Underground Construction Techonology

Underground Construction Technology
Course Lectures Part 3 Ground Improvement and Support Professor ZHAO Jian g de Cours ROJAS Rafael Charg
Laboratoire de Mcanique des Roches LMR
Introduction
1. Ground treatment and improvement during tunnelling 2. Groundwater control and waterproofing techniques 3. Temporary and permanent support methods 4. Instrumentation and monitoring
Ground Treatment and Improvement

In order to improve the construction process when tunnelling through g p poor g ground, a double p philosophy p y exists:
Improvement and adaption of the technology used for excavation and support to the conditions of the ground or Improvement of the ground to be excavated with the main goal of waterproofing and consolidating voids, cracks and porosity, by means of different techniques: Grouting, Freezing, Dewatering, Forepoling, etc.
Grouting
Grouting is the introduction of a hardening fluid or mortar into the ground to improve its stiffness stiffness, strength and/or impermeability
Grouting
There are different patterns of the propagation of the grout t within ithi th the ground: d
Low L pressure grouting ti Compensation grouting Jet grouting g g
Grouting
Low pressure grouting
The grout is introduced into the ground with a movable double packer by means of a pressure packer, high enough to push the ground into the pores but low enough not to crack the ground
Grouting
Compensation grouting
- The objective is to fracture the ground, with increased grouting pressure in order to swell the pressure, ground. -Used for compensation of surface settlements by heaving the settlements, surface. -Also called grout-jacking -Caution must be taken as new loads might be exerted on the lining
Grouting
Jet grouting
-A high pressure (300 to 600 bar) is applied to a cement suspension which is pumped through a pipe with a lateral nozzle at its bottom end -The jet erodes the surrounding soil. When the pipe is pulled out and rotated simultaneously, a cylindrical body of soil and cement is formed -Different techniques of jet grouting exist: Single fluid, double fluid, triple f fluid, etc
Grouting
Jet grouting: Single Grout
Grouting
Jet grouting: Double Grout
Grouting
Jet grouting: Triple Grout
Grouting
Grouting: Tunnelling Application
Grouting is used in tunnelling to improve the quality of the ground around the future tunnel and to seal the tunnel g against groundwater and thus prevent heading inrushes Staggered boreholes with lenghts of around 20 m are driven from the face and grouted with a good overlapping, obtaining g a kind of p protective umbrella on the tunnel.
Grouting
Grouting: Tunnelling Application Example
Grouting
Grouting: Tunnelling Application Example
Grouting
Grouting: Tunnelling Application Scheme
Grouting
Grouting
Grouting
Grouting
Grouting
Grouting: Tunnelling Application Scheme TBM
Grouting
Grouting
Grouting
Grouting:
Grouts commonly used
Cement Grouts: With cement content between 100 and 500 kg per m3 m3, and bentonite (to reduce sedimentation, permeability and strenght). A sufficient time of several hours must be awaited for setting before any blasting and drilling into the grouted area. Micro Cements Colloidal silica suspensions Chemical Grouts: Sodium silicate in most of the cases. The setting time is more reduced (30 to 60 minutes). The mechanical properties can be tailored tailored. Polyurethanes: They react with water and produce foam, which remains ductile after hardening. Acrylic Grouts: Liquids of low viscosity until the polymerisation sets on (around an hour) hour). Epoxy Resins: Less used, because of difficulties in handling. Thermoplastic materials: Asphalt or melt polyamides pumped with fast flowing water
Grouting
Grouting: Particularities of Rock Grouting
Rock has a much smaller pore volume than soil, so that it is difficult to uniformly y grout g all voids of rock In order to avoid grout escaping through large joints:
Thicker grouts must be used A limit for the grout volume V must be imposed (to avoid filling g of too large g and not needed areas) ) A limit for the grouting pressure P must be imposed (to avoid hydrofracturing of the rock and fracture opening)
Grouting
Grouting: Moment of intervention
According to when the grouting is executed, we can talk about:
Pre-injections Post-injections
Grouting
Pre-injections
They can be performed from the face of the advancing tunnel (what normally affects the excavation process) or from the surface (what gives extra-flexibility). g y) They are preferible to post-injections, as they are easier to perform, cheaper, more effective and treat the ground before water starts moving and leaking into the tunnel. The present a marginal risk of uncontrolled water in-rush They provide dry working conditions in the tunnel There is marginal influence on the surroundings
Grouting

