ALCHEMY 101

ALCHEMY The word is derived from the Arabian phrase "al-kimia," which refers to the preparation of the Stone or Elixir by the Egyptians. The Arabic root "kimia" comes from the Coptic "khem" that alluded to the fertile black soil of the Nile delta. Esoterically and hieroglyphically, the word refers to the dark mystery of the primordial or First Matter (the Khem), the One Thing through which all creation manifests. Alchemy, then, is the Great Work of nature that perfects this chaotic matter, whether it be expressed as the metals, the cosmos, or the substance of our souls. BEZOAR Some chemical compounds, such as sulfur auretum when mixed with either red mercuric oxide or black antimony, clump together inseparably as soon as they are mixed together. The alchemists considered such compounds to be chemical bezoars, which are hard clumps of undigested food or solid balls of hair sometimes found in the intestines. In the Middle Ages, physicians thought the strange mass protected people from poisons and actually prescribed it to their patients. Egyptian priests discovered bezoars during the preparation of mummies and believed the hard balls were magical pills formed by the large serpent in man (the intestines). Some evidence suggests that the Egyptians also looked for a similar pill in the small serpent in man (the brain) and found it there in the form of the pineal gland. This pine-shaped gland is imbedded with tiny crystals of dark melanin, and could explain the Egyptian pinecone emblems and the origin of the caduceus itself. And, in the same way that bezoars were formed in the serpentine contours of the intestines, so was gold formed in the bowels of the earth: gold was considered a mineral bezoar. BLACK PHASE The Black Phase (or Melanosis) is the first stage in alchemy. It phase begins with the operation of Calcination and lasts through the Putrefaction stage of Fermentation.

Alchemy became a science when technology of dyes and metallurgy confronted and amalgamated with theories of matter and change. Alchemy grew independently at many different locations in different cultures.

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In every culture where alchemy has flourished, mercury has always been intimately related to an esoteric or mystical tradition. This can be seen in the Hellenistic, Islamic, and Hermetic traditions, as well as in the Chinese tradition of Taoism, and the Indian traditions of yoga and tantrism. All emphasize secrecy. For example, in the esoteric text Rasanava, Shiva tells the Goddess, The secret (of mercury) is seldom known, even among the Gods, and in another text, the Chinese mystic Ko Hung states, Secrecy is thrown over the efficacious recipes. Similarly, Western post Renaissance alchemical literature is deliberately incomprehensible. In all cultures, the knowledge of alchemy, especially the direct use of mercury, was imparted only to select initiates who were aiming at the radical transformation of the human condition.
ChineseAlchemy ChinesealchemywasfoundeduponthefundamentalsofWuhsing(theFiveElements)andYinYang (theContraries).TheFiveElementswerewater,fire,wood,goldandearth.TheContrarieswere substances,theinteractionofwhichcreatedallthingsintheuniverse.Quitesimilarweretheseconcepts tothoseoftheEgyptianphilosophers. Numerologyisnomodernhumbug,fortheseearlyconceptsenjoyedthemagicofnumbers.Intheseearly daysofoldChina,numberfivewasmagicalfiveelements,fiveseasons,fivelocations,fivecolors,five tones,fivetastes,fiveinternalorgans,fivewaysofrighteousconduct,fivegrains,fivedomesticated animalsandmanyotherquintetsofglamorousnotoriety.

Yu Yan's Diagram of the Fire Phases

ThisdiagramcomesfromtheYiwaibiezhuan(TheseparatetransmissionoftheBookofChanges), writtenbyYuYanin1284.Thisworkcontainsseveralcosmologicaldiagrams,followedby passagesdrawnfromtheBookofChangesandcommentedthroughquotationsfromtheZhouyi cantongqi. DiagramslikethishavealonghistoryinChina.Theyareusedtoshowthecorrespondences betweendifferentwaysofmarkingspaceandtime,e.g.,thedirections,thetwelveprimary hexagrams(eachassociatedwithonemonth),thedaysofthemooncycle,thelunarmansions, andsoon.Inaddition,eachdisciplinebasedonthelawsofcosmologyusesthesediagramsin differentways,e.g.,forastronomicalcalculationanddivination.InChinesealchemy,the correspondencesshownbythesedevicesareusedtoestablishthe"firephases"(huohou),i.e.,the cyclesoffiringinexternalalchemy(waidan)andthecyclesofthecirculationoftheprimary componentsofthepersonininternalalchemy(neidan).
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Fromtheoutertoinnerrings,eachringofthediagramdrawnbyYuYanshows: 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. 8. 9. Thetwentyeightlunarmansions(xiu) Sixtyofthesixtyfourhexagrams Thethirtydaysofthelunarmonth Thetwentyfourperiodsoftheyear Thetwelve"sovereignhexagrams"(pigua) ThetwelveBranchesoftheEarth(dizhi) Sixoftheeighttrigrams Thefourseasons Thefouremblematicanimals(WhiteTiger,RedBird,GreenDragon,andDarkWarrior)

IntheinnermostcirclearethesevenstarsoftheGreatBear.Itscircularmovementdetermines orientation(space)andsetsinmotionthevariouscyclesoftime. Asnotedabove,thisdiagramshowsonlysixoftheEightTrigramsandonlysixtyofthe SixtyfourHexagrams.Theremainingtwotrigramsandfourhexagramsare: * qian,i.e.,PureYang[ahexagram]

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* * *

kun,i.e.,PureYin[ahexagram] kan,i.e.,YangwithinYin[bothatrigramandahexagram] li,i.e.,YinwithinYang[bothatrigramandahexagram]

Qianandkunrepresentthemaleandfemaleprinciplesthatgeneratethecosmos,respectively. Kanandlicontainthoseprincipleshiddenwithinthemselvesoncethecosmosisgenerated. Thesefourtrigramsandhexagramsareatthecenteroftimeandspaceanddonotenterthe cyclesoftime;thereforetheyarenotshowninthisandsimilardiagrams. Thetwelve"sovereignhexagrams"inthefifthringrepresenttheriseandascentofYinand Yang.Thismovement,sometimesreferredtoas"ebbandflow"(xiaoxi),isapparentifthe hexagramsareshowninthefollowingway:

ThereareseveraldiagramssimilartotheoneesablishedbyYuYan.Oneofthemwasdrawnby PengXiaoin947;forareproductionandanalysysseeJosephNeedhametal.,Scienceand CivilisationinChina,vol.V:5(Cambridge,1983),pp.5558.

A Short Introduction to Chinese Alchemy

(1) BACKGROUND In China as elsewhere, alchemy is a doctrine aiming to afford an understanding of the principles underlying the formation and functioning of the cosmos. The alchemist rises through the hierarchy of the constituents of being by "exhausting" (Chin. jin or liao, two words also denoting "thorough knowledge") the nature and properties of each stage. He overcomes the limits of individuality, and ascends to higher states of being; he becomes, in Chinese terms, a zhenren or Authentic Man. While historical and literary sources (including poetry) provide many important details, the bulk of the Chinese alchemical sources is found in the Daozang (Taoist Canon), the largest collection of Taoist texts. One fifth of its about 1,500 texts are closely related to the various alchemical traditions that developed until the fifteenth century, when the extant
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Canon was compiled and printed. Later texts are included in the Daozang jiyao (Essentials of the Taoist Canon) and in minor collections. Modern study of the alchemical literature began in the present century, after the Canon was reprinted and made widely available in 1926. Among the most important contributions in Western languages are those of Joseph Needham, Nathan Sivin, Ho Peng Yoke, Farzeen BaldrianHussein, and Isabelle Robinet. [See a selected bibliography.] Though the underlying doctrines remained unchanged, Chinese alchemy went through a complex and not yet entirely understood development along its twenty centuries of documented history. The two main traditions are conventionally known as waidan or "external alchemy" and neidan or "internal alchemy." The former, which arose earlier, is based on the compounding of elixirs through the manipulation of natural substances. Its texts consist of recipes, along with descriptions of ingredients, ritual rules, and passages concerned with the cosmological associations of minerals and metals, instruments, and operations. Internal alchemy developed as an independent discipline around the beginning of the Tang period. It borrows a substantial part of its vocabulary from its earlier counterpart, but aims to produce an elixir -equated with transcendental knowledge -- within the alchemist's person. Chinese alchemy has always been closely related to the teachings that find their classical expression in the early "philosophical" texts of Taoism, especially the Laozi and the Zhuangzi. The cosmos as we know it is conceived of as the final stage in a series of spontaneous transmutations stemming from original non-existence. This process entails the apparent separation of primeval Unity into the two complementary principles, yin and yang. Their re-union generates the cosmos. When the process is completed, the cosmos is subject to the laws of cosmology. The alchemist's task is to retrace this process backwards. Alchemy, whether "external" or "internal," provides support to the adept, leading one to the point when, as some texts put it, "Heaven spontaneously reveals its secrets." Its practice must be performed under the close supervision of a master, who provides the "oral instructions" (koujue) necessary to an understanding of the processes that the adept
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performs with minerals and metals, or undergoes within himself. (2) DOCTRINES In order to transcend space and time -- the two main features of the cosmos -- the alchemist must take extreme care of their correspondences to the work he performs. Space is delimited and protected by talismans (fu), and the laboratory (danwu, lit. "chamber of the elixirs") and instruments are properly oriented. According to some texts, heating must conform to minutely defined time cycles. This system, known as "fire times" (huohou), allows an adept to perform in a relatively short time the same work that Nature would achieve in thousands of years -- in other words, to accelerate the rhythms of Nature. Bringing time to its end, or tracing it back to its beginning, is equivalent. In either case time is transcended, and the alchemist gains access to timelessness, or "immortality". The same with space: its centre, where the alchemist places himself and his work, is a point devoid of dimension. From this point without space and time he is able to move along the axis that connects the higher and lower levels of being ("Heaven," tian, and the "Abyss," yuan). Among a variety of procedures that the sources describe in an often allusive way, and in a language rich in metaphors and secret names, two stand out for their recurrence and importance. The first is based on lead (yin) and mercury (yang). In external alchemy, these two substances are refined and joined in a compound whose properties are compared to the condition of primeval Unity. In internal alchemy, lead is a cover name for the knowledge of the dao (Pure Yang, chunyang) with which each being is fundamentally endowed, but is obscured (i.e., transmuted into yin) in the conditioned state. Mercury, on the other hand, represents the individual mind. The second most important method, which is proper to external alchemy, is centered on cinnabar (yang). The mercury contained within cinnabar (representing the yin principle contained within yang) is extracted and newly added to sulphur (yang). This process, typically
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performed nine times, finally yields an elixir embodying the luminous qualities of Pure Yang. This yang is not the complementary opposite of yin, but, again, represents the One before its separation into the two complementary principles. The final object of external and internal alchemy is represented as the preparation of an elixir usually defined as huandan (lit., "Elixir of Return"). This expression, recurring in the whole literature, originally denotes an elixir obtained by bringing the ingredients back to their original condition through repeated cyclical operations -- an operation comparable to the process that the adept performs within himself with the support of the alchemical practice. The word dan ("elixir") also denotes cinnabar, suggesting that the process begins and ends on two corresponding points along an ascensional spiral. This synonymy also shows the centrality of cinnabar in external alchemy, where this substance plays a role comparable to that of gold in the corresponding Western traditions. In internal alchemy, the central role is taken by lead, that represents original Oneness and is often a synonym of "gold" (jin). The value of gold, and the word "gold" itself, are therefore mainly symbolic in China: the elixir, whether external or internal, and whatever its ingredients, is often defined as "gold," and "Golden Elixir" (jindan) is a name of the alchemical arts. (3) HISTORY The extant waidan sources suggest that the two main methods outlined above acquired progressive importance in the history of the discipline. In the Book of the Nine Elixirs (Huangdi jiuding shendan jing) and other texts dating from the first centuries A.D., cinnabar is never the main ingredient of an elixir, and the lead-mercury compound -- sometimes replaced by refined lead alone -- is only used as a layer in the crucible together with other ingredients. In these methods, the substances undergo cycles of refining in a hermetically sealed crucible. This process consists in a backward re-enactment of cosmogony, that brings the
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ingredients to a state of prima materia. The elixir can finally be transmuted into alchemical gold projecting a minute quantity of the native metal on it. Important details on the early phase of Chinese alchemy are also found in portions of the Baopu zi neipian, written around A.D. 320. Its descriptions of processes that can be compared with extant sources are, however, often abridged and sometimes inaccurate. During the Tang dynasty, the waidan tradition reached one of its peaks with Chen Shaowei (beginning of the eighth century), whose work describes the preparation of an elixir obtained by the refining of cinnabar. Each cycle yields a "gold" that can be ingested, or used as an ingredient in the next cycle. In the second part of the process, the final product of the first part is used as an ingredient of a huandan. Among the representative texts of this period are several collections of recipes, one of the most important of which was compiled by Sun Simo. The first half of the Tang dynasty also marked the climax of contacts between China and the Arabic world. These exchanges may be at the origin of the mediaeval word alchymia, one of whose suggested etymologies is from middle Chinese kiem-yak (the approximate pronunciation of mod. jinye or "Golden Liquor") with the addition of the Arabic prefix al-. While the Tang period is sometimes defined as the "golden age" of external alchemy, it also marked the stage of transition to internal alchemy. Among the forerunners of internal alchemy is the Shangqing (Supreme Purity) tradition of Taoism (see Tao Hongjing). Based on revelations of the late fourth century, this school attributed particular importance to meditation, but also included the compounding of elixirs among its practices. (Shangqing represents the first example of close relations between alchemy and a major movement of "religious" Taoism.) The relevant sources exhibit the earliest traces of the interiorizazion of alchemy. Among the texts used in this school is the Huangting jing (Book of the Yellow Court), a meditation manual often quoted in neidan texts. The shift from external to internal alchemy, sometimes taken to be only
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due to the multiplication of cases of elixir poisoning, or to the influence of Buddhism, requires further study to be properly evaluated. The very incidence and relevance of cases of accidental poisoning (which claimed their toll even among Emperors) suggests that external alchemy had lost, at least to some extent and in some contexts, its soteriological character, and that its practices had become known outside the legitimate transmission. Some masters may, therefore, have transmitted their doctrine modifying the supports used for the practice. In internal alchemy, the adept's person itself performs the role that natural substances and instruments play in external alchemy. In doing so, this discipline avails itself -- in ways and degrees that vary, and which require further study to be correctly understood -- of traditional Chinese doctrines based on the analogies between macrocosm and microcosm, of earlier native contemplative and meditative disciplines, and of practices of Buddhist origin (apparently of Tantric character, through the possible medium of the Tiantai school). In Song and Yuan times, the history of neidan identifies itself with that of the lines of transmission known as Southern Lineage (nanzong) and Northern Lineage (beizong). The respective initiators were Zhang Boduan (eleventh century) and Wang Chongyang (1112--1170). Both schools placed emphasis on the cultivation of xing and ming, which constitute two central notions of internal alchemy. Xing refers to one's original nature, whose properties, transcending individuality, are identical to those of pure being and, even beyond, non-being. Ming denotes the "imprint," as it is, that each individual entity receives upon being generated, and which may or may not be actualised in life (the word also means "destiny" or "life," but neither translation covers all the implications in a neidan context). The Northern and Southern lineages, and subtraditions within them, were distinguished by the relative emphasis given to either element. The textual foundation of the Southern Lineage was provided by the Zhouyi cantong qi (Token for the Agreement of the Three in Accordance with the Book of Changes) and the Wuzhen pian (Awakening to Reality), a work in poetry by Zhang Boduan. [See the Chinese text of the Cantong qi and notes on its early history and its commentaries]
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During the Ming and Qing dynasties the neidan tradition is known to have divided into several schools, but their history and doctrines are still barely appreciated. One of the last greatest known masters of this discipline was Liu Yiming (eighteenth century), who in his works propounded an entirely spiritual interpretation of the scriptural sources of his tradition. (4) SELECTED BIBLIOGRAPHY OF WORKS IN WESTERN LANGUAGES
For a comprehensive bibliography see Western-language studies on Chinese alchemy.

Baldrian-Hussein, Farzeen. Procds Secrets du Joyau Magique. Trait d'Alchimie Taoste du XIe sicle. Paris: Les Deux Ocans, 1984. Eliade, Mircea. The Forge and the Crucible. Second ed., Chicago and London: University of Chicago Press, 1978. See the chapter entitled "Chinese Alchemy." Ho Peng Yoke. Li, Qi and Shu: An Introduction to Science and Civilization in China. Hong Kong: Hong Kong University Press, 1985. See the chapter entitled "Chinese Alchemy." Needham, Joseph, et al. Science and Civilisation in China, vol. V, parts 2-5. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1974, 1976, 1980, 1983. For a short summary of some sections concerning waidan see Joseph Needham, "Alchemy and Early Chemistry in China," in The Frontiers of Human Knowledge, ed. Torgny T. Segerstedt, Uppsala: Uppsala Universitet, 1978, pp. 171-181. Robinet, Isabelle. Introduction l'alchimie intrieure taoste. De l'unit et de la multiplicit. Paris: Les ditions du Cerf, 1995. Robinet, Isabelle. "Original Contributions of Neidan to Taoism and Chinese Thought." In Taoist Meditation and Longevity Techniques. Ed.
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Livia Kohn in cooperation with Yoshinobu Sakade. Ann Arbor: Center for Chinese Studies, The University of Michigan, 1989, pp. 297-330. Schipper, Kristofer, and Wang Hsiu-huei. "Progressive and Regressive Time Cycles in Taoist Ritual." In Time, Science, and Society in China and the West (The Study of Time, V). Ed. J.T. Fraser, N. Lawrence, and F.C. Haber. Amherst: The University of Massachusetts, 1986, pp. 185205. Sivin, Nathan. Chinese Alchemy: Preliminary Studies. Cambridge (Mass.): Harvard University Press, 1968. Sivin, Nathan. "Research on the History of Chinese Alchemy." In Alchemy Revisited. Proceedings of the International Conference on the History of Alchemy at the University of Groningen, 17-19 April 1989. Ed. Z.R.W.M. von Martels. Leiden: E.J. Brill, 1990, pp. 3-20. Sivin, Nathan. "The Theoretical Background of Elixir Alchemy." In Joseph Needham et al., Science and Civilisation in China, vol. V: Chemistry and Chemical Technology, part 4: Spagyrical Discovery and Invention: Apparatus, Theories and Gifts. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1980, pp. 210-305. See also the shorter version published earlier, but incorporating results of later research, entitled "Chinese Alchemy and the Manipulation of Time," Isis 67: 513-527, 1976.
TheTaoistCanonpreservestwoversionsoftheBookoftheNineElixirs.Themoreimportant oneformsthefirstchapteroftheHuangdijiudingshendanjingjue(InstructionsontheBookofthe DivineElixirsoftheNineTripodsoftheYellowEmperor;CT885).Itisfollowedbya commentaryinnineteenchapters(hereafterInstructions)compiledinthelatterhalfofthe seventhcentury.Thesecondversionisincorporatedasoneoftwomaintextuallayersinthe Jiuzhuanliuzhushenxianjiudanjing(BookoftheLiquidPearlinNineCycles,andoftheNine ElixirsoftheDivineImmortals;CT952,hereafterBookoftheLiquidPearl),aworknotlaterthan thebeginningoftheTangperiod.Mostdivergencesbetweenthetwoversionsamountto mattersofdetail. Inadditiontotheabovetwotexts,othersourceshavecomedowntousthathavetheNine Elixirsastheirsubject:
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1. The"SecretWrittenInstructionsontheElixirsoftheNineTripods"("Jiudingdanyinwen jue"),foundneartheendofthenineteenchaptercommentary.Anonymousliketheothertexts mentionedbelow,theseinstructionsprovideimportantdetailsonvariousaspectsofeach method. 2. Ashortpassageentitled"Explanations"("Jie"),incorporatedintheBookoftheLiquidPearl (1.4a5b)andpossiblypartofalostthirdrecension.The"Explanations"concernthe compoundingoftheFirstElixironly.Thestepsoftheprocessareexpoundedinanslightly differentordercomparedtotheversionintheHuangdijiudingshendanjingjue,butthesingle descriptionscorrespondalmostverbatim. 3. Quotationsfromaseriesof"Songs"("Ge")inversesofsevencharactersthatreferto variousaspectsoftheprocesses.The"Songs"formthesecondmaintextuallayerintheBookof theLiquidPearl.Thequotationsareincomplete:versestraceabletophasesofthecompounding areoftenmissing,andsometimesonlythefirstfourorthelastthreecharactersofalineare cited.Moreover,the"Songs"arequotedextensivelyinthesectionsontheFirst,Second,and ThirdElixir,inamuchmorelimitedwayinothersections,andnotatallinthesectiononthe EighthElixir. Apartfromoccasionaldivergencesinthedirectionsgiven,andsporadicadditionsoromissions ofpassages,thequotationsoftheBookoftheNineElixirsintheBookoftheLiquidPearl coincidewiththetextreceivedintheHuangdijiudingshendanjingjue.TheBookoftheLiquid Pearlgives,nonetheless,aglimpseofthetextualhistoryoftheBookoftheNineElixirs.Manyof itsvariantscorrespondtothosepointedoutbytheanonymouseditoroftheHuangdijiuding shendanjingjue.ThisshowsthattherecensionoftheHuangdijiudingshendanjingjueisbasedon morethanonemanuscript,andismorerecentthantherecensionintheBookortheLiquid Pearl.ItalsorulesoutthepossibilitythatthecurrentBookoftheNineElixirswasforgedor reconstructedwhentheHuangdijiudingshendanjingjuewascompiled. THEREVELATIONOFTHEBOOKOFTHENINEELIXIRS TheBookoftheNineElixirsopenswithpassagesonitsowndivineorigins.TheBookissaidto betheearthlyversionofascriptureoriginallykeptinHeaven,andtransmittedfromdivinityto divinitybeforeitwaswrittendowninaformfitforhumanbeings.Itspracticeswererevealed bytheMysteriousWoman(Xuann)totheYellowEmperor(Huangdi),andtransmittedbyhim totheMysteriousMaster(Xuanzi).TheInstructions(2.1ab)addthat,beforeitsrevelation,the scripturewascalled"SuperiorBookoftheNineMethodsoftheNobleLadyofthePrimordial DaooftheNineHeavens"(JiutianYuandaojunjiudingzhishangjing). TheNobleLadyofthePrimordialDaoorPrimordialLady(Yuanjun),assheiscalledinother passagesoftheInstructionsismentionedbyGeHonginconnectiontotherevelationofthe BookoftheGreatPurity(Taiqingjing)andtheBookoftheGoldenLiquor(Jinyejing),twoother textsbelongingtotheearlyalchemicalcorpus.Inbothinstances,sheappearsasmasterofLaozi. (OnthePrimordialLadyasmasterandmotherofLaoziseeSeidel1969:114116.)Therevelation ofthesescripturesisthereforeduetotwodivinecouples,eachformedbyafemaleandamale figure:thePrimordialLadyandLaoziononehand,andtheMysteriousWomanandtheYellow Emperorontheother.Therelationshipbetweenthetwomaleandthetwofemalefiguresisalso
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similar.Laozi(orLaojun,Laoziinhisdivineaspect)andtheYellowEmperorareinsomeways twoaspectsofthesamedivinebeing.Theformerisonthenontemporallevelwhatthelatteris inthehumantime,whereheisplacedatthebeginningofhistory(seeSeidel1969:5058).A similarrelationshipoccursbetweenthePrimordialLadyandtheMysteriousWoman.The PrimordialLadyisassociatedwiththeheavenlyversionoftheBookoftheNineElixirsnot destinedtohumanbeingsandthereforedifferentlytitledwhiletheMysteriousWomanis connectedtothetransmissionofthetexttotheYellowEmperor,initscurrentformandwithits currenttitle. AsfortheYellowEmperor,heisnottheoriginatorofthedoctrinesandpracticesexpoundedin theBookoftheNineElixirs,butonlyamediumintheirtransmission.Thisfeatureiscommonto othertexts.TheYellowEmperorisnotamaster:severalsourcesrepresenthimreceiving teachingsfromsuchdivinitiesastheMysteriousWoman,thePureWoman(Sun), Guangchengzi,orQiBo.Fromthepointofviewofthedoctrines,thesemythsdescribethe momentinwhichteachingsthatdonothaveahistoricaloriginenterhumanhistory.(SeeSeidel 1969:5051.ThePureWomantaughtthesexualpracticestotheYellowEmperor,Guangcheng ziishisinstructorintheZhuangzi,andQiBoisthe"HeavenlyMaster"(Tianshi)whoeducates himinthemedicalarts.Ontherepresentationofmythicalsovereignsasreceivingteachings fromdivinitiesseealsoHarper1987:546548.) Throughtheadvicehereceived,theYellowEmperorbecamethemodelsovereignwhosearches forteachingstoperfecthismethodofgovernment.Thisshouldbetakenintoaccountsincethe Instructionswerefirstaddressedtoanemperor.TheInstructionsreferseveraltimestothe YellowEmperor'squest,attheendofwhichhedevotedhimselftoalchemicalpracticesandrose toHeaven. "InancienttimestheYellowEmperorascendedMountWangwuandreceivedtheBooksofthe Elixirs;heclimbedMountKongtongandquestionedGuangchengzi;tosearchforthedaoand thedoctrinesofthenourishmentoflifehelistenedtotheteachingsoftheMysteriousWoman andthePureWoman;andtoscrutinisethedivineandthesupernaturalhewrotedownthe wordsoftheBaize.ThusheobtainedathoroughknowledgeofthedaoandtheVeritable,anda deepdiscernmentoftheMysteriousandSecret.ThenhesublimatedandfixedtheElixirinNine Cycles(jiuzhuan)atthefootofMountJing,andtransmutedtheLiquidPearl(liuzhu)onLake Ding."(Instructions,5.2a;similarpassagesarein3.1a,3.3a,and4.2a.OntheBaize,amythical animalthatgavetheYellowEmperorteachingsabouttheshapesoftheharmfulspirits,see Kiang1937:7180,andHarper1988.) Thefinalsentenceofthispassageelaboratesonthemyththatactedastraitd'unionbetweenthe YellowEmperorandalchemyhiscastingofatripodonMountJing(Honan),andhis subsequentascensiontoHeaven.(Cf.Shiji(RecordsofaHistorian),28.1396,trans.Chavannes 18951905:vol.III,496;andtheYellowEmperor's"biography"intheLiexianzhuan,translated andannotatedinKaltenmark1953:5053).Thereferencetothetripod,anemblemofimperial powerinancientChina,mayhavelatersuggestedthechoiceoftheBookoftheDivineElixirsof theNineTripodsastextualsupportforprovidingalchemicalinstructionstoanemperor. THEBOOKOFTHENINEELIXIRSTHROUGHTHESEVENTHCENTURY
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WhilesomethingcanbeglimpsedaboutthedivineoriginsoftheBookoftheNineElixirs, virtuallyallweknowaboutitsdateandearlytransmissioniswhatistoldbyGeHong(283 343).AccordingtoapassageofhisBaopuzineipian(InnerChaptersoftheBookofTheMaster WhoEmbracesSimplicity),thetextalreadycirculatedbythebeginningofthethirdcentury:

"Longtimeago,whileZuoYuanfang(i.e.,ZuoZi)wasdevotinghimselftothepracticesofthe purificationofthought(jingsi)onmountTianzhu(i.e.,theTaishan,inmod.Shandong),aDivine MantransmittedtohimtheBooksoftheImmortalsontheGoldenElixirs.Thatwasthetimeof thedisordersattheendoftheHandynasty.Astherewasnoopportunitytocompoundthem, ZuoescapedtoJiangdong,withtheintentofsettlingonarenownedmountainanddevoting himselftothatWay.Mygranduncle,theImmortalLord(Xiangong,i.e.,GeXuan)receivedfrom himthosetexts.TheyweretheBookoftheElixiroftheGreatPurity(Taiqingdanjing)inthree rolls,theBookoftheElixirsoftheNineTripods(Jiudingdanjing)inoneroll,andtheBookofthe ElixiroftheGoldenLiquor(Jinyedanjing)alsoinoneroll.Mymaster,Zheng(Yin),wasa discipleofmygranduncle,andinturnreceivedthosetextsfromhim.Buthisfamilywaspoor, andhelackedthemeanstobuytheingredients.Iservedhimforalongtimeasadisciple.Then Ibuiltanaltar(tan)ontheMajimountains(mod.Jiangxi),andaftersealingapactof transmissionwithhimIreceivedthosetexts,withtheoralinstructionsthatcannotbewritten down."(Baopuzineipian,4.12;cf.trans.Ware1966:6970) ExactlytowhatextentthetworeceivedversionsoftheBookoftheNineElixirsreproducethe originalscriptureisimpossibletoknow.Both,however,correspondtothequotationsand summariesgivenbyGeHonginhiswork(4.1415;trans.Ware1966:7578).Thissuggeststhat thetwoversionsintheTaoistCanonareatleastsubstantiallyauthentic. Littleelseisknownaboutthehistoryofthetextuntiltheseventhcentury.Whilethereisno reasontodoubtGeHong'swordsasfarasGeXuanandZhengYinareconcerned,thesupposed beginnerofhislineoftransmission,ZuoZi,isasshadowyafigureasmostotherancientfangshi ("mastersofmethods").Hagiographicsourcesmakehimintoamasterwholivedatthecourtof CaoCao(155220),andwasproficientinthedivinatoryarts,hadthegiftofmetamorphosisand couldcontrolgodsandspirits. OnGeXuanseeBokenkamp1983:436442.GeHongdevotestohismaster,ZhengYin,along passageinBaopuzineipian,19.9495(trans.Ware1966:310313).ZuoZi'sbiographyintheHou Hanshu(HistoryoftheLaterHan),82B.27472748,istranslatedinNgo1976:138139;onhis figureinthelaterTaoisttraditionseeRobinet1984:I:924passim. GeHong'smentionofShandongandJiangdongastheareasinwhichthetextoriginatedand waslatertransmitted,respectively,isconfirmedbylaterevidence.Intheearlysixthcentury,for example,theNineElixirswereamongthealchemicalmethodsthatTaoHongjing(456536) consideredpractising;hischoicefinallyfellonadifferentmethod,ashedeemedthetexthe possessednottobeclearenough.(SeeHuayangTaoyinjuneizhuan(IntimateBiographyofTao [Hongjing],theRetiredMasterofMountHuayang;CT300),2.6a,andStrickmann1981:144.) CONTENTSOFTHEBOOKOFTHENINEELIXIRS
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ThealchemicalworkoftheBookoftheNineElixirsbeginswiththepurificationpractices(zhai). Nodetailsaregivenaboutthem,butitissaidthattheyinvolveablutions(muy)andshouldbe performedbeforereceivingthemethods,buyingtheingredients,andcompoundingtheelixirs. Thepracticetakesplaceinseclusionandoutsideprofanespace.Itssacredcharacteris emphasizedbyinterdictions: "...donotpassbyfilthanddirt,andbyhouseswheremourningisbeingobserved,orinhabited bywomenofmarriageableage...bewareofintercoursewithcommonanddullpeople.Donot lettheenvious,thosewhotalktoomuch,andthosewhodonothavefaithinthisWayhearor knowaboutit...". Afterthepurificationpracticesareaccomplished,theadeptmayreceivethetextandtheoral instructions.ThecorrespondingceremonyisdescribedintheBookoftheNineElixirsas"Rules fortheTransmission"(chuanfa).Thedisciplethrowstokensoftransmissiongoldenfigurines ofamanandafishintoaneastwardflowingstream.Themasterarrangesaseatforthe MysteriousWoman,andwaitsforasignofherconsent. Otherceremoniesofalchemicaltransmissionaredescribedinj.3oftheInstructions.Thefirst (3.4ab),concerningtheBookoftheGreatPurity,isalsofoundinthe"oralinstructions"onthis text;seeTaiqingjingtianshikoujue(CT883),1ab.BasingonashortpassageintheBaopuzi neipian,4.20(trans.Ware1966:91),thetransmissionritualoftheBookoftheGoldenLiquorwas similartothatperformedtoreceivetheBookoftheNineElixirs.Anotherceremonyisdescribed intheTaiizhenrenjiuzhuanhuandanjingyaojue(CT889),1ab. Thenthediscipleexitsfromprofanetime,choosingoneofthedayslistedinthetextas auspicioustobeginthecompounding. Aceremonyalsomarksthestartingofthefire.TheadeptinvokestheNobleLadyoftheGreat Dao(Dadaojun,anothernameofYuanjunorYuandaojun),LordLao(Laojun),andtheLordof theGreatHarmony(Taihejun).Heasksthemtoletthepracticebesuccessful,andlethim becomeaPerfectMan(zhiren)andhaveaudienceatthePurplePalace(Zigong),inthe constellationoftheBigDipper. Themakingoftheelixirsbeginswiththepreparationoftwopreliminarycompounds,called MysteriousandYellow(xuanhuang)andMudoftheSixandOne(liuyini).TheMysteriousand YellowtakesitsnamefromtheattributesofHeaven(the"Mysterious")andEarth(the"Yellow"). ThelocusclassicusforthisisintheWenyan(ExplanationoftheSentences)commentaryonthe hexagramkunintheYijing(BookofChanges),3:"MysteriousandYellowmeansthemingling (za)ofHeavenandEarth:HeavenistheMysterious,andEarthistheYellow." TheimportanceofthiscompoundinthepracticesoftheNineElixirsisalsoshownbyits correlationwiththenamesofthedivinebeingswhotransmittedandreceivedthescripture theMysteriousWoman,theYellowEmperor,andtheMysteriousMaster.Thetwoprinciplesof YinandYangintheirpurestatearerepresentedbytheessencesofleadandmercury,liberated
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byheatingthenativesubstances.InthetextsontheNineElixirsthiscompoundisusedeitherto lutethecrucibletogetherwiththeMudoftheSixandOne,orasalayerinsidethecruciblewith theotheringredientsoftheelixirs.Ineithercase,throughtheMysteriousandYellowthe crucibleincorporatestheessencesofHeavenandEarth. Atthecentreofthepracticeisthecrucible(fu),formedbytwosuperposedclayvessels.As statedintheInstructions(7.4b5a),failureinthepreparationoftheelixirsisduetomistakes madewhenpreparingthevessel.Thelutingcompoundissoimportantastobesometimes called"DivineMud"(shenni).IntheBookoftheNineElixirs,whereitisobtainedfromseven ingredients,andinmanyothertextsitsnameis"MudoftheSixandOne."TheInstructionssay that"sixandoneisseven:thesageskeepthissecret,andthereforecallitSixandOne",adding thatthecompoundhasthisnameevenifitisobtainedbyadifferentnumberofingredients (7.5a). ThenameandfunctionoftheMudoftheSixandOnebecomeclearerinthelightofthe doctrinesthatunderliethealchemicalpractices.Thealchemicalworkleadsanadeptto timelessness("immortality")byreversingthestagesofthecosmogonicprocess.Usingdifferent imagesandidioms,someearlytextsdescribeoralludetothisprocessastakingplaceinseven stages.Directlypointingtotheintentofthesedescriptions,awellknownpassageofthe Zhuangzi(5/2/4951)outlinestheprocessinreverse,startingfromthephasepreceding manifestationandrecedingtoitsmostremoteinception: [7]Thereisabeginning. [6]Thereisatimebeforethebeginning. [5]Thereisatimebeforethetimebeforethebeginning. [4]Thereisexistence. [3]Thereisnonexistence. [2]Thereisatimebeforenonexistence. [1]Thereisatimebeforethetimebeforenonexistence. ThesamepassageformsthebasisofamoreelaboratedescriptionintheHuainanzi(2.1a2a). AnotherfamouspassageoftheZhuangzi(21/7/3335)representsthesameprocessbya differentimagery.Thesevenstagesareportrayedthereassevenopeningspiercedinthebody ofEmperorHundun,causinghisdeaththatcorrespondstothestateofdifferentiation(theTen ThousandThings,wanwu). Closing,asitwere,thesevenopeningsthatprovokedthedeathofEmperorHundun,the ingredientsoftheMudoftheSixandOneallowthealchemicalprocesstotakeplacein conditionssimilartothoseprecedingmanifestation.Thismakesitpossiblefortheessencesof thesubstancesplacedinthecrucibletoliberatethemselvesthroughtheactionoffire,and ascend,collectingundertheupperhalfofthevessel.Thisprocesscanonlytakeplacein perfectlysealedcrucible. Theelixir,or"SublimatedEssence"(feijing),ismatterliberatedfromtheactionoftime.The shapeitselfofthecrucibleremindsoneoftheconditionofprimevalchaos(hundun),often portrayedbytheimageofagourdthatcontainswithinitselfaworldapart,comparabletothat ofprimordialtimes(seeStein1987:6182.).Thisimageisrepresentedbythecrucible:theshape
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ofaroundvesselclosedbyanotheroverturnedroundvesselistheshapeofagourd(Stein1987: 7778;onthecrucibleas"cosmicegg"inChinesealchemyseeSivin1980:292297). ThestepsfollowedtocompoundeachoftheNineElixirsareessentiallythesame.The ingredientsarefirstplacedinthecrucible,closedwithanotheroverturnedcrucible.Thevessel islutedwiththeMudoftheSixandOne,andwithamudofMysteriousandYellow.Itisthen lefttodry,andisplacedonthefire.Intwocasesthetextsaysthatthevesselshouldbeturned upsidedownseveraltimesduringtheheating,sothattheSublimatedEssencemaycirculate.At theendoftherequirednumberofdays,thecrucibleislefttocool,andisopened. TheSublimatedEssencewillhaverisenundertheupperpartofthevessel.Itiscarefully collectedwithafeather,andisaddedtoothersubstances.Insomeinstancesitisplacedinthe crucibleandheatedagain;inothersitcanbedirectlyingested.InthecaseoftheFirstElixir andpresumablyinalltheothersiftheEssencehasnotcondensedthewholeprocessshould berepeated.Theelixirisingestedatdawn,facingthesun.SomeoftheNineElixirscanbe transmutedintoalchemicalgold;thepurposeofthistransmutation,asstatedinthesection concerningtheFirstElixir,istomakesurethattheSublimatedEssencehasbeencorrectly prepared.Theaccomplishmentofthealchemicalprocessgrantseternity,luminescence,mastery oftheelements,andcontrolovergodsandspirits. TheDaozangcommentariestotheZhouyicantongqi (1)THEANONYMOUSWAIDANCOMMENTARY WhilePengXiao'scommentaryofA.D.947isoftenindicatedastheearliestextantexegesisof theCantongqi,ChenGuofuhasbeenthefirstscholartosuggestthattheanonymouswaidan commentary(CT1004)datesfrombetweentheendoftheseventhandthemiddleoftheeighth century.[1]ItstwojuancorrespondtothefirstjuanofPengXiao'srecension,butthepreface describesthetextasdividedintothreeparts.Thelastisthe"FiveCategories"("Wuxianglei"), saidtoconsistofexplicationsonthefirsttwoparts.Thisshowsthatthecommentaryoriginally includedthewholetextoftheCantongqi.[2]

[1]ChenGuofu,Daozangyuanliuxukao,377378. [2]Zhouyicantongqizhu(CT1004),1.2a.ThatthisworkoncecontainedthewholeCantongqiis alsoshownbyanotein1.20a,whichquotesascomingfromthe"lastpian"asentencefoundin thethirdandlastjuan,orpian,ofthepresentversion(inPengXiao'szh.89). Inadditiontocitationsofplacenamesofficiallyadoptedbetween686and760,onwhichChen Guofuhasbasedhisdating,otherdetailssupporthissuggestion.Notextorauthorquotedin thecommentarycanbeassignedadateaslateastheTangperiod.Theevidenceoftabooed charactersisnotunequivocal,butwordsthatformedthepersonalnamesofTaizong(r.626649) andGaozong(r.649683)areoftenfoundtobeavoidedorreplaced.[3]MengNaichanghas recentlyprovidedanothersubstantialindication,pointingoutthatasentenceintheprefaceis quotedintwoTangtexts.[4]Takentogether,theavailableevidencesuggeststhatthe anonymoustwojuancommentarydatesfromthevicinityofA.D.700.
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[3]Twooutoffiveoccurrencesofshi(partofthepersonalnameofTaizong)arereplacedwith suinthemaintext(1.42aand2.31a;theyarenotreplacedin2.21a,26aand30a).Bothcharacters, however,appearinthecommentary(1.42b,2.6a8apassim,16b,22b,26a,29a,30a,31a).Oneof threeoccurrencesofzhi(partofthepersonalnameofGaozong)isreplacedwithliinthemain text(1.34b).Inthetwoothercases(2.26band36a),zhiappearsinthecompounddaozhi,a frequentmistakefordaoye"topound(amineralsubstance)"inthereceivedversionsof alchemicalandpharmacologicaltexts.Thesameisforitssynonymyanzhiinthecommentary (1.35a),avariantforyanye.Thiswouldleaveonlyoneoccurrenceofzhiinthewhole commentary(alsoin1.35a).Incontradictionwithanyclearpattern,however,thisrecensionof theCantongqihaszhi(2.26b)inasentencewhereotherrecensionsreadeitherfeiorzhi. [4]MengNaichang,Zhouyicantongqikaobian,2829. Thecontentsofthecommentarysupportthisdating.Theworkinterpretsseveralpassagesof theCantongqiasdealingwithaleadmercurycompoundcalledElixirofCorrectYang (zhengyangdan).[5]Italsodescribesmethodsofotherelixirs,andprovidesinstructionsonthe furnaceandotherinstruments.Theanonymousauthorsummarizesoneoftheleadmercury recipesandthemethodofthelutingmudforthecruciblefromtheBookoftheNineElixirs. AcquaintancewiththecorpusofwritingsattributedtoHugangzi,datingtotheSixDynasties, isreflectedinaquotationoftheWujinfentujue(IllustratedInstructionsonthePowdersofthe FiveMetals)andamentiontheNinecycledEssenceofLead,themethodofwhichwasfoundin anotherworkofthatcorpus.[6]Thesereferences,selectedoutofseveralothers,suggestthatthe anonymouscommentarymaybealateproductofthesouthernwaidantraditionscentered aroundtheCantongqiintheSixDynasties.

[5]OneofthecleareststatementsontheElixirofCorrectYangisin1.16b17a;seealso1.13a ("GoldistheElixirofCorrectYang"),2.6a,and2.34b35b.Forotherelixirrecipessee,e.g.,2.24b 25a,andonthefurnace2.2b. [6]Fortheleadmercuryrecipeseethepassagein2.12b13a,concernedwiththeLiquidPearl (liuzhu)orTalismanofHeavenandEarth(tiandizhifu).ThemethodofthiselixirisinHuangdi jiudingshendanjingjue(CT885)1.6a.Onthelutingmudsee2.3a,andHuangdijiudingshendan jingjue1.3b4a.TheBookoftheNineElixirsisalsomentionedin2.45a.TheWujinfentujueis quotedasWujinjuein2.24a,andtheEssenceofLeadismentionedin2.12b. REFERENCES ChenGuofu.Daozangyuanliukao[StudiesonthehistoryoftheTaoistCanon].Seconded., Beijing:ZhonghuaShuju,1963. MengNaichang.Zhouyicantongqikaobian[AninvestigationoftheCantongqi].Shanghai:Guji Chubanshe,1993.

