LEADERSHIP IN ORGANIZATIONS

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Titel: Leadership in organizations Zesde druk Auteur: Gary Yukl Uitgever: Prentice Hall ISBN: 9780131494848 Aantal paginas boek : 560 Aantal hoofdstukken boek : 15

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Inhoudsopgave
Hoofdstuk 1 Hoofdstuk 2 Hoofdstuk 3 Hoofdstuk 4 Introduction: The Nature of Leadership The Nature of Managerial Work Perspectives on Effective Leadership Bahavior Participative Leadership, Delegation, and Empowerment pag. 3 pag. 7 pag. 10 pag. 13

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Hoofdstuk 1

Introduction: The Nature of Leadership

This chapter introduces the concept of leadership, describes various ways of studying its effectiveness and enumerates different approaches to study leadership. It also gives an overview how leadership has been defined and explained in the book. 1.1 Definitions of Leadership Leadership has been defined in numerous ways and has no precise meaning as researchers have defined it on their individual perspectives. Most of the leadership definitions, however, are based on the traits, influence and behavior of an administrative position in a group or an organization. Scholars also seem to believe that leadership is important for effectiveness of organizations. Specialized Role or Shared Influence Process?: There are two opinions on leadership one view is that it is a specialized role with some responsibilities and functions and other says it is a shared influence process that occurs naturally in a social system and takes place among members. Type of Influence Process: Views also differ on type of influence exercised and the results. Some theorists say leadership is just to exercise the influence to get the desired results, while other group of scholars believe there are different influence methods which can give the same outcome. Purpose of Influence Attempts: Opinions vary on the purpose of the influence attempts and the outcome. One view is that objective should be ethical and should benefit the organization and its members. Another opinion says influence attempts have multiple motives and it is difficult to infer purpose. Influence Based on Reason or Emotions: Earlier leadership definations are based on rational processes, while recent conceptions have emphasized more on emotion than reason. Leadership vs. Management: Different views are there on leading and managing. Some scholars say leaders and managers are different types of people. Bennis and Nanus (1985, p.21) says, Managers are people who do things right and leaders are people who do the right thing. Some writers do not assume that leaders and managers are different types of people, but view leading and managing as distinct processes. Kotter (1990) differentiates the two in term of their core process and the desired results, but says both are necessary for the success of an organization. Rost (1991) says managers can be leaders if they have multidirectional relationship with their followers but leading was not necesary for a manager. Direct vs. Indirect Leadership: Direct and indirect types of leadership are not different and mutually exclusive although most scholars focus on leaders direct influence on followers. Both can be used together to increase their effects in an organization. A Working Definition of Key Terms: Controversies on conceptions of leadership cannot be resolved at this point and it is better to use all views to compare their utility and arrive at some consensus on the matter. In this book, leadership is defined broadly including all views. Leader, manager and boss have been used interchangeably for those who are in the ladership role. Subordinate and followers have been defined and are used differently.

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1.2 Leadership Effectiveness Different conceptions are also there on leadership effectiveness. Outcomes of a leaders actions for members and stakeholders of the organization are taken into view for evaluating leadership effectiveness by most researchers. There are many alternative measures of effectiveness and it is not easy to evaluate leadership effectiveness. Immediate and Delayed Outcomes: Outcomes of a leaders influence on followers may be immediate and delayed. Immediate outcomes may be different from delayed results as negative consequences and extraneous events in long term outweigh any benefits. What Criteria to Use? Multiple criteria of leadership effectiveness should be used to broaden the scope of study as people have different values and objectives. 1.3 Overview of Major Research Approaches There are different research approaches on leadership and one way to classify them is on the basis of key variables, relevant in leadership effectiveness, they emphasize the most. Trait Approach: One of the earliest theories, trait approach emphasizes leaders attributes like skills, values, motives and personality with an assumption that some people are natural leaders.

