CHEMISTRY

4.1

2010
Element/ symbol Lithium, Li Sodium, Na Potassium, K 3. Electron config 2.1 2.8.1 2.8.8.1 Decreasing boiling point, melting point, electropositivity and hardness. 2. At room temperature, chlorine is a gas, bromine is a liquid, and iodine is a solid. Element/ Electron symbol config Increasing Fluorine, boiling 2.7 F point, Chlorine, melting 2.8.7 Cl point, density and Bromine, 2.8.8.7 radius Br Iodine, 2.8.18.8.7 *reactivity I decreases. Astatine, 2.8.18.18.8.7 At 3. Physical properties of halogen: All are coloured Have pungent & irritating smell (liquid)

GROUP 18 ELEMENTS: Noble Gases (Monoatomic gas) 1. These noble gases in group 18 of the Periodic Table make up almost 1% of the air. 2. All noble gases do not: (a) Dissolve in water, (b) Conduct electricity (c) Conduct heat (d) Monoatomic gases at room temperature. Element/ Electron Symbol config Helium, 2 He Increasing Neon, 2.8 boiling Ne point, Argon, 2.8.8 melting Ar point, Krypton, density 2.8.18.8 Kr and radius Xenon, 2.8.18.18.8 Xe Radon, 2.8.18.32.8 Ra 3. Except for He, all of the noble gas atoms have 8 electrons in their outer most shells. This arrangement called the octet configuration. Thus, the arrangement of He (with 2 electrons in outer most shells extremely stable electron arrangement) is duplex electron configuration. 4. Boiling point and melting point are low because they have very low intermolecular force of attraction (Van der Waals force). 5. Density is low because the molecules are far apart from each other (big size molecules will have bigger intermolecular forces of attraction). 6. Low reactivity of noble gases due to unusual high large ionization energies and unusual low electron affinity. 7. Uses: (a) Helium super conductors, fill airships and weather balloons, divers tank (80% He, 20% O2), cool metals down. (b) Neon advertising light (glow red in low pressure tubes), fill television tubes. (c) Argon fill light bulbs (does not react with tungsten filament), welding (prevent hot metal from reacting with O2 from the air). (d) Krypton laser surgery, photographic flash lamps. (e) Xenon lighthouse lamps (blue light), making electron tubes. (f) Radon cancer treatment.

4.

5.

6.

7.

8.

4.2
1. 2.

GROUP 1 ELEMENTS: Alkali metals They are all metals which react with water to form alkaline solution. All alkali metals are, (a) Solid (b) Silvery and shiny surfaces (c) Soft and melt easily (d) Conductors of electricity

*only density and radius increasing. The melting points, boiling points and hardness of the atoms decrease down the group because the size of the atoms increases down the group causes the metallic bonding between atoms become weaker. The radius of the atoms increases down the group because the lower members have more shells of electrons. Thus, mass of atom increases. The density increases down the group due to its increasing mass and will produce stronger intermolecular attraction. The atoms are closer, resulting in their densities being higher. Electropositivity is a measure of the ability of an atom to lose its valence electrons. The valence electrons of the lower members are further away from the nucleus, and can be easily donated. Thus, electropositivity increases down the group. Chemical properties: (a) Reactivity depends on their ability to give away the valence electron (increase down the group). (b) Alkali metals react with oxygen gas to form metal oxides. Example: Na(s) O2(g) Na2O (c) Alkali metals react with water to form alkaline metal hydroxide solution and hydrogen gas. Example: 2K(s) 2H2O( ) 2KOH(aq) H2(g) (d) Alkali metals react with halogen (fluorine, chlorine and bromine) to form colourless, crystalline ionic salts called halides. Example: 2Li(s) Cl2(g) 2LiCl(s) 2Na(s) Br2( ) 2NaBr(s) 2K(s) I2(s) 2KI(s) Safety precautions: (a) Lithium, sodium, and potassium are highly reactive to water and air, thus must be kept under non reactive liquid (paraffin oil). (b) Reaction of potassium, rubidium, caesium and francium are explosive. Thus, a small piece should be used always during experiment. (c) Never handle those alkali metals with your fingers because it can react with moist which will form a corrosive hydroxide. GROUP 17 ELEMENTS: Halogens (diatomic molecules) Halogens are not conductors of heat and electricity.