Post-injections
These injections are not preferible to pre-injections pre injections, as: Not ideal, as it chases the water from place to place Normally relatively expensive chemical resins are used Specialized teams are necessary Time consuming and difficult to achieve success They work better when applied on pre-injected ground
Ground Freezing
Principle of Ground Freezing Ground freezing is a technique used extensively for groundwater control and ground control in the underground construction construction. The process involves the circulation of a refrigerated coolant through g a series of subsurface p pipes p to convert soil water to ice, creating a strong and watertight material.
Ground Freezing
Formation of freeze wall
Freeze zone/wall
Freeze pipe/point
In tunnelling tunnelling, freeze zone or wall around tunnel can be formed for excavation
Ground Freezing
The design of a frozen earth barrier is governed by the th thermal l properties ti of f the th underlying d l i soils il and d related l t d response to the freezing system. Formation of frozen earth barrier develops at different rates depending on the thermal and hydraulic properties of each stratum Typically, rock and coarsegrained soils freeze faster than clays and silts
Ground Freezing
Ground Freezing
Ground Freezing in Tunnelling Provides stable shoring to allow tunnelling in wet, loose soils or highly fractured rock. Effective for cutting off ground water into tunnel excavation. Frozen soil/rock can be used as shoring around unfrozen soil or the entire soil/rock mass can be frozen (similar to hard-rock tunnelling). Frozen soil shoring can also be used to stabilize ground entrance and exit access shafts
Ground Freezing
Properties of Frozen Ground

Frozen material Pure ice Sand Silt Clay C h d rock Crushed k and d gravel l Compressive strength at -10C, MPa 1.5 10 4 2 2
Ground Freezing
Ground Freezing System Most ground freezing systems are quite similar in principal. The single most important component of a ground freezing system is the subsurface refrigeration system, consisting of a series of refrigeration pipes installed with various drilling techniques. The coolant can be b b brought ht t to t temperatures t well ll b below l f freezing, i b by using either a large portable refrigeration plant or liquid nitrogen. g After the initial freezing g and the frozen barrier is in place, the required refrigeration capacity is significantly reduced to maintain the frozen barrier.
Ground Freezing
Ground Freezing System Conventional System It consists of a primary refrigerate gas, usually ammonia, being compressed and conducting its cold energy on evaporation to a secondary coolant, coolant usually calcium chloride brine which is circulated through the freeze tube system to cool the strata. Th refrigeration The fi ti plants l t are usually ll self lf contained. t i d The conventional system can operate at as low as 40C and are suitable for the larger g projects p j where freezing will be carried on for several weeks.
Ground Freezing
Ap portable twin 60-ton brine refrigeration g unit

Ground Freezing
Ground Freezing System Cryogenic System It uses an expendable refrigerant usually liquid nitrogen that is applied directly to the freeze tubes where it evaporates at -196C and the resultant gas is exhausted to atmosphere. It is used in cases where remedial action is urgent and for small compact projects where time is of paramount t importance. i t The Th freeze f wall ll f formation ti can be completed in typically 3-7 days. It may also be used where water movement or saline condition ( (e.g., g up p to 1000 m below river). A comprehensive monitoring system is used to ensure a safe operation.
Ground Freezing
LN2 tank
Release in air Release R l in ground
Liquid q nitrogen g freezing g system y

