetic
trunk and courses caudally; some fibers may go directly to the heart (cardiac nerves)
- fibers also go to bronchi as the vagus passes over the roots of the lung

5. Left recurrent Laryngeal Nerve

- on the left side; this nerve branches off from the vagus caudal to the middle cervical
ganglion; encircles the arch of the aorta going to the ventrolateral aspect of the trachea
and the ventromedial edge of the esophagus and runs down the neck to the larynx
*right and left recurrent nerves give off branches to the heart, trachea and esophagus and
end in the laryngeal muscles as the caudal laryngeal nerve

6. Dorsal and Ventral Vagal Trunks

- in the thoracic cavity, the right and left vagus nerves divide into dorsal and ventral
branches; the right and left ventral branches fuse to form the ventral vagal trunk on the
esophagus and more caudally the right and left dorsal branches join to form the dorsal
vagal trunk near the diaphragm
- the ventral vagal trunk supplies the liver, the parietal surface of th stomach and the
pylorus
- the dorsal vagal trunk fives off a celiac branch and it is part of the celiac and cranial
mesenteric plexuses; it runs along the lesser curvature of the stomach and supplies the
visceral surface and the pylorus

7. Nerve Plexuses
- in the abdominal area, branches coming from the vagus nerve and the splanchnic nerves
intermix and surround major abdominal arteries to from nerve plexuses
- parasymphatetic preganglionic axons pass thru the plexuses to the organ they supply

8. Pelvic Nerve
- formed by preganglionic axons from the sacral spinal nerves
- supplies the urogenital organs, the rectum and the descending colon

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Lecture Notes #32

THE EYE

The eye is composed of the following:

1. eyeball or globe
2. orbit
3. eyelids
4. conjunctiva
5. lacrimal apparatus
6. ocular muscles
7. optic nerve
8. vessels

Eyeball
- formed by three concentric coats:
1. fibrous tunic – outer layer
2. vascular tunic – middle layer
3. nervous tunic – inner layer

1. Fibrous tunic – divided into: sclera (opaque portion) and cornea (transparent portion)

Sclera
- consists of collagen and elastic fibers
- thickest in the region just posterior to the corneoscleral junction, where it receives the
insertion of the rectus and oblique muscles of the eye
- it also contains the scleral venous plexus and the ciliary muscles

Cornea
- forms the anterior segment of the fibrous tunic
- it is transparent due to highly organized arrangement of collagen fibers which form the
bulk of the substantia propria
- disruption of the highly ordered structure of the collagen fibers results in the loss of
corneal transparency
- consist of 5 layers:
o anterior epithelium
o anterior limiting lamina or Bowman’s membrane – has microplicated
surface to anchor the precorneal tear film
o substantia propia
o posterior limiting lamina (Descemet’s membrane)
o posterior epithelium

*Posterior and anterior epithelium – regulates hydration of the substantia propria;

distruption of either epithelium results in corneal edema

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- the cornea is normally avascular; it is nourished by the capillary loops found at the
corneoscleral junction (or limbus); precorneal tear film and aqueous humor
- innervation comes from the ciliary nerve which arises from the ophthalmic branch of
the trigeminal nerve; loss of sensory innervation leads to corneal ulceration, edema and
neurotrophic keratitis
- immediately peripheral to the limbus, the posterior corneal epithelium reflects on the
anterior face of the iris forming the irodocorneal angle; this angle helps in the drainage
of the aqueous humor
- dilatation of the pupil (mydriasis) impedes the outflow of aqueous humor; constriction
of the pupil opens the spaces of the iridocorneal angle and facilitate drainage
- in Bassethound, the corneoscleral angle is dysplastic and the pectinate ligament of the
iridocorneal angle has few openings which impede the flow of the aqueous humor;
therefore, this breed is predisposed to glaucoma (increased intraocular pressure)

2. Vascular Tunic
- also called uvea or uveal tract
- inflammation is called uveitis
- consist of (from posterior to anterior)
a. choroid
b. ciliary body
c. iris

Choroid
- pigmented vascular layer
- divided into the following layers (from outward inward)
o suprachoroid
o perichoroidal lymphatic space
o vascular layer
o reflective layer
o choroidocapillary layer
o basal lamina (poorly developed in dogs)

Tapetum lucidum – is a poorly specialized reflective layer of the choroid which develops
after the birth of the dog. It contains rod-like structures which are through tot be
responsbiel for its high degree of reflectivity. Its absence is considered a normal variation
which apparently does not affects the dog’s vision

