CHNG I

I CNG V TH

I. CC KHI NIM C BN
1. th
2. Biu din th
3. Bc ca nh trong th
4. Chng minh - gii bi ton bng phng php th
II. MT S TH C BIT
1. th y
2. th vng
3. th hnh bnh xe
4. th u
5. Cc khi n-lp phng
6. th b
7. th lng phn
III. S NG CU CA CC TH
1. nh ngha
2. th t b
IV. TH C HNG
1. nh ngha
2. Bc ca nh trong th c hng
V. TNH LIN THNG
1. ng i
2. Chu trnh
3. Tnh lin thng trong th v hng
4. Tnh lin thng trong th c hng
VI. MT S PHP BIN I TH
1. Hp ca hai th
2. Php phn chia s cp

I. Cc khi nim c bn TOP

1. th TOP
th (graph) G = (V,E) l mt b gm 2 tp hp V v E, trong V cc
phn t ca V c gi l cc nh (vertices), cc phn t ca E c gi l cc cnh
(edges), mi cnh tng ng vi 2 nh.
Nu cnh e tng ng vi 2 nh v, w th ta ni v v w l 2 nh k (hay 2 nh
lin kt) (adjacent) vi nhau. Ta cng ni cnh e ti hay lin thuc (incident) vi cc nh
v v w. K hiu e =
vw
hay v
e
w (hoc e = vw; e = wv). Cnh
vv
tng ng vi 2
nh trng nhau gi l mt vng hay khuyn (loop) ti v.
Hai cnh phn bit cng tng ng vi mt cp nh c gi l 2 cnh song
song (paralleledges) hay cnh bi. th khng c cnh song song v cng khng c
vng c gi l n th (simple graph). Ngc li l a th (multigraph).
th m mi cp nh ca n u k nhau c gi l th y . (Complete
graph). n th y bao gm n nh c k hiu: Kn.
th G' = (V',E') c gi l mt th con (subgraph) ca th G = (V,E) nu
V' V; E' E.
th c s nh v s cnh hu hn c gi l th hu hn (finite graph),
ngc li c gi l th v hn (Infinite graph).
Trong gio trnh ny, chng ta ch kho st cc th hu hn.
2. Biu din th TOP
Mt th c th c biu din bng hnh hc, mt ma trn hay mt bng.
2.1. Biu din hnh hc
Ngi ta thng biu din hnh hc ca th nh sau:
- Biu din mi nh ca th bng mt im (vng trn nh, vung nh).
- Mt cnh c biu din bi mt ng (cong hay thng) ni 2 nh lin thuc
vi cnh .
V d 1: th G c: V = {a, b, c, d, e}
E = {ab, ac, ad, bd, cd, ce}
c biu din hnh hc nh sau:
a
b
c
d
e
V d 2: th G c: V = {u, v, x, y}
E = {uv, uv, ux, vx, xy, yy}
c biu din hnh hc nh sau:
v
x
u
y
Ch : Khi biu din hnh hc cc th, giao ca cc cnh cha chc l nh ca
th.
V d 3:
x
y
z
A
B
C
D
V d 4: Cc n th y :
K
3
K
2
K
1
K
4
K
5
2.2 Biu din th bng ma trn
Ngi ta c th biu din th bng ma trn. C 2 kiu ma trn thng c
dng biu din th:
- Ma trn lin kt hay lin k (adjacency matrix).
- Ma trn lin thuc (incidence matrix).
Ma trn lin k
Cho G = (V,E) c n nh v
1
, v
2
, ..., vn. Ma trn lin k ca G tng ng vi th t
cc nh v
1
, v
2
, ..., vn l mt ma trn vung cp n.
A = (aij)
n
trong :
aij = 1 nu vivj l mt cnh ca G.
0 nu vivj khng l mt cnh ca G.
Ch :
- Ma trn lin k ca mt th khc nhau ty thuc vo th t lit k cc nh.
Do , c ti n! ma trn lin k khc nhau ca mt th n nh v c n! cch sp xp n
nh.
- Ma trn lin k ca mt th l mt ma trn i xng v nu vi c ni vi vj
th vj cng c ni vi v ngc li nu vi khng ni vi vj th vj cng khng ni vi vi.
- Mt vng c tnh l mt cnh t nh v vo v.
V d 5: th sau:
A
B
C
D
E

c ma trn lin k l:
E 0 1 2 2 0
D 0 1 1 1 2
C 1 1 0 1 2
B 1 0 1 1 1
A 0 1 1 0 0
A B C D E
V d 6: Hy v th c ma trn lin k theo th t ca cc nh l a, b, c, d.



d

c

b

a

1 1 1 0

1 0 1 0

1 0 0 1

0 1 1 1

Ma trn lin thuc
Ngi ta cn dng ma trn lin thuc biu din th. Cho G = (V,E) l mt
th vi v
1
, v
2
, ..., vn l cc nh v e
1
, e
2
, ..., em l cc cnh ca G. Khi ma trn lin
thuc ca G theo th t trn ca V v E l mt ma trn M = (mij)
n x m
vi:
mij = 1 nu cnh ej ni vi nh vi.
0 nu cnh ej khng ni vi nh vi
Ch : Cc ma trn lin thuc cng c th c dng biu din cc cnh bi
v khuyn (vng). Cc cnh bi (song song) c biu din trong ma trn lin thuc bng
cch dng cc ct c cc phn t ging ht nhau v cc cnh ny c ni vi cng mt
cp cc nh. Cc vng c biu din bng cch dng mt ct vi ng mt phn t
bng 1 tng ng vi nh ni vi khuyn .
V d 7: th




C ma trn lin thuc nh sau:
e
1
v
1
e
2
v
2
e
4
v
3
e
6
e
5
e
7 e
8
v
4
v
5
e
3


e
1
e
2
e
3
e
4
e
5
e
6
e
7
e
8
v
1
1

1

1 0


0


0


0


0
v
2
0

1

1 1


0


1


1


0
v
3
0

0

0 1


1


0


0


0
v
4
0

0

0 0


0


0


1


1
v
5
0

0

0 0


1


1


0


0
2.3. Biu din th bng bng
Ngi ta c th biu din th khng c cnh bi bng bng hay cn gi l danh
sch lin k. Danh sch ny ch r cc nh ni vi mi nh ca th.
V d 8: Dng danh sch lin k biu din th
nh nh lin k
a
b
c
d
e
a
b
c
d
e
b, c, e
a
a, c, d, e
c, e
a, c, d
3. Bc ca nh trong th TOP
nh ngha: nh v ca th G c gi l c bc n nu v k vi n nh khc (v
l u mt ca n cnh). K hiu: deg(v) hay d(v).
- Mi vng (khuyn) ti v c k l 2 cnh ti v.
- nh c bc 0 gi l nh c lp (isolated vertex).
- nh c bc 1 gi l nh treo (pendant vertex).
- Cnh ti nh treo gi l cnh treo (pendant edge).
- th m mi nh u l nh c lp gi l th rng (null graph).
V d 9: Cho th sau:
a
b
c d
e f
g
Ta c: deg(a) = 4; deg(b) = 5; deg(c) = 4; deg(d) = 0; deg(e) = 1; deg(f) = 4;
deg(g) = 4.
nh l 1.1: Trong mi th G = (V, E), tng s bc ca cc nh ca G bng
2 ln s cnh. Ngha l ta c:
( ) E v
V
i
i
2 deg
1

H qu: Trong mi th G = (V, E), ta c:

1. S cc nh bc l ca mt th l mt s chn.
2. Tng bc ca cc nh bc l trong mt th l mt s chn.
nh l 1.2: Trong mi th G = (V, E), c
2 V
th tn ti t nht hai nh
cng bc.
nh l 1.3: Trong mi th G = (V, E), c
2 > V
c ng hai nh cng
bc th hai nh ny khng th ng thi c bc 0 hoc bc n-1.
4. Chng minh - gii bi ton bng phng php th TOP
chng minh (gii) bi ton bng th ta thc hin theo cc bc sau:
Bc 1: Xy dng th G = (V, E) m t y cc thng tin ca bi ton,
trong :
+ Mi nh
V v
biu din cho mt i tng no ca bi ton.
+ Mi cnh
E e
ni 2 nh
i
v
v
j
v
s biu din cho mi quan h gia hai i
tng tng ng c biu din bng
i
v
v
j
v
.
+ V th G = (V, E) m t bi ton (nu c).
Bc 2: S dng cc nh ngha, nh l, tnh cht,... bit v l thuyt th
suy ra iu cn gii (chng minh).
V d 10: Chng minh rng trong mt cuc hp ty c t nht 02 i biu tham
gia tr ln, lun lun c t nht hai i biu m h c s ngi quen bng nhau trong cc
i biu n d hp.
Chng minh:
Bc 1: Xy dng th G = (V, E) m t y cc thng tin ca bi ton:
+ nh: Ly cc im trn mt phng hay trong khng gian tng ng vi cc i
biu n d hp. i tng ca bi ton y l i biu d hp. Vy, mi nh
V v

biu din cho mt i biu trong cuc hp.
+ Cnh: Trong th G cc nh
i
v
v
j
v
c ni vi nhau bng mt cnh nu
hai i biu
i
v
v
j
v
quen nhau. Vy, mi quan h gia 02 i tng y l mi quan
h quen bit. Mi cnh
E e
ni 2 nh
i
v
v
j
v
trong G nu hai i biu
i
v
v
j
v

quen nhau.
Bc 2: Suy lun suy ra iu cn chng minh:
+ Vi cch xy dng th G nh trnh by th s nh ca G chnh l s i
biu n d hp
2 V
v bc ca mi nh trong G bng ng s i biu quen vi i
biu c biu din bng nh ny.
+ Theo nh l 1.2 ta c trong G tn ti t nht 02 nh c cng bc ngha l lun
lun c t nht hai i biu m h c s ngi quen bng nhau trong cc i biu n
d hp.
V d 11: Chng minh rng s ngi m mi ngi c mt s l ln bt tay
nhau trn tri t ny l mt con s chn.
(Xem nh bi tp - Sinh vin t chng minh)
II. Mt s th c bit TOP
1. th y TOP
nh ngha: th y (Complete graph), k hiu: Kn l mt n th bao
gm n nh m mi nh u c bc n1 (mi nh u ni vi n1 nh cn li).
K
5
K
4
K
1
K
2
K
3
K
6
Vy Kn c:
+ S nh:
n V
+ Bc ca nh
( ) 1 deg n v
i
;
V v
i

+ S cnh:
( )
2
1

n n
E
2. th vng TOP
nh ngha: th vng k hiu: Cn, n 3 l mt th vi n nh v
1
, v
2
, ..., vn
v cc cnh v
1
v
2
, v
2
v
3
, ..., vnv
1
.
C
3
C
4
C
5
C
6
Vy Cn c:
+ S nh:
3 n V
+ Bc ca nh
( ) 2 deg
i
v
;
V v
i

+ S cnh:
n E
3. th hnh bnh xe TOP
nh ngha: Nu thm mt nh vo th vng Cn (n 3) v ni nh ny vi n
nh ca Cn th ta c th hnh bnh xe (Wheel graph), k hiu: Wn.
W
6
W
5
W
4
W
3
Vy Wn c:
+ S nh:
3 1 + n n V
+ Bc ca nh
( ) 3 deg
i
v
;
V v
i

v

i
v
nh c thm vo (vnew)
+
( ) n v
new
deg
+ S cnh:
n E 2
4. th u TOP
nh ngha: Mt th u (Regular graph) l th m mi nh u c cng bc. Nu
th G c cc nh c cng bc K th c gi l K-u.
V d 12:
+ th rng gm n nh l th u bc 0.
+ Cn l th u bc 2.
+ Kn l th u bc (n1).
+ th 3-u 6 nh:

+ th 3-u 8 nh:
+ th u bc 3: th Petersen:
Vy k u n nh c:
+ S nh:
n V
+ Bc ca nh
( ) k v
i
deg
;
V v
i

+ S cnh:
2
* k n
E
5. Cc khi n-lp phng TOP
Cc khi n-lp phng (n-cube graph), k hiu: Qn l cc th c 2
n
nh, mi
nh c biu din bng mt dy s nh phn vi di n. Hai nh l lin k nu v ch
nu cc dy nh phn biu din chng ch khc nhau ng 1 bit.
V d 13:
Q
1
Q
2 Q
3
0 1
10 11
00 01
110 111
101
010 011
000 001
100
Vy Qn c:
+ S nh:
n
V 2
+ Bc ca nh
( ) n v
i
deg
;
V v
i

+ S cnh:
1
2 *

n
n E
6. th b TOP
Hai n th G v G' c gi l b vi nhau nu chng c chung cc nh, cnh
no thuc G th khng thuc G' v ngc li. K hiu: G' =
G
.

va

va

Vdu14:

7. th lng phn TOP
Mt th G c gi l th lng phn (bipartie graph) nu tp hp cc nh
V ca G c th phn thnh 2 tp hp khng rng V
1
v V
2
, V
1
V
2
= sao cho mi cnh
ca G ni mt nh ca V
1
vi mt nh ca V
2
.
V d 15:
a
b
c
d
e
v
1
v
2
Mt th lng phn m mi nh ca V
1
(c m nh) u k vi mi nh
ca V
2
(c n nh), c gi l mt th lng phn y , k hiu: Km
,n
.

K

1
,

5
K

2
,

3
K

3
,

3
Vdu16:


K
3
l khng phi l th lng phn v nu ta chia cc nh ca n thnh 2
phn ri nhau th mt trong 2 phn ny phi cha 2 nh. Nu th l lng phn th cc
nh ny khng th ni vi nhau bng mt cnh. Nhng trong K
3
mi nh c ni vi
nh khc bng mt cnh.
III. S ng cu ca cc th TOP
1. nh ngha TOP
Cc th G
1
= (V
1
,E
1
) v G
2
= (V
2
,E
2
) c gi l ng cu vi nhau nu c mt
song nh f: V
1
V
2
sao cho nu a v b l lin k trong V
1
th f(a) v f(b) lin k trong
V
2
; a, b V
1
. Khi song nh f c gi l mt ng cu.
Ni cch khc, nu 2 th l ng cu th s tn ti mt song nh gia cc nh
ca 2 th bo ton quan h lin k.
Ch : Nu 2 th G
1
v G
2
l ng cu th chng c:
+ S nh bng nhau.
+ S cnh bng nhau.
+ Hai nh tng ng c cng bc.
y l cc iu kin cn hai th l ng cu.
chng minh hai th ng cu ta cn:
+ Chng minh iu kin cn tha.
+ Xy dng mt song nh bo ton quan h lin k gia hai th (iu
kin hai th ng cu).
V d 17: Chng minh rng hai th sau l ng cu vi nhau:
H = (W,F) G = (V,E)
v
4
v
3
u
3
u
4
v
2
v
1
u
2
u
1
Xt iu kin cn:
+ Hai th G v H u c 4 nh,
+ Hai th G v H u c 4 cnh,
+ Cc nh ca hai th u c bc 2.
Vy iu kin cn tha.
Xt iu kin :
Xt hm f: V W
u
1
a v
1
u
2
a v
4
u
3
a v
2
u
4
a v
3
f l song nh v bo ton quan h lin k, iu kin tha. Vy hai th G
v H ng cu vi nhau.
V d 18:
va
G
G'
khng ng cu v s cnh v nh khc nhau.
iu kin cn khng tha G v G khng ng cu.