Ground Freezing
Advantages of Ground Freezing (i) (a) Strength Soil strength is increased many times and frequently excavations are rendered stable without any further temporary support. Frozen soil is similar to a weak concrete or rock therefore complete stability can be assured. assured (b) Impermeability Impermeability is common to all f frozen soil il t types th thus th the requirement i tf for dewatering d t i or pumping is eliminated.
Ground Freezing
Ground Freezing
Advantages of Ground Freezing (ii) (c) Stability Settlement associated with vibration during piling and removal of fines due to pumping are eliminated. (d) Non-pollution Non pollution Freezing does not pollute the ground water or affect its level in any way. (e) ( ) Versatility V tilit Freezing F i satisfactorily ti f t il stabilises t bili and d excludes ground water in all types of ground from fine micro-grain to fissured rock structures.
Ground Freezing
Metro tunnel in Berlin
Ground Freezing
Advantages of Ground Freezing (iii) (f) Safety A safe working environment is provided eliminating hazards associated with toxic chemicals compressed air working excessive noise and the possibility of pumping contaminated groundwater. (g) Cost effectiveness Ground freezing is a very cost effective and time saving process. In all too many cases th client the li t h has only l realised li d thi this when h h he h has committed itt d to another stabilisation technique that has failed to give the performance expected.
Forepoling
If the strenght of the ground is so low that the excavated space is unstable for a short time, time a pre-driven support is applied In this way, the excavation increments occur under the protection of a previously driven canopy It It can be used when tunnelling with low overburden and wanting to prevent large surface settlements, or when tunnelling through poor ground Nowadays, N d f forepoling li is i achieved hi d by b spiling, ili pipe i roof, f pre-sawing, i grouting ti and freezing
Forepoling
Spiling
- This method consists of drilling a canopy of steel rods or pipes of 80-200 mm diameter into the face - The typical lenght is 4 m - The surrounding soil is grouted throught the steel pipes or sealed with shotcrete, in order to form a protective arch over the excavated space
Forepoling
Spiling
Forepoling
Pipe Roof
- Similar to spiling, but with larger diameter (<200mm) steel or concrete tubes. - The tubes are jacked into the soil above the space to be excavated. -Sometimes, the tubes are filled with concrete -The steel tubes only act as beams and do not form an arch -Pipe roofs do not protect the overburden soil from considerable settlements
Forepoling
Pre-sawing
-Also called Perforex-method or Peripherical slot pre-cutting method -A peripherical slot is cut using a movable chainsaw mouted on a rig -The individual slots have a depth up to 5 m and a thickness between 19 and 35 cm -The slots are filled with shotcrete, forming a vault that protects the space to be excavated -The slots are staggered with an overlapping
Forepoling
Ground Freezing
-Already commented when dealing with freezing techniques
Jet Grouting
-Already y commented when dealing g with jet grouting techniques
Dewatering
Groundwater in Tunnelling and Dewatering High groundwater pressure, often associated with high water flow usually makes excavation difficult. Dewatering is a technique that takes water away from the ground by: Set S t dry d ground d condition diti for f excavation ti Lower groundwater pressure in the ground Reduce the quantity of water flow at excavation
Dewatering
Ground
Pumping well Original groundwater table
Tunnel
Lowered groundwater table
Dewatering
Ground Pumping well Original groundwater table
Tunnel
Dewatering
Groundwater Flow to Well When water is pumped out from a well, the groundwater level nearby in the aquifer is lowered (drawdown). The greatest drawdown occurs immediately near the well. ll Drawdown D d is i less l at t further f th distances di t away from the well. At some distance away, the groundwater level remains unchanged. g g
Dewatering
Groundwater Flow to Well The lower groundwater table forms a cone of depression around the well. Cones of depressions can occur for both unconfined and confined aquifers. The depth Th d th and d horizontal h i t l extension t i of f the th cone of f depression depends on the pumping rate and the permeability p y of the aquifer. q
Dry well
Well
Former water table Lowered water table
Cone of depression Unconfined aquifer
Well
At some distance away, away the groundwater level will be at the original level.
Former water pressure table Lowered water pressure table Confined aquifer
Dewatering
Drawdown in Unconfined Aquifer General equation relating pumping rate (q), permeability (k), drawdown and distance. q = [k (h22-h12)]/ [ln(r2/r1)]
q
h2
h1
h0
Fully penetrating well in an unconfined aquifer overlying impervious layer, with observation wells
r2
r1
Dewatering
Drawdown in Unconfined Aquifer Equation to calculate drawdown from q, k, distance (r), and radius of pumping well (rw). q = [k (h2-hw2)]/ [ln(r/rw)]
q
rw h hw r
Dewatering
Drawdown in Confined Aquifer Equation relating pumping rate (q), permeability (k), drawdown, aquifer thickness (D) and distance. q = [2Dk (h2-h1)]/ [ln(r2/r1)]
q
h2
h1
h0
Fully penetrating well in a confined aquifer overlying impervious layer, with observation wells
r2
r1
Dewatering
Drawdown in Confined Aquifer Equation to calculate drawdown from q, k, thickness of the confined aquifer (D), distance (r), and radius of pumping well (rw). q = [2 [ Dk(h-h ( )]/ [ [ln(r/r ( w)] w)]
Dewatering
Example Tunnel in Weathered Granite A tunnel of 4.9 m diameter by EPB TBM with roller cutters, at depth up to 50 m, in granite interfacing with residual soil. High groundwater pressure (5 bars) and high permeability. permeability Recommendation is to operate in 3 bars allowing g frequent q cutter changes.
Dewatering
Suggestions Temporarily lowering down groundwater table to reduce water pressure and water inflow. Jet grouting in completely weathered granite and permeation grouting in grades weathered granite. Adopted Solutions Temporarily lower down of groundwater table at face by dewatering from surface boreholes.
Dewatering
Ground Original groundwater table Pumping well
Tunnel
Groundwater pressure
Dewatering
Hydrogeological Consideration Lowering groundwater pressure in the ground is a function of: Permeability of the ground material, more effective in sandy ground with high permeability. Well size and depth, govern the area of water inflow. Pumping rate and duration, govern total water pumped out.
Applicability of dewatering in various grounds