Non-metal

Chlorine Bromine Iodine

Do not conduct electricity Cl (g), Br (l), I (s)

Poisonous

4.

5.

Chemical properties of halogen: (a) Halogens react with heated aluminium to produce powdery solid halides. Example: 3Cl2(g) 2Al(s) 2AlCl3(s) 3Br2( ) 2Al(s) 2AlBr3(s) (b) Halogens react with phosphorus to form phosphorus halides. (c) Halogens react with H2 to form halides. Example: Cl2(g) H2(s) 2HCl(s) Br2( ) H2 (s) 2HBr(s) (d) Halogens react among themselves. Example: I2(s) Cl2(g) 2HCl(s) Safety precautions: (a) Vapour of fluorine, chlorine, and bromine are poisonous. (b) Iodine affects negatively the respiration of all living things. (c) Astatine is radioactive. (d) All experiments of halogens should be done inside a fume chamber. (e) Safety goggles and gloves should be used.

4.4
1. 2.

4.3
1.

TRANSITION ELEMENTS: Group 3 to group 12. All elements in this block of the Periodic Table have similar properties. Physical properties: (a) Hard, shiny and dense, (b) Good conductors of heat and electricity, (c) Are malleable and ductile, (d) High tensile strength,

THEME: Matter Around Us

CHEMISTRY
(e)

2010
 Contact process (manufacture sulphuric acid) Vanadium(V) oxide.  Ostwald process (manufacture nitric acid) Platinum.  Hydrogenation of vegetable oil (manufacture margarine) - nickel, gases is called anions (more electrons than protons non-metal atoms). y Non-metal atoms are electronegative group 15, 16 and 17. 3y Example: N e N

3.

4.

Radius of all transition elements is almost constant, (f) Decreasing from left to right boiling point and melting point (g) Increasing from left to right proton number and density, electronegativity (increase slowly). Below are some of the transition elements: Proton Elements Symbol number Scandium Sc 21 Titanium Ti 22 Vanadium V 23 Chromium Cr 24 Manganese Mn 25 Iron Fe 26 Cobalt Co 27 Nickel Ni 28 Copper Cu 29 Zinc Zn 30 Special characteristic: (a) Majority of the transition elements have more than one oxidation number in their compounds.
Compound Potassium dichromate (IV) Chromium (II) chloride Manganese (II) chloride Manganese (IV) oxide Potassium manganate (VI) Potassium manganate (VII) Iron(II) chloride Iron(III) chloride Nickel(II) sulphate Nickel(III) bromide Copper(I) chloride Copper(II) oxide Formula K2Cr2O7 CrCl3 MnCl2 MnO2 K2MnO4 Oxidation number +6

CHAPTER 5: Chemical Bonds

5.1
1. FORMATION OF COMPOUNDS Conditions for the formation of chemical bonds include the following: (a) Electrons in completely filled shells do not take part in bond formation. (b) Only valence electrons are involved in bond formation. (c) The combining atoms will change their electron arrangements to achieve the stable noble gas electron arrangements. The octet rule 2.8.18.32.18.8. IONIC BONDS (Electrovalent bonds) Ionic bond is the chemical bond formed from the transfer of electron from metal atoms to non-metal atoms. Formation of ionic bond are as follows:
Charge of 7 protons Charge of 7 electrons Total charge =+7 =-7 =0 Charge of 7 protons Charge of 10 electrons Total charge =+7 =-10 = -3

5.

Formation of ionic bonds:

A. Formation of potassium chloride, KCl (a) Figure below shows the transfer of one electron from a potassium atom to a chlorine atom to form the ionic compound potassium chloride.

2.

Elements Chromium

5.2
1.

+3 +2 +4 +6

Manganese

2.

KMnO4 FeCl2 FeCl3 NiSO4 NiBr3 CuCl CuO

+7 +2 +3 +2 +3 +1 +2

Iron

(b)

Nickel

Copper

3.