G
H

Vdu19:

a
b c
d
e
a'
b' c'
d'
e'
G v H c cng s cnh, s nh nhng H c nh e' bc 1, trong khi G khng
c nh no bc 1. iu kin cn khng tha G v H khng ng cu.
2. th t b TOP
nh ngha: th G c gi l t b (Self-complementary) nu G ng cu vi
G
.


;

G
H

Vdu20

:

nh l 1.4: Nu hai th G v H c ma trn lin k (c lit k theo mt th
t no ca cc nh) bng nhau th G v H l hai th ng cu vi nhau.
IV. th c hng (Directed graph) TOP
1. nh ngha TOP
Mt th c hng G = (V,E) gm tp hp cc nh V v tp hp cc cnh E bao
gm cc cp sp th t cc phn t ca V. Cnh e tng ng vi mt cp th t (a,b) ca
2 nh a, b V c gi l mt cnh c hng t a n b. K hiu: e =

ab
. a c gi
l nh u, b c gi l nh cui ca cnh e. nh u v nh cui ca khuyn (vng)
l trng nhau.


e
d
b
a
c
Vdu21:

2. Bc ca nh trong th c hng TOP
2.1. Bc vo
nh ngha: Cho G l th c hng, bc vo ca nh v, k hiu: deg

(v) (hoc
din(v)) l s cnh c nh cui l v.
2.2. Bc ra
nh ngha: Cho G l th c hng, bc ra ca v, k hiu: deg
+
(v) (hay
dout(v)) l s cnh c nh u l v.
Ch : Mt vng ti mt nh s gp thm mt n v vo bc vo v bc ra
ca nh ny.

Vdu22:

c
a
b
d
e
+ i vi nh a: din(a) = 0, dout(a) = 3;
+ i vi nh b: din(b) = 3, dout(b) = 1;
+ i vi nh c: din(c) = 3; dout(c) = 2
+ i vi nh d: din(d) = 0; dout(d) = 3
+i vi nh e: din(e) = 3; dout(e) = 0
2.3. nh l 1.5: Cho G = (V,E) l mt th c hng. Tng bc vo ca cc
nh bng tng bc ra v bng s cnh ca th. Ngha l ta c:
( ) ( ) E v d v d
V
i
i out
V
i
i in


1 1
Mt th c hng c gi l cn bng (balanced) nu mi nh ca n
u c bc vo v bc ra bng nhau.
V d 23: C mt nhm gm 09 i bng bn thi u vng trn mt lt. Hi sau
khi c kt qu thi u ca tt c cc i c th c trng hp bt k i no trong 09 i
ny cng u thng ng 05 i khc trong nhm c khng? (Lu trong thi u bng
bn khng c trn ha).
(Xem nh bi tp - Sinh vin t chng minh)
V. Tnh lin thng ca th
TOP
1. ng i TOP
nh ngha: ng i (path) c di n t vo n vn vi n l mt s nguyn
dng, trong mt th v hng l mt dy cc cnh lin tip vov
1
, v
1
v
2
, ... , vn
1
vn.
nh v
o
c gi l nh u, nh vn c gi l nh cui. ng i ny thng c
vit gn: vov
1
v
2
... vn
1
vn. Khi ch cn nu ra nh u vo v nh cui vn ca ng i,
ta vit: ng i vo vn.
Mt ng i khng qua cnh no ln th hai c gi l ng i n gin
(ng i n).
Mt ng i khng qua nh no ln th hai c gi l ng i s cp.
Lu : Mt ng i s cp l mt ng i n gin nhng mt ng i
n gin c th khng l ng i s cp).
2. Chu trnh TOP
2.1. nh ngha: Mt ng i khp kn (nh u nh cui) v c di n
3 c gi l mt chu trnh (Cycle).
Chu trnh khng i qua cnh no ln th hai c gi l chu trnh n gin.
Chu trnh khng i qua nh no ln th hai, tr nh u nh cui, c gi
l mt chu trnh s cp.


Vdu24:

a

b c

d
e

f

abcdbe l mt ng n gin.
eabdc l mt ng i s cp...
2.2. nh l 1.6: Cho G=(V,E) l mt th v hng c
3 V
v
V v
c
( ) 2 v d
th trong G lun tn ti mt chu trnh s cp.
Chng minh:
V G l mt th hu hn, mi ng s cp qua tng nh khng qu mt ln,
nn s ng s cp trong G l hu hn. Do , ta lun xc nh c ng i s cp c
di cc i trong s cc ng i s cp c trong th G=(V,E).
Gi s
k k
v v v v
1 2 1
,


l mt trong cc ng i s cp c di cc i. Do
bc ca mi nh khng nh hn 2 (
V v
c
( ) 2 v d
), nn nh v
1
phi k vi 1 nh u
no v
2
v u
. Xt 02 trng hp:
+ Nu nh
( ) k i v u
i
3
, khi trong th G s c mt chu trnh s
cp
1 1 1 2 1
v v v v v v v v
i k k k i



.
+ Ngc li, nu nh
( ) k i v u
i
3
, khi trong G tn ti ng s
cp
k k
v v v v
1 2 1 1
,


c di ln hn ng s cp

c di ln nht chn
(mu thun). Vy nh
( ) k i v u
i
3

trong th G c mt chu trnh s cp.

2.3. nh l 1.7: Cho G=(V,E) l mt th v hng c
4 V
v
V v
c
( ) 3 v d
th trong G lun tn ti mt chu trnh s cp c di chn.
Chng minh:
Gi s

l mt ng s cp c di cc i trong th G=(V, E):

k k j j j i i i
v v v v v v v v v v v
1 1 1 1 1 3 2 1
,
+ +

V

l ng s cp c di cc i v bc ca mi nh khng nh hn 3,
nn nh v
1
phi k vi 02 nh vi v vj khc thuc ng

vi
k i 3
,
k j 3
.
Khi trong G c 02 chu trnh s cp:
+
1 1 3 2 1 1
v v v v v v
i i

v
+
1 1 1 1 3 2 1 2
v v v v v v v v v
j j i i i +


Ta xt 2 trng hp sau:
+ Nu mt trong hai ng s cp
1

hoc
2

c di chn th ta c
iu phi chng minh.
+ Ngc li, nu c hai ng s cp
1

v
2

u c di l th khi
ng i s cp:
i i
v v v v v
1 3 2 1 3

c di chn v ng s cp:
1 1 1 4
v v v v v
j j i i +

c di l nn chu trnh:
1 1 1 1 5
v v v v v v
j j i i +

c di chn (iu phi chng minh).
3. Tnh lin thng trong th v hng TOP
3.1. nh ngha: Mt th v hng c gi l lin thng nu c ng i
gia mi cp nh phn bit ca th.


H

G

Vdu25:

G: lin thng; H: khng lin thng.
Cho th G = (V,E) v v V. V' l tp hp cc nh ca V lin thng vi v, E'
l tp hp cc cnh ni 2 nh ca V'. Khi th G' = (V',E') gi l thnh phn lin
thng (connected component) ca G cha v. ng nhin nu v v u lin thng trong G
th thnh phn lin thng ca G cha v cng l thnh phn lin thng cha u.
V d 26: c 3 thnh phn lin thng.
3.2. nh l 1.8: th G=(V, E) l lin thng khi v ch khi G c duy nht mt
thnh phn lin thng.
3.3. nh ct v cu:
nh ct: Nu vic xa i mt nh
V v
v tt c cc cnh lin thuc vi n s
to ra mt th con mi c nhiu thnh phn lin thng hn th xut pht. Cc nh
v
nh th c gi l nh ct (cut point) hay im khp.
Cu: Nu trong th G ta b i cnh e s to ra nhiu thnh phn lin thng
hn G th e c gi l cu (brdge).
V d 27: Tm cc nh ct v cu trong th:
c e
a
b
d f
g
h
G
nh ct ca G: b, c, e.
Cu: ab, ce.
Ch : Khng phi th no cng c nh ct v cu.
3.4. nh l 1.9: Trong mi th G=(V, E) c t nht n = 02 nh
( ) 2 n V
.
Nu
V v v
2 1
,
tha
( ) ( ) n v d v d +
2 1
th G l th lin thng.
H qu: Trong mi th G=(V, E) c n nh, nu mi nh
V v
c
( )
2
n
v d

th G l th lin thng.
4. Tnh lin thng trong th c hng TOP
4.1. Lin thng mnh (Strongly connected)
th c hng G c gi l lin thng mnh nu c ng i t a n b v t b
n a; a, b th.

Vdu28:

4.2. Lin thng yu (Weakly connected)
th c hng G c gi l lin thng yu nu th v hng tng ng ca
n l lin thng.

Vdu29:

th c hng G c gi l y nu th v hng ca n l y .
4.3. nh l 1.10: Nu trong th G=(V, E) c ng hai nh bc l th hai nh
ny phi lin thng vi nhau.
Chng minh
Gi s th G=(V, E) c ng hai nh bc l v v w nhng hai nh ny li
khng lin thng vi nhau. Khi v v w phi thuc vo 2 thnh phn lin thng G
1
, G
2
khc nhau ca G. Chng hn
1
G v
v
2
G w
. Theo gi thuyt do G ch c ng 2 nh
bc l nn trong mi th con G
1
v G
2
ch c ng mt nh bc l. Mu thun vi tnh
cht s nh bc l trong mt th l mt s chn. Vy v v w phi lin thng vi nhau.
4.4. nh l 1.11: (nh l v iu kin cn v ca mt th lng phn)
th G = (V, E) l mt th lng phn khi v ch khi mi chu trnh ca n
u c di chn.
Chng minh
Gi s G = (V, E) l mt th lng phn v tp nh V ca G c chia
thnh hai tp con V
1
v V
2
. Khi , dc theo chu trnh bt k ca G th cc nh thuc tp
V
1
v tp V
2
s ln lt nm lin tip v xen k nhau. Do , khi tr v nh xut pht
u tin, ta phi i qua mt s chn cc nh v do chiu di ca chu trnh l mt s
chn.
Ngc li, gi s rng G l mt th c tnh cht l tt c cc chu trnh ca G
u c di chn. Ta s chng minh tt c cc thnh phn lin thng ca G u l th
lng phn v do G cng l mt th lng phn.
Tht vy, gi s rng G
1
l mt thnh phn lin thng ca G v v
0
l mt nh ca
G
1
. Vi mi nh
1
G v
ta chn mt ng

ni v v v
0
. Nu ng

c di chn
th ta a nh v vo tp nh V
1
. ngc li, nu

c di l th ta a v vo tp nh
V
2
. S phn loi cc nh ca G
1
khng ph thuc vo cch chn ng i

. Tht vy,
nu c hai ng

c di chn v
'
c di l ni 2 nh v v v
0
th th G
1
s
c chu trnh vi di l, mu thun vi tnh cht ban u l G ch c chu trnh di
chn.
Vi cch thit lp hai tp hp nh V
1
v V
2
ny, cc nh ca th G
1
hoc
thuc tp hp nh V
1
hoc thuc tp hp nh V
2
. By gi, ta chng minh rng ch c
cc cnh ni cc nh khng thuc cng mt tp hp nh vi nhau m thi. Tht vy, gi
s rng c 2 nh v v u k nhau trong G
1
th chng khng th thuc cng mt tp hp
nh V
1
hoc V
2
, nu khng ta c th i t nh v
0
n nh v ri i n nh u bng cnh
vu ri tr v nh v
0
bng mt ng i c di l. iu ny khng xy ra trong th
G. Vy G l th lng phn vi hai tp nh ri nhau l V
1
v V
2
bng cch m ta
xy dng trn.
VI. Mt s php bin i th TOP
1. Hp ca hai th TOP
Hp ca hai th G
1
= (V
1
,E
1
) v G
2
= (V
2
,E
2
) l mt th G= (V, E) c tp hp
cc nh l V = V
1
V
2
v tp hp cc cnh l E = E
1
E
2
.
K hiu: G =G
1
G
2
.

Vdu30:

a a b b
c c
f
d d
e
G

1
G

2

b c
f
d
e
a
G = G
1
G
2
2. Php phn chia s cp TOP
Cho th G = (V,E), nu ta b i mt cnh e = uv ca G v thm vo mt
nh mi w cng vi 2 cnh uw v wv th php ton trn c gi l php phn chia s
cp.
Hai th G
1
= (V
1
,E
1
) v G
2
= (V
2
,E
2
) c gi l ng phi (homeomorphic)
nu chng c th nhn c t cng mt th bng mt dy cc php phn chia s cp.


Vdu31:

G

1
G

2
G

3
G
2
v G
3
l ng phi v cng nhn c t G
1
. R rng G
2
v G
3
khng ng cu
vi nhau.
Ch : Hai th l ng phi th cha chc ng cu vi nhau.

BI TP CHNG 1: I CNG V TH
Bi 01. Tm s nh, s cnh, bc ca mi nh trong cc th v hng sau: (ch r
nh c lp v nh treo, nu c)
a. b.



c. c.


Bi 02. Xc nh s nh, s cnh, s bc vo v s ra ca mi nh i vi cc th c
hng:
a. b.


c.


Bi 03. Hy v cc th :
a. K
7
b. K
1,8
c. K
4,4
d. C
7
e. W
7


Bi 04. Xt xem cc th sau c l th lng phn khng:
a. b.


c. d.




P
R
T
S
Q
a
b
d
c
e
b
a
f
e
d
c
e
b
c
a d
e
Bi 05. Cc th sau c bao nhiu nh, cnh?
a. Kn b. Cn c. Wn d. Km
,n
Bi 06. Mt th v hng c cc nh c cc bc ln lt l: 4, 3, 3, 2, 2. Tnh s cnh
v v th ny.
Bi 07. Tnh s nh ca mt th u bc 4 v c 10 cnh.
Bi 08. Mt th c 100 nh, mi nh u c bc 50. Tnh s cnh ca n.
Bi 09. Tm hp cc cp th (gi s cc cnh c cc u mt trng nhau l nh nhau) :
a. b.





Bi 10. Nu n th G c 15 cnh v
G
c 13 cnh khi G v
G
c bao nhiu
nh ?
Bi 11. Biu din cc th sau bng ma trn lin k:
a. b.



c. d.