Dewatering
Geo-environmental Consideration Lowering of groundwater may have many environmental implications: Ground settlement (due to change of effective stress). Effects on local hydrogeology setting. Effects on vegetations.
Dewatering
Geo-environmental Consideration
Introduction
Groundwater control and Waterproofing

Porosity of rock 1. Primary porosity Unjointed rock is porous, but usually it has a much smaller porosity than soils. Some porosity values are: -Magmatic g and Metamorphic p rocks: 2% -Sandstones: 1-5% -Sediment slates: 5-20% -Soft limestones: 20-50% The pores can be conected or unconected. The existence of conected pores will enable water to flow through the rock mass 2. Secondary porosity It represents the volume of the open joints, and will provide large channels for the water to flow through the rock mass

Permeability of the Rock: Basic concepts -In rock, the principle of effective stresses also applies = + p -In rock, the Darcys law also applies, and therefore, the permeability of the rock mass can be identified by the so-called hydraulic conductivity K v=K.I -In rock, most of the hydraulic conductivity is due to the secondary porosity (joints and fractures within the rock mass) mass), the primary porosity playing a minor role

Permeability of the Rock: Measurements -In order to measure the hydraulic conductivity of the rock mass K, different methods exist: -Lugeon tests -Double Packer tests -Pumping tests

Injection cap
Double packer-test
Borehole cable Test T t tubing t bi Borehole valve Triple p probe p Upper packer Test interval Lower Packer
Installation tubing
Data Acquisition
Shut-in valve Annulus (P3) A/D Converter Computer System Printer
Upper Packer
Packer Pressure
Shut-in packer
Screen
Test interval (P2)
Isolation packer/ Double packer/ single packer
Flowboard
Lower Packer Flow rate measurement Pressure regulator Injection pump
Observation interval (P1)

