NEW FINDINGS IN COSMOLOGY

New Findings means findings experimental and theoretical after1920. Every thing before this period considered to be either wrong or irrelevant. Cosmology means the study of large scale structure and evolution of the universe treating the galaxy as the elementary unit. 21st Century Cosmology is Precision Cosmology

The field of cosmology has experienced an explosion of activity since the discovery of ripples in the energy of the primordial light of the big bang by the COBE satellite in 1992. Cosmology is the study of the origin, evolution, and fate of objects in the observable universe. These include galaxies like our Milky Way, a vast collection of stars spanning many thousands of light years. The key to the birth and evolution of such objects lies in the primordial ripples observed through light shining through from the early universe.

As cosmologists, the main paradigms we work under are known (rather inapproprately) as the big-bang model for the global evolution of the universe and the gravitational instability paragdigm for the formation of objects or structure in the universe. The big bang model says that the universe began hot and dense but is expanding and cooling.

The gravitational instability models says: we know large masses like the earth attract, for example by the fact that you remain on the surface of the earth rather than flung off of it as it spins, like water off a wet dog. Even a small mass attracts, so that small ripples in the mass density early on in the history of the universe can grow into the galaxies we see today in the night sky.

SRUCTURAL HIREARCHY
GALAXY GROUP CLUSTER SUPER CLUSTER HUBBLE RADIUS

OUR OWN MILKY WAY GALAXY

OUR LOCAL GROUP (LG) CONTAINING ABOUT 20 GALAXIES

OUR LOCAL CLUSTER OF GALAXIES UP TO 1000 GALAXIES WITH 5 Mpc EXTENSION

A TYPICAL SUPER CLUSTER 10 TIMES MASSIVE THAN CLUSTER

THIS IS THE HUBBLE VOLUME WHICH IS THE LIMIT OF OBSERVALE UNIVERSE

How far can we see ?

Naked eye: 2 million Lyr (Andromeda galaxy) Large telescopes: 14 billion Lyr (z=5.8) What are the limiting factors ?
* there are no bright sources at high z * light is redshifted into the infrared * absorption

The universe appears to be fairly transparent out to z=5.8

Why Galaxy is Basic Unit?

Our milky way has 2x1011 Solar mass, has 30kpc. Visible diameter and contains about 1011 stars. Still it is considered as a point since the observable universe has a size of 3000Mpc. Which is 105 times bigger. If the size of the universe is 1 km. Size of milky way is only 1cm.

Some common misconceptions

The picture that the Universe expands into a preexisting space like an explosion The question what was before the big bang? Remember: spacetime is part of the solution to Einsteins equation Space and time are created in the big bang

Testing the Sun-centered model Prediction: Observation: Observation: Sun at center of Cosmos Sun is not at center of universe (1918) The galaxy is not the entire universe (1923)

Edwin Hubble (1889-1953)

Four major accomplishments in extragalactic astronomy The establishment of the Hubble classification scheme of galaxies The convincing proof that galaxies are island universes The distribution of galaxies in space The discovery that the universe is expanding

The Hubble tuning fork

The Hubble tuning fork

Elliptical galaxies (E0-E7)

classified according to their flattening: 10(1-b/a) classified according to their bulge-to-disk ratio Sa: large bulge, Sd: small bulge S0: transition spiral to elliptical classified according to their bulge to disk ratio

Spiral galaxies (S0, Sa-Sd)

Barred spiral galaxies (SB0, SBa-SBd)

Irregular galaxies (Irr)

The cosmic distance ladder

Parallax

solar neighborhood (< 1 kpc) distances within the Galaxy (<100 kpc) nearby galaxies (< 20 Mpc)

Main sequence fitting

Cepheids

Tully-Fisher relation (Intinsic luminosity and velocity width for spirals - empirical)

distant galaxies (< 500 Mpc) cosmological distances (~ 1 Gpc)

Type 1a supernovae (white dwarf accretion from companion)