Bi 12. Biu din cc th sau bng ma trn lin k:
a. K
4
b. K
1,4
c. K
2,3
d. C
4
e. W
4
f. Q
3
d c
a b
d
d
c
b

a

e
a b c
d
b
c
d
e
f
a
b
f
d
Bi 13. V cc th c hng biu din bng cc ma trn lin k sau:
a.
1
1
1
]
1

0 1 0
1 0 1
0 1 0
b.
1
1
1
1
]
1

0 1 1 1
1 0 1 1
0 1 0 0
1 1 0 0
c.
1
1
1
1
]
1

0 1 1 1
0 2 0 1
0 1 0 0
0 1 1 1
Bi 14. V cc th v hng biu din bng ma trn lin k:
a.
1
1
1
]
1

0 4 3
4 0 2
3 2 1
b.
1
1
1
1
]
1

0 1 0 1
1 1 3 0
0 3 0 2
1 0 2 1
Bi 15. Hy xt xem cc cp th sau c ng cu vi nhau khng?
a.



b.



c.



d.





u
1
u
2
u
3
u
4
u
5
v
1
v
4
v
2
v
3
v
5
u
4
u
1
u
2
u
3
u
5
u
3
u
4
u
1
u
2
u
5
u
6
u
8
u
7
v
3
v
4
v
1
v
2 v
5
v
1
v
2
v
3
v
4
v
5
v
6
v
8
v
7
u
2
u
1
u
5
u
3
u
4
u
6

e.





f.




Bi 16. V th b ca cc th sau:
a. b. c.

Bi 17. Tm cc th t b c 4 nh.
Bi 18. Vi s nguyn no th Cn t b?
Bi 19. Cc cp th c hng sau c ng cu vi nhau khng?
a. a.


b.
v
1
v
2
v
3
v
4
v
5
v
6
u
1
u
2
u
3
u
4
v
1
v
2
v
3
v
4
Bi 20. Cc th sau c lin thng khng ?

a. a.
b.




Bi 21. Tm s ng i di n gia 2 nh lin k ty trong K
3,3
vi mi gi tr ca
n sau :
a. n = 2 b. n = 3 c. n = 4 d. n = 5

Bi 22. Tm tt c cc nh ct v cu ca th :

a d e a e
a. a. b.
b c f b c d f


a b f d
c. d.

c g

d i h


Bi 23 : Cho G l mt n th v c n nh, gi m l s cnh ca G. Chng minh
rng :

>
2
2 1 ) )( ( n n
m
G lin thng.
Bi 24 : V cc th
a. a. u bc 3 c 10 nh.
b. b. u bc 4 c 8 nh.
g
e
d
e i h f
c
a





CHNG II
CC BI TON V NG I
I. CHU TRNH V NG I EULER
1. Bi ton m u
2. nh ngha
3. Chu trnh v ng i Euler trong th v hng
4. Chu trnh v ng i Euler trong th c hng
II. CHU TRNH V NG I HAMILTON
1. Chu trnh Hamilton
2. Phng php tm chu trnh Hamilton
3. ng i Hamilton
III. BI TON NG I NGN NHT
1. M u
2. Thut ton tm ng i ngn nht
IV. THUT TON HEDETNIEMI
1. Php cng ma trn Hedetniemi
2. Thut ton Hedetniemi


I. Chu trnh v ng i Euler TOP
1. Bi ton m u : TOP
Bi ton 7 cy cu Knigsberg: Thnh ph Knigsberg thuc Ph (by gi gi
l Kaliningrad thuc Cng ha Lin bang Nga) c chia thnh bn vng bng cc nhnh
sng Pregel. Cc vng ny gm 2 vng bn b sng, o Kneiphof v mt min nm
gia 2 nhnh ca sng Pregel. Vo th k th XVIII, ngi ta xy 7 cy cu ni cc
vng li vi nhau nh s sau:
C
D
A
B
Vo ch nht, ngi dn y thng i b dc theo cc vng trong thnh ph.
H t hi C th xut pht ti mt im no trong thnh ph, i qua tt c 7 cy
cu, mi cy mt ln, ri tr v im xut pht c khng?
Nh ton hc Thy S Leonard Euler nghin cu gii bi ton ny. Li gii ca
ng c cng b nm 1736. Bi ton ny c th c coi l mt trong nhng ng dng
u tin ca l thuyt th.
Ta c th xy dng th G = (V, E) m t bi ton nh sau:
+ nh: Ly cc im trn mt phng hay trong khng gian tng ng vi cc
vng t trong s . i tng ca bi ton y l mt vng t trong s . Vy,
mi nh
V v
biu din cho mt vng t. th G s c 4 nh A, B, C, D tng ng
vi 4 vng t.
+ Cnh: Trong th G cc nh
i
v
v
j
v
c ni vi nhau bng mt cnh e i
din cho mt chic cu ni gia hai vng t. th G s c 7 cnh tng ng vi 7
chic cu ni gia cc vng t trong s .
Euler nghin cu bi ton ny, m hnh n bng
mt a th, bn vng c biu din bng 4 nh, cc cu
l cc cnh nh th sau:
A
C
D
B
Bi ton tm ng i qua tt c cc cu mi cu khng qu mt ln c th c
pht biu li bng m hnh ny nh sau: Tn ti hay khng mt chu trnh n trong a
th G= (V, E) c cha tt c cc cnh?
2. nh ngha TOP
2.1. Chu trnh Euler ( th Euler)
Cho G = (V,E) l mt a th lin thng. Chu trnh n cha tt c cc cnh ca
th G c gi l chu trnh Euler. th c cha mt chu trnh Euler c gi l
th Euler.
2.2. ng i Euler
Cho G = (V,E) l mt a th lin thng. ng i Euler trong G l ng i
n cha tt c cc cnh ca th G.
V d 1: th
a
b
d c
e
c chu trnh Euler: a, b, e, d, c, e, a.
V d 2: th
a
b
d
c
e
khng c chu trnh Euler nhng c ng i
Euler: a, c, d, a, b, e, d, b.

V d 3: th
a
b
d
c
e
khng c chu trnh Euler v ng i Euler.
3. Chu trnh v ng i Euler trong th v hng TOP
Khi gii bi ton cu Knigsberg, Euler pht hin ra cc tiu chun khng
nh mt a th c chu trnh v ng i Euler hay khng?
3.1. nh l v chu trnh Euler
Mt a th lin thng G =(V, E) c chu trnh Euler khi v ch khi mi nh ca
n u c bc chn.
Chng minh
() Ta s chng minh nu th G c chu trnh Euler th mi nh ca G u c
bc chn.
Tht vy, trc tin gi s G c chu trnh Euler bt u t nh a v tip tc bng
cnh lin thuc vi a, chng hn ab, khi cnh ab gp mt vo deg (a). Mi ln khi chu
trnh i qua mt nh, n tng thm 2 n v cho bc ca nh . V chu trnh i vo mt
nh bng mt cnh lin thuc v ri khi nh ny bng mt cnh lin thuc khc. Cui
cng chu trnh kt thc nh m n xut pht, do n tng thm mt n v vo deg
(a). Ngha l deg (a) phi l mt s chn. nh khc a cng c bc chn v chu trnh gp 2
n v vo bc ca n mi ln i qua nh ny. Vy, mi nh ca G u c bc chn.
() Gi s mi nh ca a th lin thng G u c bc chn. Ta s chng
minh tn ti mt chu trnh Euler trong G.
Tht vy, ta s xy dng mt chu trnh n bt u t nh a ty ca G. Gi xo
= a; Trc tin, ta chn ty cnh xox
1
, x
1
x
2
, ..., xn
1
xn cng di cng tt. V d, trong
th G sau:
a
b
c
d f
e
Ta bt u ti a v chn cc cnh lin tip ab, bc, cf, fa. ng i m ta
chn s kt thc v th c hu hn nh. ng i ny bt u ti a
vi cnh c dng ax v kt thc ti a vi cnh c dng ya.
iu ny lun xy ra v mi ln ng i qua mt nh bc chn, n ch dng mt cnh
vo nh ny v cn t nht mt nh ra khi nh ny. ng i va ni trn c th
i qua tt c cc cnh hoc c th khng. Nu tt c cc cnh c s dng th ta nhn
c chu trnh Euler. Nu khng, ta gi H l th con nhn c t G bng cch xa
cc cnh dng v cc nh khng lin thuc vi
cc cnh cn li. Chng hn vi th trn, khi xa i chu trnh
a, b, c, f, a khi th trn, ta nhn c th con H.
c
d
e
V G l lin thng H c t nht c mt nh chung vi chu trnh va b xa. Gi
w l nh (trong v d trn l nh c). Mi nh ca H c bc chn v tt c cc nh
ca G c bc chn v vi mi nh ta xa i tng cp lin thuc to ra H. Lu
rng H c th khng lin thng. Bt u t nh w ta xy dng mt ng i n bng
cch chn cng nhiu cng tt nh ta lm trong G. ng ny phi kt thc ti w. V
d trong th H nu trn ta c chu trnh con: c, d, e, c. Sau , ta to mt chu trnh trong
G bng cch ghp chu trnh trong H v chu trnh ban u trong G (iu ny thc hin
c v 2 chu trnh c chung nh w). Tip tc qu trnh ny cho n khi tt c cc nh
c s dng. Qu trnh ny phi kt thc v th c hu hn nh. Do , ta xy
dng c mt chu trnh Euler.
By gi, tr li bi ton 7 cy cu Knigsberg: c th xut pht t mt a im
no trong thnh ph, i qua tt c cc cu (mi cu i qua ng mt ln) v tr v
im xut pht? Ta thy th biu din cc cu Knigsberg c 4 nh bc l. Do
, theo nh l trn s khng c chu trnh Euler trong th ny. iu ny cng c ngha
l bi ton 7 cy cu Knigsberg khng c li gii. Hay ni cch khc, khng c chu
trnh no tha yu cu t ra.
3.2. Thut ton Fleury tm chu trnh Euler
tm mt chu trnh Euler trong mt a th c tt c cc nh u bc chn, ta
c th s dng thut ton Fleury nh sau:
Xut pht t mt nh bt k ca th G v tun theo hai qui tc sau:
Qui tc 1: Mi khi i qua mt cnh no th xa cnh i, sau xa nh c
lp (nu c).
Qui tc 2: Khng bao gi i qua mt cu, tr khi khng cn cch i no khc
di chuyn.
V d 4: Tm mt chu trnh Euler trong th sau:
A B C D
H G F E
Xut pht t nh A, gi s ta chn cnh AB, BC, CF. Sau xa 3 cnh ny, ta
c th:
A B C D
H G F E
n y, ta khng th chn FG v GF l mt cu, cho nn ta chn FD, DC, CE,
EF. n y, ta c th sau:
A B
H G F
Ta khng cn cch chn no khc, nn phi chn FG, GH, HB, BG, GA.
Nh vy, ta c chu trnh Euler sau: A, B, C, F, D, C, E, F, G, H, B, G, A.
V d 5: Tm mt chu trnh Euler ca th sau:
E F
D
C B
A
D thy mt chu trnh Euler: A, B, C, D, E, C, F, B, E, F, A.
3.3. nh l v ng i Euler
a th lin thng G =(V, E) c ng i Euler nhng khng c chu trnh Euler
khi v ch khi n c ng hai nh bc l.
Chng minh:
() Gi s a th G c ng i Euler nhng khng c chu trnh Euler. Ta s
chng minh G c ng 2 nh bc l.
Tht vy, gi s G c ng i Euler t a n b, nhng khng c chu trnh Euler.
Cnh u tin ca ng i gp mt n v vo deg (a). Sau mi ln ng i qua a
li gp thm 2 n v vo deg (a).
Chc chn ng i khng th kt thc ti a, cho nn deg(a) l s l. Cnh cui
cng ca ng i gp mt n v vo deg(a) v mi ln i qua b, n cng gp 2 n v
vo deg(b). Do , deg(b) l s l. Cc nh trung gian u c bc chn v mi ln ng
i ti ri li i nn tng hai n v cho bc ca nh . Vy, th cho c ng 2
nh bc l.
() Gi s a th lin thng G c ng 2 nh bc l. Ta s chng minh G c
ng i Euler.
Tht vy, gi s G c ng 2 nh bc l l a v b. Khi trong th mi G' = G
ab, tt c cc nh u c bc chn. Do , theo nh l Euler, tn ti mt chu trnh
Euler trong G'. Trong chu trnh ny b cnh ab, ta c ng i Euler trong G.
Nh vy, trong mt a th lin thng c 2 nh bc l th ng i Euler trong
th s nhn 2 nh bc l lm cc im u mt.
V d 6: Xt th sau:
a b c d
f
g e
G
Trong G c 2 nh bc l l g v e. Do , mt ng i Euler trong G s nhn g
v e lm 2 nh u mt. Chng hn: g, a, b, g, f, b, c, f, e, c, d, e.
V d 7: Chng minh rng ta c th xp tt c cc con c ca b c min
thnh mt vng khp kn.
(Xem nh bi tp - Sinh vin t chng minh).
4. Chu trnh v ng i Euler i vi th c hng TOP
4.1. nh l v chu trnh Euler: th c hng G = (V, E) c cha mt chu
trnh Euler khi v ch khi G l lin thng yu, ng thi bc vo v bc ra ca mi nh l
bng nhau.
Chng minh: Tng t nh l Euler i vi th v hng (Xem nh bi tp
- Sinh vin t chng minh).
V d 7: th
a
b
c
d
c chu trnh Euler: a, b, c, a, d, c, a.
V d 8: th
c b
a
khng c chu trnh Euler.
4.2. nh l v ng i Euler: Cho G =(V,E) l mt a th c hng. G c
ng i Euler nhng khng c chu trnh Euler G l lin thng yu, ng thi bc vo
v bc ra ca cc nh l bng nhau, tr 2 nh, mt nh c bc vo ln hn bc ra mt
n v, cn nh kia c bc vo nh hn bc ra mt n v.
Chng minh: Tng t nh l Euler i vi th v hng (Xem nh bi tp
- Sinh vin t chng minh).
V d 9: th
a
b
c
d

c ng i Euler: a, b, c, a, d, c.
II. Chu trnh v ng i Hamilton TOP
1. Chu trnh Hamilton TOP
1.1. nh ngha
Mt chu trnh s cp i qua tt c cc nh ca th G =(V,E) (i qua mi nh
ng mt ln) c gi l chu trnh Hamilton. th G=(V,E) c cha chu trnh
Hamilton c gi l th Hamilton.
V d 11: th
a
b
c
d
e
c chu trnh Hamilton l: a, b, c, d, e, a.
V d 12: th
a
b
c d
khng c chu trnh Hamilton v mi chu trnh cha
mi nh ca th u phi i qua cnh ab 2 ln.
1.2. iu kin tn ti chu trnh Hamilton
nh l Ore (1960): Cho G = (V,E) l mt n th lin thng vi n nh (n
3) v nu: deg(v) + deg(w) n vi mi cp nh khng lin k v, w trong G. Khi G
c chu trnh Hamilton.
Chng minh: S dng phng php chng minh phn chng.
Gi s G tha deg(v) + deg(w) n; v,w khng lin k trong G nhng G khng
c chu trnh Hamilton. Khi ta c th ghp thm vo G nhng cnh cho n khi nhn
c mt th con H ca Kn sao cho H khng c chu trnh Hamilton, nhng vi mi
cnh e Kn nhng e H, ta c (H + e) c chu trnh Hamilton. Vic ghp thm cnh vo
G l hon ton thc hin c v khng nh hng g n iu kin ca gi thit.
Do H Kn nn tn ti a, b V sao cho ab H nhng H + ab c chu trnh
Hamilton C. Bn thn H khng c chu trnh Hamilton m H + ab c chu trnh Hamilton
ab C. Gi s ta lit k cc nh ca H trong chu trnh C nh sau:

a(=v
1
) b(=v
2
) v
3
v
4
... vn
-1
vn; 3 i n.
Khi , nu cnh bvi H, ta c th kt lun avi
-1
H v nu c hai bvi v avi
-1
cng nm trong H, ta c chu trnh:


b vi vi
+1
... vn
-1
vn a vi
-1
vi
-2
... v
3

Chu trnh ny nm trong H, iu ny mu thun v H khng c chu trnh
Hamilton. V vy,

vi (3 i n) ch c mt trong 2 cnh: bvi hoc avi

-1
nm trong H.
Do : degH(a) + degH(b) < n.
Vi degH(a): bc ca a trong H.
Ta c v V: degH(v) degG(v) = deg(v) (v G l th con ca H)
vi cp nh khng lin k trong G: a, b ta c: deg(a) + deg(b) < n.
iu ny mu thun vi gi thit: deg(v) + deg(w) n; v, w khng lin k.
Vy, G c cha chu trnh Hamilton.
H qu: (nh l Dirac, 1952)
Nu n th G = (V,E) c n nh (n 3) v deg(v) >
2
n
; v V th G c chu
trnh Hamilton.
1.3. nh l Psa v chu trnh Hamilton
G = (V, E) l mt n th c
3 n V
. Gi s rng vi mi s
2
1
1