Pumping Tests

Lugeon Tests

Reasons for Groundwater control: Water inflows during construction
-Heading inflows occur when a water-bearing zone is penetrated during tunnelling. -The Th risks i k are i immediate di t flooding and ground collapse associated with water ingress. -Critical when the tunnel is headed downhill or in shafts -The flow rate can be very y high (up to 1000 l/s), but usually slows down quickly as the water stored is depleted

Reasons for Groundwater control: Water inflows during construction

Reasons for Groundwater control : Karsts encountered -In some kind of rocks (limestones, gypsum, etc) the water can dissolve minerals i l of f th the rock. k -If the water does not move, the dissolution process stops as soon as the saturation concentration is reached -If water flows, the dissolution process continues, leading to the formation of karsts or cavities within the rock mass

Reasons for Groundwater control : Tunnel Durability problems -According to surveys, the ingress of water is one of the main factors that compromise functionality and durability of tunnels

Reasons for Groundwater control: Other -Sub Sea Tunnelling (or below lakes and rivers) -Tunnelling down slope (water collecting at the face) -Tunnelling Tunnelling through settlement settlement-sensitive sensitive areas (urban tunnelling) -For environmental protection (depletion of natural spring, destruction of ecosystems, etc) -For poor ground stability reasons -etc

Injections
-A countermeasure to prevent water inflows when tunnelling is grouting the water carrying joints using cement mortars with up to 10% sodium silicate or polyurethan foams -A succesful grouting may require the reduction of the water inrush by pressure relief -In I cases where h th the water t velocity l it is i too t high, hi h th the b bonding di can b be unable bl t to take place -This technique can also be used for filling karstic cavities and fault zones with high permeability

Drainage and Umbrella Solution
-Above the groundwater table, a tunnel has to be protected against downwards percolating water. water This is achieved with a so-called umbrella solution, by means of a crown + sides waterproofing and a drainage system that collects the water at both sides of the tunnel -Drainage affects the distribution of hydraulic head by attracting groundwater and relieving the lining from hydrostatic pressure.The groundwater is then collected and discharged -Drainage must be achieved in a maintenance must always be possible permanent way and

The drainage path 1. Groundwater penetrates the shotcrete shell through fissures and ad h b hoc bored dh holes l 2. Water reaches the interface drainage systems, placed between shotcrete and concrete lining/waterproofing lining. Higher water discharges can be caught with separate pipes embedded in the shotcrete. Water infiltrated from the crown and the sides of the tunnel is guided downwards to the longitudinal drainage pipes, at both sides. 3 Transversal slots 3. slots, which guide the groundwater from the side pipes to the main collector underneath the carriageway 4. Longitudinal collection of water by means of a granular filter with perforated pipe




Danger of environmental impacts: Depletion of Natural Springs and Thermal Water Springs

Danger of impact on existing infrastructures: Settlements

Clogging problems in drainage system due to calcareous concretions

Waterproofing: Submarine Solution
-When the tunnel is below the groundwater table, groundwater is pressurized so that an all-embracing waterproofing must be applied -Water tight concrete: Water pressure <3 bars -Watertight membranes: Water pressure of 3 to 15 bars -Grouting: Used in addition, when water pressure is higher than 15 bars

Water tight concrete -A properly fabricated cast concrete is watertight if some conditions are fulfilled (water to ciment ratio, granulometry, thickness of shell,etc) -Even in the case of a theoretically watertight concrete, the permeability can increase if fissures appear due to large shrinkage, hydration heat dissipation, etc -Longitudinal Longitudinal reinforcement reduces the spacing and the width of fissures, but does not avoid them. -It is important to keep short sections of concreting but also trying to minimise the number of joints (in practice, compromise at 12-20 m) -The shotcrete and concrete must be separated with a foil -The advantage of concrete waterproofing is that leakages are easily localised Laboratoire de Mcanique des Roches LMR

Water tight membranes -Geosynthetics applied for waterproofing, mounted directly on the rough concrete lining with a geotextile between them to lining, prevent tearing and dammage of the geomembranes. They are welded to each other. -Polyester should not be used as it can be destroyed by hydrolysis -PVC should not be used, as it is toxic when burnt