General acceptance of the big bang model

Until mid 60ies: big bang model very controversial, many alternative models After mid 60ies: little doubt on validity of the big bang model Four pillars on which the big bang theory is resting:
* * * * Hubbles law Cosmic microwave background radiation The origin of the elements Structure formation in the universe

Evidence for an expanding universe

The spectrum of hydrogen gas is the unique fingerprint of that element

Hydrogen lamp

Evidence for an expanding universe

When we see a repeat of the pattern we saw in the lab, we know hydrogen is present

Orion Nebula

Evidence for an expanding universe

We see the same repeating pattern of lines in a galaxy, but displaced to the red

Galaxy UGC 12915 (Uppsala General Catalog of Galaxies)

Evidence for an expanding universe

The further the galaxy, the more the shift to the red

Galaxy UGC 12508 z ( )/, z V /c. Newtonian formula

The redshift-distance relation

By looking at the original plot of Hubble one feels that it requires the master work of a genius to fit a linear relation between distance and velocity from the plot. But apart from the appearance of the plot it seems that a more fundamental cosmological property is behind that conclusion.

Basic Postulates of Cosmology

Weyl Postulate Trajectories of special class of observers to be identified as galaxies form a bundle of noninteracting lines in space time so that there is a unique line passing through each point in space at any given time.

Cosmological Principle
At any epoch t, the universe is homogeneous and isotropic. This means that given any position in the universe and any direction it is viewed from that position the large scale aspect of the universe is same for all fundamental observers. The distance velocity relation which hubble verified experimentally is a direct consequence of these postulates.

Does the cosmological principle apply to our universe ?

The cosmic microwave background radiation (CMB) = afterglow from the big bang. Its smooth to 1 part in 105 yes, the universe appears to be homogeneous and isotropic

What are the consequences ?

In order to form hydrogen and helium at the right proportions, the following conditions are required:
10-5 g/cm-3 * density: T 109 K * temperature:

Radiation from this epoch should be obser-vable as an isotropic background radiation Due to the expansion of the universe to 310-30 g/cm3, the temperature should have dropped to T 5 K (-450 F) Can we observe this radiation ?

Georgy Gamov (1904-1968)

If the universe is expanding, then there has been a big bang Therefore, the early universe must have been very dense and hot Optimum environment to breed the elements by nuclear fusion (Alpher, Bethe & Gamow, 1948)
* success: predicted that helium abundance is 25% * failure: could not reproduce elements more massive than lithium and beryllium ( formed in stars)

The discovery of the relic radiation

Gamovs result on the background radiation was not well recognized by the scientific community Result was rediscovered by Dicke and Peebles in the early sixties. They started developing an antenna to search for the background radiation T 5 K microwaves but

Penzias and Wilson 1965

Working at Bell labs Used a satellite dish to measure radio emission of the Milky Way They found some extra noise in the receiver, but couldnt explain it discovery of the background radiation Most significant cosmological observation since Hubble Nobel prize for physics 1978

Future, past, and elsewhere

Future
s <0
2

s >0
2

elsewhere

elsewhere

Past
s2>0

s2<0

Principle of causality
All observers agree that B is in the past of A and C is in the future Some see A happen first, some see D happen first

C D A B

Cause must always precede the effect A must not influence D and vice versa nothing can move faster than speed of light

# NASA's Wilkinson Microwave Anisotropy Probe (WMAP) has mapped the Cosmic Microwave Background (CMB) radiation (the oldest light in the universe) and produced the first fine-resolution (0.2 degree) full-sky map of the microwave sky # WMAP definitively determined the age of the universe to be 13.73 billion years old to within 1% (0.12 billion years) -as recognized in the Guinness Book of World Records! # WMAP nailed down the curvature of space to within 1% of "flat" Euclidean, improving on the precision of previous award-winning measurements by over an order of magnitude

# The CMB became the "premier baryometer" of the universe with WMAP's precision determination that ordinary atoms (also called baryons) make up only 4.6% of the universe (to within 0.1%) # WMAP's complete census of the universe finds that dark matter (not made up of atoms) make up 23.3% (to within 1.3%) # WMAP's accuracy and precision determined that dark energy makes up 72.1% of the universe (to within 1.5%), causing the expansion rate of the universe to speed up. - "Lingering doubts about the existence of dark energy and the composition of the universe dissolved when the WMAP satellite took the most detailed picture ever of the cosmic microwave background (CMB)." - Science Magazine 2003, "Breakthrough of the Year" article