<
n
k

ta c khng qu k - 1 nh c bc khng ln hn k, v trong trng hp n l s l ta c
khng qu
2
1 n
nh c bc khng vt qu
2
1 n
. Khi th G c mt chu trnh
Hamilton.
Chng minh
Chng ta s chng minh nh l ny bng phng php phn chng.
Gi s G khng c chu trnh Hamilton, ta c th gi s rng nu thm mt cnh
bt k ni 2 nh khng k nhau ca G th th thu c s c mt chu trnh Hamilton.
th G nh vy c gi l c tnh cht cc i.
Nu G khng tha tnh cht cc i, ta c thm vo G cc cnh mi bng cch ni
cc cp nh khng k nhau, lc ta s thu c mt th khng c chu trnh
Hamilton c tnh cht cc i nh m t trn v vn khng nh hng g n gi
thuyt ca bi ton ban u.
Do tnh cht cc i ca th nn gia hai nh tu khng k nhau ca th
lun tn ti mt ng Hamilton ni hai nh ny. C th l ng Hamilton thu c
t chu trnh Hamilton xut hin khi thm vo mt cnh ni hai nh khng k nhau ny.
K hiu
( )
n
v v v , , ,
2 1

l mt ng Hamilton (khng khp kn) trong G. Cho
1 , , 3 , 2 n k
. Ta c nu vk c ni vi v
1
bi mt cnh th vk
-1
khng c ni vi
vn bi cnh no c, nu khng th:
( )
1 1 1 1 2 1
, , , , , , , , , v v v v v v v v
k k n n k +

l mt chu trnh Hamilton. T ta c:
( ) ( ) 1
1
+ n v d v d
n
Trong th G mi nh bc khng nh hn
2
1 n
k vi tt c cc nh bc khng nh
hn
2
n
. Tht vy, gi s c nh bc khng nh hn
2
n
, khng mt tnh tng qut gi s
nh v
1
vi
( )
2
1
1

n
v d
khng k vi nh vn c bc
( )
2
n
v d
n

. Gi s
( )
n
v v v , , ,
2 1

l
mt ng Hamilton ni v
1
vi vn. K hiu cc nh ln cn ca v
1
l
S
i i i
v v v , , ,
2 1

vi
( )
1
v d s
. Khi vn khng k vi
1 1 1
, , ,
2 1

S
i i i
v v v
, v ta c
( ) ( ) ( ) ( )
1
1 1
2
v d n s n v d
n
n

Suy ra:
( ) ( ) ( ) ( ) ( ) !
2
1
1 1
2
1


n
v d n s n v d
n
n
Trong G tn ti nhng nh c bc
2
1

n
, nu khng G c chu trnh Hamilton
theo nh l Dirac. K hiu

l bc cao nht trong cc nh ca G c bc nh hn

2
n
. v
p l s cc nh c bc nh hn
2
n
. Khi theo gi thuyt ca nh l ta c
2
1

n
p
. Ta s chng minh rng
2
1
< <
n
p
.
K hiu q l s cc nh c bc ln hn

, ta c:
.
2 2
> >
n n
n n p n q

Gi s u
1
l mt nh c bc l

, trong s
> n
nh c bc ln hn
2
n
tn
ti t nht mt nh gi l un khng k vi u
1
. Khi bc ca u
1
khng th l
2
1 n
c,
nu khng th u
1
phi k vi un nh trn chng minh. Do , ta c:
( )
2
1
1

<
n
u d
.
Theo gi thuyt ca nh l, s nh c bc khng vt qu

s nh hn

, do

2
1
<
n
. Ta c
< p
.
Xt ng Hamilton
( )
n
u u u , , ,
2 1

ni u
1
vi un. K hiu cc nh ln cn ca
u
1
l
S
i i i
u u u , , ,
2 1

vi
( )
1
u d s
. Khi c mt trong cc nh
1 1 1
, , ,
2 1

S
i i i
u u u

gi l
1
0
i
u
c bc l
( )
2
1
1 0

n
u d
i
. phn trn ta chng minh c khi
1 0 i
u

phi k vi un. Ta c chu trnh Hamilton:
( )
0 0
1 1 2 1 i n n i
u u u u u u


l iu v l. Mu
thun ny kt thc phn chng minh ca ta.
2. Phng php tm chu trnh Hamilton TOP
Cho mt th G =(V,E). tm mt chu trnh Hamilton trong th G, ta thc
hin theo 4 qui tc sau:
Qui tc 1: Nu tn ti mt nh v ca G c
( ) 1 v d
th th G khng c chu
trnh Hamilton.
Qui tc 2: Nu nh v c bc l 2
( ) ( ) 2 v d
th c 2 cnh ti v u phi thuc
chu trnh Hamilton.
Qui tc 3: Chu trnh Hamilton khng cha bt k chu trnh con thc s no.
Qui tc 4: Trong qu trnh xy dng chu trnh Hamilton, sau khi ly 2 cnh
ti mt nh v t vo chu trnh Hamilton ri th khng th ly thm cnh no ti v na,
do c th xa mi cnh cn li ti v.
V d 13: Tm mt chu trnh Hamilton ca th:
Xut pht t nh a. Ta c deg(a) = 3, cho nn ta ch gi
li 2 cnh lin thuc vi a: ta chn ab v ad, do ta b
a b c
d
e
f
g
h
i
cnh ae (theo quy tc 4). Tng t ti b, ta b cnh be ti c ta b cnh ce (theo quy tc 4).
Khi ta c th:
a b c
d
e
f
g
h
i
Ti nh f, ta b cnh fe. Ti nh i ta b cnh ie, ti nh h ta
b cnh hg (theo quy tc 4) ti nh e, ta bt buc i theo eg, gd
(theo quy tc 2). Ti nh a ta phi chn cnh da (theo quy tc
2). Vy, ta c chu trnh Hamilton: a, b, c, f, i, h, e, g, d, a.
V d 14: th
a
b
c
d
e
f
khng c chu trnh Hamilton v: deg(f) = 1.
V d 15: Chng minh rng th sau khng c chu trnh Hamilton:


+ Gi s th c mt chu trnh Hamilton H.
+ V nn H phi cha cc cnh AB, AC, GE
v GI (theo qui tc 2).
+ Xt nh I: Do tnh cht i xng ca hnh
v ta c th gi s cnh , xa cnh IJ (theo qui
tc 4).

D
A
B C
F
E
H
G
I
J K



+ Xt nh J: By gi
( ) 2 J d
nn hai cnh JF v JK phi thuc vo H.
+ Xt nh K: ta chn 2 cnh KI v KJ nn xa KH (theo qui tc 4) v xa
cnh EF (do quy tc 3).
th by gi tr thnh:
D dng thy cc cnh FB, HE, HC phi
Thuc chu trnh Hamilton H. Ta nhn c
Mt chu trnh con tht s trong H (V l).








3. ng i Hamilton TOP
3.1. nh ngha: ng i s cp i qua tt c cc nh ca th G = (V,E) (i
qua mi nh ng mt ln) c gi l ng i Hamilton.
V d 16: th
a
b
c
d
e
f
c ng i Hamilton: a, b, c, f, d, e.
Cn th:
b c
d
a
e
f
g
khng c ng i Hamilton. V ng i
Hamilton phi bt u v kt thc ti 2 trong 3 nh treo: c, d, g.
3.2. nh l Knig: Mi th G =(V, E) c hng y ( th v hng
tng ng ca G l y ) u c ng Hamilton.
Theo qui tc 2 ta c cc cnh
FB, HE, HC phi thuc chu trnh
Hamilton H. Khi , ta c mt chu
trnh con tht s trong H. Vy
th khng c chu trnh Hamilton.

D
A
B
C
F
E
H
G
I
J K
D
A
B
C
F
E
H
G
I
J K
Chng minh:
Xt th c hng G =(V, E). Gi
( ) 0
1 2 1
>

k v v v v
k k

l mt ng i
s cp trong G.
Nu mi nh ca G u thuc

th

chnh l ng Hamilton cn tm. Ngc

li, nu c mt nh
v
th trong G phi tn ti mt ng s cp
1

thuc mt trong
3 dng sau:
+
k
v v x
1
(1)
+
k i i
v v x v v
1 1 +
(2)
+
x v v
k

1
(3)
Ta s chng minh rng nu
1

khng c dng (1) v (2) th phi c dng (3).

Tht vy:
+ Nu
1

khng c dng (1)

G x v
1
+ Nu
1

khng c dng (2)