Vascular layer of the choroids – a plexus of choroidal arteries and venules whih are
terminal branchces of the ciliary arteries and veins

Ciliary Body
- the thickest middle segment of the vascular tunic between the iris and the choroids
- is also highly vascular like the choroids; vasculature comes from the choroidal arteries
draied by the choroidal and vorticose veins
- in its outer portion are numerous ciliary muscles; when the fibers of the ciliary mscles
contract upon parasymphatetic stimulation, they decrease tension of the zonular fibrs

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supporting the lens, therefore, the tension is released which makes the lens more
spherical (more spherical lens has more shorter focal distance)
- zonule composed of highly ordered zonular fibers; it separates the posterior chamber
from the vitreous body; it lies posterior to the iris and ciliary body and inserts on the
anterior lens capsule near the equator of the lens, here they are designated as the
anterior zonular fibers; those that insert at the posterior lens capsule are called the
posterior zonular fibers which are not well developed as that of the anterior zonular
fibers

Iris
- the most anterior of the vascular tunic
- it is a thin circular diaphragm which rests againsts the anterior surface of the lens
- the central opening is called the pupil
- the pupil serves to regulate the amount of light which is allowed to reach the retina
- diameter of the pupil is smallest when intensity of illumination is greatest and the
diameter is largest when it is dark

3. Nervous Tunic
- the innermost tunic of the eye
- it is also called the nervous coat or retina
- it develops from the optic vesicle which is an outgrowth of the diencephalons
- it is therefore connected to the brain by the optic nerve
- it has 3 distinct areas:
a. pars iridica retinae
b. pars ciliaris retinae
c. pars optical retinae

*Pars iridica and ciliaris retinae comprise the nonvisual or blind retina
*Pars optica retinae is the visual retina or the only part that is photosensitive
*The photoreceptors of the retina are the rods and cones: rods function at night and cones
function at daylight. Presence of rods plus tapetum indicates a better vision in reduced
illumination.

Lens
- a soft, transparent, nearly spherical structure situated between the vitreous body and the
iris
- its function is to bring images into critical focus on the photoreceptor layer of the retina
- images are focused on the retina by the combined refraction of the cornea, aqueous
humor, lens and vitreous body
- the focal length of the lens is altered by the changes in its shape which are brought
about by the action of the ciliary muscles, zonular fibers and the lens capsule
- the entire lens is enveloped by the lens capsule which is highly refractile and elastic
- the zonular fibers which suspend the lens insert into the lens capsule
o in the adult, the lens is avascular, nutrition is received from and the wastes
are eliminated into the aqueous and vitreous humor

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o disease processes like diabetes mellitus which affect lenticular metabolism
results in a loss of transparency or opacity of the lens called cataract

Chambers of the Eye

- the eye has 3 chambers
a. anterior chamber
b. posterior chamber
c. vitreous chamber

Anterior and Posterior Chambers

- anterior chamber is bounded by the cornea anteriorly and the iris posteriorly
- posterior chamber is bounded anteriorly by the posterior face of the iris and posteriorly
by the anterior lens capsule; it is smaller than the anterior chamber
- these 2 chambers are filled with aqueous humor; aqueous humor should be clear and
colorless; it is maintained at an intraocular pressure of approximately 15 – 30 mm of Hg
in the dog; this pressure is essential to maintain the normal shape and firmness of the
eyeball; when intraocular pressure is lost as a results of death or escape of aqueous
humor thru corneal laceration; the eye becomes soft and deformed; increased
intraocular pressure broght by the occlusion of the primary outflow pathway results in
glaucoma

Vitreous Chamber
- the largest of the 3 chambers of the eye
- the vitreous body occupes the vitreous chamber
- the vitreous body is a soft, clear gel which conforms to the shape of the cavity it
occupies
- it maintains the shape of the eyeball

2. Orbit
- the cavity which contains the eyeball
- the eyeball occupies the base of the orbit which projects a considerable distance from
the orbital margin
- 4/5 of the circumference of the orbital margin is bony while 1/5 of the margin is
completed by the orbital ligament; this ligament serves as the lateral attachment of the
orbicularis oculi muscle and lateral palpebral ligament
- the dorsal and medial segments of the orbital margin are formed by the frontal bone
- only the medial wall of the orbit if osseous which is formed primarily by the orbital part
of the frontal bone; the lateral wall is formed by soft tissues

Five foramina present in the medial wall of the orbit

a. optic canal
b. orbital fissure
c. rostal alar foramen
d. 2 ethmoidal foramina
e. Fossa for lacrimal sac