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Behavior Approach: Focusing on leaders activities on the job, one line of behavior approach analyses how mangers spend their time and their pattern of functioning, while another category of this theory emphasizes on identifying effective leadership bahavior. Power-Influence Approach: In this approach, power is viewed as important for influencing people. It explains leadership effectiveness in term of the amount and type of power a leader possesses and how that is exercised. Situational Approach: Emphasizing on situation, one line of situational research tries to find out to what extent leadership processes are the same or unique across different cultures, organizations, and management levels while another sub-category of this approach tries to identify situations that moderate the relationship of leader attributes and leadership effectiveness. Integrative Approach: It involves more than one type leadership variables traits, bahavior, influence processes, situational variables and outcomes -- in the same study. 1.4 Level of Conceptualization for Leadership Leadership process can be conceptualized at the levels of individual, dyadic, group and organization which can be viewed as hierarchy. Intra-Individual Processes: Leadership theories like psychological theory and selfmanagement theory focus on processes with an individual including traits, skills, personal objectives and priorities. Dyadic Processes: Theories conceptualized at dyadic level focus on the relationship between a leader and another individual and view leadership as a reciprocal influence process between them. Group Processes: The leadership role in a task group and how a leader contributes to group effectiveness provide important insight about leadership effectiveness. Organizational Processes: Organizational level of analysis describes leadership as a process that exists in a larger system and survival and prosperity of an organization depend on various activities under strategic leadership. 1.5 Other Bases for Comparing Leadership Theories Leadership theories can be compared on three other types of distinctions -- leader-centered vs. follower-centered, descriptive vs. prescriptive and universal vs contingency. Leader- vs. Follower-Centered Theory: Most leadership theories focus on leaders attributes while some researches emphasize followers characteristics as important determinants of effective leadership. Descriptive vs. Prescriptive Theory: Descriptive theories explain leadership processes and analyses leaders activities and behaviors in certain situations whereas prescriptive theories specify what a leader should do to become effective.

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Universal vs. Contingency Theory: Universal theory enumerates some aspects of leadership that can be applied to all types of situations while contingency theory explains some aspects of leadership that can be applied to some situations. 1.6 Organization of the Book This book has been organised on the basis of line of research leader traits, bahavior, influence, situation and integrative -- and level of conceptualization individual, dyadic, group and organization.

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Hoofdstuk 2

The Nature of Managerial Work

This chapter mentions various methods used to study managerial work and describes activity patterns and roles of managers on the basis of descriptive studies. 2.1 Typical Activity Patterns in Managerial Work Pace of work is hectic and unrelenting: Mangers work for long hours and receive continuous requests for various purposes from a large number of people in and outside the organization. Content of work is varied and fragmented: Managers engage in various activities most of which are brief in duration. Many activities are reactive: Managers behaviors are reactive in nature and they tend to focus on specific problems they are aware of and which need immediate action. Interactions often involve peers and outsiders: Managers interact with a large number of people in and outside the organization other than direct subordinates and superiors. Many interactions involve oral communication: Mangers prefer oral communication media such as telephone and informal meetings to exchange information and to maintain effective relationships with a large network of people. Decision processes are disorderly and political: Managers take major decisions not at a single point of time and their decision making process is disorderly and takes time as they consult subordinates and superiors for all important decisions. Most planning is informal and adaptive: In their job responsibilities, managers make plans to most of which are informal and implicit. 2.2 The Content of Managerial Work Job description research: As per the job description research, managerial duties and responsibilities include supervising, planning and organising, making decisions, monitoring internal and external forces that may affect the company, developing schedules, representing and interacting with outsiders, coordinating with others in the company, consulting and performing basic administrative activities. Mintzbergs managerial roles: Mintzberg says all managers have 10 roles. Three roles leader, liaison and figurehead deal with their interpersonal bahavior. Three other roles monitor, disseminator and spokesperson are information processing roles. The other four roles entrepreneur, disturbance handler, resource allocator and negotiator are managers decision making activities. Role conflicts: Managers face role conflicts due to conflicting demands from the subordinates and superiors. 2.3 A Theory of Demands, Constraints, and Choices Demands, constraints and choices -- the three core components of Stewart model strongly influence managers bahavior and define their job.

