Alma Mater Studiorum University of Bologna, August 22-26 2006

The effects of pre-existing moods on the emotional responses to music

Kari Kallinen, Timo Saari, Niklas Ravaja, and Mikko Salminen
M.I.N.D. Lab, Center for Knowledge and Innovation Research Helsinki School of Economics Helsinki, Finland kari.kallinen@hse.fi

ABSTRACT
In the present paper, we examined the effects of autobiographically induced mood and music on emotional evaluations of and psychophysiological responses to music in 48 subjects. Participants listened to music after a mood induction. Both music and induction varied on the dimensions of valence (pleasant - unpleasant) and arousal (high - low). During mood induction and listening to music, psychophysiological responses were measured continuously to assess physiological arousal (indexed by electrodermal activity) and the valence of the emotional state (indexed by facial muscle activity) of the participant. After listening to music, participants evaluated the music using pictorial scales for valence and arousal. As expected, subjects were in a more positive emotional state during listening to pleasant than unpleasant music and also evaluated the music more positively after a pleasant compared to an unpleasant pre-existing mood. As also expected, high-arousal music and pre-existing mood generated both higher
In: M. Baroni, A. R. Addessi, R. Caterina, M. Costa (2006) Proceedings of the 9th International Conference on Music Perception & Cognition (ICMPC9), Bologna/Italy, August 22-26 2006.2006 The Society for Music Perception & Cognition (SMPC) and European Society for the Cognitive Sciences of Music (ESCOM). Copyright of the content of an individual paper is held by the primary (first-named) author of that paper. All rights reserved. No paper from this proceedings may be reproduced or transmitted in any form or by any means, electronic or mechanical, including photocopying, recording, or by any information retrieval systems, without permission in writing from the paper's primary author. No other part of this proceedings may be reproduced or transmitted in any form or by any means, electronic or mechanical, including photocopying, recording, or by any information retrieval system, without permission in writing from SMPC and ESCOM.

physiological arousal and higher arousal ratings compared to low-arousal pre-existing mood and music. We found no support for the principle of mood-congruency, which posits that individuals preferentially process emotional stimuli that are congruent in emotional tone with their current mood state.

Keywords
Mood, music, induction, emotion, psychophysiology

INTRODUCTION
Given the rapidly increased number of studies on the impact of music on the listeners emotional state, the relationship between music and emotion is at present one of the hot topics in the psychology of music (see e.g., Juslin and Zentner, 2001). For example, a variety of self-report (e.g., emotional evaluations, emotional experiences), and physiological measures (e.g., heart rate [HR], skin conductance [SC], respiration rate, blood pressure, blood volume, muscular tension, motor and postural responses) have been used. However, the findings concerning the effects of music on these measures are inconclusive (see e.g., Iwanaga & Moroki, 1999; Perez, 2001). Musical compositions have been shown to prompt similar ratings of basic emotions (i.e., happiness, sadness, fear, and anger) across different listeners (e.g., Hevner, 1936; Tervogt & Van Grinsven, 1991). Different types of music have also been shown to induce varying emotion-related psychophysiological responses (e.g., Iwanaga & Moroki, 1999; Wivliet, 1998). For example, Davis and Thaut (1989) found that music aroused and increased autonomic and muscular activity. However, in addition to the music itself, recently the focus of the research has also been on the context of music listen-

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ing. It has been pointed out, that music is not an isolated entity but importantly connected into peoples everyday life (Sloboda, O'Neill, and Ivaldi, 2001). People listen to music, for example, to get themselves into a good mood, as well as background music in connection with a wide range of everyday activities, such as doing housework or driving a car. Presumably, people may also be in different emotional moods when starting to listen to music. Thus it can be assumed that both the external and internal context of music listening may play an important role in how we feel about the music. Even though quite rare, there are some studies on listening to music in different context (e.g., Kallinen, 2002, 2004), as well as using music to induce emotions (for a recent review, see Vstfjll, 2001). However, the studies that have examined the effects of preexiting mood on the emotional responses to emotionally loaded music seem to be lacking at present. In this study we wanted to examine how the pre-existing moods influence (a) the ratings of the emotional quality of music and (b) the physiological responses during listening to music. Given that it has been found that people often listen to music to get into a good mood (e.g., Sloboda, O'Neill, and Ivaldi, 2001) and that music is usually related to positive rather than negative emotional responses (e.g., Kallinen and Ravaja, in press), we predicted that participants would be in a more positive emotional state (as indexed by facial EMG) during listening to pleasant than unpleasant music (Hypothesis 1a) and evaluate the music more positively (as indexed by valence ratings) after a pleasant compared to an unpleasant pre-existing mood (Hypothesis1b). In regard to arousal dimension of emotion, we expected that higharousal music and pre-existing mood would generate both higher physiological arousal (as indexed by EDA; Hypothesis 2a) and higher arousal ratings (Hypothesis 2b) for the music compared to low-arousal pre-existing mood and music. This hypothesis was based on the assumption than subjects might want to maintain higher arousal during the task, given that anticipatory arousal is likely to be present in the beginning of an experiment and then get lower. However, we also expected that pre-existing mood and music would be related to each other according to so called mood-congruency principle, which posits that individuals preferentially process emotional stimuli that are congruent in emotional tone with their current mood state (Rusting, 1998). Thus we predicted that when in a good moods, people would perceive positively valenced music as more pleasant compared to negatively valenced music; in contrast, when in bad a mood, negatively valenced music would be expected to be perceived as more pleasant (Hypothesis 3).