# WMAP has mapped the polarization of the microwave radiation over the full sky and discovered that the universe was reionized earlier than previously believed. "WMAP scores on large-scale structure. By measuring the polarization in the CMB it is possible to look at the amplitude of the fluctuations of density in the universe that produced the first galaxies. That is a real breakthrough in our understanding of the origin of structure." - ScienceWatch: "What's Hot in Physics", Simon Mitton, Mar./Apr. 2008 # WMAP has started to sort through the possibilities of what transpired in the first trillionth of a trillionth of a second, ruling out well-known textbook models for the first time

# The statistical properties of the CMB fluctuations measured by WMAP appear "random"; however, there are several hints of possible deviations from simple randomness that are still being assessed. Significant deviations would be a very important signature of new physics in the early universe. # WMAP has put the "precision" in "precision cosmology" by reducing the allowed volume of cosmological parameters by a factor of 30,000. The three most highly cited physics and astronomy papers published in the new millennium are WMAP scientific papers--- reflecting WMAP's enormous impact.

Key results

Most galaxies are moving away from us The recession speed v is larger for more distant galaxies. The relation between recess velocity v and distance d fulfills a linear relation: v = H0 d Hubbles measurement of the constant H0: H0 = 500 km/s/Mpc todays best fit value of the constant: H0 = 72 km/s/Mpc

So why was Hubbles original measurement so far off ?

Distance measurement based on the period-luminosity relation of Cepheid stars What are Cepheids? They are variable pulsating stars

So why was Hubbles original measurement so far off ?

There exists a luminosity-period relation for Cepheid stars

So why was Hubbles original measurement so far off ?

there are two populations of Cepheids (but Hubble was not aware of that) type I: metal rich stars (disk of galaxies) type II: metal poor stars (halo of galaxies) type II Cepheids are less luminous than type I Cepheids

Consequence
Distance scale was calibrated based on type II Cepheids Distances to other galaxies were measured using type I Cepheids yard stick was systematically to small

Type of Radiation Radio waves Microwaves Optical X-rays Gamma Rays

Wavelength / Frequency / Energy Range 4080MHz 80cm - 1mm 4000 A 8000 A 1 40 keV 100 MeV

Energy Density in cgs units 10-18 4x10-13 3.5x10-15 10-16 2x10-17

Radiation energy density is maximum in the microwave band. This energy corresponds to a matter density 4x10-34 g cm-3. Density of visible matter at present at present is 3x10-31 g cm-3 higher by three orders of magnitude. Present era is appropriately called matter dominated. Discoveries in the last decade of past century renmamed it as dark energy dominated era.

The entire Universe in one line

8 G G = 4 T c Distribution of Geometry of

spacetime (Einstein tensor)

mass and energy in the universe (stress-energy tensor)

Why is general relativity (GR) difficult ?

conceptually difficult (relativity of space and time, curvature of spacetime) set of 10 coupled partial differential equations non linear (solutions do not superpose) space and time are part of the solution

exact solution known only for a very few simple cases

Implications of GR for cosmology

Expanding universe produces redshift z, where

Note:

a (to ) 1 1+ z = = a (te ) a (te )

z can have any value from 0 to z is a measure of te often interpret z using relativistic Doppler shift formula

c+ v 1+ z = cv

Lets apply Einsteins equation to the Universe

What is the solution of Einsteins equation for a homogeneous, isotropic mass distribution?
As in Newtonian dynamics, gravity is always attractive a homogeneous, isotropic and initially static universe is going to collapse under its own gravity Alternative: expanding universe (Friedmann)

Einsteins proposal: cosmological constant

There is a repulsive force in the universe

vacuum exerts a pressure empty space is curved rather than flat

The repulsive force compensates the attractive gravity static universe is possible but: such a universe turns out to be unstable: one can set up a static universe, but it simply does not remain static Einstein: greatest blunder of his life, but is it really ?