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Core Components: Demands include the required duties, activities and responsibilities of managers. Constraints are the elements that limit managers power like policies of the organization, resources and clients preferences. Choices are the opportunities and options related to the task the manager is assigned to do. Situational Determinants: As per Stewart research, three factors -- pattern of relationship, work pattern and exposure are important for comparing managerial jobs with regard to bahavioral need. Pattern of relationship: The role expectations from subordinates, superiors and others have impact on how mangers spend their time and utilise their skills. Work pattern: The pattern of role requirements and demands influence managers bahavior. Exposure: The amount of responsibility for making decisions influences the bahavior of managers. 2.4 Research on Situational Determinants Research has suggested that situational aspects like the level of management, size of organizational units, lateral interdependence, crisis conditions and stage in the organization life cycle shape the managerial activities and bahavior. Level of Management: The job responsibilities and bahaviour of managers depend on their levels in the organization. Higher-level managers have more responsibilities than the middleand low-level managers in formulating long-term plans and policies of the organization. Size of Organizational Units: The size of subunits influences managers behavior and activities. Managers of larger organizational subunits have more demanding jobs than the managers of smaller units. Lateral Interdependence: The extent to which the subunit is dependent on other subunits influences managers activities and bahavior. Crisis Situations: In a crisis situation such as when an organization is under pressure to meet a deadline or to survive, the role expectations of leaders change. Stage in the Organizational Life Cycle: The stages in the organizational life cycle like birth stage, growth stage, maturity stage and decline or revitalization stage influence leadership demands, constraints and choices. 2.5 Changes in the Nature of Managerial Work The nature of managerial work is changing due to factors such as new trends in economics, politics and society like globalisation, technology, and increasing reliance on outside suppliers, consultants and contractors. 2.6 How Much Discretion Do Managers Have? Despite demands and constraints, managers have some choice of bahavior with respect to what aspects of job are emphasised and how much time is spent on what activity. Research has found variability of bahavior among managers even with same job and it is because of the jobs multiple dimensions and the way a manger deals with role conflicts.
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2.7 Limitations of the Descriptive Research Most of the research on managerial activity patterns is outdated. Observational research was designed to describe the pattern and content of managerial activities and do not suggest what activity patterns are necessary and effective. The purpose of the research is not to determine how managerial bahavior is related to managerial effectiveness but to facilitate development of compensation systems, selection procedure and appraisal procedures. The studies do not compare effective managers to ineffective managers. 2.8 Applications for Managers This section has some guidelines for effective managerial leadership based on the patterns and theme inferred from descriptive research and practitioner insights. Guidelines for managing time: For wide management of time, managers need to understand the reasons for demand and constraints, expand their choices to avoid demands and reduce constraints, know what they want to accomplish with a clear set of objectives and priorities, analyze how time can be used, plan daily and weekly activities, avoid unnecessary tasks, conquer procrastination, take advantage of reactive activities and make time for reflective planning and analysis. Guidelines for problem solving: Managers should prioritise problems that can be solved, look for links among problems, experiment with innovative solutions and take decisive action to deal with crises.