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(2)THEYINCHANGSHENGCOMMENTARY NotlongbeforeorafterA.D.700,anotheranonymousauthorwrotethesecondTangexegesisof theCantongqipreservedintheTaoistCanon.AttributedtotheimmortalYinChangsheng,this work(CT999)isdistinguishedbyaclosecosmologicalinterpretation,thoughincidental referencestoactualpracticesshowthatitoriginatedinawaidancontext.[1]Itquotesseveral timestheYijizhan(DivinationsoftheyijiYear)bytheearlyTangcosmologist,LiChunfeng(fl. 633665).Asnosourcelaterthanthisismentionedinthewholetext,ChenGuofuhassuggested thatthecommentarymustdatefromtheseventhcentury.[2]Theonlyfeatureindisagreement withthisdatingisthepresenceofthe"SongoftheTripod"inaseparatesectionattheendofthe text.AccordingtoastatementbyPengXiao,thiswasaninnovationresultingfromhisown editorialwork.[3] [1]Seeforexamplethereferencetodrawingimagesofthegodsofthefourdirectionsonthe foursidesofthefurnace(1.10a;thesameissaidin1.35babouttheimageofthevermilionbird); totheingestionofasmallquantityoftheelixirin1.32b;andtotherefiningofleadinto"white lead"(fen,forhufen)in1.37a. [2]ChenGuofu,Daozangyuanliuxukao,377.ForquotationsoftheYijizhansee1.22b,23a,24a, 25b,and2.2b. [3]Zhouyicantongqidingqigemingjingtu(CT1003),1a. Nonetheless,moredefiniteevidencepointstoaTangdate.Inparticular,thetextfollowsthe patternoftheanonymouswaidancommentaryineitherreplacingorleavingunaltered charactersformingthepersonalnamesofTaizongandGaozong.Thesecorrespondencesare partofthetextualkinshipofthetwoworks.Takingasaunitthesmallestsectionsinwhichthe textoftheCantongqicanbedividedsinglesentences,oftencorrespondingtosingleverses theYinChangshengandtheanonymouswaidanrecensiondifferaltogetherabouttwohundred timesfromthetextestablishedbyPengXiao.Ofthesevariants,slightlymorethanonethirdare sharedbybothworks.InasignificantportionoftheotherinstancestheYinChangshengand theanonymousrecensionvaryfromeachotherinminordetails.[10]AsshownbyMeng Naichang,moreover,quotationsfromtheCantongqiinTangworkscorrespondtothereadings ofthetwoTangrecensions.[4] [10]Asremarkedbelow,PengXiao'stextoftheCantongqicannotbedeemedtobeauthentic, becauseitsreceivedversionincludesreadingsdrawnfromZhuXi'srecension.However,this doesnotconflictwiththepresentargument,asweareconcernedherewiththestateofthetext beforeeitherPengXiaoorZhuXi. [4]MengNaichang,Zhouyicantongqikaobian,530. REFERENCES ChenGuofu.Daozangyuanliukao[StudiesonthehistoryoftheTaoistCanon].Seconded., Beijing:ZhonghuaShuju,1963.
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MengNaichang.Zhouyicantongqikaobian[AninvestigationoftheCantongqi].Shanghai:Guji Chubanshe,1993. (3)THECOMMENTARYBYPENGXIAOANDTHEANONYMOUSNEIDAN COMMENTARY AnativeofYongkanginmodernSichuan,PengXiao(ziXiuchuan,haoZhenyizi,?955) changedhisoriginalsurname,Cheng,intoPengoutofreverenceforPengzu.Hisidentification withthisparagonofantiquity,whopracticedselfcultivationwithoutdisregardforofficial duties,isnotduetochance,forPengXiaoservedtheShudynastyasMagistrateoftheJintang district,andwaslaterappointedViceDirectoroftheMinistryofRitesandMilitarySupervisor oftheShuPrefecture.InadditiontotheZhouyicantongqifenzhangtongzhenyi(RealMeaningof theZhouyicantongqi,withanArrangementintoParagraphs;CT1002),hisworksincludethe extantHuandanneixiangjinyaoshi(GoldenKeytotheInnerImagesoftheElixirofReturn)anda lostcommentarytotheYinfujing(BookonJoiningwithObscurity).HisexegesisoftheCantong qiwasheldinhighesteemwithintheSouthernlineage(Nanzong)ofSongTaoism,asshown, forinstance,byfrequentquotationsincommentariestotheWuzhenpianassociatedwiththat lineage.ItscirculationwasalsoaidedbyaneditionprintedbyWangGangaround1250.[1]

[1]TheaboveinformationonPengXiaoiscollectedfromhisbiographiesintheSandongqunxian lu(CT1248),12.21b22a,andtheLishizhenxiantidaotongjian(CT296),43.7b8a(under"Cheng Xiao").NodetailsaboutPengXiao'slineageareavailable.TheGoldenKeyispreservedinthe Yunjiqiqian,70.1a14a.OnWangGangseeSongshi,408.1230409;hiseditionismentionedin Zhizhaishulujieti,12.345346. PengXiaosubmittedthetextoftheCantongqitoasubstantialrearrangement.Accordingtohis preface,hedivideditintoninetyzhang,correspondingtothefigure9ofGreatYang,andplaced the"SongoftheTripod"inaseparatepian,matchingthefigure1ofWater(theAgentrelatedto leadandtooriginalOneness).Tothethirdandfinaljuanofhiscommentaryheappendedthe "DiagramoftheBrightMirror"("Mingjingtu"),achartcompletewithexplanatorynotesthat illustratesseveralcosmologicaldevicesusedintheCantongqi.IntheDaozangedition,apostface indicatingthatthecommentarywasaccomplishedinA.D.947isprintedwiththe"Songofthe Tripod,"the"Eulogium,"andthe"DiagramoftheBrightMirror"asaseparateworkentitled Zhouyicantongqidingqigemingjingtu(CT1003).BothPengXiao'sprefaceandtheotherextant editionsoftheFenzhangtongzhenyishowthatthetwoDaozangtextsformedoriginallyasingle work.[2]

[2]Onthe"DiagramoftheBrightMirror"seetheanalysisinNeedhametal.,vol.V.5:5559.See theillustrationandanalysisofasimilardiagram.

PengXiaodoesnotmentiontheversionoftheCantongqiatthebasisofhisrecension,butthe
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textintheYinChangshengcommentarymusthavebeenamongthosethatservedtothe purpose.Inhispostface,hequotesasentencefromtheprefacetothatcommentary,whichhe must,therefore,havebeenacquaintedwith.[3]ComparisonofPengXiao'stextwiththetwo Tangrecensionsshowsthatthevariantsheintroducedconsist,alongwiththedivisioninto zhang,ofsomeinversionsandrelocationsoflines,andofalargenumberofsubstitutionsof singlewords.

[3]Zhouyicantongqidingqigemingjingtu(CT1003),12b,quotingfromZhouyicantongqi(CT 999),preface,3b.

ThereeditionbyBaoHuanzhi Theexactextentofthesevariations,however,isdifficulttoascertain.Thisisimpliedina postfacewrittenin1208bytheastronomerBaoHuanzhi(fl.12071210),whichissolely preservedintheDaozangedition.[4]Inthisvaluabledocument,whichhasnotyetreceivedthe attentionitdeserves,BaopraisedtherecensionbyPengXiaoasthebestavailableathistime, butnotedthatitwasnotexemptfromerrors,andthatitsdivisionsintozhangwerenotalways accurate.Duetolateralterations,moreover,thecopypreservedintheImperialLibrarywhich Baomusthavehadaccesstowhenheworkedatcourtdifferedfromtheotherversions circulatingbyhistime.Baothengoesontoremarkthatbeforehimthetextwasrevisedby ZhengHuan,buthiseditionincludedmanyerrors.[5]LaterZhuXiestablishedabettertext,but hisdivisionsintozhang,aswellashiscommentaries,wereoccasionallyfaulty.Thisprompted BaotocollateasmanyeditionsaspossibleoftheFenzhangtongzhenyi,andproducewhathe believedwouldbeacriticaledition.

[4]Zhouyicantongqidingqigemingjingtu,6b8a.ThepostfaceisplacedattheendofPengXiao's commentarytotheCantongqi,immediatelybeforethe"DiagramoftheBrightMirror." [5]IhavenotbeenabletofindanyinformationonZhengHuan.

AslongasBaoHuanzhiconsistentlyfollowedthecriteriahehimselflaiddown,theresultwasa completeblunder.ForthemaintextoftheCantongqihebasedhimselfonZhuXi'srecension, whileforPengXiao'sownnoteshereliedonZhengHuan'sedition.Hefollowed,however, othereditionswhentheyagreedwitheachotheragainstZhuXiandZhengHuan.Anotherrule thatinformedhisworkwastoleavethemaintextunalteredwhenapassagedifferedfromthe quotationofthesamepassagewithinthecommentary.BasedontheexamplesthatBao providesofhisalterations,PengXiao'soriginaltextwasmuchclosertotheYinChangsheng recensioni.e.,totheTangtextoftheCantongqithanitisnow.[6]

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[6]Baogivestwoexamples,relatingtoalineofzh.2,andalineofzh.63.Inbothcases,the sentencesquotedinthecommentaryarevirtuallyidenticaltotheYinChangshengrecension, whileinthemaintexttheyarethesameasintherecensionofZhuXi.

BeingsubstantiallythesameastheoneintheDaozang,allothereditionsoftheFenzhangtong zhenyiarebasedonBaoHuanzhi'srevision,andnonepreservestheoriginaltextestablishedby PengXiao.Furtherevidenceofalterationsisprovidedbyaquotationfromthelostcommentary byZhangSui,[7]wholivedonecenturyafterPengXiao.

[7]Zhouyicantongqidingqigemingjingtu,1a.ZhangSui'scommentaryislistedforthefirsttime intheJunzhaidushizhi,16.754,whichplaceshisfloruitintheHuangyouperiod(10491054)of theSong.OtherpassagesarequotedinZiyangzhenrenwuzhenpianzhushu(CT141),3.10aand 7.10b.SeealsotheXiuzhenshishucommentarytotheWuzhenpian(CT263),26.6aand7a.

Theanonymousneidancommentary TheFenzhangtongzhenyi,nonetheless,maintainsitsstandingasawatershedbetweentheearlier andthelaterrecensions,formostofwhichitservedastextualbasis.Themostcloselyrelated recensionistheonefoundintheanonymousneidancommentary,theZhouyicantongqizhu (CommentaryoftheZhouyicantongqi;CT1000).Thisrecension,preservedonlyintheDaozang andobviouslywrittenafterBaoHuanzhi'salterations,followstheFenzhangtongzhenyiso faithfullythatitmayservetoverifytheaccuracyoftheDaozangeditionofPengXiao'swork.[8]

[8]SeeacriticaleditionofPengXiao'srecensioninPregadio,Zhouyicantongqi:DalLibrodei Mutamentiall'Elisird'Oro,90111. REFERENCES Junzhaidushizhi(ReadingNotesfromtheJunzhaiStudio;1151).Jiaozhenged.,ShanghaiGuji Chubanshe,1990. Songshi(HistoryoftheSongDynasty).ZhonghuaShujued.,1977. Zhizhaishulujieti(AnnotatedCatalogueoftheZhizhaiStudio;middle13thcent.).Shanghai GujiChubansheed.,1987. Needham,Joseph,etal.ScienceandCivilisationinChina.7vols.projected,Cambridge: CambridgeUniversityPress,1954. Pregadio,Fabrizio.Zhouyicantongqi:DalLibrodeiMutamentiall'Elisird'Oro[Zhouyicantongqi:
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FromtheBookofChangestotheGoldenElixir].Venezia:Cafoscarina,1996.[Tableofcontents andEnglishsummary.] (4)THECOMMENTARYBYZHUXIANDTHECOMMENTARYBYCHUYONG ThemostdistinguishedcommentaryoftheCantongqioutsidetheTaoisttraditionisthatofZhu Xi(11301200),whoseZhouyicantongqikaoyi(ACriticalInvestigationoftheZhouyicantongqi; CT1001)isthefirstofanumberofworks,writtenthroughtheQingperiod,testifyingtothe attentionpaidtothistextbyNeoConfucianists.QuotationsintheYixueqimeng(Instructingthe YoungintheStudiesontheChanges),whichbearsaprefacedated1186,showthatZhuXi's activeinterestintheCantongqiaroseinthelastdecadesofhislife.Ashealreadydidforthe Yixueqimeng,forhiscompositionoftheKaoyihebenefitedfromtheadviceofhisfriendand discipleCaiYuanding(11351198),anYijingexpertwithwhomhecorrespondedregularlyon detailsofinterpretation.ThefinalversionofthecommentaryindeedowesmuchtoCai,who closelyexaminedthetextwithZhuXiinearly1197.[1]Theworkwasmostprobablycompleted shortlythereafter,betweentheendof1197andthebeginningof1198.[2]

[1]Zhuziyulei,107.2670;alsoquotedinZhouyicantongqi[kaoyi](CT1001),3.8ab. [2]FormoredetailsonthegenesisofZhuXi'scommentaryseetheexcellentstudybyAzuma Jji,"ShuKiShekisandkeikinitsuite,"especiallypp.176178.Seealsothebibliographicnote byWongShiuHon.

TheKaoyiisalsoatleastinprinciple,aswewillseeshortlytheearliestextantexegesisbased onacriticalexaminationofdifferentrecensionsofthetext.AsZhuXistatesinapostface,his recensionwasinspiredbythedisappointingstateofthetext,duetoalterationsintroduced throughoutitshistory.[3]Uponcompletinghiswork,heacknowledgesthatintheCantongqi "therearestillmanydubiousandobscurepoints".Hisappraisalofthehighliteraryqualityand difficultyofthetextisrecurrentlyquotedinlaterworks:"ThetextoftheCantongqiisexquisite. ItmusthavebeenwrittenbyacapableauthoroftheLaterHan.Itslexiconisgroundedon ancientworks,butbeingbeyondtheunderstandingofmodernmen,ithasbeeninterpretedin senselessways."[4]

[3]Zhouyicantongqi[kaoyi],3.8a. [4]Zhuziyulei,125.3002;alsoinZhouyicantongqi[kaoyi],preface,2b3a.

TheinterpretationofferedintheKaoyiisprimarilycosmological.Themostdetailedremarksare thoseonpassagesrelatedtothesystemoftheBookofChanges,oftentotheneglectofthe alchemicalimportofthetext.[5]Ontheotherhand,thejuncturesatwhichZhuXiinsertedhis

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commentsareoftenmoreaccuratethanthedivisionsintozhangmadebyPengXiao.

[5]Concerningwhichonenoticesseveralexpressionsofdoubt,includingafrequent"weixiang qizhi".OnthispointseeAzuma,p.181,whoprovidesadetailedanalysisofthecommentaryon pp.181186.

LikePengXiaobeforehim,ZhuXidoesnotstatewhichrecensionoftheCantongqiprovidedthe basisofhiswork.TextualcomparisonsuggeststhathereliedonPengXiao,butacceptedmany readingsoftheYinChangshengrecension.Heapparentlyintroducedvariantsofhisown,while othersaresharedwiththeTanganonymouscommentaryintwojuan.Thecontoursofthis picture,however,areblurredbothbyBaoHuanzhi'sremaniementofPengXiao'swork,andby thepresenceofvariantspresumablyderivedfromrecensionsnolongerextant.Amongthe sourcesarguablyusedbyZhuXiarethelostcommentarybyYuanShu(11311205),towhichhe wroteacolophonin1197,andtwoothereditions,whichhereferstoasthe"Jiedition"andthe "Qiuedition"withnootherdetails.[6]

[6]ThecolophontothecommentarybyYuanShutheauthoroftheTongjianjishibenmo (EventsintheComprehensiveMirrorArrangedinChronologicalOrder)isinZhuWengong wenji,84.31ab.The"Ji"andthe"Qiu"editionsarementionedinthelettertoCaiYuanding foundintheXujisectionofthesamework,3.8ab.ZhuXialsoquotesananonymous commentaryon1.13bofhisKaoyi.

ThereeditionbyHuangRuijie TheKaoyiwaseditedinthefirsthalfofthefourteenthcenturybyHuangRuijie(ziGuangle,fl. 1335),whoincludeditinhisZhuzichengshu,anearlycollectionofZhuXi'sworks.[7]Huang himselfprovidedanundatedpreface,andnotesconsistingofhisowncommentsandof quotationsfromotherworksofZhuXi.InadditiontotheKaoyi,HuangknewPengXiao's commentarythroughthereeditionbyBaoHuanzhi,whomhequotesinhisprefaceandina noteattachedtoZhuXi'scommentary.[8]ApparentlyalleditionsoftheKaoyiincludeHuang Ruijie'sadditions,andthereforeultimatelyderivefromhisZhuzichengshu.

[7]Anexemplaroftheoriginaleditionofthiscompilation,printedin1335,iskeptatthe NationalPalaceMuseuminTaibei;cf.GuoliGugongBowuyuanshanbenjiujizongmu,975.Wong, op.cit.,mistakenlyplacesHuangRuijieinthetwelfthcentury.Huang'sauthorshipoftheZhuzi chengshuisindicated,i.a.,intheYuanrukaole,3.19a. [8]Zhouyicantongqi[kaoyi],preface,1b,and1.5a,respectively.

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Inclearcontrastwithitstitle,andwithZhuXi'sownstatementsinthepostface,the commentarycontainsonlyahandfulofcriticalnotes.Inotherworks,additionally,ZhuXi pointsoutvariantsandsuggestsemendationsthatareignoredintheKaoyi.[9]Thecaseis strongenoughtoassumethatanindefinitenumberofcriticalnoteswereexpungedeitherby HuangRuijie,orbysomeonebeforehim.AconfirmationinthisregardisprovidedbyYuYan, who,writingfiftyyearsbeforeHuang,statesthathefounditsuperfluoustoduplicatevariants alreadypointedoutbyZhuXihardlyanecessaryremarkifthecriticalapparatusintheKaoyi hadbeenasexiguousasitisinthereceivedversion.[10]

[9]SeetheexamplescollectedbyAzumaonpp.178179andinnote10,p.189ofhisstudy. Azuma,whodoesnotmentionHuangRuijieandhiseditorialwork,suggestthatthepostface maynotbeauthentic.ThesmallnumberofcriticalnotesintheKaoyialsosurprisedtheeditors oftheSikuquanshuzongmu,146.1294. [10]Zhouyicantongqishiyi(CT1006),preface,3b.

TherecensionbyChuYong TheZhouyicantongqikaoyididnotenjoyanyparticularprestigewithintheTaoisttradition,but itsrecensionservedasbasisfortheZhouyicantongqizhu(CommentaryoftheZhouyicantongqi; CT1008)byChuYong(ziWenqing,haoHuagu;earlythirteenthcentury),preservedonlyinthe Daozang.[11]Thisneidanwork,whichbearsnoprefaceorpostface,andincludesan"Eulogium" ("Zan"),[12]isdistinguishedbyshort,straightforwardannotations,andbyasentenceplacedat theendofalmosteveryzhangtosummarizeitscentralmeaning.ThetextoftheCantongqiis clearlybasedontheKaoyi.ChuYongintroducedsomevariantsofhisown,whilemostofthe othersaresharedwithYinChangshengedition,whichChumayhaveconsultedindependently fromZhuXi'swork.

[11]ChuYong'sisalsoknownforsomepoemsandaworkentitledtheQuyishuo(Elucidations forDispersingDoubts).SeeSikuquanshuzongmu,121.1046. [12]Zhouyicantongqizhu(CT1008),3.11ab. REFERENCES GuoliGugongBowuyuanshanbenjiujizongmu.Taibei:GuoliGugongBowuyuan,1983. Sikuquanshuzongmu(GeneralCatalogueoftheCompleteWorksoftheFourRepositories). ZhonghuaShuju,1983,repr.ofthe1795Zhejianged.

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Yuanrukaole(ConciseStudyoftheYuanLiterati).FengCongwu(1556ca.1627).Siku Quanshued. ZhuWengongwenji(CollectedWritingsofZhuXi).SibuCongkaned. Zhuziyulei(ClassifiedSayingsofZhuXi).ZhonghuaShujued.,1986. AzumaJji."ShuKiShekisandkeikinitsuite"[OnZhuXi'sZhouyicantongqikaoyi].Nippon ChgokuGakkaih36(1984):175190. WongShiuHon."Chouits'ant'ungch'ichu."InEtienneBalaszandYvesHervouet,eds.,A SungBibliography(BibliographiedesSung),369370.HongKong:TheChineseUniversityPress, 1978. (5)THECOMMENTARYBYCHENXIANWEI TheSongrecensionoftheCantongqimostdifficulttolocateinthegenealogyistheone establishedbyChenXianwei(ziZongdao,haoBaoyizi,?after1254).Theauthorwasanativeof Yangzhou(Jiangsu),andadaoshioftheYoushengGuaninLin'an(Zhejiang).HisZhouyicantong qijie(ExplicationoftheZhouyicantongqi;CT1007)isoneofthreeworkspreservedfromalarger production,alongwithacommentaryontheGuanyinzi(BookofMasterYin,theGuardianof thePass;CT728),completedandprintedin1254,andanundatededitionoftheShenxian yangshengbishu(SecretArtsoftheDivineImmortalsforNourishingLife;CT948),a heterogeneouscollectionofwaidanmethodsandherbalrecipesthatincludesearlymaterials. TheCantongqijiebearsanauthor'sprefacedated1234.Allweknowaboutitsbackgroundis foundinaprefacebyZhengBoqian(ziJieqing),alaydiscipleofChenXianweiandteacherin thePrefecturalSchoolofQuzhou(mod.Zhejiang).Accordingtothisnote,alsodated1234,Chen Xianweifirstreceivedalchemicalteachingsin1223.Shortlythereafterheobtainedthe transmissionoftheCantongqi,andretiredforseveralyearstostudyit.ZhengBoqianmentions threeotherworksbyhismaster,alllost.[1]Thecommentarywasprintedin1234byWangYi, anotherlaydisciplewhoalsosubsidizedthepublicationoftheGuanyinzicommentary.Inall thereceivededitions,WangYi'spostfacecomesbeforeasecondcolophon,dated1245,written byafollowerfromTiantaiwhohadreceivedtheCantongqijiefromChenXianwei.Itisunlikely thateitherthisfollowerorWangYiistheauthorofthesectionentitled"Cantongqizhaiwei" ("PointingouttheSubtletiesoftheCantongqi"),whichfollowsthe"SongoftheTripod"inthe DaozangeditionoftheCantongqijie.Thissection,madeofcommentsontheportionoftext correspondingtopartofzh.36andthewholezh.37inPengXiao'srecension,criticizesthe interpretationgivenbyChenXianweialongwiththosebyPengXiaoandChuYong.

[1]TheirtitlesareLishengpian(EssayonEstablishingSainthood),Xianweizhiyan(Words StreamingfromtheHeartofChenXianwei)andBaoyizishu(WritingsoftheMasterWho EmbracesTheOne).ChenXianweirefersoncetotheLishengpianinhiscommentary,3.5a. ZhengBoqianisalsoknownforanextantexegesisoftheZhoulientitledTaipingjingguozhishu; cf.Sikuquanshuzongmu,19.151152.

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TheCantongqijieisbasedonthetextestablishedbyPengXiao,butnoclearpatternemerges fromitsvariants.Thisrecensionincludesseveraluniquereadings,whilesomeofthevariants suggestthatChenXianweimayalsohaveusedthetextfoundintheYinChangsheng commentary,aswellasZhuXi'sKaoyi.Titlesoftextsandpersonalnamesmentionedinthe commentarydonotofferanycluesastoitssources. References Sikuquanshuzongmu(GeneralCatalogueoftheCompleteWorksoftheFourRepositories). ZhonghuaShuju,1983,repr.ofthe1795Zhejianged. (6)THECOMMENTARYANDTHETEXTUALNOTESBYYUYAN ThoughYuYan(ziYuwu;haoQuanyangzi,Linwushanren,andShijiandaoren;12581314),a nativeofmodernSuzhou,issometimesindicatedtohavedevelopedhisinterestinalchemylate inlife,hewrotehisZhouyicantongqifahui(ClarificationoftheZhouyicantongqi;CT1005)when hewasinhismiddletwenties.Bythattime,accordingtohisownstatement,thecommentary hadalreadygonethroughthreeorfourdrafts.[1]InadditiontotheexegesisoftheCantongqi, YuYan'sworksintheTaoistCanonincludeundatedcommentariestotheYinfujing(CT125) andtheQinyuanchun(SpringattheQinGarden;CT136);theXuanpinzhimenfu(FuontheGate oftheMysteriousFemale;CT1010);andaworkonthesystemoftheBookofChangesentitled Yiwaibiezhuan(TheSeparateTransmissionoftheChanges;CT1009;prefacedated1284).[2]A fullcommentaryontheChangesentitledZhouyijishuo(CollectedElucidationsontheBookof Changes)isamonghisotherextantworks.WhiletheJishuogivesaninterpretationoftheBookof ChangesbasedonZhuXi'sexegesis,YuYanpointsoutinhisprefacetotheYiwaibiezhuanthat thisworkdealswiththeapplicationofthesystemoftheChangestoalchemy.IntheBiezhuan,a seriesofdiagramsillustratingtherelationbetweenthexiantianandthehoutianisfollowedby passagesoftheBookofChanges,commentedbywayofquotationsfromtheCantongqiandother alchemicaltexts.[3]

[1]Zhouyicantongqishiyi(CT1006),preface,3b. [2]TheYinfujingcommentarywaswrittenaftertheFahui,asYuYanomitsinterpretationofa pointsaying(7b)thatitisalreadydiscussedinhisworkontheCantongqi.Thecommentaryto theSpringattheQinGarden(analchemicalpoemattributedtoLDongbin)alsodatesfromafter 1284,asshownbyYuYan'spostface,3b4a.AfterthispostfaceisanotebyYuZhongwen,who editedalostcollectionofhisfather'sworksentitledXuanxuezhengzong(CorrectPrinciplesofthe StudyoftheMysteries). [3]OntheJishuoandtheBiezhuanseeZhanShichuang,NansongJinYuandedaojiao,8396.

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TheZhouyicantongqifahuiwascompletedin1284,thesameyearYuYansignedtheprefaceof hisBiezhuan.ThefirstprintededitionwashonoredbyaprefacebyZhangYucai(?1316,38th CelestialMaster),writtenin1310.Mosteditionsseen,oronwhichbibliographicinformationis availablethroughcataloguesofQinglibraries,alsoincludeundatedprefacesbyRuanDengbing andtheeminentcommentatoroftheLaozi,DuDaojian(12371318).Thetextualnotestothe commentarywerecollectedbyYuYaninafinalsectionofhiswork,separatelyprintedinthe TaoistCanonasZhouyicantongqishiyi(ExplicationofDoubtfulPointsintheZhouyicantongqi; CT1006). TheShiyiprovidesimportantdetailsonthewayYuYanestablishedhisrecension.After remarksonmistakesfoundintheworksbyPengXiao,ChenXianwei,andotherauthors,Yu Yangoesontosaythathebasedhistextonthe"Shuedition",the"Yueedition",the"Jiedition" andonmorethanoneunnamedTangeditions.[4]Thoughtheseindicationsarevague,the mentionofTangeditionsamongYuYan'ssourcesisespeciallyworthyofnote.Mostvariants pointedoutintheShiyiascomingfromthe"oldtext"oftheCantongqicorrespondtothe readingsofoneorboththeTangrecensionspreservedintheTaoistCanon.YuYan'sreferences tothemas"oldtext"isafurtherproofoftheirearlydate.Theothervariantsreportedinthe Shiyiareusuallynotattributedtospecificauthorsoreditions.Comparisonofthesenotesandof YuYan'stexttotheotherDaozangrecensionsshows,nonetheless,thattheFahuiisalsobasedon theworksofZhuXiandChenXianwei.

[4]Zhouyicantongqishiyi,preface,3b.

TheZhouyicantongqifahuiisfirmlyrootedinthetextuallegacyoftheSouthernandNorthern lineagesofSongTaoism.TheworksquotedmostoftenarethoseoftheSouthernlineage, includingtheWuzhenpian,theHuandanfumingpian(EssayonRevertingtoOne'sDestinybythe ElixirofReturn;CT1088)byXueDaoguang(?1191),theCuixupian(EssaybytheMasterof EmeraldEmptiness;CT1090)byChenNiwan(?1213),andtheJindandachengji(TheGreat AchievementoftheGoldenElixir;aCollection)byXiaoTingzhi(fl.1260;nowfoundinthe XiuzhenshishuorTenBooksontheCultivationofReality,CT263).TheNorthernlineageis representedbyworksofitsfounder,WangChunyang(11121170),anditspatriarchs,including MaDanyang(11231183)andQiuChangchun(11431227).Alongwiththese,YuYandraws fromsuchworksastheYinfujing,theHuangtingjing(BookoftheYellowCourt),theRuyaojing (MirrorforCompoundingtheMedicine)andaltogetheraboutonehundredothertexts. References ZhanShichuang.NansongJinYuandedaojiao[TaoismintheSouthernSong,JinandYuan periods].Shanghai:GujiChubanshe,1989. SunSimo(seventhcentury)

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Adaptedfromtheuneditedms.ofanarticleforthcominginEncyclopaediaoftheHistoryof Science,TechnologyandMedicineinNonWesternCountries,ed.HelaineSelin(Dordrecht,1996). TheChinesephysicianandmedicalauthorSunSimo(alternativereading:SunSimiao)wasa nativeofHuayan,inmodernShensi.Hisbiographyissomuchacompositeoffactandlegend thatitisimpossibletoeithersubstantiateorinvalidatehistraditionaldates(581682).From official,autobiographical,andhagiographicalsourcesitemergesthatheretiredatanearlyage onMountTaibai,notfarfromhisbirthplace.Herepeatedlydeclinedimperialsummonsand officialtitles,butwasalmostcertainlyinEmperorGaozong'sretinuefrom659to674,whenhe retiredonaccountofillness.HeseemstohavespentpartofhislifeinSichuan,whichmay explainwhymanylegendsthatconcernhimarelocatedinthatarea.Afterhisdeathhehasbeen veneratedasYaowangor"KingofMedicine"intemplesdedicatedtohim. SunSimoistheauthoroftwoofthemostimportantChinesemedicalcompilations,theQianjin fang(Prescriptionsworthathousand),alsoknownasBeijiqianjingyaofang(Important prescriptionsworthathousand,forurgentneed),andtheQianjingyifang(Revisedprescriptions worthathousand).Theformer,in30chapters,wascompletedsoonafterthemiddleofthe seventhcentury(apparentlyin652).Thelatter,alsoin30chapters,datesfromthelateseventh century.Bothworksarepreservedineditionsderivedfromversionspublishedintheeleventh century,whentheywereeditedtobeusedastextbooksintheImperialAcademyofMedicine. Inthesetexts,Sunprovidesanextendedcompendiumofcontemporarymedicalknowledge, arrangedinsectionsdealingwithsuchsubjectsaspharmacology,aetiology,gynaecology, paediatrics,dietetics,acupuncture,moxibustion,andspecificdiseases.Bothtextsincludeawide selectionofprescriptions(about5300intheYaofang,about2000intheYifang).(SeeDespeux 1987;Unschuld1985:4245,303304) Amongmanypointsofinterestsinthesecompilations,threedeservespecialmention.Thefirst istheprioritythatSunSimoaccordstogynaecologyandpaediatrics,thetwobranchesof medicinewhichhedealsfirstinbothworks.Thesecondistheimportancegiventomedical ethics,reflectedinthiswellknownpassagefromthefirstchapteroftheQianjinyaofang:"When someonecomestolookforhelp,adoctorshouldnotquestionrankorwealth,ageorbeauty,nor shouldhehavepersonalfeelingstowardsthatperson,hisrace,orhismentalcapacities.He shouldtreatallhispatientsasequal,asthoughtheywerehisownclosestrelatives."The influenceofSun'smedicalethicsspreadbeyondChina,reachingKoreaandJapanthrough quotationsofrelevantpassagesintextsofthesetwocountries. AthirdaspectisSun'srelationshipwithTaoismandBuddhism.Thenatureofhisinvolvement withtheWayoftheCelestialMasters(TianshiDao,oneofthemaintraditionsofliturgical Taoism)isdebated.Inthetwochaptersentitled"BookofInterdictions"("Jinjing")oftheQianjin yifang,SunquotesformulasusedinexorcistritualsbytheCelestialMasters.Thisraisestheissue ofhowhegainedaccesstothem.HisinterestinTaoismisalsoreflectedinthechapteron "NourishingtheVitalPrinciple"("Yangxing"),andinanotherextanttextonphysiological disciplineswhichheisattributedwith,theSheyangzhenzhongfang(Pillowbookofmethodsfor nourishing[thevitalprinciple]).(SeeEngelhart1989) AnothersourcepointingtoSun'srelationshipwithTaoismistheTaiqingdanjingyaojue (EssentialInstructionsfromtheBooksontheElixirsoftheGreatPurity).Thistextavailablein
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anexcellentEnglishtranslation(Sivin1968)consistsinacollectionofalchemicalmethods, probablyderivedfromtheSixDynastiescompilationscenteredaroundthenowlostTaiqingjing orBookoftheGreatPurity,oneofthemainearlyalchemicalcanons.AlthoughSun'sauthorship cannotbedefinitivelyproved,weknowfromhisownwitnessthathewasinvolvedinthe compoundingofelixirsaroundA.D.610.Amongthemedicaldisorderswhichheexperienced, ofwhichheleftafirsthandaccountinhismedicalworks,isintoxicationduetoelixiringestion. (SeeSivin1967) InadditiontoTaoism,recentresearch(Sakade1992;seeanabstract)haspointedoutSun Simiao'scloseconnectionwithBuddhism.Forexample,hereferstoIndianmassagetechniques, andmentionsmethodsforthetreatmentofberiberifromworkseditedbyBuddhistmonks. PerhapsundertheinfluenceofTiantaidisciplines,healsointroducedmeditationinhismedical practice.Moreover,theabovementioned"Jinjing"sectionoftheQianjingyifangincludes incantatoryformulasinSanskrit.ThemainfactorbehindtheseBuddhistelementsmayhave beenSun'sinterestinthedoctrinesoftheHuayanschool. BIBLIOGRAPHY Despeux,Catherine.1987.Prscriptionsd'acuponcturevalantmillesoncesd'or.Paris:Guy Trdaniel.TranslationofthechapteronacupunctureoftheQianjingfang. Engelhart,Ute.1989."QiforLife:LongevityintheTang."InTaoistMeditationandLongevity Techniques,ed.LiviaKohnincollaborationwithYoshinobuSakade.AnnArbor:CenterFor ChineseStudies,UniversityofMichigan,263296.Includesanextendedsummaryofthe Sheyangzhenzhongfang. SakadeYoshinobu.1992."SunSimiaoetleBouddhisme."KansaiDaigakubungakuronsh42.1: 8198.[Seeanabstractofthisarticle.] Sivin,Nathan.1967."ASeventhCenturyChineseMedicalCaseHistory."BulletinoftheHistory ofMedicine41:267273. Sivin,Nathan.1968.ChineseAlchemy:PreliminaryStudies.Cambridge(Mass.):Harvard UniversityPress.Includesabiographicalstudy,andanannotatedtranslationoftheTaiqing danjingyaojue. Unschuld,Paul.1985.MedicineinChina;AHistoryofIdeas.Berkeley,LosAngeles,London: UniversityofCaliforniaPress.Seepp.4245,303304. TaoHongjing(456536) Adaptedfromtheuneditedms.ofanarticleforthcominginEncyclopaediaoftheHistoryof Science,TechnologyandMedicineinNonWesternCountries,ed.HelaineSelin(Dordrecht,1996). TheTaoistmaster,alchemistandpharmacologistTaoHongjingwasbornin456nearmodern Nanjing.HeservedinvariouspositionsatthecourtsoftheLiuSongandQidynastiesuntil492.
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InthatyearheretiredonMountMao,theseatofShangqingorSupremePurity,aTaoist traditionbasedonmeditationandvisualisationtechniques(seeRobinet1993).Theretreathe builtonthemountainwastoremainthecentreofhisactivitiesuntilhisdeathin536. AfterhisinitiationintoTaoismaround485,Taosethimselftorecovertheoriginalmanuscripts, datingfromslightlymorethanonecenturybefore,thatcontainedtherevelationsatthesource oftheShangqingtradition.Taoauthenticatedandeditedthemanuscripts,andwroteonthem extendedcommentaries.Thisundertakingresultedintwotextscompletedinca.500,the Zhengao(DeclarationsofthePerfected)andtheDengzhenyinjue(ConcealedInstructionsonthe AscenttoPerfection,onlypartiallypreserved).TheseandotherworksmakeTaoHongjinginto thefirstsystematizerofShangqingTaoism,ofwhichhebecametheninthpatriarch. DuringhisretirementonMountMaoTaoHongjingalsoworkedonheBencaojingjizhu,a commentaryontheearliestknownChinesepharmacopoeia,theShennongbencao.Theoriginal textcontainednoteson365drugs.TotheseTaoadded365more,takenfromacorpusof writingsthathereferstoas"SeparateRecordsofEminentPhysicians".Tao'sarrangementofthe materiamedicaalsowasinnovative.Hedivideddrugsintosixbroadcategories(minerals, plants,mammals,etc.),andretainedthethreetraditionalclassesoftheShennongbencaoonlyas subdivisionswithineachsection.Inafurthergroupheclassifiedthe"drugsthathaveaname butarenolongerused[inpharmacology]."Tao'scommentarydiscussesthenomenclature, noteschangesinthegeographicaldistribution,andidentifiesvarieties;italsoincludes referencestotheTaoist"BooksoftheImmortals"(xianjing)andtoalchemicalpractices.Withthe exceptionofamanuscriptoftheprefacefoundatDunhuang,theBencaojingjizhuislostasan independenttext,buthasbeenreconstructedbasingonquotationsinlatersources.(See Needhametal.1986:308321;Unschuld1986:2843.) SincetheestablishmentoftheLiangdynastyin502,TaoenjoyedthefavourofEmperorWu(r. 502549),onwhomheexertedremarkableinfluence.Shortlylater,hebegantodevotehimselfto alchemicalpracticesunderimperialpatronage.Hismainbiographicalsource,writteninthe Tangperiod,hasleftavividaccountoftheseendeavours(seeStrickmann1981).Alongwith scripturalsourcestheytestifytheimportanceofalchemywithintheShangqingtradition,which representsthefirstknowninstanceofcloselinksbetweenalchemyandanestablishedTaoist movement. References Needham,Joseph,etal.1986.ScienceandCivilisationinChina,vol.VI:BiologyandBotanical Technology,part1:Botany.Cambridge:CambridgeUniversityPress. Robinet,Isabelle.TaoistMeditation.TheMaoshanTraditionofGreatPurity.Albany:State UniversityofNewYorkPress,1993. Strickmann,Michel.1981."OntheAlchemyofT'aoHungching."InHolmesWelchandAnna Seidel,eds.,FacetsofTaoism:EssaysinChineseReligion,123192.NewHavenandLondon:Yale UniversityPress. Unschuld,Paul.MedicineinChina:AHistoryofPharmaceutics.Berkeley,LosAngeles,London:
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UniversityofCaliforniaPress.