A metric of an expanding Universe

Recall: flat space

s = ( ct ) x y z
2 2 2 2 2

better: using spherical coordinates ( r,,)

s = ( ct ) r 2 r 2 2 r 2 sin 2 2
2 2

A metric of an expanding Universe

But, this was for a static space. How does this expression change if we consider an expanding space ?
s = ( ct ) R 2 (t )( r 2 + r 2 2 + r 2 sin 2 2 )
2 2

R(t) is the so-called scale factor

How old is the universe?

A galaxy at distance d recedes at velocity v=H0 d. When was the position of this galaxy identical to that of our galaxy? Answer: d 1 t Hubble = = v H0

: Hubble time. For H0 = 72 km/s/Mpc: tHubble = 13.72 Gyr

A metric of an expanding Universe

But, so far, we only considered a flat space. What, if there is curvature ?

2 2 r 2 2 2 2 2 2 R (t ) 1 kr 2 + r + r sin

s 2 = ( ct )

k is the curvature constant

k=0: flat space k>0: spherical geometry k<0: hyperbolic geometry

A metric of an expanding Universe

But, so far, we only considered a flat space. What, if there is curvature ? k>0 k=0 k<0

k is the curvature constant

k=0: flat space k>0: spherical geometry k<0: hyperbolic geometry

Cosmological redshift

While a photon travels from a distance source to an observer on Earth, the Universe expands in size from Rthen to Rnow. Not only the Universe itself expands, but also the wavelength of the photon .

received

Rnow = emitted Rthen

Cosmological redshift

General definition of redshift:

received emitted z= emitted

for cosmological redshift:

1+ z =

received emitted

Rnow = Rthen

A large redshift z implies ...

The spectrum is strongly shifted toward red or even infrared colors The object is very far away We see the object at an epoch when the universe was much younger than the present day universe most distant astrophysical object discovered so far: z=5.8 z>5.8: dark ages

Lets switch to general relativity

Friedmann equation
2

8 G 2 2 v = R kc 3

k is the curvature constant

k=0: flat space, forever expanding k>0: spherical geometry, eventually recollapsing k<0: hyperbolic geometry, forever expanding

A metric of an expanding Universe

Robertson-Walker metric
2 2 2 r 2 2 2 2 2 2 R (t ) 1 kr 2 + r + r sin

s = ( ct )

R(t) is the scale factor k is the curvature constant

k=0: flat space k>0: spherical geometry k<0: hyperbolic geometry

What is the future of galaxy ?

Critical velocity: escape speed

vesc =

2G M inside R

v<vesc: galaxy eventually stops and falls back v>vesc: galaxy will move away forever

Lets switch to general relativity

Friedmann equation
2

8 G 2 2 v = R kc 3
2 r 2 2 2 2 2 2 R (t ) 1 kr 2 + r + r sin

same k as in the Robertson-Walker metric

2 2

s = ( ct )

Lets switch to general relativity

Friedmann equation
2

8 G 2 2 v = R kc 3

k is the curvature constant

k=0: flat space, forever expanding k>0: spherical geometry, eventually recollapsing k<0: hyperbolic geometry, forever expanding

k>0

k=0

k<0

Can we predict the fate of the 2 v 8 G Universe ?

8 G 2 2 v = R kc 3 2 2 v 8 G kc 2 H0 = 2 = 2 R 3 R 2 3H 0 crit = 8 G
2

Friedmann equation:

kc 2 R

How big is crit ?

crit = 810-30 g/cm3 1 atom per 200 liter

density parameter 0

3H 0 = = crit 8 G
2 0

0 =1: flat space, forever expanding (open) 0 >1: spherical geometry, recollapsing (closed) 0 <1: hyperbolic geometry, forever expanding

currently favored model: 0 = 0.3

Can we predict the fate of the Universe ?

If the density of the Universe

=crit: flat space, forever expanding >crit: spherical geometry, recollapsing < crit: hyperbolic geometry, forever expanding

so what is the density of the universe?