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Hoofdstuk 3

Perspectives on Effective Leadership Bahavior

This chapter enumerates some of the early research on the leadership behavior most likely to influence subordinates satisfaction and performance. 3.1 Ohio State Leadership Studies Most of the studies influenced by the early research at Ohio State University during the 1950s, used questionnaires to measure leadership behaviors. Leadership Behaviors: The studies show subordinates perceive their leaders behavior in terms of consideration and initiating structure which are relatively independent. Consideration is the leaders concern for peoples needs and feelings. Example of a survey study: A research by Fleishman and Harris (1962), based on behaviors of 57 supervisors in a truck manufacturing plant, is one of the best studies. Results in survey research: Results of hundreds of studies, which have used Ohio State leadership questionnaires and their modified versions, have been inconsistent in finding the relation between subordinates satisfaction and consideration and initiating structure. 3.2 Michigan Leadership Studies A second major program of research on leadership behavior, conducted by researchers at the University of Michigan, during 1950s, used interviews and questionnaire focusing the relationship between leader behavior and group processes and performance. Leadership Behaviors: The research found task-oriented and relations-oriented behavior and participative leadership to differentiate effective and ineffective managers. Effective managers focus on task-oriented functions, trust and support subordinates, supervise the group and not each subordinate separately and are oriented toward problem solving. Peer Leadership: Bowers and Seashore (1966), who extended the study on leadership behavior by doing survey on peer leadership and the leadership behavior by managers, suggest most leadership functions can be conducted by someone besides the manager. They say group effectiveness depends more on the overall quality of leadership in a unit. 3.3 Limitations of Survey Research Questionnaire research, though one of the most common methods to study the leadership behavior, has some limitations. Biases in Behavior Description Questionnaires: Use of ambiguous items that are interpreted in differently by different respondents, fixed response format in the questionnaires, response bias and the way items are aggregated into scales are some of the sources of errors in behavior description questionnaires. Interpreting causality in survey studies: Most of the studies have measured the leadership behavior by questionnaire filled out by subordinates.

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3.4 Experiments on Task and Relations Behavior Experimental study in laboratory and field settings found that increases in relations-oriented leadership behavior usually resulted in higher satisfaction and productivity. Task-oriented leadership was seldom manipulated in the studies and when it was manipulated, the outcomes were mixed. A shortcoming of laboratory experiments is that they are not realistic. Field experiments are also difficult to carry out in real organization. 3.5 Research Using Critical Incidents In critical incidents research, the behavior incidents are collected by interview or open-ended questionnaire from a large sample of respondents like subordinates with an assumption that they can provide description for an effective and ineffective manager. Limitations of Critical Incident Research: The respondents may be biased in their perception of what is effective leadership. Researchers rarely do follow-up studies to verify the outcomes of the critical incidents study. 3.6 The High-High Leader According to the model of managerial grid (Blake and Mouton, 1964), effective leaders use task-oriented and person-oriented behaviors frequently. Research on the High-High Leader: Results of research on high-high leader have been inconclusive and inconsistent. Evaluation of the Model and Research: The survey research on the outcomes of leadership behavior does not provide an adequate test on the high-high model. 3.7 Leadership Behavior Taxonomies Different studies on leadership beahvior have provided different taxonomies and it has become difficult to translate one set of concepts to another. Sources of Diversity among Taxonomies: Taxonomies developed to describe leadership behavior are diverse as there is no absolute set of correct behavior categories, behavior constructs can be formulated at different levels of abstraction or generality, and different methods were used to develop them. Limitation of Factor-Based Taxonomies: Subjective choices among various factor analysis procedures have affected the results. A Three-Dimensional Taxonomy: It is difficult to integrate the large number of specific behaviors identified in leadership studies. But the leadership behavior can be of three demensionals task-oriented, people-oriented and change-oriented. Comparison of Recent Taxonomies: Recent taxonomies are categorised under three other groups managerial practices survey, C-K inventory, multifactor leadership questionnaire. 3.8 Specific Task Behavior Three types of task-oriented behavior relevant for effective leadership are short-term planning, clarifying roles and objectives, and monitoring operations and performance.