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Optic Canal – where optic nerve and internal ophthalmic artery pass as they leave the
cranial cavity
Orbital Fissure – gives passage to the oculomotor, trochle, abducent and ophthalmic
nerves; the retractor bulbi muscles originates here
Ethmoidal Foramina – transmits the external ethmoidal artery and nerve

Fossa for Lacrimal Sac – continued rostrally as the lacrimal canal which contains the
nasolacrimal duct

*Denervation atrophy of the temporalis and masseter muscle enlarges the orbit thus
sinking of the eye to the orbit occurs (enophthalmos). Swelling of muscles results in
exophthalmos (protrusion of the eyeball from the orbit)

3. Eyelids (palpebrae)
- mobile folds of skin which can be drawn over the anterior aspect of the eyeball to
occlude light and to protect the cornea
- the upper and lower lids join at their medial and lateral aspects; the angles formed by
the lids at the commissures are the medial and lateral angles of the eye
- long hairs or cilia are present on the upper lid margin but not on the lower lid in dogs

Third Eyelid
- well developed in the dog, the bulk of which is hidden in the orbit
- highly mobile and sufficient to cover the entire anterior suface of the cornea
- it facilitates healing in case of corneal ulcers
- T cartilage plate stiffens the free edge of the third eyelid at the ventromedial aspect of
the globe

4. Conjunctiva
- inner aspect of the eyelids/palpebrae is lined by a special mucous membrane, the
palpebral conjunctiva
- that part of the palpebral conjunctiva that reflects or is adjacent to the eyeball is called
bulbar conjunctiva; the conjunctival sac is a potential space between the lid and the
eyeball which contains mucus, the fluid tears

5. Lacrimal Apparatus
- includes structures responsible for the production, dispersal and disposal of tears;
consists of the lacrimal gland, tarsal gland, conjunctival goblet cells, superficial gland od
third eyelid or accessory lacrimal gland and the nasolacrimal duct system

Lacrimal gland or tear gland – contributes to the production of tear film, the precorneal
tear film is essential to the normal transparent state of the cornea; lacrimal fluid flows
across the cornea, aided by blinking to the lacrimal puncta then to the lacrimal duct.
Insufficient tear production results to keratinization and opacification of the cornea which
is called keratoconjunctivitis sicca.
The lacrimal gland is innervated by the lacrimal nerve which is a branch of the
ophthalmic nerve from the trigeminal nerve. Removal of the lacrimal gland results in

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only minor decrease in tear production, probably as a result of compensatory increase in
production by the superficial gland of the third eyelid which is an accessory lacrimal
gland. This can be found at the retromedial aspect of the eyeball surrounding the base of
the cartilage of the third eyelid.

Nasolacrimal Duct System – includes the lacrimal puncta (dorsal and ventral), lacrimal
caniculi, lacrimal sac and nasolacrimal duct

Lacrimal Puncta – located on the inner surface of the upper and lower lid margins; they
are the oval openings of the lacrimal canaliculi; the lacrimal canaliculi enter the lacrimal
sac which is the dilated origin of the nasolacrimal duct; the nasolacrimal duct passes from
the lacrimal sac thru the lacrimal canal.

6. Ocular Muscles
- there are 3 groups of muscles: a. intraocular mm
b. extraocular mm
c. palpebral mm

a. Intraocular Muscles
- are those which lie entirely within the sclera and act to regulate papillary diameter ad
the shape of the lens
- these are the dilator and sphincter muscles of the iris and the ciliary muscles which are
composed of smooth muscle fibers

Dilator and sphincter muscles of the iris – regulate the amount of light which reaches
the retina

Ciliary muscles – alters the tension of the zonular fiber to accomplish visual
accomodation or focusing

b. Extraocular Muscles
- regulate rotation and retraction of the eyeball
- these are striated muscles and are 7 in number
a. dorsal, medial and lateral rectus
b. dorsal and ventral oblique muscles
c. rectractor bulbi muscles

Dorsal and ventral rectus muscles – rotate the eyeball around a medial to lateral axis
Medial and lateral rectus – rotate the eyeball around a dorsal ventral axis
Oblique muscles – rotate the eyeball around the axis bulbi
Retractor bulbi – retracts the eyeball to the orbit; supplied by the abducent nerve

*Medial and ventral rectus muscles are innervated by the oculomotor nerve while the
lateral rectus muscle receives nerve supply from the abduscent nerve
*Dorsal oblique is innervated by trocheal nerve (CN4)