We dont know precisely >crit very unlikely currently favored model: 0.3crit

How big is crit ?

crit = 810-30 g/cm3 1 atom per 200 liter

density parameter 0

3H 0 = = crit 8 G
2 0

0 =1: flat space, forever expanding (open) 0 >1: spherical geometry, recollapsing (closed) 0 <1: hyperbolic geometry, forever expanding

currently favored model: 0 = 0.3

How can we measure 0 ?

Count all the mass we can see

* tricky, some of the mass may be hidden

Measure the rate at which the expansion of the universe is slowing down
* a more massive universe will slow down faster

Measure the geometry of the universe

* is it spherical, hyperbolic or flat ?

Lets try to measure the deceleration

Acceleration according to Newton:

M 4 G a = G 2 = R R 3

deceleration parameter
aR 0 q0 = 2 = v 2

So whats the meaning of q0 ?

deceleration parameter q0
deceleration is so strong that eventually the * q0>0.5: universe stops expanding and starts collapsing * 0<q0<0.5: deceleration is too weak to stop expansion

Whats the difference between q0, 0 and k ?

* k: 0: * q0: curvature of the universe mass content of the universe kinematics of the universe

So lets measure q0 !

How do we do that?
* Measure the rate of expansion at different times, i.e. measure and compare the expansion based on nearby galaxies and based on high redshift galaxies

Gravity is slowing down expansion expansion rate should be higher at high redshift.

So lets measure q0 !
q0 = 0 q0 = 0.5

fainter

Data indicates: q0 < 0 Expansion is accelerating more distant

Science discovery of the year 1998

The expansion of the universe is accelerating !!! But gravity is always attractive, so it only can decelerate

Revival of the cosmological constant

Friedmanns equation for >0

8 G R 2 2 v = R kc + 3 3
2

but for sufficiently large a spherically curved universe may expand forever

k is the curvature constant k=0: flat space, flat universe * k>0: spherical geometry, closed * k<0: hyperbolic geometry, open *

Deceleration parameter q for >0

Acceleration according to Newton:
4 G a = R+ R 3 3

deceleration parameter with

aR 0 q0 = 2 = v 2 = 2 3H 0

The fate of the Universe for >0

k=+1 >0

=0

Is the fate of the Universe well determined ?

deceleration:
* 0 > 0: decelerating * 0 < 0: accelerating

curvature
0 + = 1: flat 0 + < 1: hyperbolic 0 + > 1: spherical

two equations for two variables well posed problem

Cosmology: the quest for three numbers

The Hubble constant H0

how fast is the universe expanding

The density parameter 0

how much mass is in the universe

The cosmological constant

the vacuum energy of the universe

current observational situation:

H0 = 72 km/s/Mpc 0 = 0.3; = 0.7 flat space

Friedmanns equation for >0

8 G R 2 2 v = R kc + 3 3
2

k is the curvature constant

* * * k=0: flat space k>0: spherical geometry k<0: hyperbolic geometry

but for sufficiently large a spherically curved universe may expand forever

The fate of the Universe for >0

k=+1 >0

=0

The age of the Universe revisited

So far, we have assumed that the expansion velocity is not changing ( q0=0,

empty universe)

How does this estimate change, if the expansion decelerates, i.e. q0>0 ?

now

An 0>0, =0 universe is younger than 15 Gyr

The age of the Universe revisited

So far, we only have considered decelerating universes now How does this estimate change, if the expansion accelerates, i.e. q0<0 ?