Grouting
-When very large water pressures and/or very high water inrush velocity are expected, grouting techniques should be applied pp in addition. In this way, y the created reinforced and impermeable vault of rock will withstand the water pressures (Alpine tunnels) -Grouting is performed in advance, so that the tunnel stretch is previously treated before it is excavated
Introduction
Temporary and permanent Support Methods

Basic Idea of Support
- Since the deformation of the ground is connected with the deformation of the lining, lining it follows that the load acting upon the lining depends on its own deformation: We must consider the interaction between support and rock mass.
- The questions is not which is the pressure acting upon the lining g , but rather which is the relation between pressure and deformation

Temporary and Permanent Support
In sufficiently strong rock (Scandinavia) permanent lining is not provided for,as the temporary support is enough for the long-term. However, usually conventionally driven tunnels obtain a permanent lining of cast concrete in addition to the temporary lining of shotcreterockbolts-steel girders, etc Some prevailing idea is that the loads exerted on the initial lining are initially reduced due to arching but then slowly increase increase. It is also believed that the primary lining decays with time (shotcrete alteration, rockbolts rusting, etc), so that an inner lining of cast concrete becomes necessary. On some occasions, the final lining accomplishes a functional goal (aerodynamics, ventilation, ilumination, etc) In the case of segmental g lining, g, there is usually y no inner lining g of cast concrete: The temporary and final support coincide.

Temporary Support
This kind of support warrants the stability of the underground opening through the process of its excavation Different methods of temporary support exist: -Shotcrete -Steel Steel fiber reinforced shotcrete -Rock-bolts and dowels -Steel meshes -Timbering -Steel Steel girders
Temporary Support Methods

Shotcrete
-Shotcrete is a sprayed concrete with very similar characteristics as those of conventional concrete concrete, but with a lower E and smaller size of aggregates -It can be used to seal freshly uncovered surfaces, support t of f cavities, iti strengthening t th i of f th the rock k mass and creation of a suporting shell. -Up to the age g of 28 days y the stiffness and strength g of shotcrete develop approx. As they do with cast concrete. Afterwards, the strength increases due to post-hydration.

Shotcrete: functions

o


Shotcrete: application methods
DRY METHOD

DRY METHOD

WET METHOD

WET METHOD - Advantages
-Reduced dust production -Reduced rebound -Reduced scatter of concrete properties -Higher capacity

Comparison of methods

Shotcrete: Influence of angle and distance to rebound

Shotcrete: Conditions for a Good Shotcrete

Manual
-Dry System most of all -The operator skill is essential -The operator can change the water to ciment ratio: dangerous

Mechanized Manual operated

Mechanized Shotcreting Boom

Mechanized Shotcreting Boom

Mechanized TBM robot

Shotcrete: practical aspects

Reinforced Shotcrete
-Adding steel fibers increases the tensile strength, ductility and stiffness of shotcrete -It also improves the distribution of cracks and the capacity to handle bending loads -The lenght of the fibers should not exceed 2/3 of the minimum hose diameter -Usual sizes are 45-50 mm lenght, 0.8-1.0 mm diameter. -The steel content should be > 30 kg/m3 -Water/cement ratio should not exceed 0.5 05

Reinforced Shotcrete: Advantages

Reinforced Shotcrete: Fibers

Reinforced Shotcrete: Advantages

Reinforced Shotcrete: Shotcrete Consumption

Steel Meshes
-Steel St l meshes h can b be manually ll mounted and should not be too heavy. -Normally, they are >100 mm of mesh size, i di diameter<10 t <10 mm and d need da concrete cover > 2 cm -Mesh installation is labour intensive and hazardous hazardous, as the personnel is exposed to rock falls. -Nowadays, it tends to be less used in favour of fiber-reinforced fiber reinforced shotcrete -Very good when the ground is very poor and the adhesion of the shotcrete to the rock is not good enough

Rock Bolts and Dowels
-The main objective is the improvement of the rock properties in terms of stiffness and strenght -Difference Difference between Dowels and RockBolts: -Dowels: They depend upon movement in the rock to activate the reinforcing action, so they do not strenghten the rock mass from the moment of their installation. So, , in order to be effective, , they y must be installed before the rock mass has experienced large deformations. They normally inhibit the relative slip of two adjacent rock blocks. -Rockbolts: From the very moment of their installation they strengthen the rock mass. They are always tensioned and o compress the rock mass.