tickets. The subjects were 21 men and 27 women ranging from 21 to 51 years of age (M = 25). Mood was induced by autobiographical memories varying in affective valence and arousal. There was one mood induction for each of the following emotion categories: higharousal pleasant (i.e., Joy), low-arousal pleasant (i.e., relaxation), high-arousal unpleasant (i.e., fear), and lowarousal unpleasant (i.e., depression). We chose 8 one-minute long pieces from the classical music repertoire on the basis of ratings in our earlier studies (see e.g., Kallinen and Ravaja, in press), which differed in terms of valence (i.e., pleasant, unpleasant) and arousal (i.e., high, low). Correspondingly to the emotional dimensions of mood inductions, there were two pieces of music for each of the following emotions: high-arousal pleasant (i.e., Final from Saint Saenss Carnival of Animals and Vivace from Haydns, Piano concerto in D), low-arousal pleasant (i.e., Bachs Inventio No. 8 in F and Marinis Passacaglia), high-arousal unpleasant (i.e., from the beginning of Borodins Symphony No. 2 and from the beginning of Mussorgskys Night on the bare mountain, and lowarousal unpleasant (i.e., from the beginning of the part 1 of Beethovens Symphony No. 4 and from the beginning of the Romanze from Schumanns, Symphony No. 4).

Measures
Subjects rated perceived emotion in terms of valence and arousal related to each music piece using 9-point pictorial scales which were presented on a computer screen. The valence scale consisted of 9 graphic depictions of human faces in expressions ranging from a severe frown (most negative) to a broad smile (most positive). Similarly, for arousal ratings, there were 9 graphical characters varying from a state of low visceral agitation to that of high visceral agitation. These scales resemble Lang's (1980) SelfAssessment Manikin. Subjects were asked to evaluate the impression the music gave them on the valence and arousal dimensions while they were listening to the music (i.e., emotion perceived; see Gabrielsson, 2002). Continuous psychophysiological recordings during the inductions and listening to music were used to validate the success of mood inductions and study the emotional state during listening to music. The valence dimension of emotion was assessed by zygomaticus major (ZM, an index of positive emotions) and corrugator supercilii (CS, an index of negative emotions) muscle regions. The arousal dimension of emotion was assessed during mood inductions (internal stimuli) by interbeat intervals (IBIs), which decrease when arousal increases (i.e., higher heart rate) and increase when arousal decreases (i.e., slower heart rate) and during music (external stimuli) by the frequency skin conductance responses (NS-SCR freq.), which increases when arousal increases and decreases when arousal decreases. The psychophysiological signals were recorded using Psylab measuring devices and data collection software (Contact Preci-

METHODS Subjects and materials

Forty-eight subjects with varying educational backgrounds participated in the study in return for two movie

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sion Instruments, London, UK). Standard procedures were used as reported thoroughly for example in Kallinen and Ravaja (2004).