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Planning Work Activities: Short-term planning of work activities includes the decision -what to do, how to do it, who will do it and when it will be done. The objectives are to ensure efficient organization of the unit, coordination and effective resource untilization. Clarifying Roles and Objectives: Clarifying roles and objectives include defining job responsibilities and requirements, setting performance goals and assigning specific task. The purpose is to guide and coordinate work activities. Monitoring Operations and Performance: Monitoring involves collecting information about the operations of the unit, including work progress, each subordinates performance, the quality of products and services and the success of the projects. 3.9 Specific Relations Behaviors This section describes three types of relations-oriented behaviors supporting, developing and recognising for effective leadership. Supporting: Supporting includes considerate, acceptance and positive regard towards others needs and feelings, friendly and helping subordinates in their personal problems. Developing: Developing behavior includes coaching, mentoring and career counselling to increase skill, job adjustment, self confidence and career advancement. Recognizing: Praising and awarding for effective performance, significant achievements and important contribution to the organization comprise recognising behavior. 3.10 Evaluation of the Behavior Approach In behavioral study, researchers are now taking a broad range of behavior and more specific types of behaviors. But there are limitations in the behavior research conducted in the last two decades. Some of the weaknesses are: lack of agreement on what behaviors to study, use of some validated questionnaire without carefulful consideration of their relevance and a tendency to look for simple answers to complex questions.

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Hoofdstuk 4

Participative Leadership, Delegation, and Empowerment

This chapter describes the theory and research findings on participative leadership, delegation and empowerment. 4.1 Nature of Participative Leadership Participative leadership is encouraging and facilitating by leader others participation and involvement in decision making. Varieties of Participation: Theorists have given different meanings of participative leadership which can take many forms, but there are four decision procedures autocratic decision, consultation, joint decision and delegation which as distinct and meaningful. Autocratic decision has no influence by others whereas delegation the high influence by others. Consultation and joint decisions have also less influence than delegation. Researchers also differentiate sub-varieties of these four procedures. 4.2 Consequences of Participative Leadership This section describes the potential benefits of participative leadership and explanatory processes for the effects of participation. Potential benefits of participation: Four potential benefits of participation are high decision quality, high decision acceptance by participants, more satisfaction with the decision and development of decision-making skills and confidence by participants. Objectives for different participants: The benefits of participation will not be similar for all types of participants and the leaders objectives for using participation may defer depending on whether they are subordinates, peers, superiors or outsiders. 4.3 Research on Effects of Participative Leadership Studies have been done on the effects of participative leadership by employing various methods and criteria of effective leadership are subordinate satisfaction and performance. Example of research on participation: Participation in a hospital laundry department (study by Bragg and Andrews 1973) led to increased productivity and better attendance. Effects of participation: The results of studies on the effects of participation are not consistent. Participative leadership sometimes leads to higher satisfaction and production, and sometimes it does not. Limitations of participation research: Weak methods, test on only general hypothesis, participation was combined with other types of intervention, short-term field experiments and non-use of situational variables are some of the limitation of participation research. 4.4 Normative Decision Model Researchers have emphasised on the importance of using appropriate decision procedures as per the situation for more effectiveness.