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c. Palpebral muscles
- alter the size or position of palpebral fissure; they include the following:

Orbicularis oculi – acts to close the eyelids; constant corneal irritation may result to
hypertrophy of this muscle; if pronounced, it will roll the haired anterior surface of the
eyelid inward against the cornea (entropion); it is supplied by the auriculopalpebral
nerve, a branch of the facial nerve

Levator palpebrae superioris – acts to retract the upper eyelid; it is innervated by the
oculomotor nerve

Levator anguli oculi medialis – raises the medial portion of the upper eyelid and the long
tactile hairs (pili supraorbitalis) which corresponds to the eyebrows of man; it is
innervated by the auriculopalpebral nerve from the facial nerve

Retractor anguli oculi lateralis – draws the lateral canthus of the eye posteriorly and thus
have some action in closing the eyes; also innervated by the auriculopalpebral nerve from
the facial nerve

Pars palpebralis of the muscle sphincter colli profundus – acts as a depressor of the
lower eyelid. It is innervated by the buccal branch of the facial nerve.

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Lecture Notes #33

THE EAR
- An organ of hearing and balance
- Divided into external ear, middle ear and internal ear

External ear
- Consists of the auricle or pinna and the external auditory meatus

Pinna or Auricle
- The projecting part of the ear which differs among breeds, it is a funnel-like plate of
cartilage which serves to receive air vibrations and transmit them via the ear canal to the
tympanic membrane (ear drum)
- The tympanic membrane is enclosed in the deep protion of the external acoustic meatus
- Eardrum separates the external ear from the middle ear

External Auditory Meatus

- Presents a cutaneous lining which includes stratified squamous epithelium, rich in
sebaceous and tubular glands and hairs
- Sebaceous and tubular glands both secrete and cerumen or ear wax

Middle ear
- Consists of the tympanic cavity, tympanic membrane (ear drum) and the 3 auditory
ossicles (malleus, incus, stapes)
- The middle ear cavity is connected to the pharynx by way of the auditory tube or the
Eustachian tube
- Tympanic cavity contains the following
a. auditory ossicles
b. chorda tympani (tympanic nerve)
c. ossicular muscles
d. auditory tube

Auditory ossicles
- Are 3 small bones which transmit air vibrations from the tympanic membrane across the
cavity of the middle ear to the inner ear
- The most lateral and the largest is the malleus, the most medial is the stape and is the
smallest bone in the body, between the malleus and the stapes is the incus

Chorda tympani or tympanic nerve – leaves the facial nerve to join the lingual nerve

Ossicular muscles
- They are the following
o Tensor tympani – which acts to draw the malleus medially, tensing the
tympanic membrane
o Stapedius muscle – the smallest skeletal muscle in the body; it moves the
rostral end of the base of the stapes caudolaterally

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Auditory tube or Eustachian tube
- A short canal which extends from the nasal pharynx to the rostral portion of the
tympanic cavity proper

Internal Ear
- Consists of membranous labyrinth contained withint the osseous labyrinth in the petrous
portion of the temporal bone
- Consists of fluid filled ducts and sacs; a membranous labyrinth contained within an
osseous labyrinth
- Bony inner ear can be divided into three parts; the rostral part is the cochlea, caudal part
consists of the three semicircular canals and a third part is the bony vestibule

Cochlea
- Contains the cochlear duct where soundwaves are converted to nerve impulses which
upon reaching the brain result to audition
- The cochlear duct contains the end organ of hearing, the organ of Corti

Semicircular canals and vestibule

- These structures are concerned with equilibrium

REFERENCES
1. Evans, H.E. and G.C. Christensen. Miller’s Anatomy of the Dog. 2nd ed. 1979.
2. Evans, H.E. and A. dela Hunta. Miller’s Guide to Dissection of the Dog. 2nd ed. 1980.
3. Frandson, R.D. Anatomy and Physiology of Farm Animals. 3rd ed. 1981.
4. Getty, R. Sisson and Grossman’s The Anatomy of Domestic Animals. Vol 2 5 th ed.
1975.

