PROCESS INSTRUMENTATION MEASUREMENT AND CONTROL

Pressure Measurement

Pressure Transducers

SECTION 2.PRESSURE TRANSDUCERS

4.2.1 Introduction Whilst there are a wide range of pressure measuring devices on the market, they may be divided into main groups: mechanical and electromechanical

4.2.2 MECHANICAL SENSORS

Mechanical pressure measuring elements include: Manometer Dead weight tester Bourdon tubes Bellow elements Diaphragm element

4.2.1

MANOMETERS

In any column of liquid (Figure 4.2.1),the head pressure p is given by: P gh Where : P head in pressure density h height

In its simplest form the manometer is a U tube about half with liquid (commonly water, mercury or alcohol). With both ends of the tube open, the liquid is at same height in each leg (Figure 4.2.2(a)). When positive pressure P is applied to one leg, the liquid is forced down in that leg and up in the other(Figure 4.2.2(b)). The height h, indicates the difference in applied pressure P and the atmospheric pressure P.

Since the pressure in both tubes must balance: P P + gh h (P -P)/g For water and mercury the conversion into Pascals is:

Water: Pa = mmHO x 9,80665 Mercury: Pa= mmHg x133,332

Alternatively, when a vacuum is applied to one leg, the liquid in that leg and falls in the other (Figure 4.2.2(c)). This time the difference in height h indicates the amount of vacuum. Because the difference in height the two columns is always a true indication of the pressure, regardless of variation in the internal diameter of the tubing, the U-tube manometer is a primary standard.

A disadvantage of the U-tube manometer is that reading must be taken at two different places. This shortcoming is overcome in the well-type manometer (Figure 4.2.3)where the well(reservoir) is sufficiently large that the change of level in the reservoir is negligible. Alternatively, the change in reservoir liquid level may be compensated for on the scale.

To increase readability and sensitivity further the well-type manometer indicating tube can be inclined.(Figure 4.2.4) to produce a greater linear movement along the tube for a given pressure difference. Because the inclined manometer is frequently used for determining the over- fired draft in boiler uptakes and it often is called a Draft Gauge.

4.2.2.2 DEAD WEIGHT TESTER

Suitable for measuring pressure in the ranges from about 3 to kPs (gas) up to 1 GPa (hydraulic), the dead-weight tester is used essentially as a primary pressure calibration standard and provides accuracies of down to 0.02% of reading.

The dead-weight tester is based on measuring the force acting on known area. As illustrated in Figure 4.2.5, hydraulic fluid, contained within a pressure cylinder, acts on a position, having a known cross-section area, which support a known weight.

The operation, the screw press is operated until the pressure within the system is sufficient to raise the position, with its associated weights, off its stop. At this point, ignoring frictional losses, the pressure acting on the piston is given by: P force /cross-sectional area P m.g /A Where: P pressure g acceleration due to gravity A cross sectional area

Two points should be noted. In most system, the apparatus is surrounded by atmospheric pressure and the calibrated pressure is thus gauge pressure. Some system are mounted within an evacuated chamber in order to derive absolute pressure. A second point is that, as indicated above, performance will be affected by the acceleration due to gravity. Thus gives rise to a variation of about to 0.5% around the globe. Consequently, it is important that local value of the acceleration due to gravity is known and corrected for.

4.2.2.3 BOURDON TUBE

Figure 4.2.3 illustrates the C shaped or C Bourdon tube. The tube is commonly manufactured of phosphor bronze having a flattened cross-sectional area and is sealed at one end. When pressure is applied to the open end of the tube it will tend to straighten and the relatively small travel of the end of tube is amplified by means of a link to drive a pointer through a drive segment and toothed gear.

Although the movement of the tip of the tube is nonlinear this can be compensated for in the link and rear mechanism.

The link also usually incorporates a bi-metallic element for temperature compensation.(Figure 4.2.7) Bourdon tubes are available to cover the range from 0-30 k Pa up to 0-50 M Pa

The Bourdon tube can be fabricated from a variety of materials including phosphor Bronze beryllium copper, 4130 alloy steel, 316 and 403 stainless, Monel, and titanium With the choice determining both the range and corrosion resistance.

The C- Bourdon tube usually has a relatively short arc of around 250and provides a typical accuracy of 2%. It is used for local pressure indication connected directly to process vessels and lines. Inexpensive, C-Bourdon tube instruments feature a wide operating range, good sensitive and fast response.