Western-language Studies on Chinese Alchemy

(1) General studies of waidan alchemy AKAHORI Akira. 1989. "Drug Taking and Immortality". In Livia Kohn, ed. in cooperation with Yoshinobu Sakade, Taoist Meditation and Longevity Techniques, 73-98. Ann Arbor: Center for Chinese Studies, The University of Michigan. (Michigan Monographs in Chinese Studies, 61.) On the ingestion of mineral and herbal drugs in Chinese pharmacology and, to a lesser extent, alchemy. BARNES, William Henry. 1935. "Possible References to Chinese Alchemy in the Fourth or Third Century B.C." China Journal of Science and Arts 23: 75-79. On one passage of Zhuangzi and two passages of Liezi that according to author may allude to alchemical practices. (*) CHATLEY, Herbert. 1913. "Alchemy in China". National Review (Shanghai) 14: 456-457. An article with the same title by the same author is in Journal of the Alchemical Society 2 (1913) 33-38. CHIKASHIGE Masumi. 1936. Alchemy and Other Chemical Achievements of the Ancient Orient. The Civilization of Japan and China in Early Times as Seen from the Chemical Point of View. Tokyo: Rokakuho Uchida. Repr. New York: AMS Press, 1979. Also repr. as Oriental Alchemy, New York: Samuel Weiser, 1974 (with author's last name misspelled as "Chkashige"). A chapter entitled "Alchemy in the East" examines some methods and ingredients mentioned in the Baopu zi neipian; the rest deals with Chinese bronzes and Japanese swords. The book is a translation by Sasaki Nobuji of Ty renkin-jutsu. Kagaku j yori mitaru ty jdai no bunka [Oriental alchemy. The early Eastern civilization as seen from the chemical point of view] (Tokyo: Uchida Rokakuho, 1929; repr. 1936. Also repr. as Kagaku yori mitaru ty jdai no bunka [The early Eastern civilization as seen from the chemical point of view; Tokyo: Meguro Shoten, 1940].) COLLIER, H. Bruce. 1952. "Alchemy in Ancient China". Chemistry in Canada 4: 101-103. Summarizes the information available at that time, mainly based on studies by T.L. Davis and A. Waley. (*) DAVIS, Tenney L. 1935. "Stories of Early Chinese Alchemists -- First to Practice the Art". Tech. Engng. News 16 March 1935: 3-5, 18. DAVIS, Tenney L., and Rokuro NAKASEKO. 1937. "The Tomb of Jofuku or Joshi, the Earliest Alchemist of Historical Record". Ambix 1: 109-115. On the traditions concerning the arrival of Xu Fu (or Xu Shi) to Japan in the third century B.C. in search of the medicines of immortality, and the shrine devoted to him at Shingu (Wakayama Prefecture). See also the shorter account in the authors' "The Jofuku Shrine at Shingu, a Monument of Earliest Alchemy", The Nucleus 15.3 (1937): 60-62, 67-68. The photograph of the shrine is also reproduced in their "The Tomb of Jofuku or Joshi", Journal of Chemical Education 24 (1947): 415 (frontispiece). DAVIS, Tenney L., and Lu-ch'iang WU. 1930. "Chinese Alchemy". Scientific Monthly 31: 225-235. Remarks on the notions of yin-yang and wuxing, followed by notes on some early alchemists, the Zhouyi cantong qi, and the Baopu zi neipian. This is the first publication on Chinese alchemy by T.L. Davis and his collaborators. For a complete bibliography of their works see Henry M. LEICESTER and Herbert S. KLICKSTEIN, "Tenney Lombard Davis and the History of Chemistry", Chymia 3 (1950): 1-16. DAVIS, Tenney L., and Lu-ch'iang WU. 1934. "Huang-ti, the Legendary Founder of Alchemy". Journal of Chemical Education 11: 635 (frontispiece).
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Reproduction of an illustration from the Liexian quanzhuan, and translation of selected passages. DAVIS, Tenney L., and Lu-ch'iang WU. 1935. "Wei Po-yang, the Father of Alchemy". Journal of Chemical Education 12: 51 (frontispiece). Reproduction of an illustration from the Liexian quanzhuan, with short notes. DUBS, Homer H. 1947. "The Beginnings of Alchemy". Isis 38: 62-86. Contains meticulously annotated quotations from early historical sources, but also erroneous interpretations of broader issues. DUBS, Homer H. 1961. "The Origin of Alchemy". Ambix 9: 23-36. Reiterates the views expounded in the 1947 study, and accepts S. Mahdihassan's theory of the origin of the word "alchemy" from jinye (see Mahdihassan 1951). Abstract in RBS 1961/755. EDKINS, Joseph. 1855. "Phases in the Development of Tauism" [sic]. Transactions of the China Branch of the Royal Asiatic Society, 1st series, 5: 83-99. The earliest study in a Western language to include an account of Chinese alchemy (pp. 84-91). (*) EDKINS, Joseph. 1857 [?]. "On Early Tauist Alchemy". North China Herald. Also in Miscellany or Companion to the Shanghai Almanak for 1857 (Shanghai: Herald Office). ELIADE, Mircea. 1970-71. "Alchemy and Science in China". History of Religions 10: 178-182. Essay review of Sivin 1968. ELIADE, Mircea. 1977. Forgerons et alchimistes. Second ed. Paris: Flammarion. The chapter "L'alchimie chinoise" (pp. 92-106) is based on secondary sources and translations of primary sources (see the bibliographic notes on pp. 166-168 and 169-170), but is full of perceptive remarks on some of the basic features of both waidan and neidan. Translated into English by Stephen Corrin, The Forge and the Crucible (Second ed.; Chicago and London: The University of Chicago Press, 1978). The English translation includes (pp. 179-199) "The Forge and the Crucible: A Postscript", an article first published in History of Religions 8 (1968-69): 74-88, with updated bibliographic notes. FURUKAWA Yasu. 1984. "Chinese Alchemy: Its Origins and Development". Yokohama Shdai ronsh 18.1: 95110. A synthesis of research, based on secondary sources of uneven value. HO Peng Yoke. 1971. "Alchemy in Ming China (A.D. 1368 - A.D. 1644)". In XIIe Congrs International d'Histoire des Sciences. Actes, vol. 3A: 119-123. Paris: Albert Blanchard. HO Peng Yoke. 1972. "The System of the Book of Changes and Chinese Science". Japanese Studies in the History of Science 11: 23-39. Mainly concerned with the application of the hexagram system to alchemy and especially the Zhouyi cantong qi. HO Peng Yoke. 1973. "The Search for Perpetual Youth, with Special Reference to Chinese Alchemy". Papers on Far Eastern History 7: 1-20. Examines several topics (e.g., chemical processes, theories, elixir poisoning) more fully discussed in other works by the author. HO Peng Yoke. 1974. "Chinese Alchemical and Medical Prescriptions. A Preliminary Study". In XIVth International Congress of the History of Science. Proceedings, vol. III: 295-298. Tokyo: Science Council of Japan. Remarks on theoretical aspects and technical terms common to both alchemy and pharmacology. HO Peng Yoke. 1985. Li, Qi and Shu: An Introduction to Science and Civilization in China. Hong Kong: Hong Kong University Press. The chapter entitled "Chinese Alchemy" (pp. 171-217), consists in a summary of various sections of SCC, vols. V:3 and V:4, of which the author is one of the contributors.
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HO Ping-Y [= HO Peng Yoke], and Joseph NEEDHAM. 1959. "Elixir Poisoning in Mediaeval China". Janus 48: 221-251. Repr. in Joseph Needham, Clerks and Craftsmen in China and the West, 316-339 (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1970). Suggests that Chinese alchemists either ignored the danger of elixir poisoning, or tried to neutralize the toxicity of the ingredients. The first part deals with cases of poisoning mentioned in dynastic histories and other sources. Abstract in RBS 1959/857. HO Ping-Y, and Joseph NEEDHAM. 1959. "Theories of Categories in Early Mediaeval Chinese Alchemy". Journal of the Warburg and Courtauld Institutes 22: 173-210. On the theory that two yin and yang substances can be used together if they belong to the same "category" (lei). Corresponds to the final part of section 33(h) "The theoretical background of elixir alchemy" of SCC, vol. V:4, but also includes an annotated translation of the Cantong qi wuxiang lei biyao (CT 905). Abstract in RBS 1959/822. A virtually identical version of this study, without the translation of the text, has appeared in Joseph NEEDHAM, "Category Theories in Chinese and Western Alchemy. A Contribution to the History of the Idea of Chemical Affinity", Epeteris (Nicosia) 9 (1977-79): 21-51. A shorter French version of the section entitled "Discussion" is in pp. 1054-1061 of Joseph NEEDHAM, "L'alchimie en Chine, pratique et thorie", Annales. conomie, Socites, Civilisations 30 (1975): 1045-1061. JOHNSON, Obed Simon. 1928. A Study of Chinese Alchemy. Shanghai: Commercial Press. Repr. New York: Arno, 1974. More on background ideas and ancillary disciplines other than alchemy proper. The author quotes the Baopu zi neipian and some other sources, but seems not to have known of the existence of the Daozang and its alchemical texts. KALTENMARK, Max. 1960. "L'alchimie en Chine". Bulletin de la Socit d'Acupuncture 37.3: 21-29. Interesting especially for the remarks on the relationship between gold and other sacred objects (bao, "treasures"), and on the association of cinnabar with light, fire, and the sun. On the latter theme see also the introduction to the author's Le Lie-sien tchouan (Biographies lgendaires des Immortels taostes de l'antiquit) (Peking: Universit de Paris, Publications du Centre d'tudes sinologiques de Pkin, 1953; repr. Paris: Collge de France, 1987). LI Ch'iao-p'ing. 1948. The Chemical Arts of Old China. Easton (Pa.): Journal of Chemical Education. Repr. New York: AMS, 1979. Translation, with additional material, of the first edition of his Zhongguo huaxue shi [History of Chinese Chemistry] (Changsha: Shangwu Yinshuguan, 1940). The chapter entitled "Alchemy" (pp. 6-29) refers to some neidan texts as being concerned with waidan MARTIN, William Alexander Parsons. 1878. "Alchemy in China". The China Review 7: 242-255. Repr. in his Hanlin Papers; or Essays on the Intellectual Life of the Chinese, vol. I: 221-252 (London: Trbner and Co., and New York: Harper Brothers, 1880). Also repr. in his The Chinese: Their Education, Philosophy and Letters, 167193 (London: Trbner, preface dated 1880; New York: Harper, 1881). Also repr. as "Alchemy in China, the Source of Chemistry" in his The Lore of Cathay, or The Intellect of China, 44-71 (New York: Fleming H. Revell, 1901; repr. 1912). This is probably the earliest attempt at proving that alchemy originated in China. In his discussion the author quotes several texts (including the Wuzhen pian) from a little known encyclopedic collection entitled Baizi jindan (The Golden Elixir of One Hundred Masters). See also the summary of a lecture entitled "On the Study of Alchemy in China", Journal of the American Oriental Society 9 (1871): xlvi-xlvii. (*) MARTIN, William Alexander Parsons. "The Study of Alchemy in China". Rosicrucian Brotherhood. [Year and details of publication unavailable.] An article with an almost identical title is listed at the end of the previous entry. (*) MAUL, J.P. 1967. "Experiments in Chinese Alchemy". Inaugural Dissertation, M.I.T. NEEDHAM, Joseph. 1971. The Refiner's Fire. The Enigma of Alchemy in East and West. London: Birbeck College. (The Second J.D. Bernal Lecture.) A summary of section 33(b) "Concepts, terminology and definitions" of SCC, vol. V:2. A shorter French version had
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previously appeared as "Artisans et alchimistes en Chine et dans le monde hellnistique", La Pense 152 (1970): 325. NEEDHAM, Joseph. 1974. "The Elixir Concept and Chemical Medicine in East and West". Journal of the Chinese University of Hong Kong 2: 243-265. Reprinted in Organon 11 (1975): 167-192. Also published as a separate monograph (Hong Kong: Chinese University of Hong Kong, 1974). Essentially a summary of section 33(i) "Comparative Macrobiotics" of SCC, vol. V:4, and partially the same as Needham 1981. Translated into Italian as "Il concetto di elisir e la medicina su base chimica in Oriente e in Occidente", Acta Medicae Historiae Patavina 19 (1972-73): 9-41. NEEDHAM, Joseph. 1976. "Metals and Alchemists in Ancient China". In J.V.S. Megaw, ed., To Illustrate the Monuments: Essays Presented to Stuart Pigott, 283-294. London: Thames and Hudson. Mostly a reproduction of the pages on zinc from section 33(c) "The metallurgical-chemical background; identifications of alchemical processes" of SCC, vol. V:2. NEEDHAM, Joseph. 1978. "Alchemy and Early Chemistry in China". In Torgny T. Segerstedt, ed., The Frontiers of Human Knowledge. Lectures held at the Quincentenary Celebrations of Uppsala University, 1977, 171-181. Uppsala: Uppsala Universitet. (Acta Universitatis Upsaliensis, 38.) A summary of various sections of SCC, vols. V:2-4. NEEDHAM, Joseph, HO Ping-Y, and LU Gwei-Djen. 1976. Science and Civilisation in China, vol. V: Chemistry and Chemical Technology, part 3: Spagyrical Discovery and Invention: Historical Survey, from Cinnabar Elixirs to Synthetic Insulin. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. Includes subsection (e) "The historical development of alchemy and early chemistry" of section 33, "Alchemy and Chemistry", with chapters on the origins of alchemy, Wei Boyang and the Zhouyi cantongqi, Ge Hong and his Baopu zi neipian, the "golden age" (A.D. 400-800) and the "silver age" (A.D. 800-1300) of Chinese alchemy, the decline of waidan in later times, and the coming of modern chemistry. Essay review, Sivin 1981. NEEDHAM, Joseph, HO Ping-Y, LU Gwei-Djen, and Nathan SIVIN. 1980. Science and Civilisation in China, vol. V: Chemistry and Chemical Technology, part 4: Spagyrical Discovery and Invention: Apparatus, Theories and Gifts. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. Includes the following sub-sections of section 33, "Alchemy and Chemistry": (f) "Laboratory apparatus and equipment"; (g) "Reactions in aqueous medium"; (h) "The theoretical background of elixir alchemy"; (i) "Comparative macrobiotics" (on alchemy in China, the Hellenistic world, the Arabic world, and the Western world). See also nos. 24 and 31 above, and nos. 43, 88, 180, 182, 195 and 196 below. NEEDHAM, Joseph, and LU Gwei-Djen. 1974. Science and Civilisation in China, vol. V: Chemistry and Chemical Technology, part 2: Spagyrical Discovery and Invention: Magisteries of Gold and Immortality. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. Includes the following sub-sections of section 33, "Alchemy and Chemistry": (a) "Introduction: the historical literature"; (b) "Concepts, terminology and definitions" (in particular on the terms "aurifiction" and "aurifaction", used throughout volume V.2 but less frequently in the later parts); (c) "The metallurgical-chemical background; identifications of alchemical processes"; (d) "The physiological background; verifications of the efficacy of the elixirs". See also nos. 31 and 33 above. (*) READ, Bernard E. 1931 [or 1941?]. "Chinese Alchemy". Chinese Medical History Society 5th Anniversary Special Number. SCHAFER, Edward H. 1975. "The Stove God and the Alchemists". In Laurence G. Thompson, ed., Studia Asiatica. Essays in Asian Studies in Felicitation of the Seventy-fifth Anniversary of Professor Ch'en Shou-yi, 261266. San Francisco: Chinese Materials Center. On the Stove God (here identified as a female deity), sometimes known as the divinity reigning over the alchemist's crucible. SIVIN, Nathan. 1968. "Chinese Alchemy as a Science". Transactions of the International Conference of Orientalists in Japan 13: 117-129. Reprinted with minor variations in Frederic Wakeman, Jr., ed., "Nothing Concealed". Essays in Honor of Liu Y-yn, 37-50 (Taipei: Chinese Materials and Research Aids Service Center, 1970).
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Defines the grounds on which Chinese alchemy can be studied in the context of the history of science. SIVIN, Nathan. 1968. Chinese Alchemy: Preliminary Studies. Cambridge (Mass.): Harvard University Press. (Harvard Monographs in the History of Science.) Biography of Sun Simo (seventh century) and annotated translation of the Taiqing danjing yaojue (in Yunji qiqian [CT 1032], j. 71), with an extensive introduction on waidan alchemy and its study. Essay review, Eliade 1970-71. The first chapter has also appeared as "On the Reconstruction of Chinese Alchemy", Japanese Studies in the History of Science 6 (1967): 60-86. SIVIN, Nathan. 1976. "Chinese Alchemy and the Manipulation of Time". Isis 67: 513-527. Repr. in Nathan Sivin, ed., Science and Technology in East Asia. Articles from Isis, 1913-1975, 109-122 (New York: Science History Publications, 1977). A shorter version -- published four years earlier, but incorporating results of later research -- of Sivin 1980. SIVIN, Nathan. 1980. "The Theoretical Background of Elixir Alchemy". In Joseph Needham, Ho Ping-Y, Lu Gwei-Djen, and Nathan Sivin, Science and Civilisation in China, vol. V: Chemistry and Chemical Technology, part 4: Apparatus, Theories and Gifts, 210-305. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. On the role of time in the alchemical work, and the cosmic correspondences embodied in the apparatus. Defines the elixirs as "time-controlling substances", obtained by an acceleration of the cosmic process in the alchemical laboratory. See also Sivin 1976. SIVIN, Nathan. 1981. "Discovery of Spagyrical Invention". Harvard Journal of Asiatic Studies 41: 219-235. Essay review of SCC, vol. V:3. SIVIN, Nathan. 1987. "Chinese Alchemy". In Mircea Eliade, ed., The Encyclopedia of Religion, vol. I: 186-190. New York and London: Macmillan. A synthesis of results of recent research, centered on aims and means of alchemy, important issues in its history, and relation with Taoism and science. Suggests that alchemy did not originate in a Taoist milieu, and was first combined with Taoism by Tao Hongjing in ca. 500. SPOONER, Roy C. 1940. "Chinese Alchemy". Journal of the West China Border Research Society 12: 82-102. Recounts the early history of alchemy, and suggests that alchemy became connected with Taoism after the rise of the Taoist organized movements. STEIN, O. 1933. "References to Alchemy in Buddhist Scriptures". Bulletin of the School of Oriental Studies 7.1: 262-263. Also published in Isis 24 (1935): 119. A short note on Arthur Waley's identically titled article (Waley 1932). VACCA, G. 1913. "Note cinesi". Rivista di Studi Orientali 6.1: 131-142. The section entitled "Un alchimista del secolo XI" (pp. 141-142) includes the translation of a short passage from the Mengxi bitan. WALEY, Arthur. 1930. "Notes on Chinese Alchemy (Supplementary to Johnson's A Study of Chinese Alchemy)". Bulletin of the School of Oriental Studies 6.1: 1-24. The most important study before the contributions by T.L. Davis and his collaborators. Discusses the question of the origins of alchemy, the first references in historical sources, the Zhouyi cantong qi, the Baopu zi neipian, and the rise of neidan. WALEY, Arthur. 1932. "References to Alchemy in Buddhist Scriptures". Bulletin of the School of Oriental Studies 6.4: 1102-1103. Translations of sentences and passages from four texts. See also O. Stein's identically titled article (Stein 1933). WILSON, William Jerome. 1940. "Alchemy in China". Ciba Symposia 2: 593-624. A summary of research done to that time, largely based on writings by T.L. Davis and his collaborators. Divided into the following sections: "Chronology", 594; "The Background of Chinese Alchemy", 595-599; "Leading Ideas of Early Chinese Alchemy", 600-604; "Biographies of Early Chinese Alchemists", 605-609; "Later Developments of
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Chinese Alchemy", 610-617; "Relation of Chinese Alchemy to that of Other Countries", 618-621; "Bibliography of Chinese Alchemy", 623-624. WILSON, William Jerome. 1942. "Mystical Developments of Alchemy". Ciba Symposia 3: 1153-1155. Reproduces passages from p. 617 of Wilson 1940, followed by notes based on Davis & Chao 1940 ("The Secret Papers in the Jade Box of Ch'ing-hua").

(2) General studies of neidan alchemy BALDRIAN-HUSSEIN, Farzeen. 1989-90. "Inner Alchemy: Notes on the Origin and Use of the Term Neidan". Cahiers d'Extrme-Asie 5: 163-190. On the date in which the term neidan came into use, and its different meanings and equivalents. Abstract in RBS 1991/459. BOEHMER, Thomas. 1977. "Taoist Alchemy: A Sympathetic Approach through Symbols". In Michael Saso and David W. Chappell, eds., Buddhist and Taoist Studies I, 55-78. Honolulu: The University Press of Hawaii. (Asian Studies at Hawaii, 18.) An introductory survey of some points of neidan. CHANG Chung-yuan. 1956. "An Introduction to Taoist Yoga". The Review of Religion 20: 131-148. Repr. in Laurence G. Thompson, ed., The Chinese Way in Religion, 63-76 (Encino and Belmont [Ca.]: Dickenson, 1973). See also the chapter entitled "Processes of Self-realization" in the author's Creativity and Taoism. A Study of Chinese Philosophy, Art and Poetry, 123-168 (New York: Julian Press, 1963; repr. 1983. Also repr. London: Wilwood House, 1975). DAVIS, Tenney L. 1936. "The Dualistic Cosmogony of Huai-nan-tzu and its Relations to the Background of Chinese and of European Alchemy". Isis 25: 327-340. On the yin-yang notions as represented in the Huainan zi, their relationship to analogous notions in Arabic and Western alchemy, and their application in the Zhouyi cantong qi. DAVIS, Tenney L. 1938. "Pictorial Representations of Alchemical Theory". Isis 28: 73-86. On the sulphur-mercury and the yin-yang doctrines in Western and Chinese alchemy, and their graphical representation. Draws on the Jindan dayao (CT 1067) by Chen Zhixu, and on Peng Xiao's commentary to the Zhouyi cantong qi (CT 1002). (*) DAVIS, Tenney L. 1939. "The Identity of Chinese and European Alchemical Theory". Journal of Unified Science (Erkenntnis) 9: 7-12. This article is listed in the bibliography of T.L. Davis' works (see note to Davis & Wu 1930), and is quoted in of them (Davis & Chao 1940, "Three Alchemical Poems by Chang Po-tuan"), but is apparently impossible to locate. The journal in which it was supposedly published was entitled Annalen der Philosophie und philosophischen Kritik from 1919 to 1930, Erkenntnis from 1930 to 1939, and Journal of Unified Science from 1939 onwards. DESPEUX, Catherine. 1990. Immortelles de la Chine ancienne. Taosme et alchimie fminine. Puiseaux: Pards. (Destins de femmes.) Historical survey of the place and image of women in Taoism, followed by an introduction to feminine internal alchemy and a description of its literature and practices. Abstract in RBS 1991/477. Translated into Italian by Monica Esposito, Le immortali della Cina antica. Taoismo e alchimia femminile (Roma: Astrolabio - Ubaldini Editore, 1991). DESPEUX, Catherine. 1994. Taosme et corps humain. Le Xiuzhentu. Paris: Guy Trdaniel (ditions de la Maisnie). A detailed analysis of the Xiuzhentu (Chart for the Cultivation of Reality) engraved at the Baiyun Guan in Beijing, and other similar representations of the inner body. Includes one chapter on the relation of neidan with the Thunder Rituals (leifa practiced in some traditions of Song Taoism. (*) ESKILDSEN, Stephen. 1989. "The Beliefs and Practices of Early Ch'an-chen Taoism". M.A. Thesis,
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University of British Columbia, Vancouver. LIU Ts'un-yan. 1970. "Taoist Self-Cultivation in Ming Thought" In Wm. Theodore de Bary and the Conference on Ming Thought, Self and Society in Ming Thought, 291-330. New York and London: Columbia University Press. On several terms used in neidan texts and the influence of the doctrines of self-cultivation on Ming thinkers (especially Wang Yangming). LIU Ts'un-yan. 1984. "The Syncretism of the Three Teachings in Sung-Yan China". In his New Excursions from the Hall of Harmonious Wind, 3-95. Leiden: E.J. Brill. Includes materials on neidan. LU Gwei-Djen. 1973. "The Inner Elixir (Nei Tan); Chinese Physiological Alchemy". In Mikuls Teich and Robert Young, eds., Changing Perspectives in the History of Science. Essays in Honour of Joseph Needham, 68-84. London: Heinemann. A preliminary study anticipating some of the findings and views fully expounded in SCC, vol. V:5. NEEDHAM, Joseph, and LU Gwei-Djen. 1983. Science and Civilisation in China, vol. V: Chemistry and Chemical Technology, part 5: Spagyrical Discovery and Invention: Physiological Alchemy. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. Includes the following sub-sections of section 33, "Alchemy and Chemistry": (j) "The Outer and the Inner Macrobiogens; the Elixir and the Enchymoma", centered on the history and techniques of neidan; (k) "The enchymoma in the test-tube; medieval preparations of urinary steroid and protein hormones". See also Lu 1973. Abstract in RBS 1985/579. ROBINET, Isabelle. 1985. "L'unit transcendante des Trois Enseignements selon les taostes des Sung et des Yan". In Gert Naundorf, Karl-Heinz Pohl, and Hans-Herman Schmidt, eds., Religion und Philosophie in Ostasien. Festschrift fr Hans Steininger zum 65. Geburstag, 103-126. Wrzburg: Knigshausen und Neumann. ROBINET, Isabelle. 1986. "L'alchimie interne dans le taosme". Cahiers d'Extrme-Asie 2: 241-252. Essay review of Baldrian-Hussein 1984. ROBINET, Isabelle. 1986. "La notion de hsing dans le taosme et son rapport avec celle du confucianisme". Journal of the American Oriental Society 106: 183-196. On xing and other fundamental notions of neidan (in particular, ming). ROBINET, Isabelle. 1989. "Original Contributions of Neidan to Taoism and Chinese Thought". In Livia Kohn, ed. in cooperation with Yoshinobu Sakade, Taoist Meditation and Longevity Techniques, 297-330. Ann Arbor: Center for Chinese Studies, The University of Michigan. (Michigan Monographs in Chinese Studies, 61.) An interpretive essay on some basic traits of internal alchemy. Stresses the weight that neidan gives to "intellectual speculation" and, in this perspective, describes notions and linguistic expedients used by the authors for expressing their doctrines. ROBINET, Isabelle. 1989-90. "Recherche sur l'alchimie intrieure (neidan). L'cole Zhenyuan". Cahiers d'Extrme-Asie 5: 141-162. On a corpus of texts compiled in the Song period but including earlier materials, that reflect a synthesis of elements drawn from neidan, the Yijing, the Shangqing tradition, and Buddhism. Abstract in RBS 1991/460. ROBINET, Isabelle. 1989-90. "The Place and Meaning of the Notion of Taiji in Taoist Sources prior to the Ming Dynasty". History of Religions 29: 373-411. Quotes several neidan sources. Abstract in RBS 1991/461. ROBINET, Isabelle. 1991. "Sur les sens des termes waidan et neidan". Taoist Resources 3.1: 3-40. Examines the various meanings of the two terms within the context of neidan alchemy, where "waidan" usually does not refer to practices based on the manipulation of natural substances, but to a stage or an aspect of the neidan discipline itself. Abstract in RBS 1992/470.
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ROBINET, Isabelle. 1992. "Le monde l'envers dans l'alchimie intrieure taoste". Revue de l'Histoire des Religions 209: 239-257. On the principle of inversion and the hierogamic exchange of attributes. ROBINET, Isabelle. 1993. "Mystique et rationalit. Le langage dans l'alchimie intrieure ou l'effort pour dire le contradictoire". Asiatische Studien/tudes Asiatique 47: 645-662. ROBINET, Isabelle. 1995. Introduction l'alchimie intrieure taoste. De l'unit et de la multeplicit. Paris: Les ditions du Cerf. SAKADE Yoshinobu. 1991. "Methods and Ideas on Increasing Vitality in Ancient China: The Transition from Neiguan to Neidan in the Sui and Tang Dynasties". In Yoshio Kawakita, Shizu Sakai, and Yasuo Otsuka, eds., History of Hygiene. Proceedings of the 12th International Symposium on the Comparative History of Medicine -East and West, 99-115. Tokyo: Ishiyaku EuroAmerica. On neiguan (insight meditation) and its adoption in neidan, where it becomes a method of concentration without visualizations of the inner divinities. The article is a shortened English version of the author's "Zui-T jidai ni okeru fukutan to naikan to naitan"[Ingestion of elixirs, insight meditation, and internal alchemy in the Sui and Tang periods], in Sakade Yoshinobu, ed., Chgoku kodai ysei shis no sgteki kenky [Collected studies on the doctrines of the Nourishment of Life in ancient China], 566-599 (Tokyo: Hirakawa Shuppansha, 1988). SKAR, Lowell. 1990. "The Southern Lineage in Song China". Taoist Resources 2.2: 120-125. Proposal of a doctoral dissertation currently in progress on the genealogy and textual legacy of the Southern Lineage (Nanzong) of Taoism. (*) WU Sing Chow. 1974. "A Study of the Taoist Internal Elixir. Its Theory and Development". Ph. D. Thesis, St. John's University. (1) Dating of texts and surveys of the alchemical literature BOLTZ, Judith M. 1987. A Survey of Taoist Literature. Tenth to Seventeenth Centuries. Berkeley: Institute of East Asian Studies, University of California. (China Research Monograph, 32.) See especially the chapters "Literary Anthologies and Dialogic Treatises" (pp. 137-202 passim) and "The Hsiu-chen shih-shu" (pp. 234-237); and the Index, s.v. chin-tan, huan-tan, nei-tan, wai-tan. HO Peng Yoke. 1979. On the Dating of Taoist Alchemical Texts. Brisbane: Griffith University. (Griffith Asian Papers.) Ways of dating alchemical texts, and examples of their application. WIEGER, Leon. 1911. Taosme, vol. I: Bibliographie gnrale. Hien-hien. Many of the notes in this annotated catalogue of the Taoist Canon, including those on the alchemical texts, are highly inaccurate. WYLIE, A. 1867. Notes on Chinese Literature: With Introductory Remarks on the Progressive Advancement of the Art; and a List of Translations from the Chinese, into Various European Languages. Shanghai: American Presbyterian Mission Press, and London: Trbner & Co. Repr. Taipei: Bookcase Shop, 1971. The section on Taoism (pp. 215-225) includes notes, now of marginal interest, on some alchemical texts. -----------------------------------------------------------------------(2) The Huangdi jiuding shendan jing and its commentary (CT 885) PREGADIO, Fabrizio. 1991. "Le pratiche del Libro dei Nove Elisir". Cina 23: 15-79. A summary of the article listed in the next entry, followed by an annotated translation of the Huangdi jiuding shendan jing. PREGADIO, Fabrizio. 1991. "The Book of the Nine Elixirs and Its Tradition". In Yamada Keiji and Tanaka Tan, eds., Chgoku kodai kagakushi ron [Studies on the history of ancient Chinese science], vol. II: 543-639. Kyoto: Kyto Daigaku Jinbun Kagaku Kenkyjo.

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On the Huangdi jiuding shendan jing, its commentary, other texts on the Nine Elixirs, and four other early scriptures. Part Four gives an outline of the alchemical practice described in these sources, with emphasis on the reenactment of cosmogony. Abstracts in RBS 1991/486 and 1992/487. -----------------------------------------------------------------------(3) Sanshiliu shuifa (CT 930) (See also Butler et al. 1980 and Butler et al 1987.) TS'AO T'ien-ch'in, HO Ping-Y, and Joseph NEEDHAM. 1959. "An Early Mediaeval Chinese Alchemical Text on Aqueous Solutions". Ambix 7: 122-158. Corresponds in part to section 33(g) "Reactions in aqueous medium" of SCC, vol. V:4, but also includes an annotated translation (with omission of the final section on ritual) of the Sanshiliu shuifa. Abstract in RBS 1959/821. -----------------------------------------------------------------------(4) Ge Hong (283-343) and his Baopu zi neipian (See also Butler et al. 1983 and Glidewell 1989.) DAVIS, Tenney L. 1934. "Ko Hung (Pao P'u Tzu), Chinese Alchemist of the Fourth Century". Journal of Chemical Education 11: 517-520. Survey of Western-language studies available to that time, followed by a translation of Ge Hong's biography in the Liexian quanzhuan. DAVIS, Tenney L., and CH'EN Kuo-fu. 1941. "The Inner Chapters of Pao-p'u-tzu". Proceedings of the American Academy of Arts and Sciences 74: 297-325. Translation of j. 8 and 11, and summary of the remaining chapters. The introduction includes notes on Ge Hong's line of transmission, and a translation of his biography in the Jin shu. FEIFEL, Eugene. 1941-46. "Pao-p'u tzu nei-p'ien". Monumenta Serica 6 (1941): 113-211; 9 (1944): 1-33; 11 (1946): 1-32. Annotated translation of j. 1-4 and 11; philologically better documented than others, but not entirely reliable. FORKE, Alfred. 1932. "Ko Hung, der Philosoph und Alchimist". Archiv fr Geschichte der Philosophie 41: 115126. See also the fuller account in the author's Geschichte der mittelalterlichen chinesischen Philosophie, vol. II: 204-224 (Hamburg: Friederichsen, De Gruyter & Co., 1934). PREGADIO, Fabrizio. 1987. Ko Hung: Le Medicine della Grande Purezza. Dal "Pao-p'u tzu nei-p'ien". Roma: Edizioni Mediterranee. (Biblioteca Ermetica, 20.) Translation of j. 1, 4, 11, and 16-19, based on the edition by Wang Ming, Baopu zi neipian jiaoshi [Critical edition of the Baopu zi neipian] (Beijing: Zhonghua Shuju, 1980). SIVIN, Nathan. 1969. "On the Pao p'u tzu nei p'ien and the Life of Ko Hung (283-343)". Isis 60: 388-391. Accepts the evidence provided by William Hung for the dates mentioned in the title. TORTCHINOV, Evgueni A. 1992. "Daosizm i alhimija v tradicionnom Kitaje" [Taoism and alchemy in traditional China]. Peterburgskoje vostokovedenije [St.Petersburg Journal for Oriental Studies]. 2: 272-353. Includes on pp. 316-353 a Russian translation of j. 4 of the Baopu zi neipian. See also the author's Daosizm: opyt istoriko-religiovedcheskogo opisanija [Taoism: an essay of historico-religious description], pp.48-80 (St.Petersburg: Andrejev & Sons, 1993). WARE, James. 1966. Alchemy, Medicine and Religion in the China of A.D. 320. The Nei P'ien of Ko Hung (Paop'u tzu). Cambridge (Mass.): M.I.T. Press. Repr. New York: Dover Publications, 1981. Integral but not always reliable translation. Also includes a translation of Ge Hong's biography in j. 50 of the Baopu zi waipian.
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WU Lu-ch'iang, and Tenney L. DAVIS. 1935. "An Ancient Chinese Alchemical Classic. Ko Hung on the Gold Medicine and on the Yellow and the White. The Fourth and Sixteenth Chapters of Pao-p'u-tzu". Proceedings of the American Academy of Arts and Sciences 70: 221-284. Translation of j. 4 and 16, followed by an abstract and index. The translation is complemented by the following two studies: Tenney L. DAVIS and Lu-ch'iang WU, "Ko Hung on the Gold Medicine" and "Ko Hung on the Yellow and the White", Journal of Chemical Education 13 (1936): 103-105 and 215-218. -----------------------------------------------------------------------(5) Tao Hongjing (456-536) BARNES, William Henry, and H.B. YUEN. 1946. "T'ao, the Recluse (A.D. 452-536). Chinese Alchemist". Ambix 2: 138-147. A sketch based on the biographies in the Nan shu (History of the Southern Dynasties) and the Liang shu(History of the Liang Dynasty). The article is a translation of Cao Yuanyu, "Tao Hongjing he ta de zhushu" [Tao Hongjing and his works], published in 1935 in a Chinese journal here identified only as The Chekiang Medical and Pharmaceutical Student's Journal. DAVIS, Tenney L., and Lu-ch'iang WU. 1932. "T'ao Hung-ching". Journal of Chemical Education 9: 859-862. An account based on the biography in the Liexian quanzhuan. STRICKMANN, Michel. 1981. "On the Alchemy of T'ao Hung-ching". In Holmes Welch and Anna Seidel, eds., Facets of Taoism. Essays in Chinese Religion, 123-192. New Haven and London: Yale University Press. Examines Tao Hongjing's alchemical practices in the context of his life, times, and doctrinal background. Includes discussions of the alchemical texts incorporated in the Shangqing revealed corpus, and of their place within this tradition. -----------------------------------------------------------------------(6) L Dongbin BALDRIAN-HUSSEIN, Farzeen. 1985. "Yeh-yang and L Tung-pin's Ch'in-yan ch'un: A Sung Alchemical Poem". In Gert Naundorf, Karl-Heinz Pohl, and Hans-Herman Schmidt, eds., Religion und Philosophie in Ostasien. Festschrift fr Hans Steininger zum 65. Geburstag, 19-31. Wrzburg: Knigshausen und Neumann. Translation and study of the most famous alchemical poem attributed to L Dongbin, the Qinyuan chun. BALDRIAN-HUSSEIN, Farzeen. 1986. "L Tung-pin in Northern Sung Literature". Cahiers d'Extrme-Asie 2: 133-169. On some themes of the earliest tales on L Dongbin, their relation to specific social and religious groups, and one of the main places of his worship, Yueyang (Hunan). COULING, C.E. 1927. "The Patriarch L -- Reputed Founder of the Chin Tan Chiao". Journal of the North China Branch of the Royal Asiatic Society 58: 158-171. Concerned with some legendary accounts. -----------------------------------------------------------------------(7) Taixi jing BALFOUR, Frederic H. 1880. "The 'Tai-hsi' King; or the Respiration of the Embryo". The China Review 9: 224226. Reprinted in his Taoist Texts, Ethical, Political and Speculative, 63-65 (London: Trbner and Co., and Shanghai: Kelly and Walsh, 1894). Translation of a short text (CT 14 and 130) not properly neidan, but often quoted in the neidan literature. HUANG, Jane, and Michael WURMBRAND. 1987. "T'ai hsi ching chu. The Embryonic Breath Canon with a Commentary by Huan Chen Hsien Sheng". In their The Primordial Breath. An Ancient Chinese Way of Prolonging Life Through Breath Control, 43-47. Torrance (Ca.): Original Books. Huanzhen Xiansheng, the author of the commentary (CT 130), apparently lived in the Tang dynasty. -----------------------------------------------------------------------Page 41 of 143

(8) The Yinfu jing and its commentaries [ANONYMOUS]. 1960. Yin Fu King. Second edition. Fintry (Surrey): Shrine of Wisdom. "... indebtedness is made to the translations of Balfour and Legge. The commentary is by the Editors of The Shrine of Wisdom" (from the preface). BALFOUR, Frederic H. 1881. "The 'Yin-fu' Classic; or, Clue to the Unseen". China Review 10: 44-54. Repr. in his Taoist Texts, Ethical, Political and Speculative, 49-62 (London: Trbner and Co., and Shanghai: Kelly and Walsh, 1984). Translation of the text and a late Ming commentary. HUEBOTTER, Franz. 1936. Classic on the Conformity of Yin / Schrift von der Konformitt des Yin. Tsingtao: Druck der Missionsdruckerei. Includes translations into both English and German. The introduction mentions the existence of another earlier but unidentified German version. LEGGE, James. 1891. "Yin F King, or 'Classic of the Harmony of the Seen and the Unseen'". Appendix II of his The Texts of Taoism, Part II: 255-264. Oxford: At the Clarendon Press. (The Sacred Books of the East, 40.) Various repr., including London: Oxford University Press, 1927; New York: Julian Press, 1959; Delhi: Motilal Banarsidass, 1966. Legge's notes are partly based on those by Li Xiyue (fl. 1844), the main master of the "Western School" of late neidan. MARAKUEV A.V. 1946. Yinfujing: stranichka istorii kitaiskoi filosofii [Yinfu jing: a page of the history of Chinese philosophy]. In Uchenye zapiski Tomskogo pedagogicheskogo instituta [Scholarly notes of the Pedagogical Institute of Tomsk]. Vol.3. Tomsk. TORTCHINOV, Evgueni A. 1993. Daosizm: opyt istoriko-religiovedcheskogo opisanija [Taoism: an essay of historico-religious description]. St.Petersburg: Andrejev & Sons. Includes on pp.221-233 a Russian translation of the Yinfu jing with a brief analysis of its commentaries in the Taoist Canon. This was previously published as "Daosskaja filosofija v pamjatnikah religioznogo daosizma (na materiale Yinfujing'a i 'Glav o prozrenii istiny' Zhang Bo-duan'ja)" [Taoist philosophy in the texts of religious Taoism (On the Yinfu jing and the "Chapters on Understanding of Truth" of Zhang Bo-duan)], Social'no-filosofskije aspekty kritiki religii [Social and philosophical aspects of the critique of religion] (Lenigrad: State Museum of History of Religions and Atheism, 1985). PHILASTRE, M.P.-L.-F. 1880. "Exgse chinoise". In Annales du Muse Guimet, vol. I: 255-318. Paris: Ernest Leroux. Includes a translation of the Yinfu jing and a commentary of the late eighteenth century. RAND, Cristopher C. 1979. "Li Ch'an and Chinese Military Thought". Harvard Journal of Asiatic Studies 39: 107-137. Includes remarks on and a translation of this basic text of neidan, interpreted here as a treatise on military strategy. REITER, Florian 1984. "The 'Scripture of the Hidden Contracts' (Yin-fu ching): A Short Survey on Facts and Findings". Nachtrichten der Gesellschaft fr Natur- und Vlkerkunde Ostasien 136: 75-83. -----------------------------------------------------------------------(9) Wei Boyang, the Zhouyi cantong qi and its commentaries (See also Ho 1972, Davis 1936, and Liu 1968) BOLTON, H. Carrington. 1894. "Chinese Alchemical Literature". Chemical News 70: 53-54. On two early unfruitful attempts at translating the text into English. (*) DAVIS, Tenney L., and Lu-ch'iang WU. 1931. "The Advice of Wei Po-yang to the Worker in Alchemy". The Nucleus 8: 115, 117. Also in Double Bond 8 (1935): 13-15. (*) DAVIS, Tenney L., and Lu-ch'iang WU. 1931. "The Pill of Immortality". Technology Review 33: 383-385,
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418. Includes selections from the Zhouyi cantong qi. FUKUI Kjun. 1974. "A Study of Chou-i Ts'an-t'ung-ch'i". Acta Asiatica 27: 19-32. English translation of his "Sheki sandkei k" [A study of the Zhouyi cantong qi], in Th Gakkai sritsu nijgoshnen th-gaku ronsh [Oriental studies in commemoration of the twenty-fifth anniversary of the Th Gakkai], 715-737 (Tokyo: Th Gakkai, 1972). Suggests that although a text called Zhouyi cantong qi may have existed in Han times, it was not the same as any of the current versions. KALTENMARK, Max. 1964-65, 1965-66. Summaries of seminars in Annuaire de l'cole Pratique des Hautes tudes, Ve Section - Sciences Religieuses 72 (1964-65): 66-67; 73 (1965-66): 66. Short notes on the Zhouyi cantong qi. PARTINGTON, J.R. 1935. "An Ancient Chinese Treatise on Alchemy". Nature 136: 287-288. Based on Wu & Davis 1932. PREGADIO, Fabrizio. 1995. "The Representation of Time in the Zhouyi cantong qi". Cahiers d'Extrme-Asie 8: 155-173. On the cosmological devices used in the Cantong qi and their meaning as guidelines to observe (and reproduce in the alchemical work) the presence of the dao in the cosmos. An appendix summarizes the history of the text from the origins through the commentary by Peng Xiao (A.D. 947). PREGADIO, Fabrizio. 1996. Zhouyi cantong qi: Dal Libro dei Mutamenti all'Elisir d'Oro [Zhouyi cantong qi: From the Book of Changes to the Golden Elixir]. Venezia: Cafoscarina. History of the text through the commentaries included in the Taoist Canon; relation with other alchemical writings; selected annotated translations; critical edition of Peng Xiao's text (A.D. 947); concordance based on Peng Xiao's text. (See the table of contents and English abstract of this book.) WONG Shiu Hon. 1978. "Chou-i ts'an-t'ung ch'i chu". In Etienne Balasz and Yves Hervouet, eds., A Sung Bibliography (Bibliographie des Sung), 369-370. Hong Kong: The Chinese University Press. Bibliographic notes on the Zhouyi cantong qi zhu by Zhu Xi (CT 1001). WU Lu-ch'iang, and Tenney L. DAVIS. 1932. "An Ancient Chinese Treatise on Alchemy Entitled Ts'an T'ung Ch'i". Isis 18: 210-289. Integral but not entirely reliable translation (based on the version with Yu Yan's commentary, CT 1005), followed by notes that quote comparable passages from the literature of Western alchemy. ZHOU Shiyi. 1988. The Kinship of the Three. Changsha: Hunan Jiaoyu Chubanshe. English translation of the Cantong qi; includes a glossary and an index. -----------------------------------------------------------------------(10) Zhang Boduan, his Wuzhen pian and other attributed works, and their commentaries (See also Davis & Chao 1939 and Davis & Chao 1941 ["Shih Hsing-lin"]) CLEARY, Thomas. 1986. The Inner Teachings of Taoism. Boston and London: Shambala. Translation of the Jindan sibai zi with Liu Yiming's commentary, and another work by Liu Yiming, the Xiangyan poyi. This and other translations by the same author should be used with caution and require control of the original texts. English versions of other works by Liu Yiming are listed in the present section and in section 15 below. CLEARY, Thomas. 1987. Understanding Reality. A Taoist Alchemical Classic. Honolulu: University of Hawaii Press. Translation of the Wuzhen pian, with Liu Yiming's commentary. DAVIS, Tenney L., and CHAO Yn-ts'ung. 1939. "Chang Po-tuan of T'ien-t'ai, his Wu Chn P'ien, Essay on the Understanding of the Truth. A Contribution to the Study of Chinese Alchemy". Proceedings of the American Academy of Arts and Sciences 73: 97-117.
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Biographic materials on Zhang Boduan, and translation of the Wuzhen pian. A summary of the introductory section has appeared in Tenney L. DAVIS and CHAO Yn-ts'ung, "Chang Po-tuan, Chinese Alchemist of the Eleventh Century", Journal of Chemical Education 16 (1939): 53-57. DAVIS, Tenney L., and CHAO Yn-ts'ung. 1940. "Four Hundred Word Chin Tan of Chang Po-tuan". Proceedings of the American Academy of Arts and Sciences 73: 371-376. Translation of the Jindan sibai zi, with notes mainly based on Liu Yiming's commentary. DAVIS, Tenney L., and CHAO Yn-ts'ung. 1940. "The Secret Papers in the Jade Box of Ch'ing-hua". Proceedings of the American Academy of Arts and Sciences 73: 385-389. Summary of the Yuqing jinsi Qinghua biwen jinbao nei liandan jue (CT 240), a text attributed to Zhang Boduan. DAVIS, Tenney L., and CHAO Yn-ts'ung. 1940. "Three Alchemical Poems by Chang Po-tuan". Proceedings of the American Academy of Arts and Sciences 73: 377-379. Translation of the Du Zhouyi cantong qi, the Zeng Bailong dong Liu Daoren ge, and the Shiqiao ge, all attributed to Zhang Boduan and found in the Jindan zhengli daquan, a Ming collection of neidan works. HUSSEIN, Farzeen [= Farzeen BALDRIAN-HUSSEIN]. 1976. "Chang Po-tuan". In Herbert Franke, ed., Sung Biographies, vol. I: 26-29. Wiesbaden: Franz Steiner Verlag. (Mnchener Ostasiatische Studien, 16,1.) Biographic and bibliographic notes. KALTENMARK, Max. 1972-73. Summary of seminars in Annuaire de l'cole Pratique des Hautes tudes, Ve Section - Sciences Religieuses 80-81 (1971-72, and 1972-73): 69-74. Includes (pp. 71-74) notes on the Wuzhen pian. TORTCHINOV, Evgueni A. 1994. Chzhang Bo-duan (Zhang Bo-duan). Glavy o prozreniji istiny (Wu zhen pian). St.Petersburg: St.Petersburg Centre for Oriental Studies, 1994. Translation of the Wuzhen pian, with an introduction and a commentary. WONG Shiu Hon. 1978. "Tzu-yang chen-jen wu-chen p'ien shih-i". In Etienne Balasz and Yves Hervouet, eds., A Sung Bibliography (Bibliographie des Sung), 371-372. Hong Kong: The Chinese University Press

TheDragonsandSerpentsofAlchemy
AFewBasicsofAlchemy... Alchemyisamixtureofphilosophyandscience,whichhasbeenpracticedforcenturies,andis stillpracticedtoday.Itworksattwolevels:thephysical,andthemetaphysical.Atthe metaphysicallevel,itworkstopurifyandtransformhumankind.Atthephysicallevel,itworks topurifyandtransformmetals.Thefirststepofthetransformationofmetalsiscreatinga philosopher'sstone.Thisstonecanthenbeusedtotransmutemetalsintoalchemicalgold. Whenasubstancehasbeenpurified,itbecomesphilosophic. Allegory Allegoriesdescribechemicalreactionsandthelike,usingsymbols.Thedragonisoneofthese symbols.Forexample,agreendragondevouringtheSunmeansthatthegoldwasdissolvedin aquaregia(royalwater),amixtureofnitricandhydrochloricacids.Also,thegoldprobably containedcopper,whichturnstheacidbluegreen.(Agreenlioneatingthesuncanalsobeen usedforthisrepresentation).Thissymbolismwasusedasawayofpreventingallbutthemost dedicatedfromdecipheringthemeaning.

