Skeletal System 1. Support 2. Movement 3. storage as a mineral store. 4. Protective. 5. Blood cell production: as a marrow holder.

Hyaline Cartilage Hyaline cartilage has large amounts of both collagen fiber and peoteoglycans, has very smooth surface. It covers the surface of bones that move smoothly against joints. Hyaline forms most of the skeleton before it is replaced by bone in the embryo. And it is involved in the growth that increase the length of the bone. Cells: 1. Condroblast is responsible for produce new matrix. 2. Chondrocyte when the matrix surrounds the chondroblast, it becomes chondrocytes, the space it occupied called lacuna. Perichondrium: A double layered connective tissue sheath covering most cartilage. Outer layer is dense connective tissue containing fibroblast and inner layers contain chondroblast. Blood supply: blood vessels and nerves penetrate the outer layer of the perichondium but not enter the cartilage matrix. Articular cartilage has no perichondrium, blood vessels or nerves. Growth: 1. Appositional growth- chonronblast lay down new matrix. 2. Interstitial growth- chondrocytes within tissue divide and add more matrix between the cells. Anatomy of Bone ShortCarpals and tarsals Flat Irregular 1. 2. Ribs, sternum, skull, scapulae Vertebrae, facial shaft of the bone and it is composed primarily compact bone End of bone consists primarily of cancellous or spongy bone. Long Upper and lower limbs Structure of long bone: Diaphysis: Epiphysis:

3.

Epiphyseal plate:

Hyaline cartilage is located between the epiphysis and

diaphysis. Growing in the bone length occurs at the epiphyseal plate. But, when a bone stops growing in length the epiphyseal plate become ossified and is called the epiphyseal line. 4. Medullary cavity: The diaphysis of a long bone has a large space called the medullary cavity. The cavities of cancellous bone and the medullary cavity are filled with marrow. Red marrow is the site of blood cell formation and yellow marrow is most adipose tissue 5. Periosteum: double-layered connective tissue membrane covering the outer surface of bone except where articular cartilage exist; ligaments and tendons attach to bone through the periosteum; blood vessels and nerves from the periosteum supply the bone; the periosteum is the site of bone growth in diameter. 6. 7. 8. 9. Endosteum: Thin connective tissue membrane lining the inner cavities of bone Particular cartilage: Thin layer of hyaline cartilage covering a bone where it forms a joint with another bone. Red marrow: Connective tissue in the spaces of cancellous bone or in the medullary cavity; the site of blood cell production. Yellow marrow: Fat stored within the medullary cavity or in the spaces of cancellous bone. Structures of Flat Bones No diaphyses, epiphyses Sandwich of cancellous between compact bone Structure of Short and Irregular Bone Compact bone that surrounds cancellous bone center No diaphyses and not elongated Bone Histology

Bone tissue is connective tissue consisting of 3 types of cells and a matrix.

Bone matrix

Organic: Collagen and proteoglycans Inorganic: Hydroxapatite

The matrix contains 65% mineral salts and 35% organic matter; it is the mineral salts which accounts for the hardness of bone tissue. The organic component is composed of collagen fibers with predominately type I collagen (95%) and amorphous material, including proteinglycans. Inorganic matter composed of abundant calcium and phosphorus crystal known as hydroxyapatite crystals. Note :

Bone tissue without mineral salts is very flexible Bone tissue without organic matter is very brittle and crumbles.

The 3 types of cell within the matrix: 1. Osteoblasts: are very active cells at the surface of bone tissue. Their function is to secrete organic substance (collagen fiber) add to the matrix, form osteoid tissue for the deposition of mineral salts thus forming bone tissue. Sites: centers of ossification, [immature bone], deep layers of periosteum, fractures. 2. Osteocytes: are formed from osteoblasts, but is less active and no longer form new bone tissue. Osteocytes become isolated in lacunae [small spaces] within the matrix. Nutrition is via fluid in the canaliculi, which are part of the Haversian system. Their function is thought to be moving calcium between bone and blood. Sites: within the Haversian system. 3. Osteoclasts: are large active cells situated at the surface of growing tissue. A brush [cilia] like border on one surface is directed towards the matrix, the function is the resorption of bone. To achieve this function osteoclasts secrete substances to break down minerals salts and collagen fibers and destroy the remains [this process is phagocytosis]. Particularly important in intracartilaginous bone development. Sites: under periosteum, during growth, walls of medullary canal. Osteoclasts rarely are seen in routine histological sections of normal bone. An increased number of osteoclasts are characteristic of diseases with increased bone turnover

The balance between number of osteoblasts and osteocytes Note: and their related activity is important in maintaining normal bone growth, structure and function.
4. Stem cells or osteochondral progenitor cells Mesenchymal (embryologically) cells---connective tissue----stem cells.