The main problem with C- Bourdon tube is their susceptibility to damage due to shock or vibration although this can be overcome by filling the instrument case with a damping fluid such as glycerin or silicon oil. Apart from reducing resonance-induced fracturing of the measuring element, the liquid filling prevents aggressive or corrosive gases from entering the instrument and prevents condensation from forming.

For the lower measurement range use is often made of the spiral Bourdon tube (Figure 4.2.8) in which the tube makes several turns to increase the effective angular length and thus increase the movement of the free end for a given pressure input. Because the need for further mechanical amplification is reduced, the tube end is mechanically linked direct to the pointer. This eliminates the necessity for the toothed quadrant- with the consequent reduction backlash and friction errors.

Whilst the C Bourdon is generally suitable for pressure up to about 1 Mpa, In any bourdon tube element, the higher the pressure required, the thicker the wall of the tubing. Thus whilst spiral tube low pressure elements may have only two or three coils, high pressure elements with their thicker wall, may require up to 20 coil in order not maintain their sensitivity. Generally the spiral tube is suitable for pressure up to 30 Mpa. A variation on the spiral tube is the helix tube where the tube is wound longitudinally to provide ranges up to 50 Mpa. The mail disadvantage of both spiral and helix elements is that very expensive.

4.2.2.4 BELLOW ELEMENTS

The bellow measuring device is made up of a series of thin-walled cylindrical elements that from the bellows arrangement and is used where a large degree of travel is required in a restricted space. Bellows element are also used for lower pressure ranges and for ranges that cross from vacuum into positive gauge pressure.

The bellows measuring device(Figure 4.2.9)is made of series of thin-walled cylindrical element that from the bellow arrangement and used where degree of travel is required in a restricted space. Bellows elements are also used for lower pressure ranges and for ranges that cross from vacuum positive gauge pressure.

The principle of operation is based on the fact when a pressure is applied to the bellows element, its length changes. In the arrangement shown in Figure 4.2.9, the spring loaded bellows elements is enclosed within a pressure container that to the process pressure source. When pressure is applied the bellows compress against the opposing pressure source. When pressure is applied the bellows compress against the opposing force of the spring- with the vertical movement transmitted, through a suitable linkage, to pointer or actuating device.

Because pressure is exerted over a large area, the bellows element produces a considerable force per unit change in pressure. As a result, bellows elements are used in the range from 0-500 Pa up to 100 k Pa. Bellows elements are often used to actuate an on/off switch for in the air conditioning industry.

4.2.5 DIAPHRAGM ELEMENTS

In the simple diaphragm a flexible disc, which can either be flat or have concentric corrugation, is fabricated from sheet metal to exacting high to tolerance dimensions. In the instrument shown in Figure 4.2.10, the diaphragm is used independently as a pressure sensor. Applied pressure deflects the diaphragm which move a push rod.

Due to their and position ,diaphragms display high mechanical resistance and are less shocksensitive. Compared to Bourdon tubes, the travel of a diaphragm is very small and thus both quality and tolerances must meet very exacting standards.

The diaphragm is also the basic component of a capsular element comprising two diaphragms joined together by crimping or fusion-welding. In Figure 4.2.11, the orientation of the corrugation of two diaphragms is oppose and again a push rod is used to actuate a toothed drive segments, gear and pointer.

4.2.3 ELECTRICAL DISPLACEMENT SENSORS

In modern process control system, pressure measurement is normally carried out using a different pressure transducer. The role of such a pressure transducer is to measure the differential pressure and convert it to an electrical signal that can be transmitted from the field to the control room or the pressure controlling system.

As illustrated in figure 4.2.12, most industrial differential cell make use of isolation diaphragms that isolate the transmitter. Movement of the isolation diaphragms is transmitted via the isolating fluid(e.g. silicon fluid) to the measure diaphragm whose deflection is a measure of the differential pressure.

Deflection of the measuring diaphragm is extremely small(of the order of a few millimeters)and measure is normally carried out by one of five basic methods: 1. Inductance 2. Strain gauge 3. Capacitance 4. Piezoresistive 5. Piezoelectric

4.2.3.1 INDUCTANCE
The inductive based sensor(often referred to as a linear differential transformer) (Figure 4.2.13) senses the displacement of magnetic core mounted on the measuring diaphragm. This is shown the displacement of a magnetic core mounted on the measuring diaphragm. This is show schematically in Figure 4.2.14.