Rock Bolts and Dowels: Reinforcing Actions

Rock Bolts and Dowels: Reinforcing Actions

Rock Bolts and Dowels: Applications

Rock Bolts: Mechanically Anchored RockBolts

Rock Bolts: Mechanically Anchored RockBolts
These bolts are anchored by means of a wedge force at the tip end of the rockbolt They can be used when the rock is sufficiently strong (UCS > 100 MPa) MP ) and d when h it i is not t very j jointed i t d They run the risk of getting loosen with shocks and vibrations They y do not need any y grouting. g g However, for durability y reasons, if the bolts are to be used as permanent support grout should be injected Tensioning is important to ensure that all of the components are in i contact and d that h a positive ii f force i is applied li d to the h rock. k When just safety bolts, the tension is not critical, but when o at 70% of required to carry big loads, they must be tensioned their capacity

Rock Bolts: Resin Anchored RockBolts

Rock Bolts: Resin Anchored RockBolts
When mechanically anchored bolts are not suitable, resin anchored bolts might be used. They work in soft rocks, jointed rocks and when shocks are to happen (blasts) Resin R i i is made d up of ft two component t cartridges t id containing t i i a resin and a catalyst in separate compartments. When the cartridges are broken the mix sets within a few minutes If they th are just j t for f temporary t support, t a fast f t setting tti resin i cartridge at the tip is enough. For permanent support, slow setting cartridges are set behind for protection The procedure is: Installation of fast and slow setting resin cartridges - insertion of steel rod - spinning of rod - fast setting of end cartridges prestressing slow setting of rear o cartridges and fixation of rockbolt

Rock Bolts: Resin Anchored RockBolts Dangers
Process of mixing the resin is quite delicate, the operator must be experienced p When set in very broken rock, the resin might seep into the surrounding rock, leaving voids: Better option the use of cement grout in this case In argillaceous rocks the clay might cause slipping of the resin cartridges during rotation, without correct mixing There is some uncertainty y about the long-term g corrosion protection of resin with aggressive groundwater. So, for permanent support measures, it might be better the use of o cement grouts instead of resin

Dowels: Grout Anchored Dowels

Dowels: Grout Anchored Dowels
They consist on a corrugated steel bar or cable that is fixed with grout within the rock mass The procedure of installation is: A thick grout is pumped into the hole by inserting the grout tube to the end and slowly withdrawing the tube - the dowel is then inserted - a face plate and nut are fitted onto the end They are cheap to install When flexibility with impact and abrasion resistance is needed, d d th the b bar can b be changed h db by a cable bl They can be used as temporary and permanent support, and o the risk of corrosion is minimised

Dowels: Friction Split-Set stabilisers

Dowels: Friction Split-Set stabilisers
They consist of a slotted high strength steel tube and a face plate It is installed by pushing it into a slightly undersized hole and the radial spring force generated provides the frictional anchorage along the entire lenght of the hole The correct diameter of the hole is of capital importance Quick and simple to install: Very used in mining U f l for Useful f rockburst kb t environment i t (ductile) (d til ) The main problem is corrosion, so they are just suitable for temporary support

Dowels: Friction Swellex



Developed and marketed by Atlas Copco No pushing force is needed during insertion and the dowel is activated by injection of high pressure water (30 MPa) which inflates the tube into intimate contact with the walls of the borehole They are sold in two sizes: Swellex (25.5 mm) and SuperSwellex (36 mm) They are very ductile, most of all in its version Mn-enriched, and so very well adapted to rockburst, large convergences and plastic deformations They can be set very quickly. They are very suitable for f mechanized installation (rockbolters) Although they are dowels, they can be slightly prestressed at 20 KN They present, present as well as the split-set system system, the problem of corrosion corrosion, that might make them not suitable for permanent support. However, corrosion-resistant versions of Swellex have been created by the o manufacturer.