An >0 universe can be older than 15 Gyr

The age of the Universe revisited

0=0, =0: tHubble =1/H0 = 15 Gyr 0=1, =0: tHubble =2/(3H0)= 10 Gyr open universes with 0<0<1, =0 are between 10 and 15 Gyr old closed universes with >1, =0 are less than 10 Gyr 0 old >0 increases, <0 decreases the age of the universe 0=0.3, =0.7: tHubble =0.96/H0 = 14.5 Gyr

Can we measure the age of the Universe ?

not directly but we can constrain the age of the Universe. It must not be younger than the oldest star in the Universe. How do we measure the age of stars?
* radioactive dating * stellar evolution models

Result: age of the oldest star ~12-14 Gyr 0>~1 strongly disfavored

The life of a universe key facts

Unless is sufficiently large (which is inconsistent with observations) all cosmological models start with a big bang. An universe doesnt change its geometry. A flat universe has always been and will always be flat, a spherical universe is always spherical and so on. Two basic solutions:
* eventual collapse for large 0 or negative * eternal expansion otherwise

So is the big crunch the same as the big bang run in reverse ?

No. The Universe has meanwhile formed stars, black holes, galaxies etc. Second law of thermodynamics: The entropy (disorder) of a system at best stays the same but usually increases with time, in any process. There is no perpetual motion machine. Second law of thermodynamics defines an arrow of time.

Friedmanns equation for =0, 0<1

Expansion rate Falls off like Falls off like of the Universe the cube of R the square of R

8 G kc H = 2 3 R

At early epochs, the first term dominates

the early universe appears to be almost flat

At late epochs, the second term dominates

the late universe appears to be almost empty

 0<1

Friedmanns equation for >0,

Expansion rate of the Universe

8 G kc H = 2 + 3 R 3
2

Falls off like Falls off like the cube of R the square of R

constant

At early epochs, the first term dominates

the early universe appears to be almost flat

At late epochs, the third term dominates

the late universe appears to be exponentially expanding

A puzzling detail
=0: for most of its age, the universe looks either to be flat or to be empty >0: for most of its age, the universe looks either to be flat or to be exponentially expanding Isnt it strange that we appear to live in that short period between those two extremes ? Flatness problem

When does a gas become opaque?

A gas appears opaque (e.g. fog) if light is efficiently scattered by the atoms/molecules of the gas The three important factors are thus
* the density of the gas (denser more particles more scattering) * the efficiency with which each individual particle can scatter light * wavelength of the light

The transition from a transparent to an opaque universe

At z=0 the universe is fairly transparent At higher z, the universe becomes denser ( = 0(1+z)3) and hotter (T=T0(1+z)) At z=1100, the universe is so dense that its temperature exceeds 3000K. In a fairly sharp transition, the universe becomes completely ionized and opaque to visible light. (last scattering surface) At z=1100, the universe is ~300 000 yrs old

Last scattering surface

transparent

opaque

Black body radiation

A hot a body is brighter than a cool one (LT4, Stefan-Boltzmanns law) A hot bodys spectrum is bluer than that of a cool one (max1/T, Wiens law)

The cosmic microwave background radiation (CMB)

Temperature of 2.7280.004 K isotropic to 1 part in 100 000 perfect black body 1990ies: CMB is one of the major tools to study cosmology Note: ~1% of the noise in your TV is from the big bang

Should the CMB be perfectly smooth ?

No. Todays Universe is homogeneous and isotropic on the largest scales, but there is a fair amount of structure on small scales, such as galaxies, clusters of galaxies etc.

Should the CMB be perfectly smooth ?

We expect some wriggles in the CMB radiation, corresponding to the seeds from which later on galaxies grow

The Cosmic Background Explorer (COBE)

Main objectives: To accurately measure the temperature of the CMB To find the expected fluctuations in the CMB

Main results from COBE

More results from the CMB

The Earth is moving with respect to the CMB Doppler shift

* Earths motion around the Sun * Suns motion around the Galaxy * Motion of the Galaxy with respect to other galaxies (large scale flows)

More results from the CMB

The Earth is moving with respect to the CMB Doppler shift The emission of the Galaxy

More results from the CMB

The Earth is moving with respect to the CMB Doppler shift The emission of the Galaxy

Fluctuations in the CMB

The BOOMERANG mission

COBE was a satellite mission, why ?

* Measure at mm and sub-mm wavelengths * Earth atmosphere almost opaque at those wavelengths due to water vapor * satellite missions take a long time and are expensive

What can be done from the ground ?

* Balloon experiment * desert South Pole

The BOOMERANG mission

The BOOMERANG mission