Most transition elements form coloured ions as shown below: Formula of Colour Ions the ions (aqueous) 2Chromate(VI) CrO4 Yellowish 2Dichromate(VI) Cr2O7 Orange 2+ Iron(II) Fe Greenish 3+ Iron(III) Fe Brownish 2+ Copper(II) Cu Bluish 2+ Cobalt(II) Co Pale reddish Manganate(VII) MnO4 Purple 3+ Chromium(III) Cr Greenish (c) Many of the transition elements are able to from complex ions. (d) Many of the transition elements can act as catalyst. Catalysts are used in chemical reaction to speed up the rate of a reaction. A few industrial processes that use these elements or their compounds as catalysts are:  Haber process (manufacture ammonia) iron.

(b)

Formation of cations (positive ions): y An atom that loses their valence electrons to achieve stable duplet or octet electron arrangement similar to noble gases is called cation (fewer electrons than protons metal atoms). y Metal atoms are more electropositive group 1, 2 and 13. + y Example: Li Li e

The oppositely-charged ions, K and Cl , formed are then strongly attracted to each other by strong electrostatic forces in the crystal lattice, called ionic bonds or electrovalent bonds. Hence, the ionic compound potassium chloride with the formula KCl is formed.

B. Formation of calcium sulphide, CaS (a) Figure below shows the transfer of electrons from a calcium atom to a sulphur atom to form the ionic compound calcium sulphide.

Charge of 3 protons Charge of 3 electrons Total charge

=+3 =-3 =0

Charge of 7 protons Charge of 10 electrons Total charge

=+3 =-2 = +1

4.

Formation of anions (negative ions): y An atom that accept electrons into their valence shells to achieve the stable octet electron arrangement similar to noble

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2010
2+ 2-

The oppositely-charged ions, Ca and S , formed are then strongly attracted to each other by ionic bond. Hence, the ionic compound calcium sulphide with the formula CaS is formed.

4.

When two atoms share two pairs of electrons, a double covalent bond is formed.

H + xO x + H
xx

xx

H x O x H or H O H
xx

xx

X
5.

xY x

x xY

or X Y

C. Formation of magnesium fluoride, MgF2 (a) Figure below shows the transfer of two electrons from a magnesium atom to two fluorine atoms to form the ionic compound magnesium fluoride.

When two atoms share three pairs of electrons, a triple covalent bond is formed.

Formation of double covalent bonds Formation of oxygen molecule, O2

X
6.

x xY x

x xY x

or X Y

7.

(b)

The oppositely-charged ions, Mg and F , formed are then strongly attracted to each ionic bond. Hence, the ionic compound magnesium fluoride with the formula MgF2 is formed.

2+

Hence, there are three types of covalent bonds: (a) Single covalent bond (b) Double covalent bond (c) Triple covalent bond Remember that during the formation of covalent bonds: (a) An atom of a Group 17 element contributes one electron for sharing. (b) An atom of a Group 16 element contributes two electrons for sharing. (c) A hydrogen atom contributes one electron for sharing. (d) A silicon or carbon atom from Group 14 contributes four electrons for sharing with two or more atoms of other elements.

Lewis structure:

O +x xO

xx

xx

xx x xO xx

or O O

Formation of triple covalent bonds Formation of nitrogen molecule, N2

Formation of single covalent bonds A. Formation of chlorine molecule, Cl2

5.3 Covalent Bonds 1. Covalent bonds are formed when atoms of non-metals combine with each other to form a molecule share electron to achieve stable noble gas electron arrangements. 2. Non-metal elements are from Group 15, 16, 17, carbon and silicon from Group 14 in Periodic Table. Lewis Structure 1. The Lewis structure of a molecule shows how the valence electrons of the atoms are arranged in the molecule. 2. Example: (a) A helium atom has two valence electrons. Therefore, its Lewis structure is as follows:

Lewis structure:

Nx N +x x x

N x or N N N x x x

Lewis structure:

e
(b) A neon atom has eight valence electrons. Its Lewis structure is as follows:

Cl + xCl x x
xx

xx

x x or Cl Cl Cl x Cl xx

xx

B. Formation of water molecule, H2O

Method to deduce the formulae of covalent compounds 1. Covalent compounds are usually formed from non-metal elements. 2. Valency of a non-metal is the number of electrons needed by an atom of the nonmetal to achieve a stable noble gas electron arrangement. It shows the combining power of the element.
Element Group 17 Group 16 Group 15 Carbon and silicon in Group 14 Hydrogen Number of valence electrons 7 6 5 4 1 Valency 1 2 3 4 1

Ne
Types of covalent bonds 1. During the formation of a covalent bond between two atom, each atom contributes 1, 2 and 3 electrons for sharing. 2. In so doing, the two atoms share 1, 2 or 3 pairs of electrons so as to achieve stable noble gas electron arrangements. 3. When two atoms share one pair of electrons, a single covalent bond is formed.
xY xY

3.