Dowels: Self Drilling Anchors SDA

Dowels: Self Drilling Anchors SDA

Cables

Cables
Grouted cables can be used when a very flexible solution is needed As the cable pulls out of the grout grout, the cable causes dilation - a confining pressure friction or shear resistance They are very used in large excavations (caverns) and rock slope stabilisation Special care must be taken with the quality and correct injection of grout

Fibre-Glass Dowels
They are used mainly for face stabilisation, as they can be easily broken in the ulterior excavation step They are made in fibre fibre-glass. glass Once put in place place, they are embedded in grout They y are also used for stabilisation of p pilot tunnels that are to be widened by TBM

Fibre-Glass Dowels

RockBolts and Dowels: Summing up

RockBolts and Dowels: Application
Semi-Automatic
Drilling with conventional boomer rigs and ulterior setting of the rockbolts kb lt from f a platform
o

Fully-Automatic
Drilling and rockbolt setting is done automatically with special machines hi

o

Fully-Automatic

Spot-Bolting Individual bolts are placed to stabilise isolated blocks

Pattern Bolting Systematic installation of a more or less regular array of rockbolts
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RockBolts and Dowels: Quality Control
Checking depth and diameter of holes Correct Correct cleaning of drillholes Appropriate grouting Tensioning tests, non destructive Destructive pull out tests
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Timbering
-In the early days of tunnelling, timbering eas the only means for temporary support -Nowadays it is mainly used for the support of small and / or irregular cavities -Wood is easy to handle and indicates imminent collapse by cracking -However, H th the di discontinuous ti contact t t with ith th the rock ki is problematic
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Timbering

Steel Support
-Support arches are composed of segments of rolled steel profiles or lattice girders -The arch segments are placed and mounted together with fixed or compliant joints -The contact with the adjacent rock is achieved with wooden wedges or with bagged packing. They can also be mounted with rockbolts -Normally the arches are covered with shotcrete
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-They They can also serve to mount forepoling spiles in longitudinal direction Underground Construction
Technology

Steel Support

Steel Support: Some examples

Support Empirical Recommendations: RMR

Support Empirical Recommendations: Q
Permanent Support Methods

Even Even if some rockbolts can never be taken into account as permanent support (split-set, swellex, anchor-type without grout, etc), very often their contribution is not taken into account at all, for security reasons Shotcrete could also be taken, as well as temporary support, as a contribution to the permanent support. However, because of durability issues, there is still debate on this issue That is why when we talk about permanent support measures, we normally refer to permanent inner concrete linings or the concrete segments put in place by TBMs g can also be due for functional reasons This concrete lining (ventilation, lighting, aerodynamics, etc)

Permanent Support Methods: Concrete lining

Permanent Support Methods: Concrete lining
The The usual thickness of a permanent lining is at least 25 cm cm, being of 35 cm for reinforced and watertight linings Blocks of 8 to12 m in lenght are usually separated with extension j i t joints Normal concretes type C20/25 are employed, as more resistant concretes develop higher temperatures and are more prone to develop fissures The concrete is poured into rolling formworks and compacted with vibrators Possibly unfilled parts should be regrouted after concreting, avoiding a too high pressure that might damage the concrete lining

Permanent Support Methods: Reinforced Concrete Lining g
-Very often the concrete is not reinforced, as the loads acting on it are not very well known and produce most of all compression within ithin the concrete shell shell. Ho However, e er steel bars will sew construction joints and normally reinforce the invert, very subjected to high loads -The loads to be withstand cover those exerted by the rock, own weight, shrinkage, temperature differences, aerodynamic pressure pressure, etc -When it is reinforced, the cage is prefabricated in situ
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