Osteochondral progenitor cells (stem cell) are located in the inner layers of the perichondrium, in the inner layer of the periosteum, and in the endosteum. From these locations they can be a potential source of new osteoblast or chondroblasts. Osteocytes are derived from osteoblasts. Osteoclasts are derived from stem cells in the red bone marrow. Osteoclasts probably are derived from a monocytic-macrophage system

Osteoblasts and Chondrocytes originate from the same parent cell, which type of
Note:

cell develops is thought to depend on oxygen supply, lack of oxygen produces chondrocytes. Oxygen supply is thought to influence fracture union, lack of oxygen will result in cartilaginous union rather than bony union.
Cancellous bone (spongy): Cancellous bone resembles a honeycomb construction; there is a beam like framework called trabeculae, formed from lamellae and osteocytes linked to each other by canaliculi. The number of lamellae and osteocytes is fewer than in compact bone. The space in between the trabeculae contains red bone marrow. Cancellous bone has no medullary canal. The osteocytes must obtain nutrients through their canaliculi. The surfaces of trabeculae are covered with a single layer of cells consisting mostly of osteoblasts with a few osteoclasts. Compact bone: Compact bone appears solid, but consists of large numbers of Haversian systems or Osteons, there is a central Haversian canal which contains blood and lymph vessels and nerves, surrounded by growth rings of bone called Lamellae [similar to tree growth rings], between these rings are the osteocytes (mature bone cells) within fluid filled lacunae. The lacunae are linked to each other and the central canal via Canaliculi. There is a central cavity in compact bone known as the Medullary Canal and this contains yellow bone marrow. The outer surface of compact bone is formed by circumferential lamellae, which are plates that extend around the bone. In between osteons are interstitial lamellae. Blood vessels from periosteum or medullary cavity enter the bone through perforating canals. The central canals receive blood vessels from perforating canals. Nutrients in the blood vessels enter the central canals pass into canaliculi, and move through the cytoplasm of the osteocytes that occupy the canaliculi and lacunae to the most peripheral cells tithing each osteom. Waste products are removed in the reverse direction.

Woven bone: The collagen fibers are randomly oriented in many directions. Woven bone is first formed during fetal development and during the repair of a fracture. After its formation, the woven bone go through the process called bone remodeling and from lamellar bone. Lamellar bone: This is an organized arrangement of collagen fibers, laid down in rings to form the characteristic lamellae, producing long, short and irregular bones from cartilaginous ossification. Commonly found in compact and cancellous bone tissue. E. Bone development Development of bone whether intramembranous or intracartilagenous begins in early intrauterine life, by the sixth week a complete cartilaginous skeleton has formed and osteogenesis begins and continues until approximately the 21st year after birth. The process of ossification occurs in two stages: Stage 1: Osteoblasts produce osteoid tissue gradually replacing the cartilage and membrane base tissue. Stage 2: The osteoid tissue is calcified as soon as it is deposited. The way in which the collagen fibers are arranged within the osteoid tissue determines the type of bone there are two types of arrangement Woven or nonlamellar and Lamellar. Intramembranous ossification While intramembranous ossification is the source of flat bones, it also contributes to the growth of short bones and thickening of long bones. Interstitial membranous ossification takes place within condensation of mesenchymal tissue. The process begins when multiple groups of cells differentiate into osteoblasts in a primary ossification center. Osteoid is synthesized and then mineralized, surrounding the osteoblasts, which then become osteocytes. When these ossification centers fuse, a loose trabecular

structure known as woven bone is formed. Subsequently, blood vessels grow into the connective tissue between the trabeculae. Bone marrow stem cells from the circulating blood then give rise to hematopoietic cells. The larger membrane-cover spaces between the developing skulls bones have not yet been ossified are called fontanels, or soft spots. Growth and fusion of several ossification centers eventually replaces the original mesenchymal tissue. All fontanels have usually closed by the time an infant is 2 years of age. In flat bones, compact bone is formed at both the internal and external surfaces due to a marked predominance of bone deposition over bone resorption, while a spongy pattern remains in the central portion. The endosteum and periosteum are formed from layers of connective tissue that are not undergoing ossification. Endochondral ossification Endochondral ossification is responsible for the formation of short and long bones. It takes place within a hyaline cartilage model, which provides a template of the shape of the bone to be formed. Endochondral ossification can be divided into: 1 Forming a cartilage cartilage. The mesenchymal cell aggregated and become chondroblasts which produce a hyaline cartilage model. The cartilage is surrounded by the perichondrium, except where a joint will form. 2 The blood vessels invading. When the blood vessels invade the peridhondrium, osteochondral progenitor cells within the perichondrium become osteoblasts. And the perichondrium becomes the peristeum when the osteoblast begins to produce bone. The perichondrium of the diaphysis becomes the periosteum, and a bone collar is produced. Internally, the chondrocytes hypertrophy, and calcified cartilage is formed. 3 A primary ossification center. As blood vessels and osteoblasts invade the calcified cartilage, the osteoblast lay down bone matrix, forming cancellous bone.