Valence and arousal ratings

The GLM Repeated Measures analysis revealed significant main effects for the valence of induction, F(1,47) = 78.09, p < .001, arousal of induction, F(1,47) = 17.18, p <.001, valence of music, F(1,47) = 72.63, p < .001, and arousal of music, F(1,47) = 34.15, p <.001, in predicting valence ratings. The pleasant and the high-arousal mood inductions and music elicited more positive valence ratings compared to the unpleasant and the low-arousal mood inductions and music (valence ratings for the music after the pleasant and the unpleasant mood inductions, Ms = 5.66 and 4.37; valence ratings for the music after the high and the lowarousal mood inductions, Ms = 5.15 and 4.88; valence ratings for the music after the pleasant and the unpleasant music, Ms = 5.66 and 4.37; and valence ratings for the music after the high and the low-arousal music, Ms = 5.41 and 4.62). The interaction between the valence of induction and the valence of music in predicting the valence ratings was not significant (p = .15). In regard to the arousal ratings, the analysis revealed also significant main effects for the valence of induction, F(1,47) = 4.66, p < .05, arousal of induction, F(1,47) = 5.99, p <.05, valence of music, F(1,47) = 33.06, p < .001, and arousal of music, F(1,47) = 56.68, p <.001. The pleasant and the high-arousal mood inductions and music elicited higher arousal ratings compared to the unpleasant and the low-arousal mood inductions and music (arousal ratings for the music after the pleasant and the unpleasant inductions, Ms = 5.25 and 5.04; arousal ratings for the music after the high and the low-arousal inductions, Ms = 5.26 and 5.03; arousal ratings for the music after the pleasant and the unpleasant music, Ms = 5.45 and 4.85; and arousal ratings for the music after the high and the low-arousal music, Ms = 5.88 and 4.42).

Procedure
After a brief description of the experiment, the participant was asked to write a description of an event or a situation that evoked each of four emotionsjoy (delight), relaxation, fear, and depressionmost powerfully in his or her own life. We emphasized to the participants that the success of the experiment depended on the truthfulness of his or her descriptions. The participant was then seated in a comfortable armchair. Each of the 8 music pieces was paired with different mood inductions so that there were a total of 32 different trials (8 pieces x 4 inductions). Each trial (and an additional practice trial) consisted of (a) a 15-s mood induction period and (b) a presentation of music. The participant was instructed that the targeted emotion would be displayed on the computer screen, after which he or she should (a) read the appropriate description of an emotional event/situation written by him or her, (b) indicate that he or she was ready using the keyboard, and (c) create a vivid image of personally experiencing and participating in the event/situation for 15 s. After each trial, the participant rated the emotional quality of the music in terms of valence and arousal. The 32 trials were presented in a random order to each participant. The data on the valence and arousal ratings, and ZM, CS, and cardiac activity were pooled over the individual two pieces representing the same emotion (i.e., high-arousal pleasant, low-arousal pleasant, high-arousal unpleasant, and low-arousal unpleasant). Data were then analysed by the General Linear Model (GLM) Repeated Measures procedure in SPSS, with four within-subjects factors, i.e., valence of music (pleasant, unpleasant), arousal of music (high, low), valence of induction (pleasant, unpleasant), and arousal of induction (high, low). In regard to physiological analyses, the baseline value was also used as a covariate.

Psychophysiological Responses
The GLM Repeated Measures analysis revealed significant main effects for the valence of induction, F(1,39) = 5.80, p < .05, arousal of induction, F(1,39) = 10.13, p <.01, valence of music, F(1,39) = 6.99, p < .05, and arousal of music, F(1,39) = 9.70, p <.01, in predicting ZM activity. The pleasant and the high-arousal mood inductions and music elicited more ZM activity compared to the unpleasant and the low-arousal mood inductions and music (ZM activity during the music after the pleasant and the unpleasant mood inductions, Ms = 3.35 and 2.78 V; ZM activity during the music after the high and the low arousal mood inductions, Ms = 3.30 and 2.82 V; ZM activity during the pleasant and the unpleasant music, Ms = 3.15 and 2.98 V; and ZM activity during the high and the low arousal music, Ms = 3.13 and 2.99 V). The interaction between the valence of induction and the valence of music in predicting the ZM activity was not significant (p = .75).

RESULTS Manipulation Check

The GLM Repeated Measures analysis indicated that IBIs were shorter (i.e., higher HR) during the high-arousal mood inductions compared to the low-arousal mood inductions (Ms = 875.34 ms and 897.93 ms, respectively), F(1, 44) = 39.65, p < .001. The GLM Repeated Measures analysis also showed that zygomatic EMG activity was higher during the positive mood compared to the negative mood inductions (Ms = 9.60 and 7.13, respectively), F(1, 44) = 30.02, p < .001. The analysis also showed that corrugator supercilii activity was higher during the negative mood inductions compared to the positive mood inductions (Ms = 16.68 and 10.05, respectively), F(1, 44) = 40.48, p < .001.

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In predicting CS activity, a significant main effect for the valence of induction was found, F(1,40) = 19.68, p < .001. CS activity was higher during the music after the unpleasant than after the pleasant mood inductions, Ms = 6.77 and 4.75 V. The interaction between the valence of induction and the valence of music in predicting CS activity was not significant (p = .20). The GLM Repeated Measures analysis revealed significant main effects for the arousal of induction, F(1,42) = 13.10, p = .001, and arousal of music, F(1,42) = 5.69, p <.05, in predicting the NS-SCR frequency. The frequency of NSSCR was higher during the high arousal music and after the high-arousal induction than during the low-arousal music and after the low-arousal induction (NS-SCR freq. during the music after the high and the low arousal inductions, Ms = 0.99 and 0.80; NS-SCR freq. during the high and the low-arousal music, Ms = 0.96 and 0.83).