G xv
i

vi
k i G x v k i
i
.. 2 ; .. 2

k i G x v .. 1 ;
1

ngha l
1

c dng (3).
III. Bi ton ng i ngn nht TOP
1. M u TOP
Trong thc t, nhiu bi ton c th m hnh bng th c trng s. l th
m mi cnh ca n c gn mt con s (nguyn hoc thc) gi l trng s ng vi
cnh . V d ta cn m hnh mt h thng ng hng khng. Mi thnh ph c biu
din bng mt nh, mi chuyn bay l mt cnh ni 2 nh tng ng. Nu trong bi
ton ang xt ta cn tnh n khong cch gia cc thnh ph th ta cn gn cho mi cnh
ca th c s trn khong cch gia cc thnh ph tng ng. Nu ta quan tm n
thi gian ca mi chuyn bay th ta s gn cc thi lng ny cho mi cnh ca th c
s...
th biu din khong cch gia mt s thnh ph ca nc M.
2534
860
1855
908
834
349
2451
722
191
760
595
1090
New York
Miami
Atlanta
Los Angeles
San Francisco
Chicago
Boston
957
Khoang cach (dm)
Bi ton t ra l tm ng i ngn nht t thnh ph ny n thnh ph khc.
Hay ni theo ngn ng ca l thuyt th: ta cn tm ng i c tng trng s (ngn)
nh nht t nh ny n mt nh khc ca th.
2. Thut ton tm ng i ngn nht TOP
2.1. Thut ton Dijkstra tm ng i ngn nht
C mt s thut ton tm ng i ngn nht gia 2 nh trn mt th c trng
s.
y ta s s dng thut ton Dijkstra, do nh ton hc ngi H Lan:
E.Dijkstra xut nm 1959.
Chng ta s p dng thut ton Dijkstra i vi th v hng. i vi th c
hng, ta ch cn thay i mt cht.
Trc khi gii thiu thut ton, ta xt v d sau:
Tnh di ca ng i ngn nht gia 2 nh a v z
trong th c trng s sau:
a
b c
z
d
e
1
2
3
4
2
2
3
i vi th ny, ta d dng tm c ng i ngn nht t a n z bng cch
th trc tip. Tuy nhin, ta s pht trin mt s tng gip ta hiu thut ton Dijkstra
d dng hn. Ta s tm di ca ng i ngn nht t a n cc nh k tip cho n
khi t ti nh z. Xut pht t nh a, ta thy ch c 2 nh b v d lin thuc vi a. Nn
ch c hai ng i xut pht t a n b v d l ab v ad vi di tng ng l 3 v 2.
Do , d l nh gn a nht.
By gi, ta tm nh tip theo gn a nht trong tt c cc ng i qua a v d.
ng i ngn nht t a ti b l ab vi di 3. ng i ngn nht t a n e l a, b, e
vi di 5. ng i ngn nht t a n c l a, b, c vi di 6. Khi ta c 2 ng
i t a n z qua c v e l a, b, c, z vi di 8; a, b, e, z vi di 6. Vy, ng i
ngn nht t a n z l: a, b, e, z vi di 6.
V d trn minh ha nhng nguyn tc chung dng trong thut ton Dijkstra.
ng i ngn nht t nh a n z c th tm c bng cch th trc tip. Nhng
phng php ny khng p dng c i vi th c nhiu cnh.
By gi, ta nghin cu bi ton tm di ca ng i ngn nht gia a v z
trong n th lin thng, v hng v c trng s.
Thut ton Dijkstra c thc hin bng cch tm di ca ng i ngn nht
t a n nh u tin, t a n nh th hai,... cho n khi tm c di ngn nht t a
n z.
Thut ton ny da trn mt dy cc bc lp. Mt tp c bit cc nh c xy
dng bng cch cng thm mt nh trong mi bc lp. Th tc gn nhn c thc
hin trong mi ln lp .
Trong th tc gn nhn ny, nh w c gn nhn bng di ng i ngn
nht t a n w v ch i qua cc nh thuc tp c bit. Mt nh c thm vo tp
ny l nh c nhn nh nht so vi cc nh cha c trong tp .
C th ca thut ton Dijkstra nh sau:
- Gn cho nh a nhn bng 0; cn cc nh khc bng . Ta k hiu:
Lo(a) = 0; Lo(v) = ; v a (y l bc lp th 0).
- Gi Sk l tp c bit cc nh sau bc lp th k ca th tc gn nhn. Chng
ta bt u bng So = . Tp Sk c to thnh t Sk
-1
bng cch thm vo nh u Sk
1
m c nhn nh nht.
- Sau khi nh u c ghp vo Sk, ta sa i nhn ca cc nh khng thuc Sk
sao cho Lk(v) (nhn ca nh v ti bc k) l di ca ng i ngn nht t a n v
m ng i ny ch cha cc nh thuc Sk (tc l cc nh thuc tp c bit cng
vi nh u).
Gi s v l mt nh khng thuc Sk. sa nhn ca v, ta chn Lk(v) l di
ca ng i ngn nht t a n v v ch cha cc nh thuc Sk. rng ng i
ngn nht t a n v ch cha cc phn t ca Sk hoc l ng i ngn nht t a n v
ch cha cc phn t ca Sk
1
hoc l ng i ngn nht t a n u trong bc (k1)
cng vi di cnh uv. Tc l:
Lk(a,v) = min{Lk
1
(a,v); Lk
1
(a,u) + w(uv)}
Th tc ny c lp bng cch lin tip thm cc nh vo tp c bit cc nh
cho ti khi t ti nh z. Khi thm z vo tp c bit cc nh th nhn ca n bng
di ca ng i ngn nht t a n z.
Thut ton Dijkstra c th c trnh by di dng gii m (pseudo - code) nh
sau:
THUT TON DIJKSTRA
Procedure Dijkstra (G: n th lin thng c trng s dng);
{G c cc nh a = vo; v
1
, v
2
, ..., vn = z v trng s w(vi,vj) vi w(vivj) = nu
vivj khng l mt cnh ca G}.
for i = 1 to n
L(vi): =
L(a): = 0
S: =
{Ban u cc nhn c khi to sao cho nhn ca a bng khng, cc nh khc
bng ; S = }
While z S
begin
u: nh khng thuc S c L(u) nh nht
S: = S {u}
for tt c cc nh v khng thuc S
if L(u) + w(uv) < L(v) then
L(v): = L(u) + w(uv)
{thm vo S nh c nhn nh nht, v sa i nhn ca cc nh khng
thuc S}
end {L(z) = di ng i ngn nht t a ti z}.
V d 17: Dng thut ton Dijkstra, tm ng i
ngn nht t a n z trong th sau:
+ Ta c: V = {a,b,c,d,e,z}; S = .
a
b
c
z
d
e
1
2 3
4
2
10
8
5
6
+ Ti bc lp th 1: ta gn 0 cho nh a v gn
cho cc nh cn li. L(a) = 0.
Oa
b
c
z
d
e
1
2 3
4
2
10
8
5
6
+ Trong cc nh khng thuc S = {a} v k vi a c 2 nh b v c. Ta c:
L(b) = min {, L(a) + w(ab)} = min {, 0 + 4} = 4.
L(c) = min {, L(a) + w(ac)} = min {, 0 + 2} = 2.
Ta c: L(c) nh nht nn c S. S = {a,c}.
O a
b
c
z
d
e
1
2 3
4
2
10
8
4(a)
6 5
2(a)
+ Trong cc nh khng thuc S m k vi c c 3 nh l b, d, e.
L(b) = min {4, L(c) + w(cb)} = min{4,2+1} = 3.
L(e) = min {, L(c) + w(ce)} = min{,12} = 12.
L(d) = min{,L(c) + w(cd)} = min{,2 + 8} = 10.
Ta c: L(b) nh nht nn b S S = {a,b,c}.
O a
b
c
z
1
2
3
4
2
3(a,c)
10
8
6
5
2(a) e
d
10(a,c)
12(a,c)
+ Trong cc nh khng thuc S m k vi b l d.
L(d) = min{10,L(b) + w(bd)} = min{10,3 + 5} = 8
d S: S = {a,b,c,d}
O a
b 3(a,c)
c 2(a)
z
1
2
3
4
2
10
8
6
5
e 12(a,c)
d 8(a,c,b)
+ Trong cc nh k vi d m khng thuc S, c: e,z.
L(e) = min{12, L(d) + w(de)} = min{12, 8+2} = 10
L(z) = min{, d(d) + w(dz)} = min{, 8+6} = 14
e S: S = {a,b,c,d,e}.
14(a,c,b,d) O a
b 3(a,c)
c 2(a)
z
1
2
3
4
2
10
8
6
5
e 10(a,c,b,d)
d 8(a,c,b)
+ Cc nh k vi e m khng thuc S: z.
L(z) = min{14, L(e) + w(ez)} = min{14, 10+3} = 13.
d 8(a,c,b)
e 10(a,c,b,d)
5
6
8
10
2
4
3
2
1
z 13(a,c,b,d,e)
c 2(a)
b 3(a,c)
O a
Vy, ng i ngn nht t a n z l: a, c, b, d, e vi di 13.
2.2. nh l: Thut ton Dijkstra tm c ng i ngn nht gia 2 nh trong
n th lin thng, c trng s.
IV. Thut ton Hedetniemi TOP
Mt trong nhng thut ton tm ng i ngn nht ngoi thut ton Dijkstra nh
trnh by, l thut ton Hedetniemi. Thut ton ny u tin do Hedetniemi xut v
Arlignhaus, Nysteren l nhng ngi pht trin thut ton ny. Thut ton Hedetniemi
u tin c cng b vo nm 1990.
Trc khi gii thiu thut ton Hedetniemi, ta c khi nim ma trn "lin k" A =
(aij) ca mt th G lin thng c trng s vi cc nh v
1
, v
2
, ..., vn nh sau:

Vi aij
=
0 nu i = j
x nu i j v x = w(vivj)
nu vivj G
V d 18: Ta c th G sau:
5
4
3
2
1
e
d
z
c
b
a
5
2
2
Theo th t cc nh a, b, c, d, e, z. Ta c ma trn "lin k" ca G nh sau:
A =

,
_

0 4 2
4 0 1 5 2
2 1 0 5
5 0 3
2 5 0 2
3 2 0
1. Php cng ma trn Hedetniemi TOP
Cho A = (aij)
m x n
v B = (bij)
n x p
. Khi tng ma trn Hedetniemi l ma trn C
= (Cij)
m x p
vi Cij = min{ai
1
+ b
1j
, ai
2
+ b
2j
, ..., ain + bnj}. K hiu: C = A B.
V d 19: A =

,
_

0 6 5
3 0 2
2 1 0
; B =

,
_

0 1 3
4 0 5
4 3 0
A B =

,
_

0 6 5
3 0 2
2 1 0

,
_

0 1 3
4 0 5
4 3 0
=

,
_

0 1 3
3 0 2
2 1 0
V d 20: A =

,
_

0 4
4 0 1
1 0
; B =

,
_

0 4
4 0 1
1 0
A B =

,
_

0 4 5
4 0 1
5 1 0
2. Thut ton Hedetniemi TOP
tm ng i ngn nht gia hai nh bt k ca mt n th lin thng c
trng s G, gi A l ma trn "lin k" ca G c xc nh theo trn. K hiu: A
2
= A
A; A
3
= A
2
A... Khi ta ln lt tnh A
2
, A
3
,... cho n AK sao cho: AK AK
1
v AK = AK
+1
.
Ta c nh l sau: i vi n th lin thng c trng s gm n nh, nu ma
trn Hedetniemi AK AK
1
v AK = AK
+1
th A biu din tp hp cc di ng i
ngn nht gia hai nh ca G khi phn t aij ca AK l di ng i ngn nht
gia hai nh vi v vj.
3. V d
Tm di ng i ngn nht gia hai nh
a v z ca n th G sau:
5
4
3
2
1
e
d
z
c
b
a
5
2
2
Ta c ma trn "lin k" ca G l:
A =

,
_

0 4 2
4 0 1 5 2
2 1 0 5
5 0 3
2 5 0 2
3 2 0
A
2
=

,
_

0 3 2 9 6
3 0 1 5 2 4
2 1 0 6 3 7
9 5 6 0 5 3
6 2 3 5 0 2
4 7 3 2 0
A
3
=

,
_

0 3 2 8 5 8
3 0 1 5 2 4
2 1 0 6 3 5
8 5 6 0 5 3
5 2 3 5 0 2
8 4 5 3 2 0
= A
5
A
4
=
a b c d e z
z 7 5 8 2 3 0
e 4 2 5 1 0 3
d 5 3 6 0 1 2
c 3 5 0 6 5 8
b 2 0 5 3 2 5
a 0 2 3 5 4 7
di khong cch ngn nht t a n z l 7. tm ng ngn nht t
a n z ta thy trong A
4
:
) 3 (
14
) 4 (
16
a a
+ a
46
ng i trc khi n z phi qua d.
Ta li c:
) 2 (
15
) 3 (
14
a a
+ a
54
trc khi n d, phi qua e.
Ta cng c:
) 2 (
15
a
= a
12
+ a
25
i qua b.
Vy, ng i ngn nht t a n z: a, b, e, d, z.

BI TP
Bi 01. Cc th sau c chu trnh Euler, ng i Euler hay khng? Nu c hy xy
dng chu trnh, ng i .
a. b.





a
a b
d c
e
a
b
c
d
e
f

c. d.








e. f.







g. h.





Bi 02. Mt ngi no c th i qua nhng chic cu nh trn hnh v sau, mi chic
cu i qua ng 1 ln v li tr v ni xut pht c khng?
a b e f
h g
d
c
a
d
b
f
c
e
a
d
h i j k
g
c b
e f
d b
a
c e f
i
g h







Bi 03. Xem xt cc th c hng sau, c chu trnh hay ng i Euler hay khng?
Nu c, hy xy dng chu trnh v ng i .













Bi 04. Vi gi tr no ca n, cc th sau c chu trnh Euler:
a. Kn b. Cn c. Wn d. Kn
,n
Bi 05. Mt ng vua xy dng mt lu i ct bu vt. Ngi ta tm thy s ca
lu i nh sau vi li cn dn: mun tm bu vt, ch cn t mt trong cc cn phng
bn ngoi cng (s 1, 2, 6, 10...) i qua tt c cc ca phng, mi ca ch mt ln. Bu
vt c giu sau cnh ca cui cng. Hy tm ni giu bu vt.





a b

d c
d e
a b c
a b c
d e f
e f g h
a b c d
20 21
16 17 18
11 12 13 14
3 4 5 6
7 8 9 10
1 2
19
15





Bi 06. Tm cc chu trnh Hamilton hoc ng i Hamilton ca cc th sau:

a. a.
b.





b. b.
d.


b





Bi 07. Cho v d v:
a. th c mt chu trnh va l chu trnh Euler va l chu trnh Hamilton.
b. th c mt chu trnh Euler v mt chu trnh Hamilton nhng hai chu trnh
ny khng trng nhau.
c. th c chu trnh Euler nhng khng c chu trnh Hamilton.
d. th c chu trnh Hamilton nhng khng c chu trnh Euler.
Bi 08. Vi gi tr no ca n, cc th sau c chu trnh Hamilton:
a. Kn b. Cn c. Wn d. Kn
,n
Bi 09. Tm di ng i ngn nht gia a v z trong cc th c trng s sau:
a b
c d e
f g
a b c
d e f g h
i j
b c d
e f e
g
a
e

g f j
h i
c d
a
th Petersen
a.




c.


b. 3
b 5 d 5 f
3
c 6 e 5 g
2 1 2
a
z
4
3
4
7
b 2 d 3 g 5 j
c 9 f 2 i 2 k
6 1 6
a
z
9
e
3
h
1 5
9
5
3
2
19 d 11
b 40 g
c 10 f
a z
30
50
6 35
12 23 20
8




d.

2






Bi 10. Tm ng i ngn nht gia a v z ca th sau, vi iu kin:





H



a. i qua nh H.
b. Cha cnh IJ.
Bi 11. Dng thut ton Hedetniemi, tm ng i ngn nht gia a v z trong cc th
ca bi 9a v 9c.



h 8 o
b 1 e
d 4 g
k 2 r
a
2
4
3
2
6
j 3
4
3 2
2
3
i
3
1
l
6
2
p 4
3 2
6
3
4
5
m
5
2
5
n 1
8
q
1
2
1
3 8
5
t
6
s
2
z
3
8 8 5 12
A
Z
7 6 5
E 7
8
4
3
6
L
5
5
6
N J G F
C
4
4
3
8
I
K M
D B
3
5
4
8
5
7
5 4

CHNG III
TH PHNG V BI TON T MU TH

I. TH PHNG
1. Bi ton m u
2. th phng
3. Cng thc Euler
4. nh l Kuratowski
II. BI TON T MU TH
1. Bi ton m u
2. T mu th
3. Mt s nh l v t mu th
4. Thut ton Welch-Powell v t mu th
5. ng dng ca bi ton t mu

I. th phng TOP
1. Bi ton m u TOP
nghin cu v th phng, ta bt u bng vic xt bi ton "Ba nh ba
ging" nh sau:
C ba nh gn ba ci ging, t mi nh c ng i thng n tng ging,
nhng khng c ng ni thng cc nh vi nhau, cng nh khng c ng ni thng
cc ging vi nhau. C ln bt ha vi nhau, h tm cch lm cc ng khc n ging
sao cho cc ng ny i mt khng giao nhau. H c thc hin c nh khng?
Ta xy dng th G = (V, E) m t y cc thng tin ca bi ton:
+ nh: Ly cc im trn mt phng hay trong khng gian tng ng vi cc gia
nh v cc ging nc. i tng ca bi ton y c chia lm hai loi l gia nh
v ging nc. Vy, mi nh
V v
biu din cho mt gia nh hoc mt ging nc.
+ Cnh: Trong th G cc nh
i
v
v
j
v
c ni vi nhau bng mt cnh nu
c ng ni thng (trc tip) t mt gia nh n mt ging nc. Vy, mi quan h
gia 02 i tng y l mi quan h ng i. Mi cnh
E e
ni 2 nh
i
v
(i din
cho 01 gia nh) v
j
v
(i din cho mt ging nc) trong G nu c ng i trc tip
t gia nh
i
v
n ging nc
j
v
. Ta c th G nh sau:

A B
C
N M
P
Khi gii quyt bi ton trn ta cn n khi nim th phng nh sau:
2. th phng TOP
2.1. nh ngha
Mt th c gi l phng nu n c th v c trn mt mt phng m
khng c cc cnh no ct nhau im khng phi l im mt ca mi cnh. Hnh v
nh vy c gi l mt biu din phng ca th.
2.2. Cc v d
V d 1: K
4
l th phng v c th v li nh sau:

V d 2: Q
3
cng l th phng v:

V d 3: Ta s xt xem th lng phn K
3,3
c l th phng khng?

v
1
v
2
v
3
v
4
v
5
v
6

Ta s chng minh K
3,3
l th khng phng. Tht vy, ta thy trong mt biu din
phng bt k ca K
3,3
th v
1
v v
2
u ni vi v
4
v v
5
. Bn nh ny to thnh mt ng
khp kn chia mt phng ra lm hai min R
1
v R
2
nh sau:
Ta cn li nh v
6
. C 3 trng hp i vi v
6
:
+ Nu v
6
nm trong R
1
th cnh ni v
3
vi v
6
s ct t nht mt cnh khc.
+ Nu v
6
nm trong R
21
: cnh ni v
6
vi v
5
s
ct t nht mt cnh khc.
- Nu v
6
nm trong R
22
: cnh ni v
6
vi v
1
s
ct t nht mt cnh khc.
v
3
khng th nm trong R
2
.