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Caduceus Thecaduceusconsistsoftwoserpentsentwinedaroundacentralrod.Itisthesymbolof Mercury.ThissymbolwasdevelopedfromthemythofMercury,themessengerofthegods, whointervenedinafightbetweentwoserpents.Whenheintervened,theserpentstwined aroundhiswand.InGreektimes,thecaduceussometimehadwings,tosymbolizethevolatility ofmercury.Alchemistsalsocallmercurychaoticwater,abysmalwater,sylverywater,and PhilosophicalBasilisk.PhilosophicMercuryissometimesrepresentedbyaserpent,orwinged dragon. Cinnabar Cinnabarisanaturallyoccurringmercuricsulphide.Initsnaturalstate,itisaredcrystalline solid.ChineseandArabianalchemistsextractedmercuryfromit.Theword'cinnabar'comes fromthePersianfor'dragon'sblood'. Nagayuna NagayunaistheIndianbranchofalchemy.Theaimistopreservetheelixiroflife,inorderto unifythebody'senergies.Thesymbolofthenaga(twoentwinedserpents)isusedtorepresent thelinkbetweentheearthandtheheavens,andthetransitionfromthelowerlevelstothe higher.Thissymbolcanbefoundoutsidetemples,onstonetablets(called'nagahals'or 'nagakals') Quetzalcoatl Quetzalcoatlwastheproductofanalchemicalconception.Hewasconceivedafterhismother swallowedapieceofjade.QuetzalcoatlisafeatheredserpentofToltecorigin. TwelveKeys TheTwelveKeyswerewrittenbyBasilValentine(whomayormaynothavebeenreal)inthe 14thcentury.Theydepicthowtopreparetheprimematterformakingthephilosopher'sstone. ThekeysshowtheKing(ordinarygold),andtheQueen(ordinarysilver),whoundergo separateadventures,beforecombining.Serpentsappearseveraltimesinthekeys.Oneofthe appearancesisintheninthkey.Partoftheninthkeyshowsthreeserpents:theprinciplesof Mercury,SulphurandSalt. Uroboros Uroborosisadragonwhoseendishisbeginning...heendlesslyeatshisowntail.Hekeepsthe cosmicwatersundercontrol,andissymbolicofthecyclicalnatureofalchemicalwork.Heisthe basilisk,thealchemicalserpent.AlsocalledOuroboros.

AnArtificialSynthesisOfGold? YouBeTheJudge
Theselectprocessespresentedhere,presumablyappertainingtoresearchanddevelopmentof JollivetCastelot,arefacsimilesofphotocopiedexcerptsoncewrittenoutlonghandby
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W.L.V...thesearetakenfroma20thcenturyFrenchtext,concerningCastelot,translatedto English.Thisresearchisincharacter,consideredtobeworthyofpublishingfortheconceivable, intrinsicvalue.Inasmuchasitisnotthegoalofalchemiststolustvicariouslyaftertexts extollingtransmutationstomakegold,nevertheless,theseexperimentswerefoundtobeof alchemicalinterestbackinthe1920's.WasCastelotontosomethingofanalchemicalnature?In theincreaseofthegoldfoundinthemetalsusedhemayhavemanipulatedtheseedofgold. HOWISUCCEEDEDINMAKINGGOLD ACCORDINGTOTHEPROCESSOF MR.JOLLIVETCASTELOT December1925 byA.Ballandras DosageofGoldobtainedbythesecondmethod Theresidue,whichhadbeenobtainedbyamixtureof: Silver10grams Tin3grams Arsenicsulphide3grams Antimonysulphide3grams wascrushedasmuchaspossibleandsubdued(read:subjected)toatreatmentofpurechloric acidlikeinthefirstmethod.However,tocompletelyeliminatethesilverandthetinemployer,I scrupledtobegintheindicatedtreatments,thatistosaythatthepowderwhichwasobtained havingbeensubduedfirsttotheactionofazoticacidthenwashedwithdistillatedwater,then subduedtotheactionofchloricacid,thenoncemorewashedwithdistillatedwater,andthese differentoperationswerebegunoncemorewithanotherportionofpureazoticacid,and anotherportionofpurechloricacidafterhavingcarefullywashedtheinsolubleresiduewas subduedtotheprolongedactionofaquaregalisfollowing:Chloricacid15parts/Azoticacid 45parts. Itmustbenotedthatthisthinghappenedduringtheebullition(bubbling;boiling).Thewashed residuecontainedtheslighterpartofgold,thisthingwouldbefounddissolvedinthelast liquor,whichIobtained.After18hoursofdigestionatthetemperatureofabout25degrees,I subduedthemixturetoebullitionduring3hours. Afterrefrigeration,IfilteredonwoolofglassandIlookedifpartswerenotdrawnalongin suspense.FindingnothingIproceededtoananalysisoftheliquorwhichIobtained.Forthat monthImadetwopartsstrictlyequaloftheliquor,thefirstbeingdestinedtoqualitative analysis,theotherquantitative. A)QualitativeAnalysis:Assayofusualreagents: ChlorideofTinRosecoloredprecipitate PureSodainsolutionVoluminousyellowreddishprecipitate SulfateofIronDuringebullition,metallicprecipitate,blackgreenishverydensespangles. B)QuantitativeAnalysis: ThesecondpartoftheliquordestinedtoundergoquantitativeanalysiswastreatedbyH2S whenthemostimportantpartofchloricandazoticacidsweredrivenoutbyaprolonged ebullition.

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Thistimetheliquorwasslightlyacidandhasaweaksmellofchlorine.IcalledH2Sintoaction; about20minuteslong.TheblackprecipitatewhichIobtainedwasreceivedbyafilterpaper carefullywashedfirstwithwelldistillatedwater,thenwithhotwaterandatlastwithchloric acid.Afterdryinginthevaporbath,theprecipitatewasputinacapsuleofporcelainand heatedinamouldatabout850degrees,soastodestroythesulphidesprecipitatedwithgold i.e.,thearsenicandtheantimony.Thesewerenaturallydecomposedbythetemperatureof850 degreestowhichithadbeensubduedduringtwohours. Thequantityofgoldobtainedwas0.238grains.Thehalfoftheliquorhavingservedforthe dissolutionhavingbeenturnedtogooduseforthequalitativeanalysisitfollowedthatthe wholequantityofgoldcontainedintheoriginalliquorshouldbeequaltodoublethequantity obtained.i.e.,0.476grainsofgoldper10gramsofsilveremployed,yieldthenwas0.476grains ofgoldpergramsilver.{Imustpointoutthattheobtainingofgoldisnotamathematical regularity,thatistosay,thepurport(proportion)ofresiduechangesaccordingtotheconditions ofheating.} 2)DRYMETHOD Iactedon22grainsofchemicallypuresilversuppliedbyMessrs.PoulencofParisandon3.5 grainsofchemicallypureorpimentsuppliedbythePharmacieCentralofParis.Themixture washeatedtoabout1600Cinametalsmeltingfurnaceforabout34hour.Theresidueobtained wasagainmeltedforanhourwiththeadditionoforpiment,afterhavingbeenhammeredfor halfanhourandremeltedwiththeadditionofsmallquantitiesoforpimentevery10minutes, itwaswithdrawn.Aftercoolingandtheadditionofchemicallypureantimonysulphide,itwas againputbackintothefurnace,smallquantitiesoforpimentbeingthrowninevery5minutes. Theresidueobtainedhadadarkmetallictint,afterhammeringitbecameslightlygolden. AnalysisoftheResidue Theresiduedissolvedinchemicallypure36degreeHNO3firstcoldandthenhot,gavean abundantpulverulentdeposit.ThisdepositafterbeingwashedandtreatedwithHN3to dissolvethearsenicandantimonysaltswascompletelydissolvedinaquaregia.Theliquorafter beingchlorinatedandfilteredwassubjectedtothereagentsofPlatinumandgold. Mr.AndreVandenberghewhowasactingaspreparatorforthisexperiment,hadthoughtthatin accordancewiththelawofevolutionofmatter,thetransmutationofbodiesintogoldshouldbe precededoraccompaniedbytheirtransmutationintoplatinum.AccordingtoMendeleiev's progression,wehavePt195.2andAu197.2 Thereactionsofgoldwerequitecharacteristic;thereactionsofplatinumalsoseemedtoreveal itspresence.Thequantityofgoldobtainedinthisexperimentwasestimatedataboutonegram. Iemitthehypothesisthatthearsenicactsasacatalyzerandthesulphurasafermentinthis transmutation. Douai,December1925 JollivetCastelot ARECENTEXPERIMENTINTRANSMUTATION1 byM.JollivetCastelot
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Allmyresearchworkontransmutationsince1908hasstartedfromthefactthatgoldisfoundin natureassociatedwithantimonyandarsenicsulphidesaswellaswithTelluriumwhichis consideredasthemineralizerofgold.IthereforeconsidereditlogicaltointroduceTellurium intotheartificialcombinationofsilverandarsenicandantimonysulphidesthatImake.The followingisanaccountofoneofmyrecentexperiments: Ipreparedamixturecomposedof6gramsofchemicallypuresilver,1gramofnativeorpiment (ArsenictrisulphideA52S3)freefromgold,1gramofchemicallypureantimonysulphide,and2 gramsofchemicallypureTellurium.Iaddedpuresilicatotheusualfluxes.Thismixturewas heatedinthefurnaceintheusualwayforonehouratatemperatureof1100C(approximately) [note:parenthesisarenotmineAMWH] Theresidueobtainedwasofablackishgreycolorwithvioletreflections.Itweighed6.420 grains.Whensubjectedtotheactionofnitricacid,theresiduewasattackedwithdifficultyand greenishmetallicparticlesbecamedetached.Thesolutionwasthendecantedandagreenish yellowresidueremainedwhichwaskeptattheboilingpointinnitricacidforseveralhours, afterdecantingofftheliquoronceagain,theresidue,whichhadnotchanged,waswashed, treatedwithammoniaandthensubjectedtotheactionofaquaregiainwhichitwasentirely dissolvedafterboilingforseveralhours. Thesolutionafterbeingchlorinatedandthensubjectedtothereagentsofgold,gavethe following: PotassiumFerrocyanidegreenishbrowncoloration. TinProtochloride+TinBichlorideayellowbronzecolorationandthenametallicdepositof thesameshade. Ammoniacolorationandprecipitateidenticalwiththeprecedingoneandwhichbecame transformedintoayellowdepositoffulminatinggoldattheendofafewhours. Formollightyellowishblackmetallicprecipitate. PeroxideofHydrogenlightveryfinelydividedbrownishblackprecipitate. Oxalicacidyellowishblackprecipitate. FerrousSulphategoldenyellowmetallicprecipitate. CausticPotashafairlyabundantgoldenyellowmetallicprecipitateattheendofafewhours. Thepresenceofgoldwasthereforeverydistinctlyshownandaremarkablefeaturewasthatthe metalobtainedpossessedtheyellowbronzecolorofgoldtellurideandofnativesilver.Ihad thereforeproducedabronzecoloredgoldinmylaboratorybyartificialmeansthankstothe interventionoftheTellurium. Acertainamountofgoldwascertainlylostinthistestasinallmyprevioustests,foritisknown thatarsenic,antimonyandTelluriumentraingoldintheirfusionandtheirvolatilization.In ordertoobviatethisdisadvantage,Ihadthoughtofmakingthevaporsofarsenicandantimony sulphidesandofTelluriumactonthesilverinfusioninaclosedvesselbymeansofaspecial device,butIhavebeenforcedtogiveupthisschemeforthetimebeingonaccountofthe
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difficultiesmetwithfortheconstructionofthisapparatus,thecostofwhichwouldbevery high.Iconsideritcertainthatifthevaporswereallowedtobubblethroughthemeltedsilver,a muchhigheryieldofgoldwouldbeobtainedthanthatIhaveobtainedhithertobyanimperfect andtoorapidcontactofthebodiesinpresence;whileitisundoubtedlynecessarytomakethem reactononeanotherinthestateofvaporinaclosedvessel.

THECHEMICALMANUFACTUREOFGOLD ACCOUNTOFONEOFMYLASTEXPERIMENTS INTHETRANSMUTATIONOFSILVERINTOGOLD Asasequeltomypreviousworkontheartificialsynthesisofgold,IhaveintroducedTininto thesenewtestsasitisalsooftenassociatedwithgoldinnature.Thefollowingisadescription ofthisnewprocess,thankstowhichthepercentageofgoldobtaineddestroysalltheobjections thatareraisedwithregardtoimpurities. Imadeanintimatemixtureof6gramsofchemicallypuresilverofwhichthepuritywastested byaprofessionalchemist,theHeadofthelaboratoryofoneofthemostimportantWorksofthe region.2Gramsofantimonysulphide,1gramoforpiment,and1gramofTin;allthesebodies wereobtainedfromtheEstablishmentPoulencofParisandwerechemicallypure.Iaddedthe usualfluxesandthenheatedthewholeinacrucibleinthefurnacetoabout1100Cfort2about1 hour,twiceaddingasmallquantityofantimonysulphide. Theresidueobtainedwastreatedforalongperiodinpure36degreenitricacid,firstcoldand thenattheboilingpoint. Theinsolubleresiduewasnextwashedwithdistilledwater,treatedwithammonia,washed againandfinallytreatedforalongperiodwithboilingaquaregia.Theliquorwhenfilteredand subjectedtothereagentsofgoldshowedthepresenceofthismetalintheformofdeposits3 whichmaybeestimatedat0.05grainsinall,whichisveryhighconsideringthe6gramsofsilver employed. WithOxalicacid,thesolutionturnedvioletandgaveanabundantblackpulverulentprecipitate. WithHydrogenPeroxide,averyfinelydividedprecipitateofgold. WithFormicAldehyde,abrownprecipitateofgold. WithTinProtochloride,anintensevioletpinkcoloration. TheadditionofTintotheotherbodieshascertainlyfacilitatedthereactionsofthegoldand increasedtheyieldofthismetalwhichcanbemanufacturedartificiallybymyprocess. Itwouldbeeasytoshowthat,giventherespectivepricesofgoldandoftheothersubstances thatareusedinmyprocesstoproduceit,aprofitcouldbeobtainediftheprocesswereworked industrially;allthemoresoasthegreaterpartofthesilveremployedcanberecoveredateach test.
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IbelieveInowholdthekeytotheregularandevenindustrialmanufactureofgold.Butthe industrialquestionisvoluntarilyputasidefrommythoughts,formyonlyobjectisthesearch forpurescientifictruth.

TABLEOFREACTIONS "GOLD" C2H2O4Abundantdepositofmetallicgold. H2O2(basic)Brownprecipitate. K4FeCy6.3H2OGreencoloration. Na2CO3(inebullition)Brownishprecipitate "PLATINUM&GOLD" NH3Reddishyellowprecipitate(Au);toppedbyayellowprecipitate(Pt). KOHReddishyellowprecipitate(Au);toppedbyayellowprecipitate(Pt). SnCL2.2H2OSolutioncoloredbrownwithreactionsofplatinumsaltsanddepositofblack powder. KISolutionbecomesreddishfollowedbyadischargeofiodineandabrownprecipitate (Platinumiodide). [Page141] EXTRACTSFROMTHEPRESS "ItmustbeadmittedthatitisextraordinaryandincomprehensiblethatFranceforthepastten yearshasrefusedtotakeaninterestintheexperimentsofarichanduniversallyrespected scientistwhohasgivenproofsofhisworth,evenaftertheconclusiveexperimentscarriedout byanofficialchemist,MrBallandrasofLyons." AndreIbels,LaRazon,June8,1927 "Itisunjust,gentlemen,thatascientistofthevalueofMr.JollivetCastelotshouldbeheldin suspicionattheverymomentwhenheislosinghissightthroughoverwork.Tocontinuehis work,howeverembarrassingitmaybetoyours,isasacredduty." DeclarationbyMademoiselleM.L.ofParis. ProfessorofEngineeringattheConservatoire desArtsetMetiers,Paris,attheChemicalCongressinParis.October1927 "Oh!itisnotthatMr.JollivetCastelothasnotattemptedtomakehisinventionknownin France,onthecontrary,hehaswrittenleafletsandbooksandhasfoundedreviewsforthis purpose...Notonlywashenottakenseriously,buthewasalsoabutttothesarcasmandeven totheinsultsoftheofficialscientistsingeneralandoftheNobelistPerrininparticular.The AcedemiedesSciencesitselfasusualrefusedtorecordhiscommunication." AndreIbels,NouveauJournaldeNice October16,1927

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TheInnerGeometryofAlchemicalEmblems AdamMcLean FromtheHermeticJournal,Winter1983. OverthepastfiveyearsoftheHermeticJournal,IhaveoftenillustratedintheAlchemical Mandalafeatureandotherarticlestheprofoundsymbolismwrappedupintheoldsixteenth andseventeenthcenturyemblematicengravingsofalchemistsandRosicrucians.Ihave sometimesindicatedhowcertainofthesediagramscanbeseentohaveanunderlying geometricskeletonstructureuponwhichthesymbolsarearrayed.However,Ineveranalysed thisaspectingreatdepthandmerelypointedoutsomesimplegeometricfeatures.Patricia VilliersStuartinherpublicationshasoftenbroughttomyattentionthecomplexgeometrythat liesbeneathsuchemblems,butIhadnotconsideredthatthisaspectwasofparamount importance,untilIrecentlyrequestedfromtheBritishLibraryamicrofilmofanimportant Rosicrucianbookintheircollection,the'SpeculumSophicumRhodoStauroticum'of TheophilusSchweighardt,publishedin1618.Althoughaprintedbookthisparticularcopy containsanumberofmanuscriptadditionsmadeinthe18thcenturyboundintothevolume. Someofthesemanuscriptadditionsanalyseingreatdetail,thegeometryunderlyingtwo emblemscontainedinthiscollection..Thefirstfigureshowstheemblem(containedincidentally inthe'SecretSymbolsoftheRosicrucians',theGeheimefiguren,Altona1785,andfoundin otherRosicruciansources),andthesecond,thirdandfourthillustrationsshowanascending seriesofintricategeometricalanalysesoftheemblem.Theevidenceofthesedrawingscertainly convincesmethatthereisanotherleveltomanyoftheemblematicengravingsofthisperiod thathasyetbeenfullyconsideredthekeyoftheirinnergeometry.Theengraversofthat period,deBry,MatthieuMerian,LucasJennis,maywellhaveworkedacomplexgeometric messageaswellasasymboliconeintotheirbeautifullyexecutedengravings.Iconsiderthat thisdiscoveryisofgreatimportanceandhopethatsomeofmycorrespondentsmighthavethe inclinationtofollowupindetailthisaspectwithregardtootherengravings.Theremaybea wholelayerofmeaningthatweareatpresentunawareofwovenintotheseancientemblems.

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TheAlchemicalVesselasSymboloftheSoul AdamMcLean Asstudentsofthehermetictraditionweallrecognisethatthealchemicalworktakesplaceon manydifferentlevelsthephysicalworkwithsubstances,theexperienceandmanipulationof ethericforces,theinteriorworkonthesoul,aswellasthespiritualandplanetary/cosmic aspectsofalchemy.Thesedifferentfacetsoftheworkinterpenetrateandoverlapeachother. Indeed,inasense,ifwearetomakeanyprogressinalchemy,wemustpursuethedifferent facetsconcurrently,parallelinginteriordevelopmentwithexperienceoftheouterwork.One symbolthatbelongstoallthesedifferentrealmsofthisworkisthatofthealchemicalvessel.In thisarticleIwouldliketooutlinesomewaysinwhichwecanusethissymbolinourinner exercises. Thetraditionofinteriordevelopmentinalchemy,ispursuedbymirroringthetransformations andprocessesofalchemywithinoursoul.Aswithanyesotericpractice,thisinternalisingof alchemicaloperationscanproducedisturbingpatternsinthepowerfulpsychicenergiesthatwe evokethroughinnerwork,unlesswefindsomemeansofcontainingtheseenergies.Inthe traditionofritualceremonialmagictheoperatorsnormallyuseanopeningandclosingritual thatactsasastructuretocontainandsafelydissipatetheenergiesraisedthroughtheirwork. Similarly,inmanytraditionsofmeditation,anopeningandclosingexercise(sometimesbased onbreathingrhythms)helpstoanchorandreconnectthemeditatorswiththeirnormalstateof consciousness,soasnottoleavethemratherdissociatedanddanglingsomewhereinbetween theouterandinteriorworlds.Inourinnerworkwithalchemicalprocesseswewillfindthe symbolofthealchemicalvesselaninvaluablemeansforcontainingtheinteriorenergiesand allowingthemtounfoldwithinusinacontrolledandpositivemanner.Soinasense,the alchemicalvesselcanbeaprotectiveinteriorsymbol,justlikethecircleoftheceremonial magician,ortheastraltempleofaworkingesotericlodge,orthebreathingexercisesofa meditationtradition. Theenergiesevokedbyworkingwithalchemicalprocesses,asIhavesaid,canbepowerfuland disruptiveforcesinthepsyche,andadirectinnerencounterwiththesetransformativeenergies isnottobehadinstantaneously.Onlythroughlongandrepeatedinteriorworkdowecometo directlyexperiencetheseenergiesintheirprimalandmostfundamentalform.Theinitial encountersareusuallyephemeralandoverlainwithemotionalcurrents.Onlyifwehavethe patienceofalchemiststirelesslyrepeatinginteriorexperiments,broodingoverourinnerflask, willweattainevenaglimpseofthegoalofalchemicaltransmutation.Itisthereforeimportant thatweunderstandthenatureofthealchemicalvesselsothatwehavesomeindicationofhow tousethisinourinnerwork. Weshouldcometoseethatsymbolsareactuallypatternsofenergy.Inanexotericsensethisis so,forobviouslyanysymbolheldinourconsciousnessismanifestedasanelectrochemical plexusintheneuronnetinourbrain.However,esotericallyonthedeepestlevel,asymbolisthe patternofethericenergyunderlyingitsvariousdifferentforms.Whenwemeditateonasymbol
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wewillfinditshapeshiftingandmanifestingitsdifferentappearances,andthroughthiscan cometograspthatthetruenatureofthesymbolisitsenergypattern. Therearemanydifferentformsofvesseldescribedanddepictedinthealchemicalliteratureand emblematicengravings.Thereareaseemingmultiplicityofformsofretort,pelicans,water baths,alembics,cucurbites,stills,etc.However,intheinteriorworkwewillfindthatallthese differentoutermanifestationsoftheapparatusreducetothreearchetypalformswhichwecan calltheCRUCIBLE,theRETORTandtheSTILL.

TheCrucibleisessentiallyanopenvessel,adish,amortar,oracauldron,opentotheoutside worldyetcapableofcontainingmaterial.Substancesandenergypatternscanbeputintothe crucibleandbeacteduponbysomeagent,andsomepartofthissubstancecanalsobedrawn offorremovedsoenactingakindofpurification.Thisisoftenpicturedastakingplacethrough theapplicationofheat.Inouterterms,anoreisplacedinthecrucible,whichisthenheated,the metalformsitselfoutoftheoreandvariousimpuritiesaregivenoffintotheair,oraslagis skimmedoffthesurfaceofthemetal.Thustheprimalsubstance,theore,istransformedinto newpuremetal.Theessence,however,ofthistypeofvesselandtheinneroperations undertakeninit,isthatitisopen.Atransformationcanbeundertakenbecausecertainenergies (orimpurities)areallowedtoescapeordissipate.Heatingisnotessentialtothisarchetypal alchemicalprocess.Actingonasaltwithanacidtoproduceaneffervescenceorreleaseofgases, isanotherouterexampleofthisprocess,ortheslowprecipitationorcrystallisationofasolidout ofamotherliquor. Whenweinternalisethecrucibleinoursoulswepictureavesselwithinourbeingwhichis open,allowingimpuritiesorunwantedfacetsoftheworktopassoutortodissipateaway,as wellassubstancesandforcestoenterinfromtheuniversalspiritual.Inthissensethecruciblein oursoulsisachalice,thelowerpartofwhichcontainsandholdsasubstanceorconstellationof forceswhileitsupperpartisopentouniversalspiritualinfluences.Unwantedenergiescanbe allowedtosafelyflowoutofourcrucibleanddissolveintheuniversalflow,andintheother directionenergiescanbegatheredfromthespiritualandallowedtodescendtothebottomof ourinteriorvessel. Thisprocesscanbeagentleandslowflowingone,oralternativelyonecanheatupourinner cruciblethroughgeneratingpowerfulcurrentsofemotionalenergy,forcingandpressingfor sometransformationtooccur.Indeed,oncewebecomeexperiencedinusingthesetechniques, wecanreadilyconsciouslyevokebothofthesephases,theactivefieryphaseandthegentle cooling,precipitationorcrystallisation,andinaparticularworkingthesecanbeapplied alternativelytocreateapolaritywithintheinteriorexperience,thatgreatlyhelpstheworkto cometosomeconclusion. Thuswenormallyundertakesuchexercisesbyplacingsomepatternofsymbolicenergyinto ourinnercrucible,thenopeningourselvestotheparticulartransformationsthatcanbeevolved bythisexercisecalcinations,purifications,crystallisations,dissolvings,etc.Ihopetowrite furtherontheinnernatureofthesealchemicalprocessesinalaterissueoftheJournal.

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TheRetortinthisarchetypalcaseisasealedflask.Inthisinteriorworkwepictureoursoulas entirelysealedofffromboththeouterworldandtheuniversalspiritualrealm.Whenwe undertakethisexercisewemusthaveeverythingweneedwithinthesphereofourinnerretort, andforthedurationofthisworkweareentirelyselfcontainedandrelyoninnerchangetotake placewithinthecomponentsorforceswehavewithinourbeingatthattime.Wehavetowork tobringaboutatransformationintheseinnerpatterns,withoutrelyingonexternalforces.Itis thusveryimportantifwearetoundertakesuchinteriorexercisesinapositivewaywithany hopeofanysatisfactoryresults,toprepareourselvesandplaceinourinnerretortallthe energiesandsymbolsthatarenecessaryfortheprocess.Thusworkingthisparticularexercise requiressomedegreeofpreparation. Theretortexerciseisespeciallyvaluableforworkingtowardstheinteriorsynthesisofpolarities. Weplacethepolarisedpatternsofenergyboundup,say,insomeparticularsetofsymbols,into ourinteriorflask,sealitup,andallowthemtofullyunfold,interpenetrate,andcometoanew synthesis.Themostcommonsymbolofthisinalchemicalwritingsisthemanandwomanina flask,unitingandgivingbirthtoachild.Sotheobviousforcestoworkwiththroughthis exerciseareourmasculineandfemininecomponents.Throughputtingthesepatternsof symbolicenergiesintoourinnerretortandcallingupthemannerinwhichtheymanifestand resonatewithinourbeingswecanbringaboutanencounterwiththesepsychiccomponents andmakethemmeetinapositiveway.Otherpolaritieswemighttrytoworkwithareour logicalthinkingandemotionalintuitivefacets,orbodyandspirit,evenouraweofthespiritual lightandourfearofthedeepdarknessofmatter,ortheprocessesoflifeanddeath,andgrowth anddecay. Weshouldtrytoexperiencetheretortasawombormatrixinwhichtheprocessofgestationor newbirtharisingoutofprimalcomponents,cansafelytakeplaceinus.Ifweworkwiththis retortexerciseoveraperiodoftime,wewillbegintofeeltheimportanceofthisspaceinour souls,andvalueitasacreativeinteriorworkplace.Thealchemicalprocessesthatgooninthis retortusuallyinvolvethemeetingofpolarities,suchasSeparationandConjunction,orof DissolvingandCoagulation.Sometimeswefindourinnerretortwillgoblack,andnothing seemstohappenforanextendedperiod,butifweperseveresomechangewilleventuallybe seenperhapsatfirstmerelyaglimmerwhichoveranumberofrepetitionsoftheexercise mightgiverisetosomenewinnerexperience.Atothertimestheretortwillbefullofmovement andiridescentplayofcoloursandeverchangingforms,andherewemustwaitforsomesolid andsubstantialgroundtoariseintheshiftingpatterns,uponwhichourinnerexperiencecan grow.Asymbolorpatternofenergyoftenexperiencedatthisstageisthetreeorflowering plantwithinthespaceoftheinteriorretort.Anothersymbolstructureisthatofthebirdrising andfallinginourinnerworld.

ThefinalinteriorvesselIwouldlikeustoconsideristhatoftheStill.Whenwetrytoexperience ourinnerworldthoughthissymbol,weshouldhaveasenseofextractinganessenceoutofone oftheinteriorprocesses,purifyingandgatheringitwithinourbeingsothatitbecomesaninner sourcewecantouchuponatwill.Thisalchemicaloperationtosomeextentcorrespondsinour everydayouterconsciousnesstothewayinwhichanexperienceofcomingtoanunderstanding ofsomeaspectofourworldcanentirelytransformourwayofinteractingwithit.Forexample, ourinitialreactiontoanewpieceoftechnologyoranunfamiliartask,istentativeandfraught

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withdifficultiesweprojectuponthisdeviceortask.Ifwecaneventuallyunderstandjusthow thedeviceworksorgainapictureofthemovementsneededtoaccomplishthetask,thenour wayofusingthedeviceorofundertakingthetaskbecomesentirelytransformed. Similarprocessestakeplaceinrespecttoourinteriorlifethroughtheexercisesofinner distillation,thoughthisworksonamoresubtleplane.Herewetakesomeparticularpositive qualityofourbeing,suchasourcreativity,oroursensitivitytoothers,orourabilitytothink deeplyandclearly,andwefindsomesymbolsthatcapture(oratleastenvelope)theessenceof thisquality.WethenplacetheseintoourinteriorStillandinourmeditationbegintoallow thesesymbolpatternstoflowtogether.Atsomepointintheinnerwork,weshouldsensesome essenceofthisprocessbegintoriseoutofandseparateitselffromthespecificsymbolsand feelingsconnectedwiththisquality.Ifweencouragethisprocesswecanhavetheinner experienceofelevatingthisessenceandallowingittocollectintheupperpartofoursoul.It thenbecomesaTincture. If,say,wechoosetoworkuponourcreativitythroughthisexercise,weplaceintoourinterior Still,ourunderstandingsofthesourceofourcreativity,picturingsofourpreviouscreationsor ourworkinprogress,memoriesoftheemotionalcurrentsassociatedwithourcreative experiences,moreuniversalsymbolsofcreativity,andsoon.Inameditativeworkonthisfacet, whichwilltakemanysessionstobringtofruition,weevokeallthismaterialinourinteriorStill andattendcloselytotheprocessesandchangestakingplacethere.Forexample,atonepointwe willexperiencethe'polarityflipping'ofvarioussymbols.Wemight,say,initiallybelieveour creativeimpulseliesentirelyinthequestforsomeidealform,andexperiencethisidealimage flipping(instantaneouslyinterchanging)withitsantithesis,someuglyshapelessness,orcycleof metamorphoses,producingdisturbingpatternswithinourbeing.Thisstagewilleventually resolveandwewillfindsomesymbolorfeelingperceptionthatcapturestheessenceofour creativity(orwhateverwehavechosentoworkwith)emergingoutofthemeditativematerial. Ifwenurtureandsustainthisessence,thenwecanallowittoriseupwithinoursoulandwe willfeelitremainingasakindoftinctureinourinnerworld.Ifthistincturebecomesfixed withinourbeingthenwecanlaterdrawuponitatwill.Whatwefindthenisthatapartofour innerforcesretainsanechoofallthemeditativeworkweundertookatthattime,andwecan reconnectwiththisreservoirwheneverwewish.Sointhecaseofcreativity,oncewepossess thisinnertincture,thenifwehavesomedifficulties(orablock)oversomeparticularpieceof creativework,wewillfindthatevokingtheinnertinctureofthisexperience,willputusdeeply intouchwiththegroundofourcreativityandmayenableustoresolveourpresentproblem. Ofcourse,suchexercisesareneverentirelycompleted,asweourselvesarechangingallthetime inresponsetoongoingexperiences,butworkingwithourinteriorStillwillbefoundinvaluable inputtingusintouchwiththesourcesofourpositivequalities.Inalchemicaltermsthe processesassociatedwiththeStillincludethoseofDistillation,Exaltation,Fixation,Projection, Multiplication,Quintessence,etc.

Ihopethesefewindicationsmighthelpustoseehowthephilosophyandsymbolismofthe ancientalchemistscanstillbeeffectivelyusedtoday,asavitallivingforcefortheinnerspiritual transformationofoursouls.The'opensecret'ofalchemyisthatwemust,likethealchemistsof old,experienceourinnerworldasthesealchemicalvessels.Thenourinnerlifewillbetinged

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andtransformedwithanewrichnessofspiritualexperience.

Alchemicalsubstances Cadmia,whichwasalsocalledTuttiaorTutty,wasprobablyzinccarbonate. Philosophers'Wool,ornixalba(whitesnow).Zincoxidemadebyburningzincinair.Called ZincWhiteandusedasapigment. Whitevitriol.ZincSulphate.DescribedbyBasilValentine.Madebylixiviatingroastedzinc blende(zincsulphide). Calamine.Zinccarbonate. Corrosivesublimate.Mercuricchloride.firstmentionedbyGeber,whoprepareditby sublimingmercury,calcinedgreenvitriol,commonsaltandnitre. Calomel.Mercurouschloride.Purgative,madebysublimingamixtureofmercuricchloride andmetallicmercury,trituratedinamortar.Thiswasheatedinaironpotandthecrustof calomelformedonthelidwasgroundtopowderandboiledwithwatertoremovethevery poisonousmercuricchloride. Cinnabar.Mercuricsulphide. Turpethmineral.Ahydrolysedformofmercuricsulphate.Yellowcrystallinepowder, describedbyBasilValentine. Mercuriuspraecipitatus.Redmercuricoxide.DescribedbyGeber. CinnabarorVermillion.Mercuricsulphide. Mosaicgold.Goldenyellowglisteningscalesofcrystallinestannicsulphide,madebyheatinga mixtureoftinfilings,sulphurandsalammoniac. Tinsalt.Hydratedstannouschloride. Spiritusfumans.Stannicchloride,discoveredbyLibaviusin1605,throughdistillingtinwith corrosivesublimate. Butteroftin.Hydratedstannicchloride. Galena.Plumbicsulphide.Chieforeoflead. Leadfume.Leadoxideobtainedfromthefluesatleadsmelters. Massicot.Yellowpowderformofleadmonoxide. Litharge.Reddishyellowcrystallineformofleadmonoxide,formedbyfusingandpowdering massicot. MiniumorRedLead.Triplumbictetroxide.Formedbyroastinglithargeinair.Scarlet crystallinepowder. Naplesyellow,orCasselyellow.Anoxychlorideoflead,madebyheatinglithargewithsal ammoniac. Chromeyellow.Leadchromate. SugarofLead.Leadacetate,Madebydissolvingleadoxideinvinegar. Whitelead.Basiccarbonateoflead.Usedasapigment. VenetianWhite.Mixtureofequalpartsofwhiteleadandbariumsulphate.
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DutchWhite.Mixtureofonepartofwhiteleadtothreeofbariumsulphate. Antimony.Fromlatin'antimonium'usedbyConstantiniusAfricanus(c.1050)toreferto Stibnite. GlassofAntimony.Impureantimonytetroxide,obtainedbyroastingstibnite.Usedasayellow pigmentforglassandporcelain. ButterofAntimony.Whitecrystallineantimonytrichloride.MadebyBasilValentineby distillingroastedstibnitewithcorrosivesublimate.Glauberlaterprepareditbydissolving stibniteinhotconcentratedhydrochloricacidanddistilling. PowderofAlgaroth.Awhitepowderofantimoniousoxychloride,madebybyprecipitation whenasolutionofbutterofantimonyinspiritofsaltispouredintowater. Stibnite.Antimonytrisulphide.Greymineraloreofantimony. Wismuth.Bismuth. Pearlwhite.Basicnitrateofbismuth,usedbyLemeryasacosmetic. Chromegreen.Chromicoxide. Chromeyellow.Leadchromate. Chromered.Basicleadchromate. Chromeorange.Mixtureofchromeyellowandchromered. GreenVitriol.Ferroussulphate. Rouge,Crocus,Colcothar.Redvarietiesofferricoxideareformedbyburninggreenvitriolin air. Marcasite.MineralformofIrondisulphide.Oxidisesinmoistairtogreenvitriol. Pyrites.Mineralformofirondisulphide.Stableinair. Cobalt.NamedbythecopperminersoftheHartzMountainsaftertheevilspiritsthe'kobolds' whichgaveafalsecopperore. Zaffre.Impurecobaltarsenate,leftafterroastingcobaltore. Nickel.NamedbythecopperminersofWestphaliathe'kupfernickel'orfalsecopper. Copperglance.Cuproussulphideore. Aescyprium.Cyprianbrassorcopper. Cuprite.Redcuprousoxideore. Bluevitriolorbluestone.Cupricsulphate. Verdigris.Thegreensubstanceformedbytheatmosphericweatheringofcopper.Thisisa complexbasiccarbonateofcopper.Inmorerecenttimestheterm'verdigris'ismorecorrectly appliedtocopperacetate,madebytheactionofvinegaroncopper. Resinofcopper.Cuprouschloride.MadebyRobertBoylein1664byheatingcopperwith corrosivesublimate. Lunarcaustic,lapisinfernalis.Silvernitrate. Fulminatingsilver.Silvernitride,veryexplosivewhendry.Madebydissolvingsilveroxidein ammonia. Hornsilver,argentumcornu.Aglasslikeoreofsilverchloride. Lunacornea.Thesoftcolourlesstoughmassofsilverchloride,madebyheatinghornsilvertill itformsadarkyellowliquidandthencooling.DescribedbyOswaldCrollin1608.

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PurpleofCassius.MadebyAndreasCassiusin1685byprecipitatingamixtureofgold, stannousandstannicchlorides,withalkali.Usedforcolouringglass. Fulminatinggold.Madebyaddingammoniatotheaurichydroxideformedbyprecipitationby potashfrommetallicgolddissolvedinaquaregis.Highlyexplosivewhendry. Quicklime.Calciumoxide. Slakedlime.Calciumhydroxide. Chalk.Calciumcarbonate. Gypsum.Calciumsulphate. Natron.Nativesodiumcarbonate. Sodaash.Sodiumcarbonateformedbyburningplantsgrowingontheseashore. Causticmarinealkali.Causticsoda.Sodiumhydroxide.Madebyaddinglimetonatron. Commonsalt.Sodiumchloride. Glauber'sSalt.Sodiumsulphate. Woodashorpotash.Potassiumcarbonatemadefromtheashesofburntwood. Causticwoodalkali.Causticpotash.Potassiumhydroxide.Madebyaddinglimetopotash. Liverofsulphur.Complexofpolysulphidesofpotassium,madebyfusingpotashandsulphur. SalAmmoniac.AmmoniumChloride.DescribedbyGeber. Salvolatile,SpiritofHartshorn.Volatilealkali.Ammoniumcarbonatemadefromdistilling bones,horns,etc. Causticvolatilealkali.Ammoniumhydroxide. Nitrumflammans.AmmoniumnitratemadebyGlauber. Brimstone(fromGermanBrennstein'burningstone').Sulphur. Flowersofsulphur.lightyellowcrystallinepowder,madebydistillingsulphur. Thionhudor(Zosimusreferstothisasthe'divinewater'or'thebileoftheserpent').Adeep reddishyellowliquidmadebyboilingflowersofsulphurwithslakedlime. Milkofsulphur(lacsulphuris).Whitecolloidalsulphur.Gebermadethisbyaddinganacidto thionhudor. OilofVitriol.Sulphuricacidmadebydistillinggreenvitriol. Realgar.redoreofarsenic.Arsenicdisulphide. Orpiment.Auripigmentum.Yelloworeofarsenic.Arsenictrisulphide. Whitearsenic.Arseniousoxide.Madefromarsenicalsootfromtheroastingovens,purifiedby sublimation. Aquatofani.Arseniousoxide.Extremelypoisonous.UsedbyParacelsus. King'sYellow.Amixtureoforpimentwithwhitearsenic.