The formula of a molecule formed between two non-metals R and T can be determined as follows. Let say R has a valency of and Q has a valency of .
R Q

or

Y
Lewis structure:

Element Valency Number of atoms combined

Simplest whole number ratio of the number of atoms of R : Q = : = :

THEME: Matter Around Us

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3. Melting and boiling points of covalent compounds (a) Covalent compounds are composed of molecules. (b) The bonding in these covalent compound consists of y Strong covalent bonds between the atoms in the molecule. y Weak forces of attraction between the molecules. (c) Figure below shows the two types of bonding in liquid tetra chloromethane, CCl4.
Cl Cl Cl
weak intermolecular forces between the molecules

4.

(where and are the simplest whole numbers) Molecular formula = R mQn The molecular formulae of covalent molecules formed from non-metals from Group 14, 15, 16, and 17 are deduced as shown below:
Non-metal Q Group 17 Group 16 Group 17 Group 17 Molecular formula PQ4 PQ2 PQ3 PQ2

(a) (b) (c) (d)

P Group 14 Group 14 Group 15 Group 16

(e)

Comparison between the formation of ionic and covalent bonds

Ionic bond It is formed when metal atoms combine with nonmetal atoms. It involves transfer of electrons from metal atoms to non-metal atoms. Metal atoms lose electrons to form positive ions, whereas non-metal atoms gain electrons to form negative ions. Formation of positive and negative ions enables the ions to achieve stable noble gas electron arrangements. Oppositely-charged ions are attracted together by strong electrostatic forces, known as ionic bonds. Covalent bond It is formed when nonmetal atoms combine with non-metal atoms. It involves sharing of electrons between atoms and non-metals. Each non-metal atom contributes an equal number of electrons for sharing. Two atoms share 1, 2 and 3 pairs of electrons to enable each atom to achieve a stable noble gas electron arrangement. Atoms in a molecule are bonded together by covalent bonds, whereas molecules are held together by weak forces of attraction.

Cl Cl Cl Cl Cl
strong covalent bond in the molecule

(f)
Cl Cl Cl Cl Cl Cl Cl Cl

Covalent compounds are composed of covalent molecules. Water cannot hydrate covalent molecules. Thus, covalent compounds usually cannot dissolve in water. Covalent molecules in the covalent compounds and organic molecules in the organic solvents are both held together by weak intermolecular forces of attraction. Hence, the covalent molecules in the covalent compounds are easily miscible with the organic molecules in the organic solvents because they have the same type of weak intermolecular forces of attraction. Hence, covalent compounds usually can dissolve in organic solvents.

(d)

4.

5.4 1.

Properties of Ionic and Covalent Compounds Table below shows the properties of ionic and covalent compounds.
Ionic compounds Covalent compounds (composed of simple molecules) Have low melting and boiling points. Usually exist as volatile liquids or gases at room temperature. Do not conduct electricity in the solid and liquid states.

Have high melting and boiling points. Exist as solids at room temperature, non-volatile. Conduct electricity in the molten state or aqueous solution but do not conduct electricity in the solid state. Usually soluble in water but insoluble in organic solvents such as ether, alcohol, benzene, tetrachloromethane and propanone.

5.

Usually insoluble in water but soluble in organic solvent such as ether alcohol, benzene, tetrachloromethane, and propanone.

2.

Melting and boiling points of ionic compounds (a) Ionic compounds are composed of oppositely-charged ions arranged in a three-dimensional giant crystal lattice. (b) The oppositely-charged ions are held together by strong electrostatic forces known as ionic compound. (c) A lot of heat energy is needed to break the strong ionic bonds during melting or boiling. (d) Hence, ionic compounds have high melting and boiling points with low volatility.

6.

7.