v
1
v
2
v
4
v
5
R
2
R
1


R
21
v
3
R
1

R
22
v
5
v
4
v
2
v
1

Tng t ta cng chng minh c nu v
3
nm trong R
1
th th cng khng
phng.
Vy, K
3,3
l th khng phng.
Khi ta kt lun K
3,3
l th khng phng, ta cng gii quyt c bi ton
"ba nh ba ging". Khng c ng i no ni mi nh vi 3 ging m khng ct nhau.
Hay ni cch khc, ba nh ba ging ni trn khng th ni vi nhau trn mt mt phng
m khng ct nhau.
3. Cng thc Euler TOP
Ta thy khi biu din phng mt th, ta chia mt phng thnh cc min, k c
min v hn. Euler chng minh rng tt c cc biu din phng ca mt th u
chia mt phng thnh cng mt s min nh nhau. Euler cng tm ra mi lin h gia
s min; s nh v s cnh ca mt th phng.
3.1. nh l 1 (Cng thc Euler v th phng - lin thng)
Cho G l mt n th phng lin thng vi e cnh, v nh. Gi r l s min
(regions) trong biu din phng ca G. Khi :
r = e v + 2 hay v e + r = 2.
Chng minh: Gi s ta c biu din phng ca G. Ta s chng minh bng
cch xy dng mt dy cc th con ca G: G
1
, G
2
, ..., Ge = G bng cch ghp thm
mt cnh vo th bc trc. iu ny l lm c v ta c th ly bt k mt cnh
ca G c G
1
. Sau , ta nhn c Gn
+1
t Gn bng cch thm vo Gn mt cnh c
mt nh lin thuc vi Gn v mt nh khc lin thuc vi cnh mi . iu ny lun
lm c do G l lin thng. Ta s nhn c th G sau e bc (v G c e cnh).
Gi rn, en v vn tng ng l s min, s cnh v s nh ca biu din phng
ca Gn; n = 1, ..., e.
Ta s chng minh bng qui np:
- i vi G
1
ta c: e
1
= 1; v
1
= 2; r
1
= 1. Do : r
1
= e
1
v
1
+ 2.
- Gi s c rn = en vn + 2. Gi an
+1
bn
+1
l cnh ghp thm vo Gn c
Gn
+1
. Khi c hai trng hp c th xy ra:
+ Nu c hai nh an
+1
v bn
+1
u thuc Gn:

a
n+1
b
n+1
Do Gn
+1
l th phng nn an
+1
bn
+1
khng th ct bt c cnh no ca Gn
+1

an
+1
v bn
+1
phi nm trn bin ca min chung R cnh an
+1
bn
+1
chia R ra lm hai min
con. Khi : rn
+1
= rn + 1; en
+1
= en + 1.
Vn
+1
= vn rn
+1
= en
+1
vn
+1
+ 2.
+ Nu mt trong an
+1
hoc bn
+1
khng ph thuc Gn: Khng mt tnh tng
qut, ta c th gi s an
+1
Gn v bn
+1
Gn. Khi ta thy khi thm cnh an
+1
bn
+1
vo
Gn c Gn
+1
s khng thm min mi no v an
+1
phi trn min c an
+1
trn bin
ca n.

a
n+1
b
n+1
Do : rn
+1
= rn; vn
+1
= vn + 1; en
+1
= en + 1 rn
+1
= en
+1
vn
+1
+ 2.
Vy, n = 1, 2, ..., e ta lun c: rn = en vn + 2
hay r = e v + 2.
V d 4: Cho G l mt n th lin thng c 8 nh v mi nh u c bc l
3. Khi biu din phng ca th s chia mt phng thnh bao nhiu min?
Gii: Ta c: v = 8, theo gi thit mi bc c nh bng 3 nn ta c tng s bc ca
nh: 3v = 8.3 = 24, m tng s bc ca nh = 2e 2e = 24 e = 12 s min ca G:
r = e v + 2 = 12 8 + 2 = 6.
3.2. H qu 1
Cho G l mt n th phng lin thng vi e cnh v v nh; v 3. Khi : e
3v 6.
Chng minh:
Trong mt th phng, lin thng th:
+ Mi min r c bao bi t nht l 3 cnh,
+ Mi cnh nm trn nhiu nht 2 min.
Vy trong mt th phng, ta c: :
e r 2 3
hay :
( ) 1
3
2
e r
Mt khc, theo nh l Euler v th phng lin thng, ta c:
( ) 2 2 2 + + v e r r e v
Thay (1) vo (2), ta c:
6 3 6 3 3 2 2
3
2
+ + v e v e e v e e
V d 5: Chng minh rng th K
5
l khng phng.
Gii: Ta c th K
5
c 5 nh v 10 cnh bt ng thc e 3v 6 khng
ng vi K
5
. Do , K
5
l th khng phng.
3.3. H qu 2
Cho G l mt n th phng lin thng c e cnh, v nh; v 3 v khng c
chu trnh di 3. Khi e 2v 4.
Chng minh
Trong mt th phng, lin thng e cnh, v nh; v 3 v khng c chu trnh
di 3 th:
+ Mi min r c bao bi t nht l 4 cnh,
+ Mi cnh nm trn nhiu nht 2 min.
Vy trong mt th phng, ta c: :
e r 2 4
hay :
( ) 1
2
1
e r
Mt khc, theo nh l Euler v th phng lin thng, ta c:
( ) 2 2 2 + + v e r r e v

Thay (1) vo (2), ta c:
4 2 4 2 2 2
2
1
+ + v e v e e v e e
V d 6: Chng minh rng K
3,3
l khng phng.
Gii: Ta c K
3,3
khng c chu trnh di 3. Hn na, K
3,3
c 6 nh v 9 cnh
e = 9 v 2v 4 = 8. iu ny khng tha h qu 2 K
3,3
khng phng.
3.3. H qu 3
Cho G l mt n th phng lin thng c e cnh, v nh th G phi c t nht
mt nh w c
( ) 5 w d
.
Chng minh
Theo nhn xt ca h qu 1, chng ta c trng mt th phng lin thng th ta
c bt ng thc:
( ) 1 2 3 e r
Gi s G l mt th phng, lin thng c e cnh, v nh m
V w
u c
( ) 6 w d
. iu ny c ngha l mi nh ca G s l u mt ca t nht 6 cnh v mi
cnh lin thuc vi 2 nh. T , ta c:
e v 2 6
hay
( ) 2 3 e v
Cng (1) v (2) v theo v, chng ta c:
( ) ! 0 3 3 3 + + + e v r e v r e v r
.
Vy trong mt th phng, lin thng c e cnh, v nh th phi c t nht mt
nh w c
( ) 5 w d
.
3.4. nh l 2 (Cng thc Euler v th phng bt k)
Cho G l mt n th phng vi e cnh, v nh v c
1 k
thnh phn lin
thng. Gi r l s min (regions) trong biu din phng ca G. Khi :
v e + r = k + 1.
y chnh l cng thc Euler cho mt th phng bt k.
(Sinh vin t chng minh - xem nh bi tp).
4. nh l Kuratowski TOP
nh l Kuratowski cho ta iu kin cn v mt th l phng. nh l
ny lin quan n php phn chia s cp ca th.
Nhc li php phn chia s cp ca th: Cho G l mt th, nu b i cnh
ab ca G v thm vo nh mi c cng vi 2 cnh ac v cb. Php ton gi l php
phn chia s cp. Hai th nhn c t cng mt th bng mt dy cc php phn
chia s cp c gi l ng phi vi nhau.
D thy, nu G
1
v G
2
l hai th ng phi th: G
1
phng G
2
phng.
4.1. nh l Kuratowski
th G l khng phng khi v ch khi G cha mt th con ng phi vi K
3,3
hoc K
5
.
Chng minh nh l ny tng i phc tp nn ta khng trnh by y.
4.2. Cc v d:
V d 7: Xt th G:

a
b c
d
e f
Nu ta xa nh a ca G, ng thi xa i cnh ab, ac, ad th ta c mt th
con ca G l th K
5
v th con ca G khi c 5 nh b, c, d, e, f m cc nh u c
bc 4 G khng phng.
V d 8: Xt th G c:

a
b
c
d
e
f
g
h
Nu ta b i cc cnh bc, cd, fg, gh ta c th con ca G:
a
b
c
d
e
f
g
h
a
b
c
d
e
f
g
h
th ny ng phi vi K
3,3
G khng phng.
II. Bi ton t mu th TOP
1. Bi ton m u TOP
Khi t mu mt bn , hai min c chung bin gii c t bng hai mu ty ,
min l khc nhau. m bo chc chn hai min k nhau khng bao gi c mu trng
nhau, ta c th t mi min bng mt mu khc nhau. R rng, iu ny l khng cn
thit v i vi nhiu bn , ta c th dng s mu t hn s min nhng vn m bo
hai min k nhau c mu khc nhau. Do bi ton t ra l Xc nh s mu ti thiu
cn c t mu mt bn sao cho hai min k nhau c mu khc nhau.
V d 9: Ta c bn :

A
B
C
D
E
F
G
i vi bn ny, ta cn ba mu l (hai mu l khng ).
t mu mt bn , chng ta s chuyn bn v di dng th. Mi bn
trn mt phng c th biu din bng mt th. Trong :
+ Mi min ca bn c biu din bng mt nh ca th.
+ Cc cnh ni hai nh nu cc min c biu din bng hai nh ny c bin
gii chung. Hai min chung nhau ch mt im, khng c coi l k nhau.
th nhn c t bn bng cch xy dng trn c gi l th i ngu
ca bn ang xt.
V d bn nu trn c th i ngu nh sau:

A
B
C
D
E
F
G

2. T mu th TOP
2.1. nh ngha
T mu mt n th l vic gn mu cho cc nh ca n sao cho hai nh
lin k c mu khc nhau. Mi th c th c nhiu cch t mu khc nhau.
S mu hay sc s (Chromatic number) ca mt th G l s mu ti thiu
cn thit t mu G. K hiu: (G).
V d 10: Xt th G:

v
1 v
2
v
3 v
4
v
5

v
6
v
7
t mu th G, trc ht ta thy v
1
c bc cao nht, deg(v
1
) = 5 cho nn ta
cho v
1
c mu a. deg(v
5
) = 4 cho v
5
c mu b. Cho v
4
mu c. V deg(v
4
) = 4 v v
4
, v
5
k nhau v
6
c mu c. Cn v
3
c mu d. Cn li 2 nh v
2
v v
7
. Ta thy v
2
k vi v
1
v
v
5
cho v
2
mu c; v
7
khng k vi v
1
nn ta cho v
7
mu a.
Vy ta c nh: v
1
v
2
v
3
v
4
v
5
v
6
v
7
mu: a c d c b b a
ta s dng 4 mu t mu G.
Ta thy G c 4 nh v
1
, v
3
, v
4
, v
6
i mt k nhau (G) 4. Theo trn ta ch
dng 4 mu (G) = 4.
2.2. nh l: Mi n th y
n
K
u c: (Kn) = n.
Chng minh
Khng nh c chng minh bng quy np theo s nh ca th.
Trng hp c s : Vi n = 1, K
1
c 1 nh nn phi dng 1 mu t.
Gi thit quy np: Gi s khng nh ng vi n = k. Ngha l mi n th
c k nh u c (Kk) = k. Ta cn khng nh tnh ng n ca nh l i vi n =
k + 1. Ngha l (Kk
+1
) = k + 1.
Gi s Kk
+1
l mt n th y vi tp nh:
} {
1 2 1
, , , ,
+

k k
v v v v V

Ta loi khi Kk
+1
mt nh tu (chng hn nh vk
+1
) cng cc cnh lin thuc
vi nh ny. th con nhn c l mt n th y c k nh. Theo gi thuyt
quy np chng ta c (Kk) = k.
By gi ta khi phc li nh vk
+1
cng vi cc cnh lin thuc vi n, tc l
tr li th Kk
+1
. V nh vk
+1
k vi tt c cc nh cn li nn t mu cho vk
+1
ta
phi s dng mt mu mi. Do : (Kk
+1
) = k + 1.
3. Mt s nh l v t mu th TOP
3.1. nh l 1
Mi chu trnh di l u c sc s l 3.
Chng minh
Gi s

l mt chu trnh di l tu . Khi , tn ti mt s t nhin n

1 2 + n
. Gi s dy cc nh ca

l:
} {
1 2 2 2 1
, , , ,
+

n n
v v v v V
. Ta s chng minh
khng nh trn bng quy np theo n.
Trng hp c s : Vi n = 1. Chu trnh

gm 3 nh
3 2 1
, , v v v
. Do mi nh
( ) 3 1 i v
i
u k vi 2 nh cn li, nn ta phi dng ng 3 mu khc nhau t cho

v 2 nh k nhau tu u phi c mu khc nhau.