J.A.MitchellAlchemy

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Immortality&MysticismbyPanditRajmaniTigunaitPh.D YogaInternationalMagazineNovember/December1995 =================================================== Thereis,asMirceaEliadewrites,auniversalif unconsciousrecognitionthat"goldisimmortality(amritam ayurhiranyam.)Goldistheoneperfect,solarmetaland henceitssymbolismmeetsthesymbolismofspirit,of spiritualfreedomandautonomy." Inturn,thedesireforwealthandimmortality,materialand spiritual,meetandfindtheirexpressioninalchemy,the ancientsciencethatpromisestofulfillbothdesireshere andnow.Alchemistsfulfillthefirstdesirebytransforming vulgarmetalsintogold(muchoftheageoldfascination withalchemycanbetracedtounlockthissecret.)Theyare saidtofulfillthesecondbyabsorbinggoldintotheir bodies. Athoroughanalysisofalchemy,aspracticedindifferent erasandcultures,revealsthatalchemistsachievebothof thesegoalswiththehelpofmercury.AccordingtoIndian andChinesealchemicaltraditions,infact,itismercury, notgold,thatholdsthehighestpositioninthe evolutionaryrankofelements.Itisthepowerandmystery ofmercurythattransformsbasemetalsintogoldofa qualityfarsuperiortothatwhichisfoundinnature.When thispurifiedgoldisagain"fixed"withmercuryand absorbedintothebodyofanadept,itissaidtohavethe powertoprolonglife.Thusthemajorityofthetextson alchemy,especiallythoseconcernedwithmystical experiencesandenlightenment,considermercuryratherthan goldtobethecenterofthisancientscience. TheSanskritwordforalchemyisrasayana,literally,"the abodeofrasa(essenceorsap.)"Rasayanaisthescienceand practicethatdealswiththeessenceoftheuniverse,with theessenceofthelifeforce,orthesapoflife.Inother words,rasayanadealswiththeintrinsicvitalityofa livingbeing.Itsprimaryconcernistostudythenatureof allsubstancestodeterminewhichparticularoneisthe essenceofcreation. Alchemyarisesfromthepremisethatthereisaperfect equationbetweenthehumanbodyandtheuniversethat whichexistsintheuniversecanbefoundinthehumanbody,
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andviceversa.Byknowingtheessenceofthesubstancethat makesupthebody,theessenceoftheuniverseisalso known.Alchemistsbelievethatthisknowledgemakesit possibletopreserveandretaintheessenceoflifewithin ourbodiesandthusattainyouthfulimmortality.According tothesespiritualscientists,theknowledgeofimmortality isidenticalwithenlightenmentthecycleofbirthand deathinvolvesonlythosewhodonothaveknowledgeof alchemy'simmortaltruth. Theessenceoflifeinthehumanbodyisojasthe intrinsicbrilliancethatenablesthestreamoflifetoflow continuouslyuntilituniteswithcosmicexistence, consciousness,andblisssatchitananda.Sexualenergy (virya),whichreachesitshighestexpressioninyouth,is thegrosscounterpartofojas.Bothojasandviryaarerasa, andrasayana,oralchemy,isthescienceofknowingthe dynamicsofojasandvirya.Thecounterpartofojasand viryaoutsidethebodyismercury,whichisalsocalled "rasa"becausemercuryistheessenceofallsubstances. Takingmercuryintothebodyincreasesrasa;bystabilizing mercuryinthebody,thepractitionerofrasayanaprolongs life.Accordingtotheyogis,mercuryhasanother,higher application,onethatisrevealedbyasecondtermforit parada,meaning"thatwhichtakesyoutotheothershoreof life;thatwhichgrantsenlightenmentandfreedom."By employingthesetwotermsrasaandparadaformercury, yogissuggestthatbyusingmercuryitispossibleto overcomealldiseases;maintainyouthandvitality;prolong lifeindefinitely;andunveilallmysteriesrelatedto birth,death,thecycleoftransmigration,andthe relationshipbetweenthemicrocosmandmacrocosm. Ultimately,allthatwhichexistsintheuniverseis unveiled.Let'sbeginourexaminationoftheseclaimswitha lookatsomedataonitseffectonthebody. TheMedicalAngle Mercuryisametal,theonlyonethatisliquidatroom temperature.Thisshinysubstance,alsoknownas quicksilver,istoxicandcanbedeadlyifitentersthe body.Itactsasacumulativepoisonthatis,thebodyhas troubleeliminatingit.Mercuryevaporatesatroom temperatureandcanbeinhaledinvaporform.Inliquidform itcanbeswallowedorabsorbedthroughtheskin. AsreportedinTheToxicologicalprofileforMercury,
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publishedbytheU.S.DepartmentofHealthandHuman Services,inhalingmercurycausesnervoussystemdisorders, whichintensifyandbecomeirreversiblewithcontinued exposure.Theseincludetremors,emotionalinstability, insomnia,headaches,memoryloss,andlossoftheabilityto thinkclearly.Inhalingmercuryalsodamagestherespiratory system,inducingcoughing,shortnessofbreath,andburning painsinthechest.Inseverecasesthelungtissueswells andfillswithfluids.Thiscanleadtopneumonia, emphysema,andscarringandevencollapseofthelung. Kidneydamage,renalfailure,rashes,fever,chills,and elevatedwhitebloodcountsareamongtheotherconsequences ofinhalingmercuryvapor. Mercurytakenorallyislethalatadoseof10to42 milligramsofmercuryfora150poundadult.Deathiscaused byshock,cardiovascularcollapse,acuterenalfailure,and severgastrointestinaldamage.Inshort,inhalingor swallowingmercuryhasadevastatingeffectonthe respiratory,circulatory,nervous,gastrointestinal, muscular,andcardiovascularsystems,anditdamagesthe kidneys,liver,heart,brain,andreproductiveorgans. Althoughtheseadverseeffectsarewelldocumented,their exactcauseisopentoquestion.Becausetheelectron structureofmercuryisloose,manyothermetalsreadily dissolveinit.AccordingtotheChineseandAyurvedic systemsofmedicine,itistheseimpuritiesinmercury,such asthepresenceofzinc,lead,andotherminerals,thatmake mercurytoxic.Mercuryisalwaysfoundaspartofacompound innaturemostcommonlyincombinationwithsulfurinthe orecinnabar. AccordingtoAyurvedictexts,eighteenstepsarerequiredto purifymercury.Ofthese,onlythefirsteightare recommendedformedicinalpurposesandcommonlypracticedby Ayurvedicphysicians.Theremainingtensteps,whichare obscureandhaveoccultovertones,areusedonlyfor purifyingmercuryinsuchawaythatitcantransformvulgar metalsintogold.Evenmoreobscurearethemethodsfor applyingpurifiedmercurytothehumanbodyinorderto achievespiritualgoals.Theseareshroudedinmysteryand arerevealedbythemasteralchemistsonlytoselect students.AncienttextssuchasRasaRatnaSamuccaya,Rudra Yamala,GorakshaSamhita,andtheHathaYogaPradipikatouch onthesubject,butonlyenoughtoarouseourcuriosity. Ineveryculturewherealchemyhasflourished,mercuryhas
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alwaysbeenintimatelyrelatedtoanesotericormystical tradition.ThiscanbeseenintheHellenistic,Islamic,and Hermetictraditions,aswellasintheChinesetraditionof Taoism,andtheIndiantraditionsofyogaandtantrism.All emphasizesecrecy.Forexample,intheesoterictext Rasanava,ShivatellstheGoddess,"Thesecret(ofmercury) isseldomknown,evenamongtheGods,"andinanothertext, theChinesemysticKoHungstates,"Secrecyisthrownover theefficaciousrecipes."Similarly,Westernpost Renaissancealchemicalliteratureisdeliberately incomprehensible.Inallcultures,theknowledgeofalchemy, especiallythedirectuseofmercury,wasimpartedonlyto selectinitiateswhowereaimingattheradical transformationofthehumancondition.Itistheseinitiates whoaresaidtohaveobtainedtheelixirofimmortalityand becomeimmortal;theywanderontheearthwhileconcealing theircondition. ThemysticalaspectofalchemyismostpronouncedinIndian andChinesetraditions.Inboth,cinnabarisconsideredto betheprecursoroftheelixirofimmortality;the combinationofmercuryandsulfurincinnabarhas metaphysicalsignificance.Inisolationmercuryisaliquid. Itisthesulfurincinnabarthatkeepsmercuryinplace. Thus,therelationshipbetweenmercuryandsulfurislike thatofShivaandShakti,pureconsciousnessandtheforce ofcreativity,respectively.Intantricliterature,mercury isShiva,symbolizedbythelinga,andsulfurisShakti, symbolizedbytheyoni.Shivaisabletomanifestthis universeonlywhenunitedwithShakti.Similarly,mercuryis abletomanifesttheelixirofimmortalityonlywhen embracedbysulfur. Onceithasbeenabstractedfromcinnabar,mercurybecomes figurativelylifeless.Itisalsoadulteratedbyother metalsandmineralsinthisstate,andtheymustberemoved beforethemercuryisbroughtbacktolifebyreunitingit withsulfur.Thissecondmarriageofmercuryandsulfur formsvermilion,orartificialcinnabar.Mercuryisagain isolatedbyheatingvermiliontoahightemperature,but thistimethemercuryisawakened. YogicandAyurvedictextsdescribehowtomakemercurysweat (svedana),howtomassageit(mardana),howtomakeitfaint (murchhana),howtoliftit(utthapana),howtodropit (patana),howtoawakenoreducateit(bodhana),howto controlordisciplineit(niyamana),andhowtoenergizeit
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(depana.)Althoughfollowingtheseeightstepsisalong process,Ayurvedicdoctorsmaintainthatonlysuchpurified mercuryisfitformedicinalpreparations. MercuryandMysticism Themysticaltradition,whichprescribestheapplicationof mercuryalongwiththepracticeofasana,pranayama, bandhas,murdras,andmantrajapa,doesnotspecifywhether "purified"orregularmetallicmercuryisrequired.(editor note:unpurifiedmercuryispoisonous.)Thescripturesstate simplythatmercuryistakenintothebodyaspartof specificpracticessuchasvajrasiddhi(makingthebodyas stronganddurableasathunderbolt),khecharasiddhi (travelingthroughspace),andtirodhanaorantardhansiddhi (becominginvisible.)Accordingtosomescriptures,mercury isalsousedinthepracticeofmritasanjivanividya(the scienceofrestoringthedeadtolife.)Butnotasingle scripturedescribestheprerequisitesandproceduresforany ofthesepractices. Mostmercuryrelatedpracticesarementionedinthecontext ofmantrasadhana,implyinginsomeplacesthatmantra siddhiisattainedwiththehelpofmercury,andinothers thatoneattainsmercurysiddhibyapplyingmantrasiddhi. Butnowheredothetextsspecifywhetherthemercuryis swallowed,inhaled,orrubbedintotheskintheysimply praisethepracticeandwarnthepracticesrelatedto mercuryarehighlysecretandcannotbeexplained.The secretofrasayanavidyaissafeguardedbytheoral traditionitistransmittedonlytothosewhoare qualifiedtoreceiveit. Onlyinregardtotwopracticesmeditationonparadalinga andvajrolikriyadothescripturesgiveusanyideaof howtousemercurytoattainmysticalorscriptural experiences,butevenherenoprerequisitesaregiven.The firstpractice,meditationonparadalinga,requiresashiva lingamadeofsolidifiedmercury.Specificpracticesrelated tomantra,yantra,andtantraaredoneinitspresence. BecausemercuryisShiva,ashivalingamadeofsolidified mercuryisconsideredtobesuperiortoallothers,andfor millenniaalchemistmysticshaveknownthesecretof solidifyingmercuryatroomtemperature.HinduismToday magazinerecentlycarriedanarticleaboutasadhufrom Rishikeshwhoisknownformakingparadalingams.Ofcourse,
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neitherthissadhunorthescripturessharetheknowledgeof howthisisdone. Thepracticeofvajrolikriyaismentionedinthetextsof hathayogaandtantra.Forexample,itislistedamongthe cleansingtechniquesintheHathaYogaPradipika.Thiskriya involvestakingmercuryintothebodybysuckingitup throughthegenerativeorgan.Becausethisorganisdesigned fortheoutflowoffluids,notforintake,andbecause mercuryisquitedense,thispracticerequiresthorough, systematicpreparation.Thetextsspecifythatthosewho wishtopracticevajrolikriyamustfirstmasterthe techniquesofaswinimudra,mulabhanda,agnisara,and uddiyana,bandhainordertogainmasteryoverthepelvic andabdominalregions.Thisenablestheyogitocreatea vacuuminthepelvicandabdominalregions,whichthe mercuryflowsintofill.Aspreparation,thepractitioner firstdevelopstheabilitytosuckairintothebladder, thenswitchestofluidsfirsttodistilledwater,thento amixtureofmilkandwater,thentomilk,thentosesame oil,andfinallytomercury.Atleastthisiswhatthetexts say,althoughinmyownsearchIhaveyettomeetayogiwho candemonstratetheabilitytotakemercuryintothebodyin thismanner. TheHathaYogaPradipikadoesnotdescribethistechniques insufficientdetailtomakepracticingitpossiblebecause, ascommentatorswarn,itcanbesafelylearnedonlyunder theguidanceofaqualifiedmaster.However,thistextdoes specifythefruitofthepracticetheattainmentofdeha siddhi(perfectionofthebody.)Successinthispractice willleadtofreedomfromsickness,toextraordinary strength,andpossiblyeventophysicalimmortality. Accordingtothetantrictexts,anumberofotheryogic accomplishmentsareassociatedwithtakingmercuryintothe body,includingthemasteryoversexualenergy, dematerializingandrematerializingoneselfatwill, defeatingdeath,knowledgeofthepastandfuture,visions ofdevasandcelestialrealms,attainmentofsamadhi,and enjoymentofeverlastingbliss. Theyogisbelongingtothenathatraditionbelievethatone ofthemoststartlingsiddhis,asmitasiddhi,mentionedin thefourthchapteroftheYogaSutra,isbasedsolelyon alchemicalapplicationsofmercury.Accordingtothem, aushadhi,oneofthefivemeansforattainingperfectionin asmitasiddhi,issynonymouswith"medicine."Throughasmita
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siddhi,ayogiattainsaperfectrealizationof"Iam ness."Inotherwords,selfawarenessisperfectedandthe practitionerbecomesatotallyindependentfieldof consciousness.Fromthisasmita(totallyindependentfield ofconsciousness),theyogihasthepowertocreatehisor herpersonalmind(chitta)atwill.Thisparticulartypeof mind,directlyemergingfromtheasmitaofanaccomplished yogialchemist,iscallednirmanachitta(theselfcreated mind.)Unlikethemindsofordinaryindividuals,nirmana chittaisnotpartofnature,andthereforeitisnotbound bykarmasandsamskaras.Yogisofthiscalibermayalso createabody,knownasnirmanakaya,atwill,andyogis likeBuddha,GorakhaNatha,MatsyendraNatha,Chaurangi Natha,andSwatmaramatheauthoroftheHathaYoga Pradipikaaresaidtowalkinthefleshwheneverthey choosethroughtheirnirmanakaya.LookingforAnswers Arethesealchemicalandmysticalexperiencesinducedby mercurypurelymythical?Inourhighlyevolvedscientific era,alltheelements,includingmercury,areknowntousto downtothesubatomiclevel.Medicaldataclearlyshowthat mercuryposesahealthhazard.Arewemissingsomething? ChineseandAyurvedicphysiciansusemercuryinits "purified"form.Doesthispurificationalterit?Ifso, how?Afterall,itisstillmercury.Evenif,forreasons yetunknowntomodernscience,thesulfur,herbs,andother mineralsusedintheprocessofpurifyingmercurychangeits subtleproperties,commonsensedoesnotpermitustoignore themassofscientificdataonthehavocmercurywreaksin thebody. Whathappenswhenmercuryisdrawnthroughthegenerative organandstoredinthebladder?Mercuryvaporizesatbody temperature,albeitslowly.Yogisraisethetemperatureof theirnavelcenterandabdominalregionatleasttendegrees higherthannormalwhileusingmercury.Asthemercury vaporizes,someitwillbeabsorbedbythewallsofthe bladderandtherestwillmovethroughtheureterintothe kidneys,fromwhereitentersthebloodstream.Whenmercury vaporentersourbloodstreamthroughthisroute,dothe effectsdifferfromthosethatresultwhenitentersthrough thelungs? Ayurvedaregardsmercuryasthemastermedicineforall diseases,andAyurvedicpreparationscontainingmercuryare usedtocureillnessesaccompaniedbythesymptomsof dizziness,lossofmemory,lowenergy,degenerationof
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bodilytissues,anddamagetoheart,kidney,liver,lungs, andbrain.Theseareidenticaltothesymptomscausedby mercurypoisoning.Thisisinlinewiththehomeopathic principlethatsimilarcuressimilar,soitmakessensethat mercuryisthemedicineforsuchproblems,whetherornot mercurypoisoningisthecase. Buttheyogicclaimthatanearthlysubstanceissodivine thatitcantakeustotheothershoreoflifeseems impossiblyfarfetchedatleastatfirstglance.It impliesthatitispossibletousemercurytoinduce mysticalexperiences;rejuvenatethebodyandlengthenlife; bringabouttheknowledgeofpast,present,andfuture;and createthegroundforaspiritualconditioninwhichthe individualconsciousnessuniteswithuniversal consciousness.Butifweturnagaintothebasicprinciple ofhomeopathy,werememberthatmercurypoisoningcreates mentaldullness,depletesenergy,shortenslife,causes confusionaboutthepast,present,andfuture,andalso createsasenseofseparationintherealmofconsciousness bycausingthemindtobecomeslowandspacey.Inthis context,itdoesnotseemsofarfetchedtoacceptthe possibilitythatmercury,whenproperlyapplied,canremove theseproblemsandreturnustoastateofbalancewhich theyogiswouldcallawarenessofourdivinenature.At leastitmakesaninterestingareaofinquiry,forscience isnotabletosupportthishypothesisatpresent. Ihavemademyownsearchintotheyogicapplicationof mercury.TheyogisImetintheprocessfallintothree categories.Thefirstareeagertospeakoftheirprowess withmercury,boastingthattheyhavelearnedtotakeitin throughthegenerativeorganandmoveitdirectlytothe crownofthehead,whereitshowersthemwithyogicpowers. Unfortunately,theseyogisdisplaynoneofthesignsand symptomsofspiritualattainment.Onthecontrary,Ifound themtobeignorantandfullofgreedandanxiety.Asthe scriptureswarn,"Donottrustonewhobegs,yetclaimsto beanalchemist." Inthesecondcategory,Ihavemetafewyogiswhoexhibit someextraordinaryyogicabilitiesandwhoarecalm, fearless,andfullofjoy.Theyhaveunfoldedthevirtueof compassionandareabletocureothersinmanyinstances. Theseyogisreadilyadmittoexperimentingwithmercuryand sufferingasaconsequence.SwamiAghoranandaofGujratis anexample.Ratherthanattainingperfectionin
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mercuryrelatedpractices,hedamagedhisbodybecausehe wasnotabletofindaqualifiedteachertoguidehim.In regardtotheyogisinthiscategory,Ihaveneverbeenable todeterminetomysatisfactionwhethertheremarkable curativepowerstheydisplayaretheresultof mercuryrelatedpractices,orpredatethem. Finally,thereareafewrareyogisintheHimalayasinwhom thehigherspiritualvirtuesblossom.Whatevertheysay comestrue;theycanhealotherssimplybygivingan ordinarysubstanceasipofwater,afewbladesofgrass, asmedicine.Theseyogisaregentle,tranquil,andfreeof fearandconfusion,andtheydisplayanunbelievabledepth ofknowledgeinallsubjects.WhenIaskedaboutvajroli kriya,theymadefunofit,sayingthatwhenyourmind, prana,andojashavecometoonepoint(bindu),thenmercury doeswhatyoutellittodo.Onesuchyogidemonstratedthe abilitytoabsorbmercurythroughhispalms.Accordingto him,mercuryisShivaandyouworshiporpropitiateShiva onlyafteryouhavebecomeShiva(Shivobhuto,shivam yajete.)Therefore,thedirectexperienceofShiva consciousnessistheprerequisiteforabsorbingand retainingmercury.Oneoftheserareyogisaskedme,"Ifyou havealreadyattained,thenwhydoyouneedmercury?"and thenansweredhisownquestionwithagentlesmile,"Thatis themysterywithinthemystery." Whenmercuryistakenintoyourbodyitisabsorbedinyour bloodstream,andmercuryisanelixironlyifyouhave trainedyourbloodvesselsandotherorganstorecognize mercuryasShiva.Theyogiwhohasattainedsuchahigh degreeofmasteryiscalledShiva,thedivinebeingwho drinkspoisonforthepurposeoftransmutingitand distributingnectartoothers.Onlysuchyogisarefitfor thepracticeofrasayanavidya.Itisgoodtoaspiretosuch astate,whichcanbeattainedbythehelpofacompetent teacher,sincerity,patience,perseverance,andGod'sgrace. But,asthescriptureswarnrepeatedly,neverpractice unlessyouknowwhatyouaregettingyourselfinto. ========================================================== PanditRajmaniTigunait,Ph.D.istheauthorofnumerous booksonthephilosophyandpracticeofYoga.Heisthe directoroftheHimalayanInstituteinHonesdale PennsylvaniaUSA.

ExternalandInternalinGeHongsAlchemy
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byEvgueniA.TortchinovSt.PetersburgStateUniversity,Russia ExternalandInternalinGeHongsAlchemy byEvgueniA.Tortchinov St.PetersburgStateUniversity,Russia)

Theproblemofshiftfromexternalalchemy(waidan)tointernalalchemy(neidan)isoneofthe mostimportantforunderstandingofthehistoryofDaoismaswellasforelucidationofsome crucialquestionsofthehistoryofscienceinChina.Brieflyspeakingitcanbesummarizedthat thepracticesoftheinneralchemy(suchasvisualization,breathingcontrol,differenttypesof contemplation,etc.)mucholderthanthetechniquesofthelaboratoryalchemy(andmoreover, theycomposetheverycoreofthemainstreamoftheDaoistpracticalmethodsandtechniques). Nevertheless,thosetechniquesandmethodsobtainedtheirsystematicunityofacoherent wholeonlyborrowingthetechnicallanguage,terminologyandtheoreticalbackgroundofthe externalalchemy. TheSixDynasties(Liuchao)periodisofextremeimportancehere.Firstofall,itwasatimeof thematurityoftheexternalalchemywhenitflourishedamongtheDaoistsofallbranchesand trends.Secondly,inthisepochthereappearedthefirstsignsofthebeginningoftheformation oftheinneralchemicaltraditioninthemidstofthelaboratoryalchemyofwaidan. Thisaimofthispaperistopresentsomeevidencesoftheprocessoftransitionfromtheexternal tointernalalchemyonthematerialsofGeHongs"Baopuzineipian".Itisinterestingthatthis classicalandwellknownworkismostlytreatedaspurelydedicatedtotheexternalalchemy.It iscertainlytruebutonlytosomeextent.Anditismoreoverinterestinganddemonstrativethat eveninsuchpracticalandexperienceorientedworkasBaopuzineipian(henceforth,BPZNP)the sproutsoftheinneralchemicalattitudesandapproachesfoundtheirwayofexpression. ThemostinterestingforourpurposepartofBPZNPis,certainly,itsChapter18Dizhen,or "EarthlyTruth".Thecontentsofthischaptermaybesummarizedasfollowing. 1.MetaphysicsoftheDao.Dao(theWayasthefirstcosmologicaland/orontologicalprinciple) wasdescribedherenotonlyasXuanyi,thehiddenandunrevealedsubstance(analogical functionallytoDeusAbsconditusofthetheisticapophaticmysticism)butalsoastheself revealingprincipleofZhenyi,immanenttotheverynatureofthegivenempiricallyexisting things.IftheHiddenMysteriousDaohasnoform,orimage,themanifestedDaooftheTrue Onehasimageofitsown.Itcanbesupposed(thoughGeHongdoesnotwriteitimplicitly)that signsofthepresenceoftheTrueOnecanbefoundineverythingandbeingas"signatures"of Dao(probably,thespecificpresenceoftheTrueOneinsomesubstancesmakingthemtobe spiritualized,ling,orshen;thisspiritualityinitsturnmakessuchsubstancestobesuitablefor thepreparingofdifferentelixirs.Brieflyspeaking,itisbutakindofespeciallysubtlepnuema,qi.
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2.Paraphysiology.Nevertheless,GeHongspeaksindetailsaboutthemanifestationoftheTrue OnewithinthehumanbodywherethemysticalsignaturesofDaoarecinnabarfields(dantian). Probably,GeHongisthefirstwriterspeakingaboutthreecinnabarfields(earliertexts mentionedonlyonedantian,thecentreinthelowestpartofabdomen,beneaththenavel).Ge Hongdescribescinnabarfieldsinmetaphoriclanguage.HereGeHongusesthetermshouyi (literally:"preservationoftheOne")whichwastheearliestdesignationofdifferentDaoist meditativeandcontemplativepracticesdirectlyconnectedwiththebackgroundoftheinner alchemy(thepracticesofshouyiareratherwellknownfromsuchcomparativelyearlytextsas theClassicoftheGreatEquanimityTaipingjing). 3.GeHongenumeratesthefollowingaimsoftheshouyipractices:protectionfromdemoniac attacksandinfluences,protectionfromarmedenemies,protectionfromilnessandinfections. Therefore,itcanbesupposedthatthefunctionofthesepracticesispurelyprotective.Butsome passagesfromchapter18ofBPZNPrelatethecontemplativetechniquesofthePreservationof theOnetotheleadingthemeofGeHongsdiscourse(i.e.,obtainingoflongevityand immortality).Forexample: "Theonlymethodoftheprolongationoflifeandattainmentofthestateofimmortalisbutthe wayofGoldandCinnabar;theonlymethodtopreserveonesbodyandtocutofftheevil influencesis[contemplation]oftheTrueOne.Thereforetheancientsextremelyseriously treatedsuchaffairs." Thispassagedescribestheshouyipracticesascomplimentarytothe"GreatWork"ofthewayof theexternalalchemy. Somefragmentsofthesecondpartofthischapterareevenmoreinterestingnotonlybytheir contentsbutbytheircompositionandstructureaswell. SemanticalbeginningofthispartoftheexaminedchapterisGeHongsstatementregardingthe metaphysicalrelationsbetweenthemanifestedDaooftheTrueOneandthehiddenDaoofthe Mysterious,ortheMysteriousOne(xuanyi).GeHongproclaimstheequalimportanceofpurely meditativepracticesconnectedwiththerealizationoftheMysteriousOne(describedinthe openingchapterofBPZNP)andinnermagicoftheTrueOne.Nevertheless,hestatesthatthe TrueOnepracticesaresimplerthantheMysteriousOnepractices.Moreover,thepreservation oftheTrueOne(shouzhenyi)isthemostsimplewaytopreserve,orkeeptheMysteriousOneas wellbecauseoftheirontologicalunity(themanifestedDaoisan"eye"throughwhichthe hiddenDao"contemplates"theUniverse). ThepracticesofthepreservationoftheOnearethemethodsofobtainingdifferentsupernatural powers(suchasmultiplicationofthebodilyformorcontemplationofthehunposoulswithin onesbody). Thefollowingpassageseemsasbeingirrelevanttothethemesoftheprecedingsection.HereGe Honginrathereloquentmannerspeaksabouttheartofalchemy(makingtheGreatMedicine dayaoorGoldenCinnabarjindan)ashardworkdemandinggreateffortsandlaborious
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behaviour.Butinrealityitisbutintroductiontoanewevaluationofthepracticesof preservationoftheOne:thealchemicalworkleadingtoimmortalityishard,ittakesplentyof timetofulfilit.Thereforetheadeptmustdohisbesttokeephisbodyinagoodhealthbeing protectedagainstsicknessaswellasagainstdemoniacattacksandmalevolentinfluencesofthe evilspiritsandghosts.HereGeHongmentionstheshouyipracticestogetherwiththe contemplationoftheinnerspiritsofthebody(sishen)whichalsomusttoprotectbodyagainst alldestructiveforces. Nextthemeofchapter18istheparallelbetweenhumanbodyandstate.Inthefirstpartofthe chapterGeHongalreadygaveahighlysymbolicaldescriptionofthehumanbodywithits subtleenergeticcentres(herethebodyobtainedanimageofthesacredmountofKunlunwith itspalacesandchambersofimmortals;astralimaginaryofconstellationswasalsoimportantfor thispassage).AttheconcludingpartofthechapterGeHongsimplyinarathertraditionalway givesanalogiesbetweenpartsofthebodyandfunctionsofthestate.Hisconclusion:tomaster tonesownbodyisthesameastomasterthestate;pneumata(qi)ofthebodyisthesameas commonpeople(min)inthestate.TheDaoistpractitionermustnourishthepneumatalikelord ofthestatewhomusttakecareofhissubjects.HereGeHongstatesthatthepresenceofthe TrueOneinthebodyasaresultofthecultivationofpneumagivespieceandstabilityto"three andseven",thatissoulsofhunandpo.Itwillleadtotheprolongationoflife(nianmingyan)and theeliminationofallevil(baihaique).Theshouyipracticesareextremelyhelpful(evenina greaterdegreethantheamuletsandcharmsdescribedinchapter17ofBPZNP)forexorcismsin thewildernessofremotemountainsandforestswheretheDaoistsprefertocultivatetheir alchemicalskill. Therefore,itcanbesaidthatGeHongevaluatestheinnerpracticesofshouyiashavingonly subsidiarycharacter.Theyarenecessaryforprovidingthepractitionerofexternalalchemy(the principalmethod)withsafetyandease.Nevertheless,theyarenecessaryforthealchemical adept,andonlyfoolsareabletoignorethem:"Ifonlythreegatesoffourarelocked,therobbers canenterthebuilding.Andwhatcanbedoneifallfourgatesareopened!"Itissubstantialthat GeHonglooksforakindofharmonybetweenexternalandinternalmethodsoftheDaoist cultivation.Theleadingroleoftheexternalmethodsstillexistsbutthefunctionoftheinner cultivationbecomesaveryimportant,too. Hereitlooksreasonabletoexaminetheelementsoftheinnercultivationwithintheframesof theexternallaboratoryalchemyassuch. Itisimpossibletodividetechnical,magicalandritualisticaspectsofthealchemicalapproaches ofGeHong.Hedeniestheideaoftheautomatic,ormechanicaleffectoftheelixirs,combining thetechnicalandchemicalprocedureswithfasting,prayersandpurification(chapter4jindan pian).EverywhereinBPZNPGeHongstressestheimportanceofsuchpracticesasgymnastics (daoyin),controloverpneumata(xingqi)andsexualtechniques(fangzhongzhishu)allofwhich werecloselyrelatedtotheformationofthesystemofinneralchemy.Certainly,GeHongwas surethatallthosemethodscouldnotleadtheadepttohisfinalgoal,thatis,immortalitybut nevertheless,hebelievedthatallofthemwereextremelyvaluable,helpfulandevennecessary assubsidiaryandadditionalmeanstoprolongadeptslifeortoprotecthimfromeviland harmfulinfluences.
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Inanotherwords,GeHongwasamasterofexternalalchemywhichwasthoughtofhimtobe thehighestwaytoimmortalitybut1)thisexternalalchemyincludedinitselfsomeelementsof theinnerdoing(purifications,sacralbathing,fasting,prayer,meditation,etc.)and2)he believedinthegreatefficacyoftheinnerpracticesassubsidiarymeansofmacrobioticand protectivecharacter. Besideschapter18thetermshouyiisoccurredtwotimesinchapters3and5ofBPZNP. Thefirstcase(chapter3)isaversefromunknownclassicofimmortals(xianjing):"Thosewho eatmedicinesandkeep/preservetheOne(shouyi)canobtainthelongevityofHeaven;those whopracticereturningofsemen(huanjing)andembryonicbreath(taixi)canprolongtheir lifemakingitunlimited(wuji)." Thesecondcase(chapter5)isthefollowing:"Thecauseofdeathisadeficiency:oldage,harm derivedfromilnessorinnervenomsortheinfluencesofthebadpneumaorcoldandwind. Becauseofthisthereexistmeansandmethodsofgymnastics,controloverpneumata,returning ofsementonourishthebrain,dietregulationsaswellasprinciplesofrestandaction,eatingof themedicines,contemplationofspirits(sishen)andpreservationoftheOne..." Itisobviousthathereshouyiismentionedinthelistofotherinnerpracticesofsubsidiarykind andpalliativeimportancehoweverusefulandeffectivetheyare.Therefore,itcanbesaidthat BPZNPhasaroomfortheinnerpracticesbutallofthemareallowedtoplayonlysecondary roles. Nevertheless,itisimportanttonotethatGeHongstreatiseisoneoftheearliestexamplesofthe beginningoftheshiftfrompurelyexternaltocombinedandevenpurelyinternalalchemy.In moreradicalterms,itispossibletosupposethattheelementoftheinnerpracticeswasincluded inthelaboratoryalchemyfromitsverybeginningbutthereligiousandculturalsituationofthe SixDynastiesperiodproducedsomeimportantconditionsforactualizationofthehidden internalelements,theirdevelopmentandgradualformationofthesystemknowntousasthe "inneralchemy"(neidan).AndGeHongsclassicstandsatthebeginningofthisprocesswhich becameofcrucialimportanceforthesubsequenthistoryoftheDaoistreligion.

WeiPoyang,thefatherofAlchemy142A.D. PUBLISHEDBYFISHERSCIENTIFICCO.,PITTSBURGH,PA.,andMONTREAL,CANADA VOLUMESIX:NUMBERTHREE (Reg.U.S.Pat.Off.) ForThoseInterestedinKeepingInformedontheLatestDevelopments

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ofLaboratoryApparatusandTechnique

ChineseAlchemy FOURcenturiesbeforetheChristianeraChinesephilosophersweredelvingintotheblackarts ofalchemy,tryingtodetermineameansofprolongingthelifeofman.Alchemy,sofaraswe nowknow,haditsbirthinChina TheearlyEgyptiansandAssyrianswhowereskilledinthevariousartsofmakingpigments, dyes,glassandenamel,didnotseekanelixirofimmortalityorattempttotransmutebase metalsintogold,thereforetheywerenotalchemists. OneoftheearliestChineselegendstellsoftheislandofYongChouonwhichwasamountainof purejade,10,000feethigh.Fromthismountgushedaspringofsweetwaters,knownasthe JadeWineSpring.Apersondrinkingseveralgobletsofthiswinebecameintoxicated,thus assuringhimselfofimmortality. TheearliestknownChinesetreatiseonalchemywaswrittenbyWeiPoyang,the"Fatherof Alchemy."Hiswork,calledTs'anT'ungCh'i,waswrittenabout142A.D.,inwhichherefersto earliertraditionalmanuscriptsonalchemy.ThethreeorfourcenturiesbeforeWeiPoyangwere spentintryingtotransmutebasemetalsintogold,thoughnotforitsintrinsicvalue,butbecause itwasthoughtthatthissyntheticgoldcouldproducelongevity.Eventoeatfromdishesmade fromsyntheticgoldinsuredoneofthisidealstate.Cinnabar,orredmercuricsulphide,wasalso thoughttobeanotherelixirofimmortality.

ChinesealchemywasfoundeduponthefundamentalsofWuhsing(theFiveElements)and YinYang(theContraries).TheFiveElementswerewater,fire,wood,goldandearth.The Contrariesweresubstances,theinteractionofwhichcreatedallthingsintheuniverse.Quite similarweretheseconceptstothoseoftheEgyptianphilosophers. Numerologyisnomodernhumbug,fortheseearlyconceptsenjoyedthemagicofnumbers.In theseearlydaysofoldChina,numberfivewasmagicalfiveelements,fiveseasons,five locations,fivecolors,fivetones,fivetastes,fiveinternalorgans,fivewaysofrighteousconduct, fivegrains,fivedomesticatedanimalsandmanyotherquintetsofglamorousnotoriety. TheproductionorcreationofallthingswasmadepossiblebythedoctrineofYinYang,"the Contraries."IntheYinYangtheory,Yinwasthefemaleprinciple,heavy,gross,cold,dark; whileYangwasthemaleprinciple,light,activeandfiery(Chinesevalues).FatherofAlchemy, WeiPoyang,inhisbook,identifiesYangandYinwiththesunandmoon."Thefatherofitisthe Moon,"saidthealchemistHermesTrismegistos.

WeiPoyangwasaTaoistphilosopherandalchemist,anativeofWuintheprovinceof Kiangsu.Intheyear121A.D.hewasofferedapositionatcourtbutrefusedthishonor.Inthe epilogueofhisTs'anT'ungCh'ihedescribeshimselfas"alowlymanfromthecountryofKuei,

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whohasnoloveforworldlypower,glory,fameorgains,whowasteshisdaysleadingasimple, quiet,leisurelyandpeacefullifeinaretreatinanunfrequentedvalley." ThisChineseclassicofWeiPoyangisreallyathesisonthepreparationofthePillof Immortality.TheChinesebiographyofImmortalssaysthathe"enteredthemountainstomake efficaciousmedicine.Withhimwerethreedisciples,twoofwhomhethoughtwerelackingin completefaith.Whenthemedicinewasmadehetestedthem.Hesaid,'Thegoldmedicineis madebutitoughtfirsttobetestedonthedog.Ifnoharmcomestothedogwemaythentakeit ourselves;butifthedogdiesofitweoughtnottotakeit.'(NowPoyanghadbroughtawhite dogalongwithhimtothemountains.Ifthenumberofthetreatmentsofthemedicinehadnot beensufficientorifharmoniouscompoundinghadnotreachedtherequiredstandard,itwould containalittlepoisonandwouldcausetemporarydeath.)Poyangfedthemedicinetothedog andthedogdiedaninstantaneousdeath.Whereuponhesaid,'Themedicineisnotyetdone. Thedoghasdiedofit.Doesn'tthisshowthatthedivinelighthasnotbeenattained?Ifwetakeit ourselvesIamafraidweshallgothesamewayasthedog.Whatistobedone?'Thedisciples asked,'Wouldyoutakeityourself,Sir?'TothisPoyangreplied,'Ihaveabandonedtheworldly routeandforsakenmyhometocomehere.IshouldheashamedtoreturnifIcouldnotattain thehsien(immortal).So,tolivewithouttakingthemedicinewouldbejustthesameastodieof themedicine.Imusttakeit.'Withthesefinalwordsheputthemedicineintohismouthand diedinstantly. "Onseeingthis,oneofthedisciplessaid,'Ourteacherwasnocommonperson.Hetookthe medicineanddiedofit.Hemusthavedonethatwithespecialintention.'Thedisciplealsotook themedicineanddied.Thentheothertwodisciplessaidtooneanother,'Thepurposeof makingmedicineistoattemptatattaininglongevity.Nowthetakingofthismedicinehas causeddeaths.Itwouldbetternottotakethemedicineandsobeabletoliveafewdecades longer.'Theyleftthemountaintogether,withouttakingthemedicine,intendingtogetburial suppliesfortheirteacherandtheirfellowdisciple.Afterthedepartureofthetwodisciples,Po yangrevived.Heplacedsomeofawellconcoctedmedicineinthemouthofthediscipleandin themouthofthedog.Inafewmomentstheybothrevived.Hetookthedisciple,whosename wasY,andthedog,andwentthewayofimmortals.Byawoodcutter,whomtheymet,he sentaletterofthankstothetwodisciples.Thetwodiscipleswerefilledwithregretswhenthey readtheletter." ChineseEmbroidery Dr.TenneyL.DavisandDr.LuChiangWu,bothofMassachusettsInstituteofTechnology, haverecentlytranslatedandeditedtheworksofWeiPoyang.Dr.Wu'sTranslationpublished withDr.Davis'IntroductionandCompleteNotesappearedinIsis18,210289.Itisthefirst translationintoanyEuropeanlanguageofanentireChinesetreatiseonalchemy.Somepassages ofthisworkareasbeautifullyandskillfullycompiledasChineseembroideryiswoven. TheworkofWuandDavisenlargesthehistoryofalchemyandplacesitsbeginninginChina whereChinesewritershaveprovideditwitharomanticandpoetichalo. Thefollowingpassagesofthetranslationsaregemsofepicbeautythatwillappealtothe modernlaboratorymanwhoseprosaicdutiessometimesbecomemonotonous.(Thestyleof
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this,however,isnotrecommendedforwritingresearchreports.) "Whengoldisplacedinahotfireitisnotdeprivedofthebrilliancyofitscolor.Sincethedays oftheunfoldingoftheuniverse(Creation)thesunandthemoonhavenotdiminishedin brightnessnorhasgoldlostanyweight.Theshapesofthesunandofthemoonhavealways beenthesame.Goldisbornundertheinfluenceofthemoon.Atdaybreak,receivingmagic forcefromthesun,itreturnstoitsmother.Beingenvelopedbythesunatthewaneofthemoon, ithideswithinthewallsandabandonsitselftoinanity.Thusdoesthegoldregainitsoriginal nature.OnlywhenintensebrightnessisobtainedistheTing(furnacepot)wellheated. ChineseMortarandPestle "Longevityisofprimaryimportanceinthegreattriumph.HuanTan(ReturnedMedicine)is edible.Goldisnoncorruptibleinitsnatureandisthereforethemostvaluableofthings.The ShuShih(MenoftheArt,Magicians)feedingonitattainlongevity.Earth,travelinginall seasons,delineatestheboundariesandformulatesrulestobeobserved.TheChinSa(Gold Dust),havingenteredthefiveinternalorgans,spreadsfoggilylikewinddrivenrain.(Clinical technicians,pleasenote.)Vaporizingandpermeatingitreachesthefourlimbs.Thereuponthe complexionbecomesrejuvenated,hoaryhairregainsitsblackness,andnewteethgrowwhere fallenonesusedtobe.Ifanoldman,hewilloncemorebecomeayouth;ifanoldwoman,she willregainhermaidenhood.Suchtransformationsmakeoneimmunefromworldlymiseries, andonewhoissotransformediscalledbythenameofT'sunJen(TrueMan). "Thingsfoundinnature,whengivenproperhelpaccordingtotheirkind,willresultinthings easytoimprove.(AprophecyfortheTwentiethCentury.)Fisheyescannotreplacepearls,and tallweedscannotbeusedfortimber.Thingsofsimilarnaturegotogether;queerthingscannot berealized.Thisexplainswhytheswallowdoesnotgivebirthtopeacocksandthefoxandthe rabbitdonotmotherhorses.Thisexplainsalsowhyflowingwaterdoesnotheatupwhatis aboveit,andwhymovingfiredoesnotwetwhatisunderit. "ThebarkoftheNiehtreedyesyellowandtheLan(indigo)dyesblue;theboilingofhidesyields glue;andtheCh'uNieh(yeast)fermentstogiveliquor.Itiseasytogetresultswhenthestarting materialsandthedesiredproductsareofthesamekind.Otherwise,itisverydifficult. "Theaspirantshouldstudythisthoughtfullyandthoroughly,viewingitfromallangles.A thousandreadingswillbringoutsomepoints,andtenthousandperusalswillenablehimtosee. Atlast,revelationwillcometobringhimenlightenment.Carefulstudywillopenthedoorto thesecrets.Nature'sTao(way)showsnopartiality,butrevealstoallwhoareworthy." ThisauthenticmanuscriptofWeiPoyangthusverydefinitelytracestheancestorsofmodern chemistrytothelandofOrientalbeginnings,fourcenturiesbeforethebirthofChrist.Untilthe archeologistsunearthevidencetothecontrary,wearesafeinsayingchemistrybeganinChina. Thisillustrationandtheoneonthecoverarereproductionsfromwoodcutsmadeinthefirstcentury. LiuAnandoneofthehsienwhotaughthimtheart.Thebarnyardanimals.havingeatenthe materialwhichremainedinthevesselsafterthepreparationofthemedicine,alsoascendedinto
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theclouds.