In a covalent compound, the covalent molecules are held together by weak forces of attraction. (e) A small amount of heat energy is required to overcome the weak intermolecular forces of attraction during melting or boiling. (f) Hence, the covalent compound has a low melting and boiling points with high volatility. Electrical conductivity of ionic compounds (a) Ionic compounds are composed of oppositely-charged ions. (b) In the solid state, the positive and negative ions are locked in fixed positions and cannot move freely. (c) In the molten and aqueous states, the positive and negative ions are mobile, or can move freely. Hence, ionic compounds can conduct electricity in the molten or aqueous state. Electrical conductivity of covalent compounds (a) Covalent compounds are composed of simple covalent molecules in the solid, liquid and gaseous states. (b) There are no free mobile ions in these three states. (c) Hence, covalent compounds cannot conduct electricity in all states. Solubility of ionic compounds (a) Ionic compounds are composed of ions. (b) The ions are easily hydrated by water molecules librates heat energy. (c) As a result, ionic compounds usually can dissolve in water. (d) Organic solvents such as ether, alcohol, benzene and tetra chloromethane are organic compounds which cannot hydrate ions. (e) As a result, ionic compounds cannot dissolve in organic solvents. Solubility of covalent compounds

Types of covalent molecules 1. There are two types of covalent molecules. (a) Simple covalent molecules such as water, carbon dioxide, ammonia and tetrachloromethane. (b) Macromolecules or giant molecules such as silicon dioxide and diamond. 2. In a macromolecule, all the atoms are bonded to each other by covalent bonds in a giant lattice structure. 3. These macromolecules (a) Have high melting and boiling points because a lot of heat energy is needed to break the strong covalent bonds in the giant lattice structure. (b) Cannot conduct electricity because they do not have free mobile ions. (c) Are insoluble in water. Use of covalent compound as solvents 1. Many covalent compounds have low melting and boiling points. Hence, they exists as liquids at room temperature and are volatile. 2. Covalent compounds in the form of liquids are mostly used as solvents in our daily life. Most of these liquids are organic compounds. They are known as organic solvents. 3. Examples of some common organic solvent are alcohols such as ethanol, propanone, chloroform (trichloromethane), turpentine and petrol. 4. Organic solvents are used (a) As solvents to prepare solution. (b) To remove and clean dirt on surface which cannot be removed by water. 5. Some examples of the uses of organic solvents are: y Turpentine dissolve paint y Petrol/kerosene remove greasy/oily dirt y Alcohol/propanone/turpentine prepare varnish/shellac/lacquer y Alcohol preparation of iodine solution (medicine) y Ethers extraction of chemicals from aqueous solution y Chlorofluorocarbons (CFC) clean computer circuit boards.

THEME: Matter Around Us

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(b) 3. Electrodes are usually made of graphite and platinum. Electrolytic cell is an electric circuit with the following features. (a)

CHAPTER 6: Electrochemistry
6.1 Electrolytes and non-electrolytes 6.1.1 Electrolytes 1. A liquid is an electrolyte if (a) Is contains charge particles, (b) Its charge particles are free to move through it 2. Most electrolytes are generally produced from ionic solids. 3. When ionic solid is melted, the ions are free to move and they can carry an electric current. The melted ionic solid is an electrolyte. 4. When an ionic solid is dissolved in water, the aqueous-ions are free to move. These ions can carry the electric current too. 5. Some molecular substances can also dissolve in water and they are electrolytes because they can carry electric current too. 6. Generally, the following are electrolytes: (a) Molten salts such as molten lead(II) bromide. (b) Solutions of salts in water such as sodium chloride solution. (c) Solutions of acids in water such aqueous hydrochloric acid. (d) Solution of alkalis in water such as aqueous sodium hydroxide. 7. In brief, we can say: (a) Electrolytes are compounds, which do not conduct electricity when solid, but do conduct when molten or dissolved in water. (b) Electrolytes are made up of ions. When molten or dissolved in water, the ions are free to move. 6.1.2 Non-electrolytes 1. Non-electrolytes is substances that cannot conduct electricity in either molten state or aqueous state because they do not have ions. For example: (a) Sulphur (b) Wood (c) Naphthalene (d) Sugar (e) tetrachloromethane 6.2 Electrolytes of molten compounds 6.2.1 Electrolysis process

1. 2.

Electrolysis is the break-down of a substance by electricity. Electrodes are any terminal by which an electric current goes in or come out of conducting substance. (a) They are made of materials, which do not react with the electrolyte,

THEME: Matter Around Us