CONCLUSIONS
In the present paper, we examined the effects of preexisting mood, as elicited by autobiographical memories, and the emotional quality of music on emotional responses to music. As expected, subjects were in a more positive emotional state (i.e., higher ZM activity) during listening to pleasant than unpleasant music (Hypothesis 1a) and also evaluated the music more positively (i.e., higher valence ratings) after a pleasant compared to an unpleasant preexisting mood (Hypothesis1b). As also expected higharousal music and pre-existing mood generated both higher physiological arousal (i.e., higher electrodermal activity; Hypothesis 2a) and higher arousal ratings (Hypothesis 2b) compared to low-arousal pre-existing mood and music. Given that we also found that pleasant music elicited higher arousal ratings than unpleasant music, and higharousal music elicited higher valence ratings and ZM activity than low arousal-ratings, together the results imply that generally participants preferred and showed more positive responses to pleasant and high-arousal music and mood inductions compared to unpleasant and low-arousal music and mood inductions. The results are in line with previous research that has found that generally people listen to music for its positive, lifting up, influence on mood (Sloboda, O'Neill, and Ivaldi, 2001; Tarrant, North, and Hargreaves, 2000). Generally people also seem to prefer and like music with pleasant and high-arousal properties (Collier and Hubbard, 2001; Kallinen, submitted) However, in the present study we found no support for the principle of mood-congruency, which posits that individuals preferentially process emotional stimuli that are congruent in emotional tone with their current mood state. We expected (Hypothesis 3) that pre-existing mood and music similar in their affective tone (e.g., positive-positive, negative-negative) would prompt the highest level of pleasantness compared to pre-existing mood and music dissimilar

in their affective tone (e.g., positive-negative, high-arousal low-arousal). The interactions between pre-existing mood and music in predicting both valence ratings (self-report responses) as well as facial EMG (physiological indices of pleasantness) were not significant. The reasons for these findings are not clear at the moment. One interpretation could be that in the present connection, it may be that the positive effects of music were much stronger than negative, given that in music it may be difficult to elicit real negative responses in listeners (the problem with negative emotions in music, see e.g., Davies, 2001). Even though music may have been a priori rated as positively or negatively valenced, negatively valenced music may have failed to arouse negative responses during music, and therefore also negative evaluations after music listening. However, these interpretations must be further examined in follow-up studies. In summary, the present investigation showed that preexisting mood and the emotional quality of music exert an influence on pscyhophysiological responses to, and emotional judgments of music. The findings can be considered valid, given the high number of participants and the fact that pscyhophysiological measures nicely validated mood induction procedure. It seems that people can efficiently get themselves into different moods even during a mood induction procedure of short duration (as 15 sec). However, the effects of music may be so powerful that, at least in the present study, the pre-existing mood could not alter the emotion perceived in music, but only give it an additional effect. However, more research is needed to validate these ideas in a larger number of music pieces and in different music genres.

REFERENCES
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Iwanaga, M, & Moroki, Y. (1999). Subjective and Physiological Responses to Music Stimuli Controlled Over Activity and Preference, Journal of Music Therapy, XXXVI (1), 26-38. Juslin, N. & Zentner, M. (2001). Current trends in the study of music and emotion: Overture. Musicae Scientiae special issue 2001-2002, 3-22. Kallinen, K. (2002). Reading news from a pocket computer in a distracting environment: effects of the tempo of background music. Computers in Human Behavior, 18(5), 537551.

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Kallinen, K. (2004). The Effects of Background Music on using a Pocket Computer in a Cafeteria: Immersion, Emotional Responses, and Social Richness of Medium. Proceedings of CHI 2004. Kallinen, K. & Ravaja, N. (in Press). Emotion Perceived and Emotion felt: Same and Different. Musicae Scientiae. Kallinen, K. Melody Structure and Emotional Response The Effects of Mode, Tempo, Articulation, Appoggiatura and Subito Piano on Valence, Arousal and Liking Ratings of Melodies. Manuscript submitted for publication. Lang, P.J. (1980). Behavioral treatment and bio-behavioral assessment: Computer applications. In J.B. Sidowski, J.H. Johnson, & T.A. Williams (Eds.), Technology in mental

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