OriginsoftheElementNames NamesofSubstancesKnownbyAlchemists TheancientGreekssuspectedthattheremustbebasicorelementarysubstances,butthey lackedaproceduretodeterminewhichsubstanceswereelementary.Empedoclesselected earth,water,airandfirebecausetheyseemtobefoundinnearlyallmaterials.Forexample, waterisessentialforlife,andistypicallyreleasedwhenmaterialsareheated.Aristotleadopted Empedocles'fourearthlyelements(andaddedafifth,ther,asthebasisoftheapparently differentheavenlyobjects).Theancientsknewaboutmanyothersubstances,butbecausethey werelesscommon,theywerenotconsideredelementary. Thefourearthlyelementsremainedpartofacceptedtheoryforover2000years.TheGreekfour elementswereincorporatedintotheartsofalchemy.Intheirsearchforformulationsfor producingdesirablesubstancessuchasgold,alchemistsbecameconvincedthatprecisely measuredproportionsareessential. Inconsistencieswiththeexpectedchangesinweight,variationsinairproducedfromdiverse sourcematerials,andtherealizationthatvacuumsarepossibleeventuallyleadtodoubtsabout thefourelementtheory.InhisfirstbookRobertBoyle(16271691)presentedaseriesof
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experimentsusinganairpump(shownbehindhimatage37)tocreateavacuum.Inhis secondbook,ScepticalChymist(1661)Boyleproposedthatanelementiscertainprimitiveand simple,orperfectlyunmingledbodies;whichnotbeingmadeofanyotherbody,orofone another,aretheingredientsofwhichallthosecalledperfectlymixtbodiesareimmediately compounded,andintowhichtheyareultimatelyresolved. AcenturylaterAntoineLaurentLavoisier(17431794)explainedtheadvantagesofBoyle's proposalconsideringelementsasthosesubstanceswhicharenotfurtherseparable.The substance'sweightwouldbethekeytodetermineifachangewasduetocombinationor separation.Addingtoasubstancewouldincreaseweight;removalofacomponentwould reduceweight.ThisnewprocedureleadLavoisiertoproposeanewchemistrywitharevised listofelements.Theelementsbelowwereallknowntoancientcultures,butnotthoughttobe "elementary"priortoLavoisier. Lavoisierwasraisedbyamaidenaunt.Hisfather,awealthyParisianlawyerprovidedthebest availableeducationattheCollgeMazarin.HelearnedchemistryfromRouellewhowas renownforfollowingBourdelain'spopularchemistrylectureswithdemonstrationswhichoften didmoretoshowrealityvariedwiththeory.In1766Lavoisieraccompaniedamineralsurvey ofAlsaceandLorraineandwonaprizeforhisessayanalyzingmethodsforlightingalarge city.In1868,atage25,hewaselectedtotheAcadmieRoyaledesSciencesbasedonhisgeology workandpurchasedapartialmembershipintheFermeGnrale,afirmempoweredtocollect Frenchtaxes.Threeyearslaterhemarriedthenotquite14yearolddaughterofanother memberoftheFerme.(MarieandAntoineshownatright)Shebecameanaccomplished linguisthelpingLavoisierunderstandandcorrespondwithEnglishchemists.Ashissilent partnerinscience,Mariealsodrewthesketchesforhisbooksandkepthisnotes. Whenin1775Lavoisierwasappointedrgisseurdespoudres,theymovedintotheArsenal,setup alaboratory,andfollowingtheirstudyofthequalityofsaltpeter,improvedFrenchgunpowder fromtheworstinEuropetothebest.HeretheymetwithscientificleadersfromEuropeand America(JeffersonandFranklin),experimentedwithandweighedcombustionofdiamond, sulfur,andphosphorus,calcinationofmetalsandtheconnectionwithrespiration,and formulatedtherevolutionarychemistry. By1789FrencheconomicinstabilityleftLavoisierlittletimetocontinueresearch.Lavoisierhad devotedmuchofhislifetopublicservice.Hehadreformedthesalttax,instituteduniform moisturetotobaccotomakeitlessbrittle,reducedsmugglingbyhavingawallbuiltaround Paris,writtenreportsencouragingprisonreformandhospitalreform,experimentedwith methodstoimproveFrenchagricultureandhelpedfoundtheSocietyofAgriculture.Theseand hisassociationwiththeAcadmicdesSciencesandhisworkondevelopingalogicalmetric systemtoreplacechaoticregionalsystemsormeasurementantagonizedmenlikeJeanPaul Maratwhowrotepamphletsofhalftruthsagainstlearnedsocietiesofthearistocracywhichhad excludedhim.Lavoisierwasaccusedandfoundguiltyofruiningairqualitywiththecitywall, ofadulteratingtobaccowithwater,andtransferringpowderfromtheArsenalatatimethat endangeredpublicsafety.LavoisierwasguillotinedonMay8,1794. Carbonintheformsofcharcoalandsootmusthavebeenknowntotheearliesthumans.In Romantimescharcoalwasmadebythesamechemistryasitistoday,byheatingwoodina pyramidcoveredwithclaytoexcludeair.(Thewoodcutshowstwostagesinthemanufacture
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ofwoodcharcoal.)In1704SirIsaacNewtonproposedthatdiamondsmustbecombustible. In1772Lavoisierdemonstratedthatcharcoal,graphite,anddiamondcontainthesame substance.Hedemonstratedthatastronglyheateddiamondsealedfromairbyclaylosesno weight.Whenheatedinabelljarwithairoverwaterormercuryadiamondlosesweight,air dimishes12%byvolume,andfixedair(CO2)isproduced.Thusthedestructionofadiamond, aswithotherformsofthissubstance,iscombustion.Lavoisiercalledtheelementcarboneto distinguishitfromcharbon(French)forcharcoal.Carbon(C=#6):(Latin)=Carbonis(Greek) =charcoal(English).SmithsonTennantconfirmedin1797thatdiamondsaresolelyCarbonby combiningaweigheddiamondwithsaltpeterinaGoldtube. GoldnuggetsarefoundnaturallyinstreambedsbecauseGoldismoredense(19g/cm3)than mostsoils.Goldornamentshavebeenfoundinprehistorictombs.TheearlybooksoftheBible describeusingGoldasamediumofexchange(money).ThenameGold(AngloSaxon)is relatedtoyellow,whichinAngloSaxonwascalledgeolo;thatderivedfromjval(Sanskrit) meaningtoshine.Aurum(Au=#79)camefromhari(sanskrit)meaningyellow.Aurorawas thegoddessofdawn. SilverrarelyoccursuncombinedinnaturesoitsdiscoveryandusefollowedGold.Silverwas rarerandmorecostlythanGoldinEqyptbetweenthe13thand15thcenturiesBC.Butbythe timethePhoeniciansmadetheirfirstvoyagetoSpain,theyfoundsilverabundant.Silver= Silfr(Norse)andsoelfor(AngloSaxon)haveunknownorigins.Argentum(Ag=#47):(Latin) originatesfromargunas:(Sanskrit)meaningshining. CopperisfoundasanativemetalinEqyptandotherlocations,andcanbemadefrommalachite orebyasimpleprocess.Copper(Cu=#29):Kyprion(Greek)=cuprum(Latin)Theoreaes cypriumwasnamedafterCypernwheremalachitewasobtained.Cypernbearsitsnameafter thecypresstreecalledKyparissos. IronwasprobablymadebyEgyptiansandHittitesabout3000B.C.Furnaceswereusedto smeltIronbuttheancientprocesseswerekeptsecret.About1200B.C.theHittiteEmpire collapsedandironworkersdispersedspreadingthetechnologyandstartingtheIronAge.The EnglishnameIron=Iren(AngloSaxon)isofuncertainorigin.Ferrum(Fe=#26)maybefrom HebreworArabic. Leadoresarewidelydistributedandeasilysmelted.TheRomansusedLeadforwaterpipes, writingtablets,coins,andcookingutensils.Leadpoisoningwasfrequentbutpoorly understoodintheRomancivilization.TheEnglishnameLeadisofunknownorigin,but perhapsrelatedtolodd(Norse)andLot(Germanic).Plumbum(Pb=#82):Leadwascalled plumbumnigrum(blacklead)bytheRomanstodistinguishitfromtin,plumbumcandidum (whitelead).Plumbum(Latin)ispossiblyrelatedtoMolybdos(Greek)alsomeaninglead.In ScandinavianlanguagesandGerman,leadiscalledblyorBlie,wordsoriginatingfromBhlie (IndoEuropean)meaningshine. Tincontainingbronzeswerebeingmade3000BC,perhapsbeforethediscoveryofmetallicTin. JuliusCaesarnotedproductionofTininthemidlandregionsofBritain.InthefirstcenturyAD theRomansreferredtoTinasplumbumalbum(whitelead)todistinguishitfromLeadwhich
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theycalledplumbumnigrum(blacklead).Plinywrotethatthebest(mirrors)knowntoour forefathersweremadeatBrundisiumfromamixtureofCopperandstagnum.TheEnglishname Tinisofunknownorigin,perhapstina(Germanic)forshinylittlestick.TheLatinname Stannum:(Sn=#50)isconnectedtostagnumandstag(IndoEuropean)fordrippingbecause Tinmeltseasily. MercurywasknowntoancientChinese,Hindus,andEgyptians.Thenativeorecinnabar(HgS) wasusedasacoloredpigment(vermilion),andheatedorrubbedwithvinegarinabrass mortarandpestletoproducethequicksilver.(ThewoodcutshowsMercurystills,1540AD.) ThenameMercuryisfromMercury,theRomangodofmessengers,andtheplanetMercury. Hg(#=80):Hydrargyrumfromhydroargyros(Greek)forwatersilversincemercuryisashiny liquid. Platinum,likeGold,canbefoundasgrainsandnuggetsinalluvialsandsbecauseitismore dense(21g/cm3)thanmostsoils.ButunlikeGold,Platinumcouldnotbemeltedbyany primitivesourceofheat.SoPlatinumhadlittleuseuntilitcouldbecombinedandshapedby melting.Platinum(Pt=#78):Plata(Spanish)forsilver,inaisadiminutivesuffix.Platinum lookslikesilver.PlatinumwasusedbySouthAmericanslongbeforeColumbus.Theuseof PlatinumwasimportedtoEuropefromSouthAmericabytheSpanish. Sulfurmusthavebeenknowtoancientneighborsofnaturaldeposits.PlinytheElder(Roman) describedItalianandSiciliandepositsandmedicinaluses,bleachingclothwithSulfurvapors, andmanufactureofSulfurmatchesandlampwicks.GeorgiusAgricola(14941555aboveleft) inDeReMetallicadescribedmatchesignitedbyfrictiononstoneandtheuseofSulfurinthe manufactureofgunpowder.(ThewoodcutshowsdistillationofSulfur,1557AD.)Early alchemiststhoughtSulfurwasresponsibleforcombustionandthereforemustberelatedtothe elementfire.TheinfluentialalchemistAbuMusaJabiribnHayyansuggestedthatmetalswere compoundsofSulfurandMercury.ThismadeMercuryandSulfurmoreimportantsubstances toalchemiststhanothermaterials.ThenameSulfur(S=#16):Schwefel/svovel/svavl (German&Scandinavian)originatedfromsuelphlos(IndoEuropean),whichisderivedfrom swelmeaningtoburnslowly.

PrimaryInformationSources: * MaryElviraWeeks,DiscoveryoftheElements,JournalofChemicalEducation,1945 * AaronJ.Ihde,TheDevelopmentofModernChemistry,Dover,1964&1984 * MaryEllenBowden,ChemicalAchievers,ChemicalHeritageFoundation,1997 * BoyleimagereengravedbyFranoisDiodatafromoriginalengravingbyWilliam Faithorne,EdgarFahsSmithCollection,UofPenn. * LavoisierpaintingbyJacquesLouisDavid,MetropolitanMuseumofArt,Purchase,Mr. andMrs.CharlesWrightsmanGift,1977 * MercurystillsfromBiringuccio'sPirotechnic,1540 * ManufactureofCharcoalfromBiringuccio'sPirotechnic,1540

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Alchemy Program23 Lesson4.1 Questions 1.1.Nameandbrieflydescribesomeofthechemicalskillspossessedbytheancients? 1.2.Whywascarbonanimportantsubstancetotheancients? 1.3.InAristotle'sschemewhatistherelationshipbetweenelementsandessentialqualitiesof matter? 1.4.WhydidtheGreekphilosophersrejecttheconceptofatoms? 1.5.Discusstherelationshipbetweenatomsandelements. 1.6.Whatisthealchemicalsignificanceofthethenumberseven? 1.7.Whatisalchemy? 1.8.CompareandcontrastalchemyintheFarEast,theMiddleEast,inGreece,andin medievalEurope. 1.9.Whydidalchemistsbelievethatsubstancescouldbecomemorenoble? 1.10.Describethegoalsandaccomplishmentsofalchemy. 1.11.Wereallalchemistscharlatansorfools?Discusstheconcept. 1.12.DiscussthedifferencebetweenAristotle'sconceptofelementandthatofanalchemists? 1.13.Inwhatwaysdoesalchemydifferfromchemistry? TextReferences 1.1.SpielbergandAnderson,none. 1.2.BoothandBloompp.223224;226227 ComingUp

Summary 1.Introduction 2.AncientChemicalSkills 3.AncientElements 4.RockstoMetal

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5.Aristotle'sElements 6.AtomistTheory 7.SevenMetals,SevenDays,SevenPlanets 8.Alchemy 9.GoalsofAlchemy 10.AccomplishmentsofAlchemy 11.ElementsofAlchemy 12.Alchemyvs.Chemistry

Objectives

1.Describeanddiscusstheuseofchemicaltechnologyamongancientpeoples 2.Listanddescribethepropertiesoftheelementsknowntoancientcivilizations 3.Describetheprocessofsmeltingoresanddiscussthesignificanceoftheroleofcarbonin theprocess 4.Associatethesevenancientmetalswiththedaysoftheweek 5.DiscusstheGreekconceptofatomsandtheirrejectionofit 6.DescribeAristotle'selementsandthequalitiesassociatedwiththem

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7.Discussthemysticalaspectsofalchemyasmodelsforfolklore 8.DistinguishbetweenEasternandWesternalchemyintermsofgoalsandmethods 9.Describetheconceptofthehierarchyofmatter 10.DistinguishAristotle'sconceptofelementsfromthatofthealchemist 11.Describethegoalsandobjectivesofalchemyinmodernterms 1.Introduction 1.1.Itisoftenthoughtthatalchemyprovidedtherootsforchemistry,thatchemistrygrewout ofalchemyasanaturalevolutionofunderstanding. 1.2.Thisisnotentirelytrue,andwedon'twanttoleaveyouwiththatimpression. 1.3.But,itishelpfultoconsideralchemyinouradventureforatleastfourreasons.

1.3.1.First,itwasbasedonAristotle'scosmology,atleastinEuropeandtheMideast 1.3.2.Second,theconceptofanelementasafundamentalconstituentofmattertookaradical turninNewton'stime.Weneedtocompareandcontrastthischangealongwiththegradual driftoftheconceptawayfromAristotle'sfourelements. 1.3.3.Third,althoughcrude,laborsofalchemysortedoutprocessesandpropertiesof substances(apparatusandmanipulativetechniques)whichprovedusefulinchemical studiesoncetheconceptofweightwasintroducedlateintheeighteenthcentury. 1.3.4.Fourthwastheideaofaformalsymboliclanguageforpractitionersofthe"art." 1.4.Thepropertieswithoutreflectthespiritswithin 1.5.Alchemyisasmuchofananthropologicalasphysicalscience

1.5.1.Jung:PsychologyandAlchemy

1.5.1.1.correspondencebetweenalchemicalsymbolismanddreams 1.5.2.ArthurJ.Hopkins:Practicalproceduresinvolvingdyeingandcolorchanges 1.5.3.MirceaEliade:ReligionandMyth 1.6.Definition:Alchemyisacosmicartbywhichpartsofthatcosmosthemineraland animalpartscanbeliberatedfromtheirtemporalexistenceandattainstatesofperfection, goldinthecaseofmineralsandforhumans,longevity,immortality,andfinallyredemption. Suchtransformationscanbebroughtaboutontheonehand,bytheuseofamaterial substancesuchasthephilosopher'sstoneorelixiror,ontheotherhand,byrevelatory knowledgeorpsychologicalenlightenment

1.7.material(exoteric)andspiritual(esoteric)aspects 1.8.aroseindependentlyinvariousplaces 1.9.singular,uniqueoriginordiverse,multiculturalorigin

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1.9.1.metallurgy==>embryonicgrowthofmetalsinsidethewombofmotherearth 1.10.laterlinkagesandinfluencescommonizedideas

1.10.1.elixiroflifeinIndianandChinese,butnotinGreek,makesitswaytoEuropevia Arabicalchemy 1.11.twooperationalconcepts

1.11.1.aurifiction:imitationofgold,therealmofartisans

1.11.1.1.fraudor"synthetic"material? 1.11.2.aurifaction:beliefingoldmaking,therealmofnaturalphilosophers 2.AncientChemicalSkills 2.1.useoffire 2.2.appliedchemicalartsandtechnologies 2.3.metallurgy,glass,pottery,fermentation,explosives,cooking,perfumes,dyesandpaints 2.4.reachedsophisticatedlevelsbymiddleages 3.AncientSubstancesandElements 3.1.knewthemassubstances,butnotelements 3.2.conceptofelementalsubstancebeginswithGreeks 3.3.element=basic,firstprinciple 3.4.sulfur

3.4.1.oddyellowappearance 3.4.2.burnswithblueflamesandsmellyfumes 3.4.3.leavesnoresiduewhenburned 3.4.4.associatedwithqualityofcombustibility 3.4.5.fumesassociatedwithvolcanicactivity 3.4.6.wordcomesfromSanskrit:copperdestroyer 3.4.7.thoughttobeactiveagentinmineralformation 3.4.8.alsocalledbrimstone 3.5.mercury

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3.5.1.aliquidmetal 3.5.2.thoughttorepresentpassivesubstanceinmineralformation 3.5.3.easiestofallmetalstoextractfromore 3.6.carbon

3.6.1.occursascharcoalandcoal 3.6.2.keytoreleasingmetallicelementsfromores 3.6.3.reducingagentstealsoxygenfrommetals 3.7.gold

3.7.1.won'treactchemically 3.7.2.doesn'ttarnish 3.7.3.nobleelement 3.7.4.alwaysfounduncombined 3.8.silver

3.8.1.tarnishesslightly 3.8.2.beautifulsurfacelusterandcolor 3.8.3.usuallyfounduncombined 3.9.copper

3.9.1.occasionallyfoundinnativestate 3.9.2.usuallyfoundcombinedasore 3.9.3.smeltedinBritainandEuropefrom2200B.C. 3.9.4.alloyedwithleadandtintoformbronze 4.RockstoMetal 4.1.oresreducetometalswhenheatedwithcarbon

4.1.1.howdifficulttodiscover 4.1.2.describeprocess 4.2.discoveryofsmeltingwasamajortechnologicalstep 4.3.stoneage>bronzeage>ironage 4.4.sevenmetalsknowninancienttimes

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4.4.1.gold,silver,iron,mercury,tin,copper,lead 4.4.2.goldandsilvervaluedaswealth 4.4.3.copperalloyedwithtinandleadtoformbronze 4.4.4.ironfallstoearthinmeteorites,butotherwiseneveroccursuncombined 4.4.5.mercuryisliquidatroomtemperatures

4.4.5.1.coatsandalloyswithgoldandothermetals 4.4.5.2.oneorereduceswithfirealone 5.Aristotle'sElementsandQualities

5.1.generatedfromoneprimarymatter

5.1.1.likeclayontowhichqualitiescouldbeimpressed 5.1.2.formedquartetofelementarysubstances 5.2.earth,air,fire,water 5.3.linkedwithessentialqualities 5.4.materialsubstancescouldbeanalyzedintofourcomponents

5.5.ElementsandQualities

5.5.1.substanceswerecombinationsofelementsandelementalqualities 5.5.2.essentialqualitiesestablishcentralcharacterofasubstance 5.5.3.fourelementsboundtogetherbythemoistquality 5.5.4.Fireisidealmixtureofhotness&dryness 5.5.5.oneelementcouldbechangedintoanother 5.5.6.addmoistureatexpenseofdrynesstotransformfireintoair 5.5.7.combustionwasconsideredatypeofmotion(alteration) 5.5.8.wood>fire,air,earth(ashes),water(condensation) 6.AtomistTheory 6.1.Greekphilosophersconsideredwhethermatterwasinfinitelydivisibleorwascomposed ofindivisibleparticles 6.2.atomistschoolwasledbyDemocritusin5thcenturyB.C.

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6.2.1.onlyexistingthingsareatomsandemptyspace 6.2.2.earlyrepresentationofatomicbonding 6.3.AtomismlostouttoAristotle'sauthority

6.3.1.Pythagoreansgaveupatomicconceptbecauseitrequiredirrationalnumbers

6.3.1.1.couldnotputcountable(integral)numberofatomsalonghypotenuseofmostright triangles 6.3.1.2.assumesatomsareallthesamesizeaswellasindivisible 6.3.2.adifferentconceptofspace 6.3.3.fourelementswerecontinuous,fluidlike 6.3.4.noconnectionbetweenatomsandelements 7.SevenMetals,SevenDaysandSevenPlanets

8.Alchemy TwoViewsofAlchemist'sLabs

8.1.Introduction 8.2.MiddleEasternAlchemy 8.3ChineseAlchemy 8.4GreekAlchemy 8.5ModelsForFolklore 8.6HierarchyofMatter

8.1.Introduction 8.1.1.Alchemybecameasciencewhentechnologyofdyesandmetallurgyconfrontedand
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amalgamatedwiththeoriesofmatterandchange 8.1.2.Alchemygrewindependentlyatmanydifferentlocationsindifferentcultures.

8.1.2.1.anyculturethathadmetallurgy 8.1.3.Archetypal

8.1.3.1.C.G.Jungnotedthattherearesimilaritiesbetweentheemblems,symbols,and drawingsusedinEuropeanalchemyandthedreamsofordinarytwentiethcenturypeople. 8.1.3.1.1.becausealchemicalactivitieswereconcernedwithaspiritualquesttomakesenseof theuniverse 8.1.3.1.2.manifestsindifferentformsindifferentculturesatdifferenttimes 8.1.4.ModernDefinition(repeatedfromintroduction) 8.1.4.1.Alchemyisacosmicartbywhichpartsofthatcosmosthemineralandanimalparts canbeliberatedfromtheirtemporalexistenceandattainstatesofperfection:goldinthecase ofminerals,andforhumans,longevity,immortalityandredemption. 8.1.4.2.Suchtransformationscanbebroughtaboutononehandbytheuseofamaterial substancesuchasthe'philosopher'sstone'orelixir,or,ontheotherhandbyrevelatory knowledgeorpsychologicalenlightenment. 8.1.4.3.Itisclearfromthisdefinitionthatthereweretwokindsofalchemicalactivity:the exotericormaterialandtheesotericorspiritual,whichcouldbepursuedseparatelyor together,butthattimewasasignificantelement.Perfectiontakestimetoattain,butthehope wasthatthealchemistcouldfindmethodstospeeduptheseprocesses. 8.1.5.NamecomesfromArabic

8.1.5.1.Alchemy=AlKhem=blacksoil(ofNiledelta) 8.1.6.Aristotle'sknowledgewasallthatwasavailable

8.1.6.1.servedasaparadigmforinvestigations 8.1.6.2.paradigmbecamecorruptedwithtime 8.1.6.3.HellenisticscientistshadinterestinexperimentationwhichwouldproveAristotle's theoriestobecorrect. 8.1.7.Alchemicalparadigmwascloselyassociatedwithmysticism

8.1.7.1.difficulttoreadalchemists'writings
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8.1.7.2.secret,metaphorical,technicallanguagearose

8.1.7.2.1.tomaintainaclosedshop 8.1.7.2.2.concealknowledgefromtheuninitiated 8.1.7.2.3.becamemoreandmorepicturesqueandfanciful 8.1.7.2.4."ThegreywolfdevourstheKing,afterwhichitisburiedonapyre,consumingthe wolfandrestoringtheKingtolife."

8.1.7.2.4.1.referstoextractionofgoldfromalloysbyskimmingofflessermetalsulfidesand roastingofthegoldantimonyalloyuntilantimonyevaporatesandpuregoldremains 8.1.7.2.4.2.nolessmystifiingthan"dehydrohalogenatevicinaldihalideswithamideionto providealkynes" 8.1.7.3.beingsecretiveisapartofmysticism

8.1.7.3.1.fromGk.musterion=secretrite 8.2.MiddleEasternAlchemy 8.2.1.GreekalchemyspreadtoArabs,whocombineditwithideasandpracticesofIndian andChinese 8.2.2.ItreachedLatinwestineleventhcenturyalongwithotherArabictranslations 8.2.3.Thisismostlikelytheoriginoftheideasofthephilosopher'sstoneandpotablegold (elixiroflife),alsofoundinChinesealchemy. 8.2.4.JabiribnHayyan

8.2.4.1.shadowyeighthcenturyfigure 8.2.4.2.overtwothousandwritingsattributedtohim

8.2.4.2.1.alchemy,astrology,numerology,medicine,mysticism 8.2.4.3.actuallytheworkofasect,theBrethrenofPurity

8.2.4.3.1.similartoPythagoreancult 8.2.4.4.workscompiledforEuropeanpublicationfromtranscriptsofJabir'sworks,published asSummaPerfectionis

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8.2.4.4.1.introducedthesulfurmercurytheory

8.2.4.4.1.1.metalsgeneratedinsideearthbymixingoffiery,smokyprinciple(sulfur)toa wateryprinciple(mercury)

8.2.4.4.1.1.1.mostearlyknownmetaloresweresulfide 8.2.4.4.1.2.goesalongwithStoicideathatmetalswereheldtogetherbyaspirit(mercury)and asoul(sulfur) 8.2.4.4.1.3.didnotexplainhowdifferentsubstantialformofmetalsandmineralsarose 8.2.4.4.2.taughtthatlightermetalshadparticlesseparatedbylargespaceswhiledense materialslikegoldwerecloselypacked 8.2.4.4.3.alchemists'taskwastoreducethesizeofparticlesandpackthemtighter 8.2.4.4.4.changesreferredtomercurialagentsreferredtoasmedicines,elixirsortinctures 8.2.4.4.5.inthewestbecameknownasthephilosopher'sstone 8.2.4.4.6.containeddefenseofalchemyandallformsoftechnology

8.2.4.4.6.1.alchemywastoopracticaltobeincludedinthecurriculumofthemedieval university 8.2.4.4.6.2.seemedtheologicallysuspectbecauseitimpliedsinfulhumankindthedivine powerofcreation 8.2.4.4.6.3.arguedthatpeoplehadtherighttoimproveuponnaturebecauseitwaspartof theirnaturetodoso 8.2.4.4.6.4.citedfarmers'exploitationofgraftingandalchemistsabilitytosynthesizecertain naturalchemicals 8.2.4.4.6.5.thenotionthatartandsciencecanequaloroutdotheproductsofnature,andthat mancanchangetheorderofthenaturalworldbyalteringthoseproductswouldhavea profoundeffectonthedirectiontakenbyWesternculture. 8.2.5.AlRazi(850923)

8.2.5.1.knownasRhazes 8.2.5.2.compiledpractical,straightforwardmanualofchemicalpractice,SecretofSecrets 8.2.5.3.classifiedsubstancesintometals,vitriols,boraxes,salts,andstonesbasedon solubilitesandtastes 8.2.5.4.codifiedlaboratoryproceduresintotechniquesofpurification,separation,mixing,

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andremovalofwater 8.2.5.5.describedandlistedchemicalsandminerals,apparatusandrecipes 8.2.5.6.describedbeakers,flasks,phials,basins,candleandnaphthalamps,braziers, furnaces,files,spatulas,hammers,ladles,shears,tong,sandandwaterbaths,funnels,flasks, andmortarsandpestles 8.2.5.7.describedtechniquesofdistillation,sublimation,calcinationandsolutionwhich formedthebasisforchemicalengineeringfromthemonwards 8.3.ChineseAlchemy

8.3.1.Aurifactionalalchemicalideasandpracticeswereprevalentasearlyasthefourth centuryBCinChinaandweregreatlyinfluencedbytheTaoistreligionandphilosophy devisedbyLaoTzu~c.600BC)andembodiedinhisTaoTeChing(TheWayofLife).Like thelaterStoics,Taoismconceivedtheuniverseintermsofopposites:themale,positive,hot andlightprinciple,'Yang';andthefemale,negative,coolanddarkprinciple,'Yin'.The strugglebetweenthesetwoforcesgeneratedthefiveelements,water,fire,earth,woodand metal,fromwhichallthingsweremade: 8.3.2.UnlikelaterGrecoEgyptianalchemy,however,theChinesewerefarlessconcerned withpreparinggoldfrominferiormetalsthaninpreparing'elixirs'thatwouldbringthe humanbodyintoastateofperfectionandharmonywiththeuniversesothatimmortality wasachieved.InTaoisttheorythisrequiredtheadjustmentoftheproportionsofYinand Yanginthebody.Thiscouldbeachievedpracticallybypreparingelixirsfromsubstances richinYang,suchasredbloodedcinnabar(mercuricsulfide),goldanditssalts,orjade.This doctrineledtocarefulempiricalstudiesofchemicalreactions,fromwhichfollowedsuch usefuldiscoveriesasgunpowderareactionbetweenYinrichsaltpeterandYangrichsulfur fermentationindustriesandmedicinesthatmusthavebeenrichinsexualhormones.Asin westernalchemy,Taoistalchemysoonbecamesurroundedbyritualandwasmoreofan esotericdisciplinethanapracticallaboratoryart. 8.3.3.Beliefinthetransformationofbloodlikecinnabarintogolddatesfrom133BCwhen LiShaoChunappealedtotheEmperorWuTitosupporthisinvestigations:

8.3.3.1.Summonspiritsandyouwillbeabletochangecinnabarpowderintoyellowgold. Withthisyellowgoldyoumaymakevesselstoeatanddrinkoutof.Youwillincreaseyour spanoflife,youwillbeabletoseethehsienoftheP'englai[homeoftheImmortalsthatis inthemidstofthesea.Thenyoumayperformthesacrificesfangandshangandescape death. 8.3.4.Fromthenon,manyChinesetextsreferredtotheconsumptionofpotablegold.This waitanformofalchemy,whichwassystematizedbyKoHunginthefourthcenturyAD,was not,however,theonlyformofChinesealchemy. 8.3.5.TheChinesealsodevelopednaitan,orphysiological,alchemy,inwhichlongevityand immortalityweresoughtnotfromthedrinkingofanexternalelixir,butfromaninnerelixir' providedbythehumanbodyitself.Inprinciple,thiswasobtainedfromtheadept'sown bodybyphysiologicaltechniquesinvolvingrespiratory,gymnasticandsexualexercises.
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Withtheeverincreasingevidenceofpoisoningfromwaitanalchemy,naitanbecame popularfromthesixthcenturyAD,causingadiminutionoflaboratorypractice.Ontheother hand,naitanseemstohaveencouragedexperimentationwithbodyfluidssuchasurine, whoseritualisticusemayhaveledtotheChineseisolationofsexhormones. 8.3.6.MedicineandalchemywerealwaysintimatelyconnectedinChinesealchemy,a connectionthatisalsofoundinArabicalchemy.SinceGreekalchemylaidfarmorestresson metallurgicalpracticesthoughthepreparationofpharmaceuticalremedieswasalso importantitseemshighlyprobablethatArabicwritersandexperimentalistswere'deeply influencedbyChineseideasanddiscoveries'. 8.3.7.ThereissomeevidencethattheChineseknewhowtopreparedilutenitricacid. Whetherthiswaspreparedfromsaltpeterasaltthatisformednaturallyinmiddenheaps orwhethersaltpeterfollowedthediscoveryofnitricacid'sabilitytodissolveother substances,isnotknown.Scholarshavespeculatedthatgunpowderamixtureofsaltpeter, charcoalandsulfurwasfirstdiscoveredduringattemptstoprepareanelixirofimmortality. Atfirstusedinfireworks,gunpowderwasadaptedformilitaryuseinthetenthcentury.Its formulahadspreadtoIslamicAsiabythethirteenthcenturyandwastostuntheEuropeans thefollowingcentury.Gunpowderandfireworkswereprobablythetwomostimportant chemicalcontributionsofChinesealchemy,andvividlydisplaythepowerofchemistrytodo harmandgood. 8.3.8.AsintheLatinwest,mostoflaterChinesealchemywaslittlemorethanchicanery,and mostofthestoriesofalchemists'misdeedsthatarefoundinwesternliteraturehavetheir literaryparallelsinChina.AlthoughtheJesuitmissions,whicharrivedinChinain1582, broughtwiththeminformationonwesternastronomyandnaturalphilosophy,itwasnot until1855thatwesternchemicalideasandpracticeswerepublishedinChinese.Amajor changebeganin1865whentheKiangnanarsenalwasestablishedinShanghaito manufacturewesternmachinery.Withinthisarsenalaschoolofforeignlanguageswasset up.AmongtheEuropeantranslatorswasJohnFryer(18391928),whodevotedhislifeto translatingEnglishsciencetextsintoChineseandtoeditingapopularsciencemagazine,Ko ChihHuiPhien(ChineseScientificandIndustrialMagazine). 8.4.GreekAlchemy

8.4.1.StoicismadoptedandadaptedmuchofAristotle'sphilosophy 8.4.2.physicsandinfinitedivisibilityofmatter 8.4.3.inertmatterandpneuma(vitalspirit)

8.4.3.1.pneumapervadescosmos,promotesgenerationaswellasdecay 8.4.3.2.fireandairwerethoughttobeactive,earthandwaterpassive 8.4.3.3.fireandairwereinterpretedasformsofpneumawhichbecamethegluethatbound passiveearthandwaterintocohesivesubstances. 8.4.4.practicalalchemywasthechildofmedicineandpharmacy,dyeingandmetallurgy. 8.5.Modelsforfolklore

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8.5.1.witchesbrewandsorcerer'sconcoctions

8.5.1.1.frogeye,skinofNewt,andlegoflizard 8.5.2.Macbeth'switches 8.5.3.MerlintheMagician 8.5.4.TheWizardofId 8.5.5.magicpotionsoffairytales

8.5.5.1.CinderellaandSleepingBeauty 8.5.6.fantasyfiction:LordoftheRings 8.6.Hierarchyofmatter

8.6.1.thoughtthatmattercouldadvancetowardsahigherstateofpurity 8.6.2.likeSocrates'moralprinciples 8.6.3.governmentscouldincreaseethicalpurity 8.6.4.peoplecouldbecomehealthierandeventuallyimmortal 8.6.5.lessperfectmetalsslowlygrewtobecomemorenoble

8.6.5.1.natureperformedthisovertimeinsideherwomb,theearth 8.6.6.significanceoftime

8.6.6.1.materialandspiritualperfectiontaketime 8.6.6.2.alchemistmightdiscovermethodtospeeduptemporalprocesses 8.6.7.metalscould"grow"towardsnobility(goldness)

8.6.7.1.lead"younger"thantinwhichisclosertosilver 8.6.7.2.antimonyolderyet(yellowishtinttometal) 8.6.7.3.certainreactionsincreased"goldness"ofmetals

8.6.7.3.1.alloying 8.6.7.3.2.chemicalcoloring

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Ancientdocumentdescribingmanufactureofcalciumpolysulfide,usedtochangesurfacecolor ofametal.Suchsolutionsassumedgreatimportanceforthealchemists. "...ahandfuloflimeandanotherofsulfurinfinepowder;placetheminavesselcontaining vinegarortheurineofasmallchild.Heatitfrombelowuntilthesupernatantliquidappears likeblood.Decantthislatterproperlyinordertoseparateitfromthedeposit,anduse."

8.6.8.Aristotle'sprimematterwasnotintendedtobetangiblestuffthatcouldbeseparated fromsubstances,butlateralchemistsbelieveditso. 8.6.9.ultimatestateofmatter:quintessence 9.GoalsofAlchemy 9.1.searchedfor"elixiroflife"tocreateimmortality 9.2.searchedfor"philosopher'sstone"totransformbasematterintohighermatter 9.3.searchedformagicpotionstocurediseases 9.4.Goalswerenoble

9.4.1.werenotfoolish 9.4.2.werenotcharlatan 9.4.3.wereattemptedoutofacombinationofintellectualcuriosityandignorance 9.5.Goalswerenotattained

9.5.1.nounderlyingchemicaltheorytoguideexperimentation 9.5.2.nosystematicmethodforcommunicatingdiscoveries 9.5.3.limitedinwhattheycoulddobytrialanderror 9.5.4.mostlyqualitativestudies 9.5.5.difficulttocontroltemperaturesofreactionsandconcentrationsofsolutions 9.5.6.withoutconsistentguidingtheoreticalstructurecannotcometogripswithcomplexity 9.5.7.from1000B.C.to1700A.D.onlyafewnewsubstancewerediscoveredwhichturned outtobeelements 10.AccomplishmentsofAlchemy 10.1.attemptedtosystematizeinformation 10.2.developedmanytechniquesofmodernchemistry 10.3.suppliedmaterials 10.4.revealedinformationaboutpropertiesofsubstances 10.5.putmanypeopletoworkmixingandreactingvarioussubstances

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11.AlchemicalElements 11.1.differedfrombothAristotle'sandmodernconcepts 11.2.substanceswereseenas"purveyorsofelementalprinciples"

11.2.1.notseenasprimaryorpuresubstances 11.2.2.embodimentsofprinciplesofpurity 11.3.Examplesofelementalprinciples

11.3.1.sulfur

11.3.1.1.principleofcombustibility 11.3.1.2.clearblueflame,noashes 11.3.1.3.Sanskrit"shulbari"=copperenemy 11.3.1.4.copper"burns"insulfurtodestroyitspurity 11.3.2.mercury

11.3.2.1.principleofmetalness 11.3.2.2.passive(Yang)elementinmineralformation 11.3.3.salt

11.3.3.1.principleofearthiness 11.3.3.2.calx(ash)remainedafterburningmetals

11.3.3.2.1.processknownascalcification 11.3.4.gold

11.3.4.1.embodiedmoreprinciplesthananyothersubstance 11.3.4.2.principleofluster 11.3.4.3.principleofcolor 11.3.4.4.principleofheaviness 11.3.4.5.principleofnobility(inertness) 12.Alchemyvs.Chemistry

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Afterseeingthenatureofalchemywecannowlistsomeoftheimportantaspectsofour modernscienceofchemistrywhichdistinguishesitfromalchemy.

12.1.Chemistryinvolvessystematicidentificationandpurificationofsubstances 12.2.Chemistryseekstounderstandtheelementalmakeupofsubstances

12.2.1.qualitativeanalysis:whichelementsarepresentinasubstance 12.2.2.quantitativeanalysis:numericalproportionsofelementspresentinsubstances 12.3.Chemistryinvolvesthesynthesisofnaturalandnewsubstances 12.4.Chemistryseekstounderstandthepropertiesofsubstancesandelements 12.5.Chemistryseekstounderstandthenatureofchemicalreactions 13.Summary Inthislessonweexaminedtheorigins,growth,anddevelopmentofancientpracticesof alchemy.Wesawhowprehistoricchemicalskillsallowedourdistantancestorstotheeventual discoveryoftheprocessofsmeltingmetals.Withthisknowledgecamethebronzeage,followed bytheironage. Wenotedthatalchemicalsymbolsseemtoberelatedto,orderivedfrom,certainarchetypal symbolsasspecifiedbypsychologistC.G.Jung. Aristotle'suniverseincludedtheprocessesofchemicalchangethroughthequalitiesofmatter whosecombinationscreatedthefourelementsfromwhichallmatterwasthoughttobe composed. Oneexampleofalchemicalmysticismistheconcordanceofthenumberofdaysintheweek withthenumberofknownplanetsandthenumberofknownmetals.Thenumbersrefertothe numberknowntoexistatthattime. WebrieflydescribedthemainpointsofalchemyintheMiddleEast,inChina,andinancient Greece,notingthesimilaritiesanddifferences.WealsonotedtheinteractionofMiddleEastern alchemywiththepracticesandbeliefsofChinaandIndia,andtheeventualinfluenceon EuropeanthoughtaccompanyingthestirringsoftheRenaissanceinthetwelfthcenturyA.D. Wesawsomeexamplesoftheinfluenceandpersistenceofalchemyisfolkloreandinliterature inourownculture. Wewereintroducedtotheconceptofthehierarchyofmatterwhichdevelopedoverthe centuries.ThiswascombinationofthemoralprinciplesofSocrates,mixedwithAristotle's conceptoftransformationofmatter,andtheearlieralchemicalexperienceswithchemical changesofvarioustypes. Althoughthegoalsofalchemistswere,forthemostpart,noble,theywerenotattained.The
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philosopher'sstoneandtheelixiroflifewereneverfound,norwasamethodfoundtochange metalsintogold.Thegoalswerenotmuchdifferentfromourownqueststoday.Thealchemists fellshortoftheirgoalsbecausetheylackedacoherenttheory,orparadigm,toguidetheir experimentation,andbecausethepracticesanddiscoverieswereritualizedandtherefore secretive. Althoughthegoalswerenotattained,theworkofmanycenturiesofalchemistspreparedthe wayformodernchemistrybydevelopingmanyofthetechniquesandvesselsofmodern chemistry.Theyalsosuppliedrawmaterials,revealedinformationaboutthepropertiesof substanceswhichwereusefulinlaterstudies. BythefifteenthcenturyaconceptofelementswhichwasdifferentfromAristotle'sandourown modernconcepthadevolved.Substanceswereseenashavingmysticalproperties,almostlike personalitieswhichwereimportantintheiruseandintheirreactions.Theelementswereseen notasbasicsubstances,butratherassubstanceswhichportrayedcertainchemicalorphysical properties.Thewerecalledelementalprinciples.Wecanthinkofelementsinthealchemical viewasbeing"purveyorsofelementalprinciples"suchascombustibility,earthiness,luster,etc. Finallywebrieflymadesomecomparisonsbetweenalchemyandchemistry. 14.References 14.1.Brock,WilliamH.(1992)TheNortonHistoryofChemistry.W.W.Norton&Company,New York 14.2.Partington,J.R.(1937)AShortHistoryofChemistry.Doveredition,1989.DoverPublications, Inc.,NewYork.