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VETERINARY ANATOMY 1
Canine Anatomy

LABORATORY DISSECTION COURSE LECTURE

SCHEDULE PROGRAM
Directional Terms Introduction to Canine Anatomy 1
Bones of the Thoracic and Pelvic Limb Topographic Terms 3
Bones of the Skull, Vertebral Column The Common Integument 9
Bones of the Sternum and Ribs The Skeletal System
Preparation of the Specimen Axial skeleton 12
Superficial Structures of the Thorax Bones Of The Face And Palate 15
Muscles of the Thoracic Limb The Vertebral Column 19
Muscles of the Pelvic Limb Appendicular Skeleton 22
Joints of the Thoracic and Pelvic Limb Joints Or Articulations 28
Ligaments And Joints Of The 33
Thoracic Limb
First Long Examination
Pelvic Viscera, Vessels and Nerves The Muscular System
Vessels and Nerves of the Pelvic Limb Introduction 36
The Skull Structure of the Head Muscles of the Trunks and Neck 42
Muscles of the Thoracic Limb 46
Muscles of the Pelvic Limb 50
The Digestive System
Mouth and its Accessories 54
The Abdomen 60
The Stomach 63
The Liver 68

Second Long Examination

The Respiratory System

Introduction 71
The Thoracic Cavity And Associated Structures 75
The Heart And Associated Structures 78
Systemic Arteries
Blood Supply To The Head, Neck, Thorax And Thoracic Limb 82

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Blood Supply To Some Areas Of The Thorax, The Abdomen And The Pelvic 87
Limb
Venous System 93
The Lymphatic System 98

Third Long Examination

The Urogenital System

Introduction 101
Male Reproductive Or Genital Organs 104
Female Reproductive or Genital Organs 109
The Endocrine System 113
The Nervous System
Introduction 117
The Peripheral Nervous System 124
The Special Sense Organs
The Eye 136
The Ear 143

Fourth Long Examination

Final Examination

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Insitute of Veterinary Medicine and Zootechnics
PAMPANGA AGRICULTURAL COLLEGE
Magalang, Pampanga

COURSE OUTLINE IN VETERINARY ANATOMY 1

COURSE TITLE: Macroscopic Anatomy

COURSE DESCRIPTION: Canine Anatomy
CREDIT: 5 units (3 hr lect/6 hr lab)
PREREQUISITE: Zoology 11
OBJECTIVES: at the end of the semester the students must be able
to:

1. identify the normal anatomical features of a canine

body
2. relate the structures studied to their functions
3. apply the knowledge acquired from veterinary anatomy
in veterinary surgery and other related fields

REQUIREMENTS

A. Lecture Part:
a. 4 long examinations + final exam
b. Short quizzes
c. Attendance
d. Proper uniform

B. Laboratory Part:
a. 3 long practical examinations
b. Attendance/attitude/participation
c. Proper uniform (lab gown or scrub shirt)
d. Group project (canine skeleton)

MATERIALS NEEDED:
1. Canine cadaver
2. scalpel handle and blade
3. forceps
4. gloves
5. mask
6. cleaning materials (soaps, rags, etc.)
7. guide to the dissection of the dog by Evans and dela Hunta

GRADING SYSTEM

Lecture Part -------------------------------------------------- 60%

Long exams ------------------------ 70%

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Quizzes ----------------------------- 20%
Attendance ------------------------- 10%

Laboratory Part ---------------------------------------------- 40%

Practical exams -------------------- 70%
Project ------------------------------- 10%
Attendance and
Participation ------------------------ 20%

Exemption grade is 2.5. Final exam will be 20% of the final grade.

CLASS RULES

1. wearing of prescribed uniform during lecture and laboratory classes – a student not in
uniform will be considered absent
2. missed quizzes – a student who fails to take a short quiz will get a grade of 0 for that
particular quiz. NO make-up quiz will be given.
3. missed long exams – a make-up exam will be given in case of valid reason (sickness – a
student will have to present a medical certificate, death of an immediate family
member). The make up exam is given during the finals week.
4. tardiness – students are expected to come on time for laboratory and lecture classes
5. absenteeism – a student who absents him/herself nine (9) or more times in the lecture
class or six (6) or more times in the laboratory class will be dropped from the class
6. cheating – cheating is strictly not allowed. Punishment for cheaters will be as follows:
1st offense – warning
2nd offense – a grade of 5
7. laboratory performance and attitude – students are expected to participate in the
dissection during the lab class. Reviewing or doing exercises for other subjects during
the laboratory period is not allowed.
8. submission of projects – group projects should be submitted on or before the deadline.
Failure to do so will mean a grade of incomplete.

REFERENCES:

1. Evans, HE and GC Christensen Millers Anatomy of the Dog. 2nd ed. 1979.
2. Evans HE and A. dela Hunta. Millers Guide to the Dissection of the Dog. 2nd ed. 1980.
3. Gerry R. Sison and Grossmans Anatomy of Domestic Animals. Vol. 2. 5th ed. 1975.

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