Gi thit quy np: Gi s khng nh ng vi
k n
, ngha l vi mt chu
trnh
1

tu vi di 2n + 1
( ) k n 1
u c sc s bng 3. Ta ch cn ch ra rng
vi n = k + 1 khng nh vn ng. Ngha l chu trnh

c di 2(k + 1) + 1 cng c
sc s bng 3.
Gi s

l chu trnh c di l ty c di bng 2(k + 1) + 1 v c tp

nh:
} {
3 2 2 2 1 2 2 2 1
, , , , , ,
+ + +

k k k k
v v v v v v V
ta m t chu trnh

nh hnh v sau:







v
1
v
2
v
3
v
4
v
5
v
6
v
2k
v
2k+
1
v
2k+
2
v
2k+
3

Ni nh v
1
vi nh v
2k + 1
ta c chu trnh
1

vi di l l 2k + 1. Theo gi
thuyt quy np th
1

c sc s l 3 v 02 nh v
1
v v
2k + 1
phi c mu khc nhau. Chng
hn v
1
c t bng mu M
1
v nh v
2k + 1
c t bng mu M
2
. Khi , t nh v
2k+2
ta c th dng li mu M
1
v t nh v
2k+3
ta c th dng li mu M
2
. Ngha l khng cn
dng thm mu mi. Vy sc s ca

l 3 v nh l c chng minh.
3.2. nh l 2
Nu G c cha mt th con ng cu vi Kn th (G) n.
V d 11: Tm sc s ca th G:

A
B
C
D
E F
Ta c: G cha K
3
nn (G) 3.
Ta li c F c bc ln nht nn ta t F mu 1, A mu 2, B mu 3. Khi C phi t
mu 2 v D t mu 3. Cn li nh E k vi A, F, D c 3 mu 1, 2, 3. Do , E phi
c mu 4.
Ta tm sc s ca G: Do G c cha chu trnh l (ABCDEA) nn ta c cc nh A,
B, C, D, E phi c t bng 3 mu. Mt khc, nh F k vi tt c cc nh A, B, C, D,
E nn ta phi dng mu th 4 t cho F. Vy: (G) = 4.
Ch :
Nu G' l mt th con ca G th (G) (G').
Nu dng k mu t mu G th khng cn quan tm n nhng nh c bc
nh hn k.
3.3. nh l 3
Mt n th G = (V, E) c th t bng 2 mu khi v ch khi n khng c chu
trnh di l.
Chng minh
iu kin cn: Gi s G l th 2 sc (c th t tt c cc nh ca G bng 2
mu) ngng trong G li c mt chu trnh l

. Khi theo nh l 1, sc s ca

phi
l 3. Mt khc theo nh l 2 ta c
( ) ( ) 3 G
. Do , sc s ca G t nht phi l 3.
Ta suy ra iu mu thun vi gi thuyt, nn G khng c chu trnh di l.
iu kin : Gi s th G khng c chu trnh di l. Ta cn chng minh
rng G l th 2 sc. Ta bt u t dn cc nh ca G theo quy tc sau:
+ T M
1
cho nh
V w
bt k.
+ Nu mt nh
V u
no c t bng M
1
, ta s dng mu M
2
t cho
tt c cc nh k vi u v ngc li nu nh
V u
no c t bng M
2
, ta s
dng mu M
1
t cho tt c cc nh k vi u.
V G l th hu hn nn n mt lc no tt c cc nh ca G s phi c
t mu v mi nh ca G khng th cng lc va c t bng M
1
va c t bng M
2
.
Tht vy, gi s trong G tn ti nh v m theo nguyn tc n va c t bng M
1
ng
thi cng c t bng M
2
. Khi v phi k vi nh s c t bng M
1
v nh t c
t bng M
2
, nn khi cc nh v, s, t phi nm trn mt chu trnh di l. Nh vy
mu thun vi gi thuyt nn nh v khng tn ti.
V d 12: Xt th vng Cn (n 3).
Khi n chn, chng hn n = 6. Ta c:

(xanh) b c (o)
d (xanh)
e (o)
(xanh) f
(o) a
D thy khi (C
6
) = 2 v ta c th t mu nh trn. R rng C
6
khng c chu
trnh l.
Khi n l, chng hn n = 5. Ta c:

a
b
c
d
e
C
5

C
5
c cha chu trnh l (C
5
) 3. D thy (C
5
) = 3.
Tng qut: (Cn) = 2 nu n chn (n 3)
(Cn) = 3 nu n l (n 3)
3.4. nh l 4 (nh l bn mu) (nh l Appel-Haken, 1976)
Mi th phng u c sc s khng ln hn 4. nh l ny l nh l u tin
c chng minh vi s h tr ca my vi tnh.
4. Thut ton Welch-Powell v t mu th TOP
t mu mt th G, ta c th s dng thut ton Welch-Powell nh sau:
Sp xp cc nh G theo bc gim dn.
Dng mt mu t nh u tin v cng dng mu ny t mu cc nh
lin tip trong danh sch m khng k vi nh u tin.
Bt u tr li u danh sch, t mu th hai cho nh cha c t v lp li
qu trnh trn cho n khi tt c cc nh u c t mu.
Ch : Thut ton Welch-Powell cha cho ta sc s ca mt th G, n ch
gip ta mt cch tip cn tm sc s ca mt th. tm sc s ca mt th th
sau khi t mu xong ta phi s dng cc nh l, cc tnh cht hc ca l thuyt th
khng nh s mu c dng l t nht v t suy ra sc s ca th. Bi ton tm
sc s ca mt th l mt bi ton kh v khng phi th no cng tm c sc s
ca n mt cch d dng.
V d 13: V s dng thut ton Welch-Powell.
Dng thut ton Welch-Powell t mu v tm sc s ca th sau:

v
1
v
2
v
3
v
4
v
5
v
6
G
Ta c nh: v
1
v
3
v
4
v
6
v
2
v
5
bc: 4 4 3 3 2 2
mu a b c b c a
Ta li c G cha th con ng cu vi K
3
bao gm cc nh v
1
, v
2
, v
3
(G)
3.
Do G c cha th con l K
3
nn theo nh l 2 ta c (G)
3
. Ta c th dng 3
mu t G l t nht (G) = 3.
5. ng dng ca bi ton t mu TOP
Bi ton t mu c nhiu ng dng trong thc t. Chng hn: vic xp lch thi
cho sinh vin, phn chia tn s pht sng ca cc i pht thanh truyn hnh, b tr cc
con vt trong s th...
V d 14: Hy lp lch thi cho cc sinh vin trong mt trng i hc sao cho
khng c sinh vin no phi thi 02 mn trong cng mt bui thi. Chng hn, c 7 mn
cn xp lch thi c nh s ln lt t 1 n 7 v cc cp mn sau c chung sinh vin
d thi:
+ 1 v 3, 1 v 4, 1 v 7. + 4 v 5, 4 v 6.
+ 2 v 3, 2 v 4, 2 v 5, 2 v 7. + 5 v 7.
+ 3 v 4, 3 v 7. + 6 v 7.
Gii Xy dng th G = (V, E) m t bi ton:
Mi nh
( ) 7 .. 1 i V v
i
i din cho mn thi th i.
Mi cnh
E e
ni 2 nh vi v vj nu c sinh vin phi thi c hai mn c
biu din bng 2 nh ny.
Ta c th G =(V, E) nh sau:
lp lch thi ta s tin hnh t mu cho G
theo thut ton Welch-Powell nh sau:
nh 2 3 4 7 1 5 6
Bc: 5
5
5
5
4
4
4
Mu: M
1
M
2
M
3
M
3
M
4
M
2
M
1
Ta thy G c cha th con K
4
nn dng 4
mu t cho G l t nht. Vy
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
G







Tm li, ta c lch thi nh sau:

Bui thi Mn thi
I 2, 6
II 3, 5
III 4, 7
IV 1

BI TP CHNG III:
TH PHNG V BI TON T MU TH
1) Xy dng th i ngu v t mu cc bn sau:
a.





b.






lp lch thi ta s tin hnh t mu cho G
theo thut ton Welch-Powell nh sau:
nh 2 3 4 7 1 5 6
Bc: 5
5
5
5
4
4
4
Mu: M
1
M
2
M
3
M
3
M
4
M
2
M
1
Ta thy G c cha th con K
4
nn dng 4
mu t cho G l t nht. Vy
D
C
B
A
E
c.




2) Tm sc s ca cc th sau:
a.







b. c.






d. e.









3) Tm sc s ca cc th sau:
a. b.
C
A B
F
E
H
G
D
D C
I H
A
J
F
G
B E








c. d.







4) Tm sc s ca cc th:
a. Kn b. Cn c. Wn d. Kn
,n
5) Cc th sau c l phng hay khng? Nu c hy v n khng c cnh ct nhau:
a. b.




c. d.








B
A C
E D
A
B
C
D E F
e. f.







g. h.








6) Tm s nh, cnh v min ca cc th sau:
a. b. c.








7) V th phng lin thng vi 6 cnh v 3 min.
8) V th phng lin thng vi 4 nh v 5 min.
9) V th phng lin thng vi 6 nh v 7 cnh.
10. Chng minh cc th sau l khng phng:
a. b. c.
A
B
F
B
D
C
A B
C
D
F
E










11) Mt ngi gi tho cm vin mun sp xp cc con vt sng theo thi quen t nhin
ca chng. Nhng ng ta khng th cho tt c cc con vt sng chung mt ch v chng
c th n tht ln nhau. Du chm trong bng sau ch ra nhng con vt c th n tht ln
nhau. S ni nh nht ngi gi tho cm vin cn nui cc con vt l bao nhiu?

a b c d e f g h i j
a
b
c
d
e
f
g
h
i
j

12) Chng minh rng mt n th vi n nh c sc s l n th th c
2
1) n(n

cnh.





CHNG IV
CY

I. MT S KHI NIM C BN
1. Cy (Tree)
2. Rng (Forest)
3. nh l v iu kin ca cy
4. Cy c gc
5. nh l Chain
6. Cy m - phn
II. MT S TNH CHT CA CY
1. Tnh cht 1
2. Tnh cht 2
3. Tnh cht 3
III. CY NH PHN V PHP DUYT CY
1. nh ngha
2. V d
3. K php nghch o Ba Lan (Reverse Polish Notation - RPN)
IV. CY KHUNG
1. nh ngha
2. V d
3. nh l
4. Cy khung nh nht

I. Mt s khi nim c bn TOP
1. Cy (Tree) TOP
1.1. nh ngha
Cy l mt th v hng, lin thng v khng c chu trnh s cp.
Do cy khng c chu trnh s cp, nn cy khng th c cnh bi v khuyn. Vy
mi cy l n th.
1.2. Cc v d

G
1
G
2
G
G
1
v G
2
, G l cc cy.

G
3
G
4
G
3
v G
4
khng l cy.
+ G
3
c cha chu trnh nn G
3
khng l cy,
+ G
4
khng lin thng nn G
4
khng l cy.
2. Rng (Forest) TOP
2.1. nh ngha
Rng l th v hng khng c chu trnh.
T nh ngha, ta thy rng l mt th c nhiu thnh phn lin thng m mi
thnh phn lin thng ca n l mt cy.

2.2. V d

G
G l mt rng v G c 3 thnh phn lin thng.
3. nh l v iu kin ca cy TOP
Nu trong th v hng G, mi cp nh ca n lun tn ti mt ng i s
cp duy nht th G l mt cy.
Chng minh
Gi s G l mt cy ta s chng minh mi cp nh trong G u tn ti mt
ng i s cp duy nht. Tht vy:
Nu trong G tn ti mt ng i

gia hai nh v v w v

khng l
ng i s cp. Khi trn ng i

s tn ti t nht mt nh u c i lp li. Khi

trong G s c mt chu trnh:
u v v u
j j

1 +

(1)
Mt khc, gi s trn G c 2 ng s cp khc nhau
1

v
2

ni 2 nh v v
w. c lit k ln lt nh sau:
w v v vv
n

2 1 1

v
w v v vv
n
' ' '
2 1 2

+ Gi i l ch s b nht ca cc nh trn ng i sao cho
1 1
' '
+ +

i i i i
v v v v

+ Gi j l ch s b nht
( ) i j
sao cho tn ti mt ch s
i k

j k
v v '
.
Ta thy rng cc ch s i, j v k nh th l tn ti v khi trong G tn ti mt
chu trnh:

i i k j i i
v v v v v v
+
' ' '
1 1

(2)
Vy t (1) v (2), ta c: Nu trong th v hng G, mi cp nh ca n lun
tn ti mt ng i s cp duy nht th G l mt cy.
4. Cy c gc TOP
4.1. nh ngha
Trong mt cy, nu ta chn mt nh c bit gi l gc ca cy v nh hng
cc cnh trn cy t gc i ra th ta c mt th c hng gi l cy c gc.
Ch : Cng mt cy, nu ta chn gc khc nhau th cy c gc thu c s
khc nhau.
4.2. V d

a
b
d
f
g
h
a
a
b
b
c
c
c
d
d
f
f
g
g h
h
e
e
e
T
1
T
2
T
3
+ T
1
l mt cy,
+ T
2
l cy c gc a,
+ T
3
l cy c gc e,
+ T
2
v T
3
l cc cy c gc c sinh ra t cy T
1
.
4.3. Mt s khi nim
Cho T l mt cy c gc, v l mt nh khc gc ca T.
Cha ca v l nh u T sao cho c mt cnh c hng duy nht t u v. Khi
, u c gi l cha ca v; v l con ca u.
Cc nh c cng cha c gi l anh em.
T tin ca mt nh khc gc l cc nh trn ng i t gc n nh .
Con chu ca v l cc nh c v l t tin.
Cc nh ca cy khng c con c gi l l.
Cc nh c con c gi l nh trong.
Trong mt cy, cho a l mt nh. Cy con vi gc a l th con ca cy ang
xt, bao gm a v cc con chu ca n cng tt c cc cnh lin thuc vi cc con chu
ca a.
Mc ca mt nh v trong mt cy c gc T l khong cch t gc n v.
Mc ln nht ca mt nh bt k trong cy gi l chiu cao ca cy.
V d

a
b c
d
e
f
g h
i
j
k
l
m l m
i
d
g
h
nh d c cc con l g, h, i.
th bn phi l mt cy con ca cy bn tri.
5. nh l Daisy Chain TOP
Gi s T l mt th c n nh. Khi , 6 mnh sau l tng ng:
(1): T l mt cy,
(2): T khng c chu trnh v c n - 1 cnh.
(3): T l mt th lin thng v nu hy bt k mt cnh no ca n cng lm
mt tnh lin thng.
(4): Gia 2 nh bt k ca T , lun tn ti mt ng i s cp duy nht ni 2
nh ny.
(5): T khng c chu trnh v nu thm mt cnh mi ni 2 nh bt k ca T th s
to ra mt chu trnh.
(6): T lin thng v c n - 1 cnh.
Chng minh
Ta s chng minh nh l ny theo quy trnh vng trn nh sau:
) 1 ( ) 6 ( ) 5 ( ) 4 ( ) 3 ( ) 2 ( ) 1 (


) 2 ( ) 1 (
: V T l mt cy nn T l th lin thng. Hn na, ta c th xem T
l mt cy c gc. Khi , mi nh trn cy u c bc vo l 1 ngoi tr nh gc c
bc vo l 0. T c n nh ngha l c n - 1 nh khc gc. Vy T lin thng v c n -1
cnh.

) 3 ( ) 2 (
: V T khng c chu trnh nn mi thnh phn lin thng ca T phi
l mt cy. Gi s T c
1 k
thnh phn lin thng. Gi ni l s nh thuc thnh phn
lin thng th i
( ) k i .. 1
, theo mnh (2) ta c s cnh ca thnh phn lin thng th i
l ni - 1.
Theo gi thuyt ta c:
1 1
1

n k n n
k
i
i
.ng thc ny ch xy ra khi k
=1, ngha l T c 1 thnh phn lin thng ngha l T lin thng.
By gi, nu hy i mt cnh ca T, ta nhn c mt th T c n - 2 cnh v
T khng c chu trnh vy T cng l mt cy: v l.

) 4 ( ) 3 (
: Gi v v w l 2 nh bt k ca T. V T lin thng nn tn ti mt
ng i ni chng. Gi s c 2 ng khc nhau cng ni v vi w, khi nu ta hy i
mt cnh bt k thuc trn ng th nht nhng khng thuc ng th hai th vn
khng lm mt tnh lin thng ca T. iu ny mu thun vi tnh cht (3).