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Vroom and Yetton model: Vroom and Yetton say the decision procedure by a leader affects the quality of a decision and decision acceptance by people who are to follow but the effects depend on various aspects of the situation. Decision procedures: Vroom and Yetton identify five decision procedures for decisions involving multiple subordinates two types of autocratic decision, two varieties of consultation and a joint decision making by leader and subordinates as a group. Situational variables: The effectiveness of a decision procedure depends on situational variables like the amount of relevant information possessed by the subordinates and leader and the disagreement among subordinates with regard to preferred alternatives. Decision acceptance: The model suggests that decision acceptance is likely to be higher for joint decision making than for consultation, and for consultation than for an autocratic decision. Decision quality: It assumes consultation and joint decision making have similar positive effects on decision quality if the subordinates share the leaders objectives. If they have incompatible objectives, consultation usually results in greater quality decision than joint decision making. Decision rules: The model provides a set of rules for identifying an appropriate decision procedure in a given situation for higher decision quality and acceptance. The Revised Model: Vroom and Jago (1988) reviewed the Vroom-Yetton model and offered a revised version after eliminating some weaknesses. Over the years, Theorists have tried to simplify the normative decision model to make it easier for managers to use. Research on the Models: Several studies conducted to test the initial version of the normative decision model have some support for it as initial results are promising but more studies are required to test the model and each of the decision rules. Conceptual Weakness: Critics have pointed out several conceptual weaknesses in the normative decision model like it views decision processes as a single episode made at a point of time and divides decision procedures even as they are not that much important. 4.5 Applications: Guidelines for Participative Leadership On the basis of participation research and the Vroom-yetton model, some guidelines have been suggested for using participative leadership. Diagnosing Decision Situations: Evaluate the importance of the decision for the work unit and the organization, identify people with relevant knowledge and expertise (participative decision is appropriate if the manager lacks relevant skills and information), evaluate likely cooperation by participants as it is unlikely to be successful without participants support, assess likely acceptance by participants without participation and evaluate whether it is feasible to hold a meeting. Encouraging Participation: More participation can be encouraged by encouraging people to express their concerns, present a proposal as tentative, record ideas and suggestions given by participants, find out ways to build on ideas and suggestions, be tactful in expressing concerns
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about a suggestion, listen to dissenting views without being defensive, try to utilize suggestions and deal with concerns and thank people and show appreciation for helpful suggestions. 4.6 Delegation Delegation, assigning responsibilities to subordinates and additional power to carry them out, is regarded as a variety of participative leadership but can be treated as a separate category of managerial behavior different from consulting and joint decision making. Varieties of Delegation: Delegation can be of different types depending on factors like the magnitude of responsibilities given, the choice given to carry out responsibilities, the power to take action and implement decision and nature of reporting. Potential Advantages of Delegation: Delegation improves decision quality, brings greater subordinate commitment to implement decision effectively, makes subordinates job more interesting, challenging and meaningful, can be an important form of time management and is an effective method of management development. Reasons for Lack of Delegation: Strong need for power, insecurity, high need for achievement, difficulty in forming relationship, decisions involving confidential information, tasks leader can do better than subordinates, difficult to explain to subordinates and difficult in monitoring are the reason for lack of delegation. Research on Consequences of Delegation: Studies on the amount of delegation used by managers found that it is correlated with subordinate performance, profitability and sales growth but it is not clear whether delegation improves performance and better performance lead to more delegation. 4.7 Applications: Guidelines for Delegating This section describes some tentative guidelines what to delegate, how to delegate and how to manage delegates -- for effective use of delegations by managers. What to Delegate: Delegate both pleasant and unpleasant tasks that can be done better by subordinates, that are urgent but not of high priority, that are relevant to a subordinates career, of appropriate difficulties and not central to the mangers role. How to Delegate: When delegating, specify responsibilities clearly, provide adequate authority and specify limits of discretion, mention reporting requirements and ensure subordinate acceptance of responsibilities. How to Manage Delegation: After delegating responsibility to a subordinate, inform others who need to know, monitor progress, arrange for the subordinate to receive necessary information, provide support and assistance, avoid reverse delegation, and treat mistakes a learning experience. 4.8 Perceived Empowerment Managerial actions and decision processes are important determinant of empowerment in which people have more influence over work-related decisions.

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Nature of Psychological Empowerment: Psychological empowerment explains how efforts to empower people will be successful. Psychological empowerment is required as participative practices and employee involvement programs may not make people feel that their wok is important. Consequences of Empowerment: Beneficial consequences of empowerment include stronger task commitment, greater initiative, higher job satisfaction and fewer turnovers. Some potential costs and risks include higher cost for selection and training, inconsistent service quality and opposition by middle managers who feel threatened. Facilitating Conditions for Empowerment: Better job design, organization structure, organization culture, shared leadership, leader selection and assessment and procedure for influencing decisions are facilitating conditions for empowerment. How Leaders Can Increase Empowerment: Leaders can increase empowerment by involving people in making decision, delegating responsibility for important activities, expressing confidence and trust in people, encouraging and supporting initiative and problem solving, recognising important contributions and achievement among others.

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