AlchemyDictionary

A ablution

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Theprocessofwashingasolidwithaliquid,usuallyinwater.Spirituallyandpsychologically, itisfacingone'semotionsandlettingfeelingsflow,sothatinnocenceandpuritycanbe restored. Aion

(seeOuroboros)

Air AirisoneoftheFourElementsofalchemy.Airinthealchemicalsensecarriesthearchetypal propertiesofspiritintothemanifestedworld.ItisassociatedwiththeoperationofSeparation andrepresentedbythemetalIron. alchemy ThewordisderivedfromtheArabianphrase"alkimia,"whichreferstothepreparationofthe StoneorElixirbytheEgyptians.TheArabicroot"kimia"comesfromtheCoptic"khem"that alludedtothefertileblacksoiloftheNiledelta.Esotericallyandhieroglyphically,theword referstothedarkmysteryoftheprimordialorFirstMatter(theKhem),theOneThingthrough whichallcreationmanifests.Alchemy,then,istheGreatWorkofnaturethatperfectsthis chaoticmatter,whetheritbeexpressedasthemetals,thecosmos,orthesubstanceofoursouls.

alembic

Theupperpartofastill;astillhead.Thetermisoftenusedtorefertoacompletestill.(see cucurbute;Distillation)

alkahest ThealkahestisthepowerfromAbovethatmakespossiblealchemicaltransformation.Theword isusuallytranslatedas"universalsolvent,"whichalludestotheabilityofthealkahestto dissolveorreduceallphysicalmattertoitsbasicessence.Withmetals,thismeanttransmuting themtotheirpurestform,whichwasgold.Inthehumanbody,thismeantthecreationor revealingofagoldenbodyofconsciousness,theAstralBody. aludel Apearshapedearthenwarebottle,openatbothends.Itwasusedasacondenserinthe sublimationprocessandthuscametosignifytheendstagesoftransformation.Alsocalledthe

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HermeticVase,thePhilosopher'sEgg,andtheVaseofthePhilosophy. amalgam

Theamalgamisasolidmetalformedbythecombinationofmercurywithgold,silver,lead,or othermetals.

angel

Anangelinalchemicaltreatisessymbolizessublimationortheascensionofthevolatile principle.

Ankh

TheAnkhisahieroglyphiccharacterusedbyEgyptianalchemiststodenotetheascendancyof thelifeforceorspirit(thecircle)overthematerialworld(thecross).Inotherwords,through crucifixion,thesoulrisesandisrebornonahigherlevel.Itsusedatesbackover3,000yearsand isasymbolicrenditionoftheprinciplesexpressedintheEmeraldTablet.Initsdesign,the circularOneMindprojectsdownwardintotheOneThing,whilethelateralmanifestedworld onwhichwearecrucifiedisindicatedbythehorizontalbar.

animals

Animalsareoftenusedtosymbolizethebasiccomponentsandprocessesofalchemy.Theymay beusedtosymbolizethefourElementssuchasthelionorox(Earth),fishorwhales(Water), eagles(Air),orsalamandersordragons(Fire).Aerialanimalsgenerallyindicatevolatile principles,whileterrestrialanimalsindicatefixedprinciples.Whenevertwoanimalsarefound, theysignifySulfurandMercuryorsomerelationshipbetweenthefixedandthevolatile.

antimony

Themetalantimonysymbolizestheanimalnatureorwildspiritofmanandnature,anditwas oftensymbolizedbythewolf.AlchemistBasilValentinenamedthemetal,afterfeedingitto somemonksinaBenedictinemonastery.Themonksgotviolentlyillandsomeevendied,hence theLatinnamethatmeans"antimonk."Spirituallytoo,monksfeelmostthreatenedbytheir ownanimalnature.Oddlyenough,theTinctureofAntimonycuresvenerealdiseases.

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Apollo

ReferencestotheGreekgodApollosignifytheSunasspiritorsolarconsciousness.

aquafortis

AquafortisisLatinfor"strongwater"andreferstonitricacid.Variousgradesofaquafortiswere prepareddependingonthelengthofDistillation,whichconcentratedtheacid.

aquaregia

Amixtureofaquafortis("strongwater,"i.e.,nitricacid)andspiritussalis("spiritofsalt,"i.e., hydrochloricacid)producesaquaregia("royalwater"sonamedbecauseitcandissolvegold). Itwasfirstpreparedbydistillingcommonsaltwithaquafortis.

aquavitae

The"livingwater"orwater"withspirit."Anaqueousalcoholconcentratedbyoneormore Distillations.

arcana Thearcana("magicalsecrets")arearchetypalinfluencesthattranscendspaceandtime. AccordingtotheancienttextArchidoxies,thearcanaarepreexistingpowersthat"havethe poweroftransmuting,altering,andrestoringus."Inthisview,thearcanaarethesecret workingsofthemindofGod,thelogosoftheGreeksorwhatthealchemistsreferredtoasthe thoughtsoftheOneMind.IntheTarot,thearcanaarerepresentedbysymbolicdrawingsthat thereadertriestoworkwiththroughmeditation.IntheCabala,thearcanaarerepresentedby theesotericpropertiesofthelettersoftheHebrewalphabet,energiesthatthecabalisttriesto workwithintheTreeofLife.IntheintheancientChinesesystemofdivination,theIChing,the arcanaarerepresentedbythesixtyfourtrigrams,eachwithitsownpropertiesandinfluences. Thealchemistsbelievedthearcanawereexpressedonalllevelsofrealityfromchemical compoundstoourinnermostmoodsanddesires.
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ArcanumExperiment Theearlyalchemistsdividedtheirchemicalsintomajorandminorarcana.Themajorarcana consistedofthefourcompounds:Vitriol,Natron,LiquorHepatis,andPulvisSolaris.Threeout ofthefourconsistedofdualingredientsthatwereeasilyseparable.Vitriolcouldbebroken downintosulfuricacidandiron.Natronappearedassodiumcarbonateandsodiumnitrate. PulvisSolariswasmadeupoftheredandblackvarieties.Thus,thesevenchemicalscomprising theminorarcanawere:SulfuricAcid,Iron,SodiumCarbonate,SodiumNitrate,LiquorHepatis, RedPulvisSolaris,andBlackPulvisSolaris.Thealchemistsbelievedthatthesesecretchemicals couldbecombinedintheArcanumExperiment,thesinglelaboratoryexperimentthatwould demonstratethearchetypalforcesandevolutionoftheuniverse.Ideally,suchanexperiment shouldsucceedonmanylevels,notonlycorroboratingthedeepestphilosophicaland psychologicalprinciples,butalsoprovidingconcreteevidenceoftheirveracity.TheArcanum Experimentexposedthehiddenprinciplesconnectingheavenandearth,offeringaframework inwhichtoexplainbothmicrocosmicandmacrocosmicevents. athanor FromtheArabicword"altannur"(oven),theathanoristhefurnaceusedbythealchemiststo perfectmatter.Builtofbrickorclay,theathanorusuallywasshapedlikeatowerwithadomed roofandwasdesignedtokeepanevenheatoverlongperiodsoftime.Thealchemists considereditanincubatorandsometimesreferredtoitasthe"HouseoftheChick." Symbolically,theathanorisalsothehumanbodyandthefireofbodilymetabolismthatfuels ourtransformationandtheultimatecreationofaSecondBodyoflight.Themountainisa symbolfortheathanor,sincetheperfectionofthemetalstakesplaceundertheguiseofNature withinmountains.Sometimesahollowoaktreeisusedtosymbolizetheatanor. Azoth Theterm"Azoth"isformedfromthefirstandlastlettersoftheEnglishalphabet("a"and"z"), whichstandforthebeginningandendofallcreationthealphaandomegaoftheGreek philosophers,thealephandtauoftheHebrewcabalists.ThereforetheAzothistheultimate arcanum,theuniversalspiritofGodinallcreatedthings.Thealchemistsbelievedthatthe liquidmetalmercurycarriedthesignatureofthisomnipotentarchetypalspirit.

B BainMarie TheBainMarieisawarmalchemicalbath.Chemically,itisadoubleboilerinwhichacontainer ofwaterissuspendedinasimmeringcauldron.Psychologically,itisthegentlewarmthof emotionallycenteredmeditationusedintheDissolutionprocess.TheBainMariewasnamed afterMariaProphetissa,aJewishalchemistwhowrotemuchaboutthemethodsandequipment oftheWateroperationsofDissolutionandDistillation.

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balsam Abalsamisaresinousorwaxysemisolidcompoundthatcapturestheessenceofaliquid medicineorperfume.ToParacelsus,thebalsamwasthe"interiorsalt"thatprotectedthebody fromdecomposition,andearlieralchemistsconsideredtheBalsamoftheElementstobethe Quintessence,theresultoftheConjunctionofalchemicalprinciples.Becauseofitamalgamating ability,mercurywasconsideredthebalsamagentofthemetals.Inthechemicalarcana,Liquor HepatismixedwithfatorwaxwasknownastheBalsamoftheSoul. Basilisk TheBasiliskisasymbolicalchemicalcreaturesaidtohavetheheadofabirdandthebodyofa dragon.Thewinglessserpentineanimalwashatchedfromahermaphroditiccock'seggand nursedbyaserpent.Psychologically,theBasiliskrepresentsthemeldingofourhigherand lowernaturesinConjunction,aprocessthatmustbecontinuedinthenextthreeoperationsof alchemyforthis"ChildofthePhilosophers"tobecometheLivingStoneofthefullyintegrated Self.Biologically,theBasiliskrepresentsthemammalianembryology,thegeneticreplayingof thestagesofevolutionwithintheeggorwomb.TheBasiliskalsohaschemicalconnotations, whichprobablyhavetodowithametallurgicalprocessinvolvingcinnabar. baths

BathsinalchemysymbolizetheDissolutionprocessinwhichthemetalsarecleansedand purified.

birds

Ascendingbirdsindicatethevolatilizationofcompoundsortheirsublimation.Descending birdsindicatethefixationofcompoundsortheircondensationandprecipitation.Birdsshown bothascendinganddescendingindicatetheprocessofDistillation.

bezoar Somechemicalcompounds,suchassulfurauretumwhenmixedwitheitherredmercuricoxide orblackantimony,clumptogetherinseparablyassoonastheyaremixedtogether.The alchemistsconsideredsuchcompoundstobechemicalbezoars,whicharehardclumpsof undigestedfoodorsolidballsofhairsometimesfoundintheintestines.IntheMiddleAges, physiciansthoughtthestrangemassprotectedpeoplefrompoisonsandactuallyprescribeditto theirpatients.Egyptianpriestsdiscoveredbezoarsduringthepreparationofmummiesand believedthehardballsweremagicalpillsformedbythelargeserpentinman(theintestines).

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SomeevidencesuggeststhattheEgyptiansalsolookedforasimilarpillinthesmallserpentin man(thebrain)andfounditthereintheformofthepinealgland.Thispineshapedglandis imbeddedwithtinycrystalsofdarkmelanin,andcouldexplaintheEgyptianpinecone emblemsandtheoriginofthecaduceusitself.And,inthesamewaythatbezoarswereformed intheserpentinecontoursoftheintestines,sowasgoldformedinthebowelsoftheearth:gold wasconsideredamineralbezoar. BlackPhase

TheBlackPhase(orMelanosis)isthefirststageinalchemy.Itphasebeginswiththeoperation ofCalcinationandlaststhroughthePutrefactionstageofFermentation.

brimstone (seeSulfur)

C caduceus ThecaduceusisthemagicalstaffofHermes,theMessengeroftheGodsandrevealerof alchemy.Thestaffisentwinedbytwoserpentsrepresentingthesolarandlunarforces.Their unionistheConjunctionofalchemicalprinciplesandtheiroffspring,ifitlives,istheStone.This Stoneisrepresentedasagoldenballwithwingsatthetopofthecaduceus. Calcination Thefirstoperationinalchemicaltransformation.Itisdenotedbythesymbolforthefirstsignof thezodiac,Aries. Ceration ApartoftheFermentationprocessduringwhichawaxysubstanceflowsfromtheputrefied matter.ThisistheFerment,theprecursoroftheStone.Cerationisthesofteningormollification ofahardmaterialtochangeitintoamorewaxystate;coveringwithwaxorsalve. child

Anakedchildsymbolizestheinnocentsoul.Inalchemy,thechildistheoffspringoftheKing andQueen,theresultoftheirmarriageorunion.Achildcrownedorclothedinpurplerobes
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signifiesSaltorthePhilosopher'sStone.

cibation

Cibationistheadditionofnewmaterialtothecontentsofthecrucible.DuringDissolution,it requiresaddingliquidtothedesiccatedmatteratpreciselytherightmoment.

cinnabar Cinnabaristhebrightredoreofmercurysulfide.Knownas"Dragon'sBlood,"theroastedrocks emitathickreddishsmoke,aspureglisteningmercuryoozesfromcracks.Psychologically, cinnabarrepresentsthehardenedhabitsandterrestrialmarriagesofsoulandspiritthatmustbe brokenasunderinCalcinationtofreetheessenceswithwhichthealchemistintendstowork. circle Thecircleorsphereissymbolicofunity,theOneMindofgod.Itismathematicallyand psychologicallyan"irrational"experiencebeyondthedualityofreason. Coagulation TheseventhandlastoperationinalchemicaltransformationisCoagulation. Cohobation

AkindofDistillationinwhichthedistillateispouredbackintoitsresidue;amethodof redistillation.

Conjunction Conjunctionisthefourthoperationinalchemicaltransformation.Itisthecomingtogetherof theopposingarchetypalforcesoftheSunandMoonortheKingandQueen. Congelation

AlooseortemporaryConjunctionofopposites;amixtureinwhichaliquidisgelledormade semisolid;intercourse.TheprocessisrepresentedbythesignfortheconstellationofTaurus.
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copper Copperisoneofthesevenmetalsofalchemy.Copper(andsometimesbronzeandbrass)is associatedwiththeoperationofConjunctionandtheelementEarth.

croslet

(seecrucible)

crown

Thecrownsymbolizesthesuccessfulcompletionofanalchemicaloperationortheachievement ofamagisterium.Italsosignifieschemicalroyaltyortheperfectionofametal.

crows

CrowsarethesymbolsoftheblackphasesofCalcinationandPutrefaction.

crucible

Thecrucibleisthemeltingvesselofthealchemists.Itismadeofinertmaterialsuchasporcelain andcanwithstandgreatheat.Usedtoliquefythemetals.

curcurbite

Thelowerpartofastill,containingtheoriginalliquid.Itismadeofglassorearthenwareand wasalsoknownasa"gourd"onaccountofitsshape;areceiver.(seealembic;Distillation)

cupel

Asmallcupordishmadeofboneashorotherporousandinfusiblematerial.Cupellationisthe
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processofheatingasubstanceinacupelinacurrentofair,suchasdoneintherefiningofsilver andgold.

D dew

DewissymbolicofdivineincarnationormanifestationfromAbove.Alchemistsbelieved naturaldewcontainedthedivineSalt(thoughtsoftheOneMind)thatcouldtransformthe SulfurandMercuryoftheFirstMatter.Inmanyways,dewrepresentedtheElixirorcontentsof thecupofGod,theHolyGrail.

Diana

AppearancesoftheGreekgoddessDianainalchemicaldrawingsandtreatisessignifytheMoon andLunarconsciousness.

Digestion

AkindofPutrefactioninwhichthethenutrientsoressencesarereabsorbed.

Distillation Distillationisthesixthoperationinalchemicaltransformation.Denotedbythesymbolforthe constellationVirgo.Itisessentiallyaprocessofconcentration,nomatteronwhatlevel (physical,mental,orspiritual)itoccurs. Dissolution ThesecondoperationinalchemicaltransformationisDissolution.Theprocessofdissolvinga solidinaliquid;thereductionofadrythinginwater.Representedbythesignforthe constellationofCancer. dogs Dogssignifyprimitivematter,naturalsulfur,ormaterialgold.Adogbeingdevouredbyawolf
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symbolizestheprocessofpurifyinggoldusingantimony. dove ThedoveisasymbolofrenewedspiritorinfusionofenergyfromAbove.Chemically,it signifiesthechangefromtheBlackStagetotheWhitePhaseoftransformation. dragon ThedragoninflamesisasymboloffireandCalcination.Severaldragonsfightingissymbolicof Putrefaction.Dragonswithwingsrepresentthevolatileprinciple;dragonswithoutwings representthefixedprinciple.AdragonsbitingitsowntaleistheOuroborosandsignifiesthe fundamentalunityofallthings.

E eagle

Theeagleisalwaysasymbolofvolatilization.Forinstance,aneagledevouringalionindicates thevolatilizationofafixedcomponentbyavolatilecomponent.

Earth EarthisoneoftheFourElementsofalchemy.Earthinthealchemicalsensecarriesthe archetypalpropertiesofmanifestation,birth,andmaterialcreation.Itisassociatedwiththe operationofConjunctionandrepresentedbythegreenoreofcopper. Elixir TheElixirofthealchemistsisessentiallyaliquidversionofthePhilosopher'sStoneandhasthe sameabilitytoperfectanysubstance.Whenappliedtothehumanbody,theElixircures diseasesandrestoresyouth. egg Theeggissymbolicofthehermeticallysealedvesselofcreation.Stopperedretorts,coffins,and sepulchresrepresenteggsinmanyalchemicaldrawings.

F Fermentation
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ThefifthoperationinalchemicaltransformationisFermentation.Itisrepresentedbythesign fortheconstellationofCapricorn. Filtration

AkindofSeparation,inwhichmaterialispassedthroughasieveorscreendesignedtoallow onlypiecesofacertainsizetopassthrough.Theoperationisrepresentedbythesignforthe constellationofSagittarius,theArcher.

Fire FireisoneoftheFourElementsofalchemy.Fireinthealchemicalsensecarriesthearchetypal propertiesofactivityandtransformation.ItisassociatedwiththeoperationofCalcinationand representedbythemetallead. Fixation Theprocessofstabilizingandincarnatingasubstance;deprivingasubstanceofitsvolatilityor mobilitytocongealorcombineit.Theprocessisrepresentedbythesignfortheconstellationof Gemini. fountain ThealchemicalFountainofFountainsisasymboloftheOuroboros.Threefountainsrepresent thethreeprinciplesofSulfur,Mercury,andSalt.TheKingandQueensittinginafountain signifiesabathortheWateroperationsofDissolutionandDistillation.

G Geber

TheLatinnameofJabiribnHayyan(721815A.D.).HeisthefatherofbothIslamicand Europeanalchemy.HeknewoftheexistenceoftheEmeraldTabletandspreadthedoctrinesof theFourElementsandtheMercurySulfurtheoryofthegenerationofthemetals.

gold Goldisthemostperfectofthemetals.Forthealchemist,itrepresentedtheperfectionofall matteronanylevel,includingthatofthemind,spirit,andsoul.Itisassociatedwiththe operationofCoagulation.

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 grain

Grain,seeds,orgrapessymbolizethematteroftheStone.

Griffin'sEgg ThegriffinisahalflionandhalfeaglecreaturethatsymbolizestheConjunctionofthefixedand volatileprinciples.AnallusiontotheVesselofHermes.

H Hermaphrodite TheHermaphroditerepresentsSulfurandMercuryaftertheirConjunction.Rebis(something doubleincharacteristics)isanotherdesignationforthispointinthealchemyoftransformation.

I Iosis

(seePurplePhase)

iron Ironisoneofthesevenmetalsofalchemy.ItisassociatedwiththeoperationofSeparation.

J Jabir (seeGeber) JungianAlchemy PsychiatristCarlGustavJungrediscoveredtheimagesandprinciplesofalchemysurfacingin

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thedreamsandcompulsionsofhispatientsandbeganalifelongstudyofthesubject.He concludedthatalchemicalimagesexplainthearchetypalrootsofthemodernmindand underscoresaprocessoftransformationleadingtotheintegrationofthepersonality.

K King TheKinginalchemyrepresentsman,solarconsciousness,orSulfur.TheKingisnakedinthe earlyoperationsofalchemyandregainshisroyalrobesattheendofhistransformation.The KingunitedwiththeQueensymbolizesConjunction.

L lead Leadisthefirstandoldestofthesevenmetalsofalchemy.Itisassociatedwiththeoperationof Calcination.

Leukosis

(seeWhitePhase)

LiquorHepatis

LiquorHepatiswasthenamegiventoasulfurousliquidusedbythealchemists.Consideredthe arcanumofthesoul,LiquorHepatiswaspreparedbydistillingasolutionofsulfur,lime,and salammoniac.Theearlyalchemistssecuredlime(calciumoxide)byheatinglimestoneand madesalammoniac(ammoniumchloride)bygentlyheatingcameldunginsealedcontainers. ThedistillationforLiquorHepatisproducedacombinationofhydrogensulfideandammonia gases.Sincenosolidsprecipitated,alchemistsconsideredthisanascendingreactiononly.That wasasignificantfacttotheEgyptians,whoassociatedtheLiquorwiththesoul.Theybelieved thesoulresidedintheliver,andthereddishbrowncolorofLiquorHepatisconvincedthem theyhadisolatedthesoul'sessence.Thenamecomesfrom"hepar,"theGreekwordforliver. TheLiquorexudedanunnatural,pungentodorthatthealchemistsfoundquitemysterious. Theyassumeditwasduetoanetherealpresenceconcealedinthesulfurandactivatedbythe fertileprincipleinammonia.TotheEgyptians,theodorsymbolizedasouloraspiritized presencehiddenwithintheliquid.Theysolidifiedthatpresencebyaddingwaxandfatto LiquorHepatisandturningitintoathickpaste.TheemulsionbecameknownastheBalsamof theAlchemistsorBalsamoftheSoul.Thepossibilityofcoagulatinganinvisiblepotentialintoa secondbody,likeabalsam,becameabasictenetofalchemy.
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litharge

Thelitharge(orletharge)istheleftoverscum,spume,orashesofametallicoperation.

M Magnesia Magnesiawasamysticaltermtothealchemiststhatdenotedtheprimordialtransforming substanceintheuniverse.Itwasoneofmanysymbolsusedtodescribethecentralmysteryof alchemythatwasnevertobespokenofincommonwording. matrass Aroundbottomedflaskwithaverylongneck.Alsocalleda"bolthead." Melanosis

(seeBlackPhase)

menstruum

Analchemicaltermmeaningasolventoralkahesthavingboththepowertodissolveand coagulateatthesametime.Basedonthebeliefthattheovumtakesitslifeandformfromthe menses,themenstruumwasalsoreferredtotheastheMercuryofthePhilosophers.

Mercury Mercury,calledquicksilverbytheancients,isaliquidmetalthatcouldbefoundweeping throughcracksincertainrocksoraccumulatinginsmallpuddlesinmountaingrottos.Itwas alsoobtainedbyroastingcinnabar(mercurysulfide).Theshinymetalwouldseepfromthe rocksanddripdownintotheashes,fromwhichitwaslatercollected.Theearlyalchemists maderedmercuricoxidebyheatingquicksilverinasolutionofnitricacid.Theacid,whichlater alchemistscalled"aquafortis,"wasmadebypouringsulfuricacidoversaltpeter.Thereactionof quicksilverinnitricacidisimpressive.Athickredvaporhoversoverthesurfaceandbrightred crystalsprecipitatetothebottom.Thisstrikingchemicalreactiondemonstratedthe simultaneousseparationofmercuryintotheAboveandtheBelow.Mercury'sallencompassing
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propertieswereexhibitedinothercompoundstoo.Ifmercurywasheatedinalongnecked flask,itoxidizedintoahighlypoisonouswhitepowder(whitemercuricoxide)andtherapeutic redcrystals(redmercuricoxide).Calomel(mercurychloride)wasapowerfulmedicine,unless itwasdirectlyexposedtolight,inwhichcaseitbecameadeadlypoison.Whenmixedwith othermetals,liquidmercurytendedtounitewiththemandformhardenedamalgams.These andotherpropertiesconvincedalchemiststhatmercurytranscendedboththesolidandliquid states,bothearthandheaven,bothlifeanddeath.ItsymbolizedHermeshimself,theguideto theAboveandBelow. Multiplication AprocessofDistillationinwhichthepoweroftransmutationisconcentrated;anincreaseinthe amountoftheStoneasobtainedfromitspristineform.Itisrepresentedbythesignforthe constellationofAquarius.

N Natron Natronmeanssalt.Totheearlyalchemists,however,thewordNatronstoodforthebasic principleinallsaltformationandthecreationofbodiesingeneral.TheEgyptiansaccumulated thewhitesaltsformedfromtheevaporationoflakesandusedthemtopreservemummies. Knownassodaash(sodiumcarbonate),theoldestdepositsareintheSinaidesert.Another naturallyoccurringsodiumcompoundminedbytheEgyptianswascubicsaltpeter(sodium nitrate).ThealchemistsreferredtoboththesesaltsasNatron(fromtheArabicwordforsoda ash),becausetheysuspectedthatbothhadacommonsignatureorarchetypalbasis.

O Ouroboros TheOuroboros(orUroboros)isthesymbolicrenditionoftheeternalprinciplespresentedinthe EmeraldTablet.Thegreatserpentdevouringitselfrepresentstheideathat"AllIsOne,"even thoughtheuniverseundergoesperiodiccyclesofdestructionandcreation(orresurrection).In OrphicandMithraicsymbology,theOuroboroswascalledtheAgathosDaimonor"GoodSpirit" andwasasymbolforthe"OperationoftheSun."InGreekterminology,theOuroboroswasthe Aion,whichHerakleitoslikenedtoachildatplay.TotheGreeks,theAion(fromwhichour word"eon"isderived)definedthecosmicperiodbetweenthecreationanddestructionofthe universe.

P Pelican
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Acirculatoryvesselwithtwosidearmsfeedingcondensedvaporsbackintothebody.Ithasa fanciedresemblanceinshapetoapelicanpeckingatitsbreast. Philosopher'sStone

(seeStone)

Precipitation

AprocessofCoagulationinwhichsolidmatteriscreatedduringachemicalreactionandfalls outofsolution.

Projection ThefinalstageofCoagulationinwhichthepoweroftransformationisdirectedtowardabody; thefinalprocessinmakinggold,inwhichtheStoneorpowderStone(thepowderofprojection) istosseduponthemoltenbasemetaltotransmuteit.Itisrepresentedbythesignforthe constellationofPisces. PulvisSolaris PulvisSolariswasthechemicalarcanumthatrepresentedspirit.The"PowderoftheSun"wasa mixtureoftwopowders,BlackSolarisandRedSolaris.Combiningblackantimonywithsulfur auretummadeBlackPulvisSolaris.Blackantimonywasacommonsulfideofantimony,now knownasstibnite.Themineralwassmeltedandgroundfine.Puresulfurauretum,or"golden sulfur,"wasmadebyaddingsulfuricacidtoadriedmixtureofsodiumcarbonate,sulfur,lime, andantimony.Thereactiongaveoffhydrogensulfidegas,whilethesulfurauretum precipitatedtothebottomofthecontainer.RedPulvisSolariswasmadebycombiningsulfur auretumwithacompoundofmercuryknownasredmercuricoxide.Egyptianalchemists associatedtheserpentwiththeredmercuricoxideandreferredtoRedPulvisSolarisasPulvis Serpentum.LateralchemistsbecameconvincedthatRedPulvisSolariswasindeedthepowder ofprojectionthatwouldenablethemtotransformvirtuallyanythingintopuregold. PurplePhase

ThePurplePhase(orIosis)oftheGreatWorkisthethirdandfinalstageoftransformation.Itis markedbythepurplingorreddeningofthematerialandoccursduringtheCoagulation operation.

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 Putrefaction ThefirststageoftheFermentationoperation;adigestioninwhichdecomposingessencesare reabsorbed.TheprocesswasrepresentedbythesymbolfortheconstellationofLeo.

Q Queen TheQueensymbolizeswoman,lunarconsciousness,andMercury.TheQueenisnakedduring theearlystagesbutregainsherroyalrobesattheendofhertransformation.TheQueenunited withtheKingistheoperationofConjunction. quicklime

Quicklimeisunslackedlimeorcalciumoxide.Calciumoxideisobtainedbyheatinglimestone, eggshells,oranymaterialcontainingCalciumCarbonate,whichisoneofthesevenarcanaof alchemy.

quicksilver (seeMercury) Quintessence TheQuintessenceisthefifthelementwithwhichthealchemistscouldwork.Itwastheessential presenceofsomethingorsomeone,thelivingthingitselfthatanimatedorgavesomethingits deepestcharacteristics.TheQuintessencepartakesofboththeAboveandtheBelow,themental aswellasthematerial.Itcanbethoughtofastheetherealembodimentofthelifeforcethatwe encounterindreamsandalteredstatesofconsciousness.Itisthepurestindividualessenceof somethingthatwemustunveilandunderstandinordertotransformit.

R Rebis (seeHermaphrodite) retort

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Theretortisasphericalcontainer(usuallyglass)withalongneckorspout.Itisusedtodistillor decomposesolutionsbytheactionofheatoracids.

S Salt Saltisthethirdheavenlysubstanceinalchemyandrepresentsthefinalmanifestationofthe perfectedStone.TheEmeraldTabletcallsit"theGloryoftheWholeUniverse."ForParacelsus, Saltwaslikeabalsamthebodyproducedtoshielditselffromdecay.Ithasalsobeenassociated withtheOuroboros,theStone,andtheAstralBody.Ingeneral,Saltrepresentstheactionof thoughtonmatter,beittheOneMindactingontheOneThingoftheuniverseorthealchemist meditatinginhisinnerlaboratory. Separation Thethirdoperationinthealchemyoftransformation.SymbolsofSeparationincludeswords, scythes,arrows,knives,andhatchets.Theoperationissymbolizedbythesignforthe constellationofScorpio. serpents

TwoserpentsrepresenttheopposingmasculineandfeminineenergiesoftheWork.Three serpentsstandforthethreehigherprinciplesofSulfur,Mercury,andSalt.Wingdserpents representvolatilesubstances;winglessserpentsrepresentfixedsubstances.Acrucifiedserpent representsthefixationofthevolatile.

silver

Silverisoneofthesevenmetalsofalchemy.ItisassociatedwiththeoperationofDistillation.

skeletons SkeletonssignifytheprocessofPutrefaction,onallthelevelsinwhichitoccurs.

Soul

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Soulinalchemyisthepassivepresenceinallofusthatsurvivesthroughalleternityandis thereforepartoftheoriginalsubstance(FirstMatter)oftheuniverse.Ultimately,itistheOne Thingoftheuniverse.Soulwasconsideredbeyondthefourmaterialelementsandthus conceptualizedasafifthelement(orQuintessence).

Spirit

Spiritinalchemyistheactivepresenceinallofusthatstrivestowardperfection.Spiritseeks materialmanifestationforexpression.Ultimately,itistheOneMindoftheuniverse.

square

ThesquareorcubeissymbolicofmatterandtheFourElementsofcreation.

Stone

TheStoneisthegoaloftheGreatWork.Itwasviewedasamagicaltouchstonethatcould immediatelyperfectanysubstanceorsituation.ThePhilosopher'sStonehasbeenassociated withtheSaltoftheWorld,theAstralBody,theElixir,andevenJesusChrist.

Sublimation ThefirststageofCoagulation,inwhichthevaporssolidify;representedbythesignforthe constellationofLibra.Thevaporizationofasolidwithoutfusionormelting,followedbythe condensationofitsvaporintheresolidifiedformonacoolsurface.Theelevationofadrything byfire,withadherencytoitsvessel.TheastrologicalsymbolassociationwithSublimationisthe signofLibra,thescales. Sulfur Sulfur(Sulphur)isoneofthethreeheavenlysubstances.Itrepresentspassionandwillandis associatedwiththeoperationofFermentation.

T tin Tinisoneofthesevenmetalsofthealchemists.ItisassociatedwiththeoperationofDissolution
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andtheelementWater.Pewter(amixtureofleadandtin)representsametallicstatebetween theoperationsofCalcinationandDissolution. threelevels

Thekeytounderstandingalchemyistorealizethatalchemicalthoughtisextremelydynamic andtakesplacesonthreelevelsatonce:thephysical,thepsychological,andthespiritual.Thus turningleadintogoldmeantnotonlyphysicallychangingthebasemetalintothenoblemetal, butalsotransformingbasehabitsandemotionsintogoldenthoughtsandfeelings,aswellas transmutingourdarkandignoblesoulsintothegoldenlightofspirit.Bydevelopingthisability tothinkandworkonallthreelevelsofrealityatonce(becoming"thricegreatest"),the alchemistscreatedaspiritualtechnologythatappliednotonlytotheirlaboratoriesbutalsoto theirownpersonalitiesandtotheirrelationshipswithotherpeopleandwithGod. tree Treessymbolizetheprocessesoftransformation.AtreeofmoonssignifiestheLesserorLunar Work;atreeofsunssignifiestheGreaterorSolarWork. triangle ThetrianglerepresentsthethreeheavenlyprinciplesorsubstancesofSulfur,Mercury,andSalt.

trituration

Grindasolidintoapowder.Pulverizewithamortarandpestle.Crush.Aprocessjustafter Calcination,whentheashesaregroundintoafinepowderforDissolution.

U Uroboros (seeOuroboros)

V Vitriol Vitriolwasthemostimportantliquidinalchemy.Itwastheoneinwhichallotherreactions tookplace.Vitriolwasdistilledfromanoily,greensubstancethatformednaturallyfromthe

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weatheringofsulfurbearinggravel.ThisGreenVitriolissymbolizedbytheGreenLionin drawings.AftertheGreenVitriol(coppersulfate)wascollected,itwasheatedandbrokendown intoironcompoundsandsulfuricacid.Theacidwasseparatedoutbydistillation.Thefirst distillationproducedabrownliquidthatstunklikerotteneggs,butfurtherdistillationyielded anearlyodorless,yellowoilcalledsimplyVitriol.Theacidreadilydissolveshumantissueand isseverelycorrosivetomostmetals,althoughithasnoeffectongold.WhiteVitrioliszinc sulfate;BlueVitrioliscoppersulfate.

W Water WaterisoneoftheFourElementsofalchemy.Waterinthealchemicalsensecarriesthe archetypalpropertiesofcleansingandpurification.Itisassociatedwiththeoperationof Dissolutionandrepresentedbythemetaltin. WhitePhase

TheWhitePhase(Leukosis)isthesecondstageoftheGreatWorkandtakesplaceduring Distillation.

wine

WineissymbolicoftheprocessofFermentationandthespiritizationofmatter.

wolf (seeantimony)

X Xanthosis (seeYellowPhase)

Y
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YellowPhase TheYellowPhase(orXanthosis)ofalchemyisanintermediatestagethattakesplacebetween theBlackandWhitephasesoftheGreatWork.ThetermwasusedbyAlexandrianalchemiststo describechangesthattookplaceduringtheFermentationoperation.

Z Zodiac AccordingtotheDoctrineofCorrespondencesintheEmeraldTablet("AsAbove,soBelow"), thestarsmustfindexpressiononearthandinmankind.Inalchemy,itwasessentialtoconsult thezodiacbeforecommencinganyofthemajoroperations. Thealchemistsbelievedtherewerebasicallyjusttwowaysofknowingrealityandthatishow thiswebsitehasbeenorganized.Thefirstwayofknowingistherational,deductive, argumentative,intellectualthinkingthatisthehallmarkofscienceandourpatriarchalWestern culture.ThealchemistscalledthisSolarConsciousnessandassigneditmanycodewords,such astheKing,theSun,Sulfur,Spirit,theFather,andultimately,theOneMind.Throughoutthis website,wheneverthematerialinvolvesleftbrainsolaractivitylikelists,linearthought, schematics,formulae,argumentsandlogic,theiconusedwillbetheSolarbutton.The alchemistscalledtheotherwayofknowingLunarConsciousness.Thisnonrational,image driven,intuitivewayofthinkingisanacceptedpartofmysticismandreligion.Amongitsmany symbolsaretheQueen,theMoon,themetalMercury,theSoul,theHolyGhost,andultimately, theOneThing.Throughoutthiswebsite,wheneverthematerialinvolveslunar,nonlinearright brainactivitylikedrawings,paintings,mandalas,symbols,meditations,andmusic,theicon willbetheLunarbutton.Trytousebothwaysofknowingwhentryingtounderstand alchemicaltopics.Thealchemistsbelievedtherewerebasicallyjusttwowaysofknowing realityandthatishowthiswebsitehasbeenorganized.Thefirstwayofknowingistherational, deductive,argumentative,intellectualthinkingthatisthehallmarkofscienceandour patriarchalWesternculture.ThealchemistscalledthisSolarConsciousnessandassignedit manycodewords,suchastheKing,theSun,Sulfur,Spirit,theFather,andultimately,theOne Mind.Throughoutthiswebsite,wheneverthematerialinvolvesleftbrainsolaractivitylike lists,linearthought,schematics,formulae,argumentsandlogic,theiconusedwillbetheSolar button.ThealchemistscalledtheotherwayofknowingLunarConsciousness.Thisnon rational,imagedriven,intuitivewayofthinkingisanacceptedpartofmysticismandreligion. AmongitsmanysymbolsaretheQueen,theMoon,themetalMercury,theSoul,theHoly Ghost,andultimately,theOneThing.Throughoutthiswebsite,wheneverthematerialinvolves lunar,nonlinearrightbrainactivitylikedrawings,paintings,mandalas,symbols,meditations, andmusic,theiconwillbetheLunarbutton.Trytousebothwaysofknowingwhentryingto understandalchemicaltopics.Fractaldiagramsarecomputerimagesthataregeneratedthrough theformulaeofthemathematicsofchaos.Assuch,theyrepresentthe"irrational"components ofalchemyoritsFirstMatter.Toworkwithfractaldiagrams,itisnecessarytoallowthemind tobecomedrawninbythemandmakeuseofone'sintuitivefeelingsratherthanthought processes.