) 5 ( ) 4 (
: Nu T c mt chu trnh ni 2 nh phn bit v v w, khi thm vo
mt cnh mi ni 2 nh ny th r rng c 2 ng i khc nhau cng ni 2 nh v v w.
Mu thun vi (4). Vy T khng c chu trnh.
By gi, thm mt cnh ni 2 nh v v w ca T. Theo gi thuyt trong T c mt
ng i trong T (khng cha cnh mi) ni v v w. R rng, ng ny thm cnh mi
s to thnh chu trnh.

) 6 ( ) 5 (
: Xt hai nh bt k v v w ca T. Thm vo T mt cnh mi ni 2
nh ny s to thnh chu trnh (gi thuyt). Hy cnh mi ny khi chu trnh, ta c
mt ng trong T ni 2 nh v v w. Vy T lin thng v khng c chu trnh. Theo gi
thuyt T c n nh nn T c n - 1 cnh.

) 1 ( ) 6 (
: Gi s T c chu trnh v c n - 1 cnh. Hy mt cnh khi chu trnh
ny vn khng lm mt tnh lin thng ca T. Nu th nhn c vn cn chu trnh, ta
li hy b mt cnh trong chu trnh mi,c th tip tc cho n khi nhn c mt th
lin thng khng c chu trnh. th ny l mt cy c n nh nhng c t hn n - 1 cnh
(mu thun). Vy T khng c chu trnh, ngha l T l mt cy.
6. Cy m-phn TOP
6.1. nh ngha
Cy c gc c gi l cy m-phn nu tt c cc nh trong ca n khng c hn
m con. Cy c gi l m-phn y nu mi nh trong ca n c ng m con.
Cy 2-phn c gi l cy nh phn.
6.2. V d

T
1
T
2 T
3
+ T
1
: cy nh phn y
+ T
2
: cy tam phn y
+ T
3
: cy t phn (khng y ).
II. Mt s tnh cht ca cy TOP
1. Tnh cht 1 TOP
Nu T l mt cy c n nh
( ) 2 n
th T phi c t nht 2 nh treo.
Chng minh
Gi s a v b l mt cnh ca T. Gi

l ng s cp di nht trn T cha cnh

ab. Chng hn:



b
u
a
v

Ta thy u v v phi l 2 nh treo. Tht vy, nu u hoc v khng l nh treo th n
phi l u mc ca 1 cnh xu (hoc vy) no . Khi , s tn ti ng
'
cha cnh
ab c di ln hn

(V l). Vy u v v phi l 2 nh treo.

2. Tnh cht 2 TOP
Cy m-phn y vi i nh trong s c tt c n = m.i + 1 nh.
Chng minh
Mi nh t gc l con ca mt nh trong. Mi nh trong c m con, m c i nh
trong c m.i nh khc gc cy c tt c (m.i + 1) nh.
3. Tnh cht 3 TOP
Cho T l cy m-phn y c i l s cc nh trong v l l s cc l ca nh
ny. Ta c:
3.1. Nu T c n nh th i =
m
1 n ) 1 m (
l ;
m
1 n +

3.2. T c i nh trong th n = m.i + 1; l = (m 1)i + 1

3.3. T c l l th n = m.i + 1 v n = l + i.
(Tnh cht ny xem nh bi tp - Sinh vin t chng minh)
III. Cy nh phn v php duyt cy TOP
1. 1. nh ngha TOP
Duyt cy l a ra mt danh sch lit k tt c cc nh ca cy, mi nh mt
ln. C 3 php duyt cy thng dng l duyt tin t (PreOrder), duyt trung t
(InOrder) v duyt hu t (PostOrder). C ba phng php duyt trn u c nh
ngha quy i vi cy nh phn (mi nt c ti a 2 con ln lt c gi l con tri v
con phi ca nt).
1.2. nh ngha php duyt tin t (PreOrder)
1. Duyt nt gc,
2. Duyt con tri theo phng php duyt tin t,
3. Duyt con phi theo phng php duyt tin t,
1.3. nh ngha php duyt trung t (InOrder)
1. Duyt con tri theo phng php duyt trung t,
2. Duyt nt gc,
3. Duyt con phi theo phng php duyt trung t,
1.4. nh ngha php duyt hu t (PostOrder)
1. Duyt con tri theo phng php duyt hu t,
2. Duyt con phi theo phng php duyt hu t,
3. Duyt nt gc.
2. V d TOP
Duyt cy nh phn sau theo tin t, trung t, hu t




Danh sch duyt tin t: A B D E C F
Danh sch duyt trung t: D B E A C F
Danh sch duyt hu t: D E B F C A
3. K php nghch o Ba Lan (Reverse Polish Notation - RPN) TOP
3.1. Cy biu thc s hc
Cy biu thc s hc l mt cy nh phn, trong :
+ Mi nt trong biu din cho mt ton t 2 ngi

.
+ Mi nt l biu din cho mt ton hng ca biu thc.
Nu nt trong biu din cho ton t 2 ngi

v c 2 con:
+ Con tri biu din cho biu thc E
1
,
+ Con phi biu din cho biu thc E
2
,
khi nt trong ny biu din cho biu thc s hc
2 1
E E

V d: Xt biu thc s hc
( ) ( ) ( ) 5 / 15 * 1 4 2 ^ 3 2 + E

c biu din bng cy biu thc s hc sau:







A
B
C
D
E
F
-
^
+
2 3
2
*
-
4 1
/
1
5
5

i vi cy biu thc s hc nu duyt tin t ta c biu thc tin t, duyt
trung t ta c biu thc trung t v duyt hu t ta c biu thc hu t ca
biu thc s hc ban u.
+ Biu thc tin t: - ^ + 2 3 2 * - 4 1 / 15 5
+ Biu thc trung t: 2 + 3 ^ 2 - 4 - 1 * 15 / 5
+ Biu thc hu t: 2 3 + 2 ^ 4 1 - 15 5 / * -
3.2. K php nghch o Ba Lan (RPN)
Trong my tnh tnh gi tr ca biu thc E ngi ta s dng biu thc dng
hu t gi l k php nghch o Ba Lan (Reverse Polish Notation - RPN) ca biu thc
E.
Trong my tnh gi tr ca biu thc E c tnh bng cch lu cc s ca biu
thc E c biu din theo k php RPN vo trong mt b nh Stack (Stack l mt cu
trc lu tr c tnh cht l phn t no c lu tr trc th c ly ra sau).
Mi khi mt ton t c a vo th my s ly 2 ton hng u Stack ra, p
dng php ton c biu din bi ton t cho 2 ton hng ny ri li y kt qu vo
stack, c nh th cho n khi t c kt qu sau cng.
Qu trnh tnh gi tr cho biu thc E v d trn c m t bi hnh v:
Biu thc nhp di dng k php PRN:
E = 2 3 + 2 ^ 4 1 - 15 5 / * -
Qu trnh lu tr ca cu trc Stack nh sau:

16
-
9
*
3
/
5
15
3
-
1
4
25
^
2
5
+
3
2
Stack
IV. Cy khung TOP
1. nh ngha TOP
Cho G l mt n th. Mt cy c gi l cy khung ca G nu n l mt
th con ca G v cha tt c cc nh ca G.
2. V d TOP
Cho n th G sau:

a b c
d
e f
g
h
Mt cy khung to ra t G bng cch xa i cc cnh to ra chu trnh n: ae, ef
v cd l:

a b c
d
e f
g
h
3. nh l TOP
Mt n th l lin thng khi v ch khi n c cy khung.
Chng minh
Gi s G c cy khung T T cha tt c cc nh ca G. V T l cy nn lun
c ng i gia 2 nh bt k ca T. M T l th con cha tt c cc nh ca G
lun tn ti ng i gia 2 nh bt k trong G. Vy G lin thng.
Gi s G l lin thng. Nu G khng phi l mt cy G c chu trnh n.
Xa i mt cnh trong chu trnh n ny. Khi , th nhn c c s cnh t hn G
nhng s nh vn bng s nh ca G v vn lin thng. Nu th con ny khng l
cy th n cn cha chu trnh n. Lp li qu trnh trn, ta li xa i mt cnh ca chu
trnh n ny. Qu trnh c tip tc cho n khi khng cn chu trnh n no. iu ny
lun thc hin c v ta ch xt cc th hu hn. Khi qu trnh kt thc, ta nhn c
mt cy khung ca G.
4. Cy khung b nht
TOP
4.1. nh ngha
Cy khung nh nht trong mt th lin thng, c trng s l mt cy khung c
tng trng s trn cc cnh ca n l nh nht.
4.2. Thut ton Prim
Thut ton Prim c gii thiu ln u tin vo nm 1957. Thut ton Prim c
dng tm cy khung nh nht trong mt th lin thng c trng s.
Thut ton Prim bt u bng vic chn mt cnh bt k c trng s nh nht, t
n vo cy khung. Sau , ln lt ghp vo cy cc cnh c trng s nh nht lin thuc
vi mt nh ca cy v khng to ra chu trnh trong cy. Thut ton dng li khi (n 1)
cnh c ghp vo cy.
Ch : C nhiu hn mt cy khung nh nht ng vi mt th lin thng v
c trng s.
Thut ton Prim di dng gi m:

Procedure Prim (G: th lin thng c trng s vi n nh).
T: = cnh c trng s nh nht.
for i = 1 to n 2.
begin
e:= cnh c trng s ti thiu lin thuc vi mt nh trong T v
khng to ra chu trnh trong T nu ghp n vo T.
T: = T vi e c ghp vo
end {T l cy khung nh nht ca G}.
V d: Dng thut ton Prim tm cy khung nh nht trong n th c trng
s sau:

a b
c
d
e
f
g
1
7
8
2
3
3
5
6
6
6
Ta c:
Bc chn Cnh Trng s
fg 1
gd 2
dc 3
ca 5
ab 7
be 6
Tng cng 24
Khi ta c cy bao trm nh nht:
g
f
d e
c
a
b
2
3
5
6
1
7

4.3. Thut ton Kruskal
tm cy khung nh nht ca mt n th lin thng c trng s. Ta cn c
th dng thut ton Kruskal.
thc hin thut ton Kruskal, ta xut pht t vic chn cnh c trng s nh
nht ca th. Sau ln lt ghp thm vo cc cnh c trng s ti thiu v khng
to thnh chu trnh vi cc cnh c chn. Thut ton dng li khi (n 1) cnh c
chn.
Thut ton Kruskal di dng gi m:
Procedure Kruskal (G: th n nh, lin thng c trng s).
T: = th rng
for i: = 1 to n 1
begin
e: = mt cnh bt k ca G vi trng s nh nht v khng to ra
chu trnh trong T, khi ghp n vi T.
T: = T vi cnh e c ghp vo.
end {T l cy khung nh nht}.
S khc nhau gia thut ton Prim v thut ton Kruskal.
- Trong thut ton Prim, ta chn cc cnh c trng s nh nht, lin thng vi cc
nh thuc cy v khng to ra chu trnh.
- Trong thut ton Kruskal, ta chn cc cnh
c trng s ti thiu m khng nht thit phi lin
thuc vi cc nh ca cy v khng to ra chu trnh.
V d: Dng thut ton Kruskal, tm cy bao
trm ngn nht ca th sau:
a
c
d
f
g
e
1
2
4
5
6
8
9
3
7
5
4
4
5
Ta xy dng cy bao trm ngn nht theo cc bc:
Bc chn Cnh Trng s
ab 1
eg 2
cf 3
ae 4
bd 4
cd 4
Tng cng 24
Khi , ta c cy bao trm nh nht:

a
c
d
g
e
b
2
4
3
4
4
h
Lu : Cy khung cc i ca mt th v hng, lin thng, c trng s l
cy khung c trng s ln nht.

BI TP
1. V tt c cc cy (khng ng cu vi nhau) c 3 nh, 4 nh, 5 nh v 6 nh.
2. Tm mi cy T sao cho:
a. T l mt th u.
b. th b ca T cng l mt cy.
3. Tm cy bao trm ngn nht ca th G sau bng thut ton Kruskal v thut ton
Prim (bt u t nh d).
2
a
c
d
b
3
e
f
g
h
1
4
3
10
14
15
5
20
9
7
11







4.Tm cy bao trm di nht ca th G trong bi 3.
5. Dng thut ton Kruskal v thut ton Prim tm cy bao trm ngn nht ca cc th
sau:









6. Tm s ti a cc nh ca mt cy m-phn c chiu cao h.
7. Tm cy bao trm nh nht cha cnh km ca th sau:








8. CMR nu mt n th v hng G c tt c cc cnh u l cu th G l mt cy.

a b c
d f
h g i
e
2 2
2 2
3 3 3
5
1
4
3 3
3
3 3
3
a
a b c
d
2 3
4
5
5
6
e
f
g h i
1 7
3
8
4
4
4 2
3
b
a
b f i k
p
n j g d
c
e
h
m
4
9
3
5 8
8 8
7
5
9
7
2 4
10
8 6
9
6
5
5
5
8
6
3
4
2
6
7
10


TI LIU THAM KHO MN TON RI RC

1. 1. Kenneth H. Rosen, Ton hc ri rc ng dng trong tin hc, Nh xut bn Khoa
hc v K thut - H Ni 1997.
2. 2. Nguyn c Ngha - Nguyn T Thnh, Ton ri rc, Nh xut bn Gio dc, 1997.
3. 3. Hong Chng, i cng v ton hc hu hn, Nh xut bn Gio dc, 1998.
4. 4. Nguyn Cam - Chu c Khnh, L thuyt th, Nh xut bn tr, 1998.
5. 5. Gio trnh Ton ri rc I, i hc M TP.HCM, 1993.
6. 6. TSKH V nh Ha, nh l v vn v th hu hn, Nh xut bn Gio
dc, 2001.
7. 7. TSKH V nh Ha, Mt s kin thc c s v Graph hu hn, Nh xut bn
Gio dc, 2001.
8. 8. ng Huy Run, L thuyt th v ng dng, Nh xut bn Khoa hc v K
thut - H Ni 2000.
9. 9. Robin J. Wilson, Introduction to Graph Theory, Fourth Editon, Longman
Publisher, 1996. MSTV: PCH 2221.
10. 10. Ralph P. Grimaldi, Discrete and Combinatorial Mathematics, 3
rd
Edition, Addison
- Wesley Publishing Company, 1994.
11. 11. Richard Johnsonbaugh, Discrete Mathematics, Second Edition, Macmillan
Publishing Company, Newyork, 1992.
12. 12. John A. Dossey, Discrete Mathematics, 2
nd
Edition, Harper Collins College
Publishers, NewYork, 1993.
13. 13. John G. Michaels and Kenneth H. Rosen, Applications of Discrete Mathematics,
Mc. Graw - Hill, Inc., 1994.
14. 14. John E. Manro, Discrete Mathematics for Computing, Thomas Nelson Publisher, 1992.
15. 15. Gary Chartrand and Ortrud R. Oellermann, Applied and Algorithmic Graph
Theory, Mc. Graw - Hill, Inc., 1993.