4 The primary ossification center expands longitudinally and is associated with the growth of the periosteal bone collar and cartilage calcification. Osteoclasts are activated at the beginning of the process, resorb the bone at the center, and hence create the marrow cavity. 5 At a later stage of bone development, a secondary ossification center arises at the center of each epiphysis. Unlike primary ossification, which expands in a longitudinal fashion, the secondary ossification center grows in a radial fashion. 6 A bone collar is not formed in the area of articular cartilage due to the absence of perichondrium in this area. Thus, the epiphysis of the chondroid model is replaced by bone tissue, except the articular cartilage and the epiphyseal cartilage. 7 Epiphyseal cartilage (epiphyseal plate) is located between the epiphysis and the diaphysis, responsible for longitudinal growth of bone. 8 Mature bone forms when the epithyseal plate has become the epithyseal line and all the cartilage in the epiphysis, except the articular cartilage, has become bone. Bone forms only by appositional deposition of matrix on the surface of a preformed tissue. Either intramembranous ossification or by endochondral ossification, the original or model tissue is gradually destroyed and replaced with bone tissue. Woven bone is formed initially and is later converted to lamellar bone by subsequent remodeling. F. Factors affecting bone growth The potential shape and size of a bone and an individual adult height are determined genetically, but factors such as nutrition and hormones can greatly modify the expression of those genetic factors. Nutrition The long bones of a child sometimes exhibit lines of arrested growth, which are transverse regions of greater bone density crossing an otherwise normal

bone. These lines are caused by growth calcification below the epiphyseal plate of a bone, where it has grown at a slower rate during an illness or severe nutritional deprivation. They demonstrated that illness or malnutrition during the time of bone growth can cause a person to be shorter than he or she would have been otherwise. Vitamin D Necessary for absorption of calcium from intestines. The body can either synthesize or ingest vitamin D. Its rate of synthesis increases when the skin is exposed to sunlight. Insufficient causes rickets and osteomalacia Rickets: a disease resulting from reduced minerization of bone matrix caused by insufficient vitamin D in children. Osteomalacia: Calcium depletion in adults caused by vitamin D insufficiency in adults. Vitamin C Necessary for collagen synthesis by osteoblasts Deficiency results in scurvy Hormones Growth hormone from anterior pituitary. Stimulating interstitial cartilage growth and apposition bone growth. Thyroid hormone required for growth of all tissues, including cartilage, therefore a decrease in this hormone can result in decreased size of the individual. Sex hormones as estrogen and testosterone. Initially stimulate bone growth, which accounts for the burst of growth at the time of puberty, when production of these hormones increases. Both hormones also stimulate ossification of epithyseal plates, however and thus the cessation of growth. G. Bone remodeling 1 Coverts woven bone into lamellar bone 2. Bone constantly removed by osteoclasts and new bone formed by osteoblasts

H. Bone repair
1. hematoma formation 2. callus formation

3. Callus ossification 4. Bone remodeling I. Calcium Homeostasis A When blood calcium level is low, osteoclast activity increases. More calcium is released by osteoclast from bone into the blood then blood calcium levels increase. Conversely, if blood calcium levels are too high, osteoclast activity decreases. B PTH-will increase secretion when blood calcium level is low. 1) Increase the number of osteoclasts. 2) Increase calcium uptake in the small intestine. 3) Promote the formation of vitamin D in the kidneys. 4) Increase the reapportion of calcium from urine. C Calcitonin-an increase in blood calcium level stimulates the thyroid gland to secrete calcitonin, which can decrease osteoclast activity by binding to receptor on the osteoclasts. J. Effects of Aging on Skeletal System Bone Mass decreases Increased bone fractures Bone loss causes deformity, loss of height, pain, stiffness Stooped posture Loss of teeth