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AHistoryofMuslimPharmacy: ArabicAlchemyDuringtheFourth/TenthCentury Throughoutthethird/ninthandfourth/tenthcenturies,alchemycontinuedtowinadherents, aswellasarouseopponentstoitsvalidity.Inthisstudy,onlycertainimportantaspectsofits developmentwillbebrieflydiscussed.Oneaspectisthepeculiaritythatsomelearnedmenof highcaliberandgreatprestigewouldpropagatethisart.Anotheroddityisthefactthatliterary contributionsbysomealchemistsluredmanyascholartostandinaweofthesemagical proceduresandoperationsandtheelegancewithwhichtheyweredescribed.Agoodexample isthebiographyofAbuBakrMohammedarRazi(250312/865925),andhisalchemical writings.HewasoneofthegreatestphysiciansinIslam,butatthesametimeanardent supporteroftheartofalchemy.Toagreatextent,heinfluencedthedevelopmentofalchemy, pharmacy,andmedicaltherapythroughouttheMiddleAges.Forthisreason,hisliterary contributionstotheseareasofIslamicSciencewillbediscussedbriefly. ArRazi'sinterestinalchemyandhisstrongbeliefinthepossibilityoftransmutationoflesser metalstosilverandgoldwasconfirmedhalfacenturyafterhisdeathbyIbnanNadim.He attributeaseriesoftwelvebookstoarRazi,thensevenmore,includinghisrefutationtoal Kindi'sdenialofthevalidityofalchemy,andfinally,arRazi'stwobestknownalchemicaltexts; alAsrarandSirralAsrar(thesecrets,andsecretofsecrets).Thesetwoworkswerenotonly amongarRazi'slastpublicationsonalchemy,buttheysupersededhisearlieronesasthefinal representationofhisalchemicalteachings.Thelattertextincorporatesmuchoftheformer(al Asrar). Therefore,asurveyoftheSirralAsrarwillhopefullythrowsomelightonarRazi'srational approachandtechnicalprocedures,andwhichrepresentthehighestexpressionofalchemical knowledgeduringthisperiod. ThisbookwaswritteninresponsetoarequestfromarRazi'sclosefriend,colleague,and formerstudent,AbuMohammedb.YunisofBukhara,aMuslimmathematician,philosopher, andianaturalscientistofgoodstatureInSirralAsrar,arRazidivideshissubjectmatterinto threecategoriesashedidinhisbookalAsrar. 1.Knowledgeandidentificationofdrugsfromplant,animal,andmineraloriginsandthe choicesttypeofeachforutilizationintreatment. 2.Knowledgeofequipmentandtoolsused,whichareofinteresttoboththealchemistandthe apothecary. 3.Knowledgeofthesevenalchemicalproceduresandtechniquessuchassublimationand condensationofmercury,precipitationofsulphurandarseniccalcinationofminerals(gold, silver,copper,lead,andiron),salts,glass,talc,shells,andwaxing. Thislastcategorycontains,inaddition,adescriptionofothermethodsandpiratical applicationsusedintransmutation:theadmixtureandusesofsolventvehicles,theamountof heat(fire)used,'bodiesandstones'thatcanorcannotbetransformedintocorporalsubstances ofmetalsatIdsalts,andtheliquidmordantthatquicklyandpermanentlycolorlessermetals
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forbettersalesandprofits. Similartothediscussiononthethird/ninthcenturytextonAmalgamsascribedtoJabir,arRazi describesmethodsandproceduresorcoloring(goldleafing)asilverobjecttoimitategold.Also describedisthereversetechniqueforremovingthecolorandreturningittosilver.Gildingand silveringofothermetals(alum,calciumsalts,iron,copper,andtutty)arealsodescribed,as wellashowcolorswillstayforyearswithouttarnishingorchanging.Theproceduresinvolved nodeceptivemotive,butrathertechnicalandeconomicdeliberations.Thisisevidentfromthe author'squotationofmarketpricesandthetechnicaltriumphofartisan,craftsman,or, alchemistindeclaringtheresultsoftheireffortssothat'itwilllookexactlylikegold!There was,however,anothersimilarmotiveinvolved,namely,tomanufacturesomethingtoresemble goldforeasysaletohelpagoodfriendwhohappentobeinneedofquickmoney.Itcouldbe duetothistrendinarRazi'salchemicaltechniqueforsilveringandgildingofmetalthatman,.' Muslimbiographersconcludedthathewasfirstajewelerbeforeheturnedtoalchemy. OfinterestinthetextisarRazi'sclassificationofmineralsintosixdivisions,givinghis discussionamodernchemicalconnotation: 1.Fourspirits:mercury,salammoniac,sulphur,andarsenic. 2.Sevenbodies;silver,gold,copper,iron,blacklead(plumbago),zinc,andtin. 3.Thirteenstonesincludingmarcasite,magnesia,malachite,tutty,talcum,lapislazuli,gypsum, andglass(thenidentifiedasasmadeofsandandalkaliofwhichthetransparentcrystal Damasceneisconsideredthebest). 4.Sevenvitriolsincludingalum,andwhite,black,red,andyellowvitriols(theimpure sulphatesofiron,copper,etc.). 5.Sevenboratesincludingthetinkar,natron,andimpuresodiumborate. 6.Elevensaltsincludingbrine,common(table)salt,ashes,naphtha,livelime,andurine,rock, andseasalts.Thenheseparatelydefinesanddescribeseachofthese substancesandtheirchoicestkindsandcolorsandpossibleadulterations. Concerningthetoolsandequipmentofthealchemist,arRaziclassifiesthemintotwokinds: 1.Utensilsusedforthedissolvingandmeltingofbodiessuchasthefurnace,bellows,crucible, holder(tongueorladle),macerator,pot,stirringrod,cutter,andgrinder. 2.Utensilsuse(jtocarryouttheoperationoftransmutation,suchastheretort,alembic, receiver,otherpartsofthedistillingapparatus,oven(stove),cups,bottles,jars,pans,and blowers. Theinstructionsgivenareminuteanddetailedshowingintimateknowledgeoftheprocedures, materials,andtechnologyinvolved. Toillustrateoneaspectofthisoperation,arRaziirelatesthefollowingstory.Heoncewentona triptoBaghdad.There,thescholaralHakimalHamadaniheardofarRazi'svisitandcame withhisfriendstowelcomehim.Amongthesubjectstheydiscussedwasalchemy.ArRazi, usingtheelixir,gildedtwometalssothattheylookedexactlyliketruegold.Hisviewers watchedwithadmirationandastonishment. Lateralchemists,nonetheless,departedgreatlyfromtheseleadingguidelinesthatarRazihad
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describedwithprecisionandthoroughnessinhistwobooks.Asaresult,thewholeartsuffered disreputeandsetbacks,especiallyduringthelatterperiodofmedievalIslamicscience. InadditiontoarRazi'salchemicalwritings,IbnanNadimmentions115worksand30epistles, amajorityofthemonnaturalsciencesandthehealingarts,includingcommentaries,abstracts, andrefutations.IbnanNadimalsoidentifiesbrieflythefiveareasinwhicharRazi distinguishedhimself: 1.ArRaziwasrecognizedasthebestphysicianofhistimewhohadfullyabsorbedtheGreek medicallearning. 2.Hetraveledinmanylands.HisrepeatedvisitstoBaghdadandhisservicestomanyprinces andrulersareknownfrommanysources. 3.Hewasamedicaleducatorwhoattractedmanystudents,bothbeginnersandadvanced. 4.Hewascompassionate,kind,upright,anddevotedtotheserviceofhispatientswhetherrich orpoor. 5.Hewasaprolificreaderandwriterandhasauthoredmanybooks,thetitlesofwhichwere citedbyIbnanNadimandotherMuslimbiobibliographersofphysiciansandphilosophers. ThebestsurveyofarRazi'sworksfromthemedievalperiodseemstobeanepistlebyalBiruni writtenabout4:28/1037.Throughthisepistle,canbeseenconcealedsidesofarRazi'slifeand hiscontributionsasaprolificauthorandcompilertopharmacy,pharmacology,andmedical therapy.Tounderstandandappreciatehimfully,however,oneshouldlookuponhimasthe productandinthecontextofhistime(250312/865925).ForintheWestandByzantiumthis wasan.AgeofFaith,importanttoourdiscussionhere,therefore,ishiscourageousattackof errorsinthemedicalandphilosophicalteachingsoftheancients.ForitwasarRaziwhowrotea book,Shukuk'alaNazariyatjalinus,inwhichhedoubtedtheaccuracyinmanymedical, physiological,andtherapeuticconcepts,theories,andproceduresasstatedbyGalenandwhich wereblindlyacceptedandtransmittedbyhisfollowersandlatercompilersandcommentators. Interestingly,arRaziforesawthatmainlybecauseofhisdoubtsonGalen,manywouldattack himbitterlyandaccusehimofignorance,maliceandmisconception,afactthatnosoonerwas reportedashavingbeensaidthanhisexpectationswereconfirmed.YetitwasarRaziwho repeatedlyexpressedpraisesandgratitudeto,Galenforhiscommendablecontributionsand labors.ArRaziexplainedintheintroductiontohisShukuk,'IprayedtoAllahtodirectandlead metothetruthinwritingthisbook.Itgrievesmetoopposeandcriticizetheman[Galen]from whoseseaofknowledgeIhavedrawnmuch.Indeed,heisthemasterandIamtheservant (disciple).Butallthisreverenceandappreciationwillandshouldnotpreventmefrom doubting,asIdid,whatiserroneousamonghistheories.Iimagineandfeeldeepinmyheart thatGalenhaschosenmetoundertakethistask,andifhewasalive,hewouldhave congratulatedmeonwhatIamdoing.IsaythisbecauseGalen'saimwastoseekandfindthe truthandtobringlightoutofdarkness.IndeedIwishhewasalivetoreadwhatIhave published'. Thereafter,arRazi,withaviewtovindicateGalen'sgreatnessandtojustifyhiscriticismofhim, listsfourreasonswhygreatmenmakeerrorsmorethanothers: 1.Becauseofnegligence,asaresultoftoomuchselfconfidence. 2.Becauseofunmindfulness(indifference)whichoftenleadstoerrors.
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3.Becauseofenticementstofollowone'sOwnfancyorimpetuosityinimaginingthatwhathe doesorsaysisright. 4.Crystallizationofancientknowledgeinviewofthedynamicnatureofsciencesothatpresent dayknowledgemustofnecessitysurpassthatofpreviousgenerations.Thisisbecauseofthe continuousdiscoveriesofnewdataandnewtruths.ArRazibelieved,andrightlyso,that contemporaryscientistsandscholars,becauseofaccumulatedknowledgeattheirdisposal.are, byfar,betterequipped,moreknowledgeable,andcompetentthantheancients.Indeed,what arRazididinattemptingtooverthrowblindreverenceandtheunchallengedauthorityof ancientsageswas,byitself,agreatstepintherightdirection.Thisimpetusencouragedand stimulatedresearchandadvancesinthearts,'technology,andthesciences.Itunshackledthe humanspiritforgreaterandmorefastingachievements. Ontheprofessionallevel,arRaziintroducedmanyuseful,progressive,medicaland psychologicalideas.Healsoattackedcharlatansandfakedoctorswhoroamedthecitiesandthe countrysidesellingtheirnostrumsand'cures'.Atthesametime,hewarnedthatevenhighly educateddoctorsdidnothavetheanswersforallmedicalproblemsandcouldnotcureall sicknessesorhealeverydisease.Humanlyspeaking,thisisanimpossibility.Nonetheless,tobe moreusefulintheirservicesandtruertotheircalling,arRaziexhortedpractitionerstokeepup withadvancedknowledgebyContinuallystudyingmedicalbooksandexposethemselvesto newinformation.Hefurtherclassifieddiseasesintothreecategories:thosewhicharecurable; thosethatcanbecured;andthosewhichareincurable.Onthelatter,hecitedadvancedcasesof cancerandleprosywhichifnotcured,thedoctorshouldnottakeblame.Then,onthe humorousside,arRazipitiedphysicianscaringforthewellbeingofprinces,nobility,and women,fortheydidnotobeydoctor'sordersforrestricteddietandmedicaltreatment,thus makingmostdifficultthetaskoftheirdoctor. ThiswriterisinclinedtobelievethatarRaziwasthefirstinIslamtodeliberatelyWriteabook homemedical(remedial)advisorentitledManlaYahduruhuTabforthegeneralpublic.He dedicatedittothepoor,thetraveler,andtheordinarycitizenwhocouldconsultitfortreatment ofcommonailmentswhenthedoctorwasnotavailable.Thisbook,ofcourse,isofspecial interesttothehistoryofpharmacysincebooksonthesamethemecontinuedtoappearandhas foundacceptancebyreaderstothepresentcentury.Inits36chapters,arRazidescribeddiets anddrugsthatcanbefoundpracticallyeverywhereinapothecaryshops,themarketplace,in wellequippedkitchens,andinmilitarycamps.Thus,anyintelligentmaturepersoncanfollow itsinstructionsandpreparetherightrecipesforgoodresults.Someoftheillnessestreatedare headaches,colds,coughing,melancholy,anddiseasesoftheeye,ear,andstomach.Inafeverish headache,forexample,heprescribed,'twopartsoftheduhn(oilyextract)ofrose,tobemixed withpartofvinegar,inwhichapieceoflinenclothisdippedandcompressedontheforehead'. Foralaxative,herecommended'sevendramsofdriedvioletflowerswithtwentypears, maceratedandmixedwell,thenstrained.Tothefiltrate,twentydramsofsugarisaddedfora draft'.Incasesofmelancholy,heinvariablyrecommendedprescriptionsincludingeither poppiesortheirjuices(opium)orcloverdodder(CurcumaepithymumMuss.)orboth.Foran eyeremedy,herecommendedmyrrh,saffron,andfrankincense,twodramseachtobemixed withonedramofyellowarsenicandmadeintotablets.Whenusedeachtabletwastobe dissolvedinasufficientquantityofcorianderwaterandusedaseyedrops. ArRazifollowedthesamemethodinhisbookBurasSa'ah,inwhichheprescribedremediesto
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cureailmentsinonehour,oratleastinashorttime,sothatthepatientdidnotneedfrequently tocallonhisdoctorandtopaylargerfee. Inhisotherbookondiets,theirusesanddisadvantages,Mnafi'alAghdhiyyah,arRazi followedapatternthathadbeenintroducedearlierbyGalen.Init,arRaziattemptedtocorrect severalerrorsmadebyGalenandtointroducenewdatamissedbythelatter. IbnMasawayhwasanotherphysicianwhowroteonthesametopic.AccordingtoarRazi,Ibn Masawayhdidmoreharmthangoodinhisexpositionofthesubject.Thesemisgivings challengedarRazitoundertakethewritingofacomprehensivestudy,Manafi',whichisof greatinterestnotonlytopharmacyandmedicinebuttothehistoryoftheculinaryartaswell. Emphasizingspecificmattersandgeneralregulationsforhealthyliving,arRazidiscussed breads,waters,dairyproducts,fruits,vegetables,spices,meats,andfishes.Heexplainedin detailtheirkinds,methodsofpreparation,physicalproperties,andtherapeuticmodesofaction, andpointedoutwhentheywereusefulandwhennot.Ofwines,forexample,hementioned whethertheyweremadeofgrapesofraisins,theircolor,taste,andpreferreduseinthe particularsituations.Heconcludedbydescribingthedisadvantagesoffrequentconsumptionof winesleadingtoalcoholism,'whichoftencausesmanyseriousdiseasesasepilepsy,paralysis, seniletremorinolderpeople,cirrhosis,hepatitis,mentaldisorders,visionarydistortions, obesity,debility,andimpotence. WhilearRazipaidmuchattentiontocuringthebody'sills,hedidnotignorecuresfor infirmitiesofthesoul.Theproofofhisconcernforpsychotherapyseemsquiteevident.On completinghismedicalencyclopedia,alMansuri,onthediagnosesandtreatmentofbody diseases,hefilledinthegapbywritingacounterpartatTibbarRuhanionthemedicineofthe soul.Bothworks(completedabout293294/906907respectively)werewrittenfor,and dedicatedto,arRazi'sgreatpatron,PrinceAbuSajihMansurb.Ishaqb.Ahmadb.Asad.Inthe twentychaptersofatTibbarRuhani,arRazi,discussedwithobjectivity,farsightedness,and matureunderstandingofhumannatureanddesires,suchtopicsashumanpassions,vices, pleasures,lust,anger,pain,miserliness,drunkenness,virtueanddeath.Hisconcernfor,and penetrationinto,humannature,itscomplexities,andthedirectionsleadingintoit,confirmhis appreciationoftheimportanceofpsychotherapyandpsychologyastwoimportantpartsofthe healingart. InhisfamousalMansuri,however,arRazidevotedfouroutofthebook'stotaloftentreatises, todietsanddrugs,medicatedcosmetics,toxicologyandantidotes,ameliorationoflaxatives, andcompoundedremedies,allofwhichareofpharmaceuticalinterest. ArRazi'slastandlargestmedicalencyclopediaishisalHawifitTibb,whichembracesallareas ofmedicalknowledgeofthetime.Thishugecompilationofsayingsandinterpretationsbythe ancients,Arabicphysicians,andarRaziwasgatheredandeditedaftertheauthor'sdeathbyhis students.Inevitably,itincludedsectionsrelatedto'pharmacyinthehealingart',materiamedica arrangedinalphabeticalorder,compoundeddrugs,pharmaceuticaldosageformsand toxicology.Italsoincludednumerousmedicalrecipesandtestedprescriptionsthatinfluenced 'medicaltherapy'inIslamandintheWestduringtheMiddleAges. Inhisuseofmineraldrugsasexternalandinternalremedies,includingvitriols,copper,
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mercuricandarsenicsalts,salammoniac,goldscoria,chalk,clay(asintheterrasigillataand Armenianclay),coral,pearl,tar,andbitumen,arRazi,encouragedandpioneered chemotherapyinIslamicmedicine. Althoughherecommendedpoppiesandopiuminternallyassomniferousagentsandtoquiet coughing,andexternallytorelieveeyeandwoundpains,hewarnedagainsttheirdeadlyeffects (twodramsarefatal). AttentiontodietanddrugtherapywaslikewiseemphasizedbyAhmadb.AbialAsh'athinhis twobooks;QuwaalAdwiyyahandalGhadhiwalMughtadhi(comcompletedaround 353/965). InhisQuwa,inthreetreatises,IbnAbialAsh'athdiscussesgeneralrulesandregulationsfor medicinaltreatment;thepropertiesofvegetable,animal,andmineraldrugsobtainedfromthe threenaturalkingdomsandthoseminerallikedrugsmanufacturedbyman,suchascinnabar andtutty,andtheirusesandadvantages.Thebookwasdedicatedtotheauthor'stwostudents, Mohammedb.AyyubIbnathThallajofMosul,andAhmadb.MohammedalBaladi.IbnAbi alAsh'athdescribedthethreeprinciplesconnectedwithsicknessandhealth:receptivebody; apparentsymptoms;andunavoidableoperativecauses.Medicine,therefore,exploresgeneral lawsofbodyconditions;symptomsandtheirinterpretations;andcausesandtheireffects.He explainedthatthefiveprinciplesconcernedwithconditionsofsicknessandhealththeairwe breathandthatsurroundsussleepandwakefulnessrestandmotion,infusionandevacuation, andpsychicmanifestationsallgenerateandevolvewithinourbodies.Butwhatcomestoour bodiesandaffectsusfromtheoutsideistheprinciplethatinvolveswhatweeatanddrinkas wellasthedrugsweusetorestorehealthortocurediseases. Tosimpledrugs,theauthorassignedprimaryefficacyfunctions(generatingpowers):heat, moisture,drynessandcold;andsecondaryefficacyfunctions,e.g.,theirusesand pharmacologicaladvantages.Hewarnedagainstcharlatansandignorantdoctors'and encouragedacademictrainingforpractitionersandcontinuedmedicaleducationforhospital internship,residencyandbeyond.Heconcluded,'Forthosewhocollectmoneyarealways afraidtoloseit,butthose(likephysicians)whoaccumulateknowledgeendeavortoincreaseit Inhisearlierwork,alGhadhi,intwotreatises,IbnAbialAsh'athnotonlydescribedthe anatomyandphysiologyofbodyorgansbutalsoanimalorgansusedindiettherapy. Ofinteresttopsychotherapy,however,istheauthor'streatiseonsleepandwakefulness,insix chapters.Initheconfirmsthattheactofsleepisunderthecontrol(oroneofthefunctions)of thebrain,justasjaundiceisconnectedwiththeliver.Sleepisnottobecomparedwithdeath; theyaretwodifferentthings.Sleepgivesrestfromlabor(activemotion)ofthebrainwhich consistsofcontemplation,memory(reminiscence),andimagination.Sleepincreaseswithcold. Whenthebrainreactstoslumber,oneawakens.Theauthorconcludedbydividingsleepinto threetypes:thefirststage;sleepwithdreams;anddeepsleepwithoutdreams. LittleisknownofIbnAbialAsh'ath'syoungercontemporaryandcountryman,alMajusi.He receivedhismedicaltrainingunderthetutorshipofAbuMahirMusab.Sayyar.AIMajusi servedKing'AdudadDawlah(d.372/983)towhomhededicatedhisonlyknownmedical
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compendium,alMaliki(LiberRigius).Thisencyclopediaconsistsoftwentytreatisesonthe theoryandpracticeofmedicine(tenoneach).Inthem,theauthorencouragestheuseof indigenousmedicinalplants,aswellasanimalandmineralproducts.Usingmineralschalk, Armenianclay(bole),redochre,terrasigillata,marcasite(Pyrites),natron,salammoniac, vitriols,burnedcopper,andiinaphthainternallyandexternallyencouragedchemotherapyas utilizedbyhispredecessors,arRazi(d.312/925),andothers.Heemphasizedinthetreatment ofpatientsthatinadditiontonaturalprinciples,age,sex,dichotomyofcolors,andfacial complexionsshouldalsobetakenintoconsideration. InterestingalsoweresomeofalMajusi'sphysiologicalinterpretations.Hespokeofthetwo opposingmovementsgeneratedbytheanimalvitalspirit:expansionandcontractionwhichin regardtoheartandarteriesconstitutethediastoleandsystole,andinspirationandexpiration withregardtotherespiratoryorgans.Hecomparedthesetwoopposingmovementstoa bellows.Thedifferenceisthattheyareproducedbyaninternal(innate)spirit,whileanexternal forceoperatesthebellows.Hethenexplainedthatafterlungsinhaleairfromtheoutside,they expelthevaporized(smoky)superfluitiesduringexhalation.Whentheheartdrawsairfromthe lungs,itmixeswiththebloodandaugmentsthevitalspirit.Hedefinedtemperamentsas pertainingtothemanagementoflife,andactionastoolstohelpcarryonthefunctionsofnature andthesoulinanimalsandplants.Hedescribedtheveinsashayingporesthatopentowardthe arteriesandpasslightblood.Hecitedasproofthefactthatifaveiniscut,itspewsoutallthe blooditcontains.Respiration,hecontinued,takesplacethroughcontractionandexpansion duringwhichthearteries,especiallythoseclosetotheheart,evacuateairandblood;and throughexpansiondrawairandlightbloodfromthehearttofillthevacuumcreatedby contraction.Bloodformationandbodygrowthresultsfromdigestedandassimilatedfood,and takesplaceinthreestages,throughthenaturalfacultieswhichattract,hold,digest,andexpel. Concerningphysicalexercises,alMajusiexplainedthattheyincreaseandnourishinnateheat forabettermetabolism,towidenthepores,toridthebodyofsuperfluitiesandtostrengthen theorgans. AlsoofinterestinalMajusi'salMaliki,arethetwosectionsdevotedtospecificskindiseases suchasleprosy,sores,skinulcers,abscesses,pimples,swellings,carbuncles,rashes,wounds, andpoisonousanimalbites,aswellasdermatologyatlarge. AlMajusidivideddrugsaccordingtotheirpharmacologicalactionashymnotics,sedatives, antipyretics,laxatives,demulcents,diuretics,emetics,emollients,astringents,anddigestants. Hedescribedmedicinalplantsandtheirpartsusedasremedialagents:seeds,leaves,flowers, fruits,androots.Healsohadspecialchaptersongums,extracts,andplantjuices,aswellas mineraldrugsusedforexternalorinternaltreatment.Heurgedpractitionerstocollectthem untilneedfortheirusearose.Heseemedtohavelittleuseforpharmacists,andwanted physicianstocompoundortosupervisethepreparationoftheirownmedications.He recommendedapplicationofapuritytestagainstdrugadulteration.Hesaid,forexample,that thebestkindofaloesisreddishincolorandwhichturnsdarkerwhenbreathedupon (introducingcarbondioxide). Inthepreparationofcompoundedremedies,theauthoradviseddoctorstoincreaseordecrease theamountofeachincludedingredientaccordingtoneed.Quantitiesforeachdosageineach
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case,alMajusiconfirmed,shouldbedeterminedonlybythepractitionerhimself.Finally,he describedcompoundeddrugsinthevariouspharmaceuticalforms:lohocks,decoctions, powders,robs,anddentifrices. AlMajusi'salMalikiwastranslatedfirstinpartbyConstantineAfricanus(d.479/1087),under thetitlePantegno.Acompleteandmuchbettertranslation,however,wasmadein520/1127by StephenofAntioch.ItwasprintedfirstinVenicein897/1492byBernardRicideNovaria,and in929/1523inVeniceandLyonswithannotationbyMichealdeCapella.48Thiswork,likethose ofarRazi's,thuscontinuedtocirculateandinfluencemedicineandpharmacyintheWestfor overfivehundredyears. Chapter3.AtomicStructure EVERYTHINGISMADEOFATOMS Atomsarecomposedof:

anucleusthatcontainsprotonsandneutrons * thenucleusissurroundedbyelectrons * Differentcombinationsofthesesubunitswillgivedifferenttypesofatoms * atomsareverysmallbutlotsofthemexist * howdoweknowthattheyarethere?

TheideaofsmallerandsmallerunitsofmatterwasfirstproposedbyDemocritus(5th centuryBC)

* * * * * *

Allmaterialwassaidtobecomposedoffourelements earth fire water air varyingamountsofeachwouldvarythepropertiesofamaterial(orperson)

* goldwassupposedtohavelargeamountsoffire * thisaccountsfortheuseoffirebyalchemistsinattemptingtoconvertothermaterials intogold IntermediatebetweenalchemyandchemistrywasRobertBoyle

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 * BorninIrelandintoaverywealthyfamily * TraveledinEuropeasmostofhiseducation * LivedandworkedinOxford,butneverheldauniversityposition * 1662described(withthehelpofRobertHooke)Boyle'sLaw,relatingpressure,volume andtemperatureofgases * 1661inabookTheScepticalChemist,arguesagainstthefourelementsdescribedby Greeks * saidthatmatterwascomposedofsmall"corpuscules"thatwereinturnmadeupof smallerprimaryparticles

* *

Combustion(fire)wasextensivelyusedinearlychemistry(andalchemy) Understandingcombustionwasimportant

* Asubstancecalled"phlogiston"wasproposed,byGeorgStahlin1729,tobepresent incombustiblematerials * Pholgistonwasinvisible,colorless,odorless,tasteless * Thepresenceofphlogistonwasinvokedtoaccountforweightchangesupon combustion * Somesubstancesgainedweightuponcombustion * e.g.heatingofmercuryresultedinincreasedweight,rustynailsweighmore

JosesphPriestley(17331804),Englishscientist,religiousdissenter * * * * * * * * * * workingonthepropertiesof"airs"duringperiod17671773 foundthatheatingcinnabar(HgO)gaveoffagas gaswouldsupportlife,combustion Priestleyhaddiscoveredoxygen priortothisonlythreegaseswereknown,"air"CO2andH2 Priestleysaidthatthegaswas"dephlogisticatedair" OxygenwasalsoindependentlydiscoveredbyCarlScheele,aSwedishchemistin1773) SupporterofFrenchRevolution Mobdestroyedhishouseandlaboratoryin1791 MovedtoNorthumberland,Pennsylvania1794

In1775,PriestleymetwithanddescribedthemercuryexperimenttoAntoineLavoisier
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* * * * * * * * * * * *

Bornintoawealthyfamily Studiedscienceandlawatuniversity Boughtatitleofnobility Inadditiontoscience,activecivilservant 1786taxcollection 1775gunpowderadministration Agriculturalandhospitalreform ActivesupporterofFrenchRevolution ServedinRevolutionaryGovernment Attackedinthepressbyradicals ArrestedandguillotinedMay8,1794duringtheReignofTerror QuantifiedtheworkofPriestley

* Repeatingtheworkoncinnabar(HgOormercuricoxide)thatPriestleyhaddone, collectedtheoxygenthatwasgivenoffanddeterminedhowmuchwasgivenoff * Reversedtheexperiment,andfoundthattheamountofoxygenthatwasabsorbedwas thesameastheamountgivenoffinthepreviousstep * Thisobviatedtheneedforphlogiston. * Theadditionofoxygentomercuryisrespsonsiblefortheobservedincreaseinweight.

ThemodernconceptoftheatomwasproposedbytheEnglishchemist,JohnDalton(1766 1844) * * * * DaltonwasaQuaker,withplaintastes,simpledress,andmethodicalhabits TaughtinuniversitiesthatadmittednonAnglicans Colorblind(redgreencolorblindnessiscalleddaltonism) Workedinmeterologyaswellaschemistry

Foundthatmostsubstancescouldbebrokendowninvariousways * * * burning immersioninacid somesubstances(elements,suchasoxygen,gold,sulfur)couldnotbedegradedfurther

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DaltonsAtomicTheory(1808)(FromJ.H.Miller,GWU) * Eachelementismadeupoftinyparticlescalledatoms. * Chemicalcompoundsareformedwhenatomscombinewitheachother.Agiven compoundalwayshasthesamerelativenumbersandtypesofatoms.(i.e.forwatertobewater itMUSTbeHOH,andnotsomeotherratio) Forexample: * water=HOHwhich,byweight,is89%Oand11%H * 8911givesaratioof8:1, * sincetherearetwoatomsofhydrogen,peratomofoxygen,oxygenis16timesheavier thanhydrogen * hydrogenwasfoundtobethelightestelementandwasassignedanatomicweightof1 * oxygenis16timesheaviersohasanatomicweightof16 * Chemicalreactionsinvolvereorganizationoftheatomschangesinthewaytheyare boundtogether.Theatomsthemselvesarenotchangedinachemicalreaction. * Theatomsofagivenelementareidentical;theatomsofdifferentelementsaredifferent insomefundamentalwayorways. Whatdifferencesinatomicstructurewouldaccountforthesedifferencesinweights? Areatomsmadeupofsmallerparticles? Thisquestionwasaddressedby * * * collectionofdata thedevelopmentofmodelsthatareconsistentwiththedata reevlauationofmodelsasmethodsofdatacollectionchangeandimprove

J.J.Thomson

* ThomsonwasborninasuburbofManchesterandwenttouniversitythere,trainingas anengineer * FamilyfundsranoutandhewenttoCambridge,onascholarshiptostudymathematics * EnteredtheCavendishLaboratorytodoexperimentalwork(althoughhewasreported tobeprettyclumsyatit). * Inthelate1800'stubesweremadethatcouldbepartiallyevacuated,avoltagewas passedthroughthetube,anditglowed(kindoflikeaneonsign). * Withbettervacuumsitwasfoundthataglowwascomingfromthenegativeplate(the cathode)

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* * * * *

Whatwastheglow? somethoughtitwaslight somethoughtiswasgasfromtheair somethoughtitwasmaterialparticles thebeamcouldbedefelectedbymagneticfieldorelectricalfield,thereforewasn'tlight

* thebeamwasmuchlongerthanastreamofgascouldhavebeen * thereforeithadtobeparticles * theseparticlescouldpenetratefoils,sotheyhadtobeverysmall * insertingelectricalplatesshowsthattheparticlesarenegativelycharge(i.e.repelledby thenegativeplate)

J.J.Thomsondidthisworkin1897andwasawardedthe1906NobelPrizeinphysics Hehaddiscoveredtheelectron(atermcoinedin1901;Thomsoncalledthem"corpuscles",and didn'tusetheterm"electron"untilmuchlaterinlife) BasedonhisresearchThomsonproposedthreehypotheses 1.Cathoderaysarechargedparticles 2.Theseparticlesareconstituentsoftheatom 3.Theseparticlesaretheonlyconstituents Thomsonalsoproposedthe"plumpudding"modeloftheatom Atomswereknowntobeelectricallyneutral Accordingtotheplumpuddingmodel,theelectronswereembeddedinmassofpositive charge ThenextpieceofevidenceaboutatomicstructurecamefromtheworkofErnestRutherford fromNewZealand

* ErnestRutherfordwasbornin1871notfarfromNelson,NewZealand
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* * * * * * *

WenttoCanterburyUniversityinChristchurch 1895PostgraduatescholarshiptostudywithJ.J.Thomson 1898PhysicsDepartmentatMcGillUniversityinMontreal Workedonradioactivityandtransmutationofelements 1907UniversityofManchester workonatomicstructure 19101911GoldFoilexperiment

* Positivelycharged,alphaparticleswereaimedatapieceofgoldfoil * Ifthe"plumpudding"modelwerecorrect,mostofthepositivelychargedparticles shouldbedeflected * Itwasfound,however,thatmostofthealphaparticleswentstraightthroughthefoil, withonlyafewbeingdeflected * Thisshowedthattheatomhaslargeamountsofemptyspace * Withthepositivelychargedpartsoftheatompresentinasmall,concentratedarea(i.e. notuniformlydistributedasinthe"plumpudding"model).

Rutherfordmodeloftheatomwasdeveloped,inwhichtheatomlookedlikeaminiature
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solarsystem * withasmallpositivelychargedregion(nucleus) * orbitedbynegativelychargedparticles(electrons)

* 1908RutherfordwasawardedtheNobelPrizeforChemistry,forhisworkon transmutation * 1919ReturnedtoCambridgeasCavendishProfessor,succeedingThomson

TheRutherfordModelexplainedmanyatomicproperties,butseveralquestionsremained AccordingtoNewtonian(classical)physics,electronsshouldloseenergyandfallintothe nucleus.Thisobviouslydoesn'thappen. ModificationstotheRutherfordmodelwereproposedbytheDanishphysicistNielsBohr * BohrwasborninCopenhagen,Denmarkin1885 * DoctoratefromUniversityofCopenhagen * 1911onagrantfromCarlsbergBrewingwenttoworkwithJ.J.Thomson * 1912wenttoManchestertoworkwithRutherford(Rutherfordgenerallydistrusted theoreticiansbutlikedBohr) * 1913developedanalternativemodeloftheatom * * * itwasknownthattheelectronwasinastableorbitaroundthenucleus amovingelectronshouldemitlight,loseenergy,andfallintothenucleus itdoesn't
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* *

why? whenhydrogenisheateditsspectrumshowssharpdistinctlines

* Bohrproposedthatelectronscouldonlyexistincertainorbitsandnotinbetween (quantization) * eachorbitisadifferentdistancefromthenucleus(butallhydrogens,forexample,have thesamedistances) * electronsthatareclosertothenucleusaremorestable * addingenergytotheatomcouldpromoteelectronsintohigherenergyorbits * astheelectronreturnstotheoriginalorbititemitslightenergyequivalenttothat requiredtopromoteitinthefirstplace * TheBohrmodelcouldaccuratelydescribetheobservedspectrumofhydrogen * Bohrwonthe1922NobelPrizeforPhysicsforthiswork * TheBohrmodelcombinedNewtonianmechanicsandthenewlydevelopedquantum mechanics * TheBohrmodelonlyworkedforhydrogen * ThemethodwasextendedbyArnoldSommerfeld * ellipticalorbitswereproposedformorecomplicatedatoms

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Inadditiontothebehavioroftheelectrontherewereotherdiscrepanciesinphysicsbeing observedintheearly1900s,whereNewtonianmechanicsbrokedown,leadingtothe develpomentofquantummechanics Classicalphysicsdoesn'tworkwellfor * theverysmall * theveryfast * theverycold,theveryhot * whilequantummechanicsaccuratelydescribesbehaviorofthesmall,coldandfast,it oftendoesn'tmakeintuitivesense

QuantumMechanics1:BlackbodyradiationandMaxPlanck

* *

Asobjectsareheatedtheywillradiatelight Asthetemperatureoftheobjectchangesthedistributionofcolors(wavelengths)change

* Classical(i.e.Newtonian)mechanicscouldreproducetheseexperimentsatlonger wavelengths * Failedatshorter(ultraviolet)wavelengths.("UltravioletCatastrophe") * MaxPlanck,GermanphysicistworkingattheKaiserWilhelmInstitute,foundthatifthe energyquantized(cameindiscrete,specificamounts),theobservedradiationcurvecouldbe

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explained * Thiswasthebeginningofquantummechanics,forwhichPlanckwasawardedthe1918 NobelPrizeforphysics QuantumMechanics2:ThePhotoelectricEffectandAlbertEinstein * AlbertEinsteinwasbornin1879inUlm,Germany(alittlewestofMunich),toJewish parents * FatherhadseveralfailedbusinessesandthefamilymovedtoMilan,leavingEinsteinin schoolinMunich * Einsteindidnotdowellundertheregimentedschoolenvironmentandatage15 rejoinedfaimilyinMilan * FinisheshighschoolinAarua,Switzerland * EnrollsinETH,theFederalPolytechnicinZurich,studiesphysicsandmathematics * 1900graduatesfromETH,butdoesnotgetauniversityposition * TakesajobasapatentclerkinBernandworksasamathematicstutor * WhileatuniversitybecameinvolvedwithMilevaMaricaclassmate * * * beforemarriagetheyhadadaughterLieserlwhowasgivenupforadoption 1903MarriesMilevaMaric twosonsareborn1904HansAlbert,1910Eduard

* 1905whileworkingatthepatentofficecompletesworkforPh.D.andpublishesfour influentialpapers * OntheMotionRequiredbytheMolecularKineticTheoryofHeatofSmallParticles Suspendedin aStationaryLiquid * * atheoreticaldescriptionofBrownianmotion OnaHeuristicViewpointConcerningtheProductionandTransformation

ofLight * * * thephotoelectriceffect OntheElectrodynamicsofMovingBodies specialrelativity

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* *

DoestheInertiaofaBodyDependUponItsEnergyContent? amathematicalfollowuptospecialrelativityinwhichE=mc2firstappears

* * * * * * * * * * * * *

1911AcademicpositionatGermanUniversityinPrague 1912BacktoETHinZurichasProfessorofTheoreticalPhysics 1914BerlinandDirectorofKaiserWilhelmInstitute 1914MilevaandsonsmovebacktoZurichanddivorceproceedingsarebegun 1915Generaltheoryofrelativity 1917BecomesillandisnursedbacktohealthbyacousinElsaLowenthal 1919MarriesElsaLowenthal;experimentalevidenceforgeneralrelativityispublished Wins1921NobelPrizeinPhysicsforphotoelectriceffect 1933settlesinPrinceton,asantisemitismincreasesinGermany Elsadiesin1936 1939LettertoRooseveltonatomicbomb 1949Milevadies 1955EinsteindiesinPrinceton

* BasedonPlanck'sproposalthattheenergyisquantized,Einsteinproposedthatlight coulddeliverenergyindiscreetquantizedamountsaswell(smallparticlesorquanta,called photons). * Accordingtothistheory,lightiscomposedofparticles(ratherthanwaves). * Thiswasverifiedbyexperimentandtheoreticalstudiesonthephotoelectriceffect. * * * * * * Lightshiningonametalplatewillcausetheejectionofelectrons

Iflightisawave thenthebrighterthelight(i.e.higheramplitiude)themoreelectronswillbeejected color(i.e.wavelengthorfrequency)doesn'tmatter thisisthewayclassicalwaveswork Iflightisaquantizedparticle

* theenergyincreasesasthefrequencyincreases(alaPlanck) * sothatthehigherthefrequencyofthelight,independentofintensity,themoreelectrons willbeejected * thisiswhatisfoundexperimentally * * lightwithhigherfrequencyandlowintensitywillremoveelectrons lightwithlowfrequencywillnotremoveelectronsevenathighintensities

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Light,however,alsobehaveslikeawaveandatverysmallsizes,sodoesmatter(i.e. electrons) ThewavenatureofelectronsisdescribedbytheSchrdingerwaveequation. ErwinSchrdingerwasanAustrianphysicist,thatsharedthe1933NobelPrizewith P.A.M.Dirac,anEnglishphysicistwhomadecorrectionstoquantummechanicstoaccount forrelativisticeffects

Thewaveequationdoesnotpredictactuallocationsofelectrons,butareasofstatistical probability TheinabilitytodeterminethepositionofanelectronisembodiedintheHeisenberg uncertaintyprinciple

* Heisenbergwasbornin1901inBavaria * Duringhighschoolbecameinterestedinphysicsandmathematics,andindependently studiedEinstein * DuringandafterWorldWarI,wasactiveinstudentmilitarytrainingandorganized outdooractivities * 1920attendedUniversityofBerlin,studyingwithArnoldSommerfeld * LaterwithNielsBohrinCopenhagen * 1925developedmatrixmechanicsasamethodforquantummechanicalcalculations

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* * * * * *

shownbySchrdingerin1926togivethesameresultsaswavemechanics 1927UncertaintyprinciplepresentedwhilealecturerinCopenhagenwithBohr Bothofthesewereverycontroversial 1927positionatUniversityofLeipzig Winnerofthe1932NobelPrize 1933Hitlercomestopower

* HeisenbergwasnotaNazi,andwasprotectedtosomeextentbyNobelaward * Theoreticalphysicswasunderpoliticalattack * HeisenbergwasinvestigatedbySSandthreatenedwithintermentinaconcentration camp * * * * * * * 1942NuclearresearchatKaiserWilhemInstitute Heisenberg'sroleisinquestion whywasheinvolvedatall? whywasn'ttheremoreprogress DidHeisenbergsabotagetheeffort? Werehisexperimentalskillspoor? Wasthereadequatecommittmentofresources?

* Heisenberghasbeencriticizedfortravelingtooccupiedcountriesasagovernment representative

* *

AfterWorldWarIIhelpedinrebuildingofscientificandeducationalfacilities Diedin1976oflungcancer

Themorepreciselythepositionisdetermined,thelesspreciselythemomentumisknownin thisinstant,andviceversa.Heisenberg,uncertaintypaper,1927

Itcanbeillustratedinafairlyclearwayasitrelatestopositionvs.momentum: * Toseesomething(let'ssayanelectron),wehavetofirephotonsatit; * Theybounceoffandcomebacktous,sowecan"see"it. * Ifyouchooselowfrequencyphotons,withalowenergy,theydonotimpartmuch momentumtotheelectron,buttheygiveyouaveryfuzzypicture, * Soyouhaveahigheruncertaintyinpositionsothatyoucanhaveahighercertaintyin momentum. * Ontheotherhand,ifyouweretofireveryhighenergyphotons(xraysorgammas)at theelectron,theywouldgiveyouaveryclearpictureofwheretheelectronis(highercertainty

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inposition),butwouldimpartagreatdealofmomentumtotheelectron(higheruncertaintyin momentum). Fromquantummechanicalcalculations,theshapesofatomicorbitals,(areasofhigher probability)aredeveloped Atomicorbitalsvaryinsizeandshape Nodesareareasofzeroprobability

AtomicNumberandAtomicMass Atomsarecomposedof * * * * * * * * * * * * * * electrons,withanegativecharge protons,withapositivecharge neutrons,withnocharge protonsandneutronsarepresentinthenucleus protonsandneutronsareaboutequalinweightandmuchmoremassivethanelectrons atomicweight=#ofprotons+#ofneutrons atomicnumber=#ofprotons(thisiswhatdistinguishesatomsfromeachother) mostatomshavenocharge,so#ofelectrons=#ofprotons ElementsarearrangedinthePeriodicTable Theperiodicnatureoftheelementswasproposedin1869byDmitriMendeleev Duringtheearly1800's26elementswereknown Asmorewerediscovered,similaritiesinbehaviorwereseen Mendeleevgroupedtheelementsintofamilieswithincreasingatomicweights
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Goodpredictionsweremade,wheretherewereundiscoveredelements

Examples: Carbonhasanatomicnumberof6andanatomicweightof12 Therefore,itcontains 6protons 6neutrons 6electons Let'sdoamoredifficultone: Radon(theradioactivegas)has86protons,andanatomicweightof222: Whatisitsatomicnumber? Howmanyneutronsdoesitcontain? Howmayelectronsdoesitcontain? Otherformsofelementsare: ions inwhichthenumberofelectronsisnotequaltonumberofprotons * theseatomsarecharged * ifmoreelectronsthanprotonstheatomhasanegativecharge * ifmoreprotonsthanelectronstheatomhasapositivecharge

isotopes thenumberofprotonsdefinestheelement * elementswithdifferingnumbersofneutronsareisotopes * isotopesmayberadioactiveorotherwiseunstable

Wehaveseenthatatomsaremadeupof * electronsthatsurroundthenucleusthatcontains * protons(withpositivecharge) * neutrons(withnocharge) * Thenextlogicalstephasbeentoseeiftheseparticlescanbefurthersubdivided * ausefulandinterestingsummaryofthisinformationisavailable

Protonsandneutronsaremadeupofsmaller,fundamentalparticlescalledquarks(theword comesfromasmallpoeminFinnegan'sWake,byJamesJoyce) electronsarethoughttobefundamentalparticles(i.e.theycannotbefurthersubdivided) Allofobservedmattercanbeexplainedintermsof * 6typesofleptons

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* * *

6typesofquarks forcecarrierparticles correspondingantiparticles(aspredictedbyDirac)

Leptons * * * * * * * * * * * Appeartohavenointernalstructure occursingly carryeither asinglenegativecharge electron muon tau orareneutral(theseparticlesarecalledneutrinosarisefromnucleardecay) eneutrino muneutrino tauneutrino

* * * * *

therearealso6antileptonswithoppositecharges theseareusedinmedicalapplications positronemissiontomography(PET) thepositronistheantielectron amedicalimagingmethodthatusesradioactivetracersthatemitpositrons

Quarks * Fundamentalparticlesthatmakeupneutronsandprotons * Thereare6typesofquarks,buttheyareusuallydiscussedinpairs * Quarksaredifferentinthattheycarryfractionalcharges(2/3or1/3),unlikeelectrons thatare1orprotonsthatare+1

up+2/3down1/3
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* *

charm+2/3strange1/3 top+2/3bottom1/3

* * * * * * *

Unlikeleptonswhichoccursingly,quarksalwaysoccuringroups Agroupofquarksisaparticlecalledahadron Andtherearetwoclassesofhadrons baryons(whichincludeprotonsandneutrons)thataremadeupofthreequarks e.g.aprotoncontainsuud,whileaneutron=udd mesons(particlesdiscoveredincosmicrays) containonequarkandoneantiquark

Nowweknowwhattheuniverseismadeof,butwhatholdsittogether? Therearefourfundamentalforcesorinteractionsthatareresponsible * * * * Gravity Electromagnetism Strongforce Weakforce

* Weneedtoconsiderhowparticlesinteract * Itisthoughtthatinteractionsbetweenmatterparticlesareduetotheexchangeof somethingcalledaforcecarrierparticle * Thinkabouttwopeopleplayingcatchwithaheavyobject,likeashotput * Whenapersoncatchestheheavyobject,theymightbepushedbackwardsslightly * Inthisexample,thepeoplearethematterparticlesandtheshotistheforcecarrier particle Gravity * * large Thisisthemostfamiliartous,butattheparticlelevelitseffectsaresmall Whilegravityactsoneverything,itisaweakforceunlessthemassesinvolvedarevery

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Thecarrierparticle,calledthegraviton,hasbeenpredictedbutnotdiscovered

Electromagnetism * Thisforceisalsocommonineverydaylife * Electromagneticforcesareresponsibleforholdingatomstogethertoformchemical compounds * Carrierparticleisthephoton

Theremainingtwoforcesareimportantatsubatomiclevels Stronginteraction * Responsibleforholdingthenucleustogether * Recallthatthenucleusismadeupprotonsandneutrons * Thestrongforce,worksoververysmalldistancesandovercomestherepulsionbetween positivelychargedprotons * Thecarrierparticlesarecalled"gluons"

Weakinteractions * Theseforcesoccurduringtheconversionofquarksorleptonsintoothertypesofquarks orleptons * decayinthenucleusisaweakprocess * thecarrierparticlesarecalled"Z0,W+andWbosons"

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