Displacement of the magnetic core changes the coupling between the primary and the two secondarys. With no differential pressure, the measuring diaphragm is not deflected and the voltage induced in the measuring coil is equal and opposite with a net output of zero.

When the measuring diaphragm is defected the output voltage magnitude and phase of each secondary will vary in direct proportional to the pressure applied to the movable element.

4.2.3.2 STRAIN GAUGES

In the simplest form, adhesive is used to bond four metal strain gauge elements directly to the diaphragm(Figure 4.2.15). In most instances, the strain gauges elements are arranged to form the four arms of a Wheatstone bridge.

Thus , a change in pressure produces mechanical deformation which result in a change of electrical resistance that is proportional to the change in pressure. The greater the pressure applied to the diaphragm, the more it will deflect.

The bonded foil strain gauge is the most reliable and durable of four technologies and can be used in ultra high pressure application(0-600 kPa through to 700 MPa). Its durability makes it suitable for application that experience pressure cycling, shock, and vibration.

Another major advantage of this technology is that foil strain gauge can be matched and bonded with extreme accuracy, these is no need to include any temperature compensating devices within the transmitter.

The mail limitation of this technology is its poor performance at below 500 k Pa. If the diaphragm is too thin, the strain gauges begin to interfere with the diaphragms motion. Increased sensitivity can be obtained using a metallic thin sensor where the strain gauge is vapor deposited or spattered onto the diaphragm sensing element.

4.2.3 CAPACITANCE
The variable capacitance transmitter(Figure 4.2.16) is the most widely used method of measuring differential pressure. The upstream and downstream pressure are applied to isolation diaphragms on the high and low pressure sides, and are transmitted to the sensing diaphragm(movable electrode)- usually through a fail oil. Movement of the sensing diaphragm changes its distance from the fixed plate electrodes, resulting in a change in capacitance.

Capacitance based transmitters are simple, reliable , accurate, small, in size and weight, and remain stable over a wide temperature range. The main advantage of the capacitive transmitter is that it is extremely sensitive to small changes in pressure- down to 250 Pa pressure.

4.2.3.4 PIEZORESISTIVE
Similar in operation to the strain gauge , the piezoresistive element employs four nearly identical piezio-resistive diffused the surface of a thin circular wafer of N- type silicon. The diaphragm is formed by chemically etching a circular cavity- with the un etched portion forming a rigid boundary and surface. The mechanical strength of silicon generally impose an upper limit of around about 3 MPa.

Through not as rugged as a foil strain gage, piezoresistive gauges are generally more sensitive than metallic thick film device and thus produce a measurable signal at lower strain. However, silicon piezoresistive sensing technology is not suited for application that experience extreme pressure cycles, shocks, or vibration, due to the weakness of the silicon piezoresistors. Further, the upper temperature limit for diffused silicon strain gauge based transmitters runs between 125 and 200C.

Ceramic piezoresistive sensing technology uses conductive link deposition on the reference side of a ceramic sensing diaphragm. Like silicon piezoresistive, this technology provides a strong, sensitive output signal in lower pressure ranges. Ceramic piezoresistive technology is slightly more rugged than silicon piezoresistive and is used in pressure ranges of 0- 100 kPa to 0 10MPa. Further, the ceramic wetted face may be used in corrosive fluid application

4.2.3.5 PIEZOELECTRIC
When a mechanical stretching or compressing force is applied to an asymmetrical crystalline material, such as barium titanite or quartz(Figure 4.2.17), equal and opposite electrical changes appear across it . the magnitude of the charges appear across it. The magnitude of the charges depends on the dimension of the quartz crystal and the magnitude of the applied force.

Pressure transducers based on this phenomenon produce an out that is proportional to a change in applied pressure and do not thus respond to static conditions. Available in a wide range of dynamic pressure from to 200 kPa to 100 MPa with an accuracy down to 0.075%, piezoelectric pressure transducer have a very fast response(<1 nanosecond). Since they are suitable for dynamic sensing only, they find their main application in measuring very fast dynamic pressure changes e.g. following changes in the cylinder head of an engine.