Assignment

On

Load Cells
Subject: Industrial Instrumentation

Submitted To: Submitted By:

Dr. Ing Naveed Ramzan Mohsin Ali Raza (2007-Chem-93)

Chemical Engineering Department University of Engineering and Technology Lahore

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Abstract
In this assignment load cells are explained with construction and working. Types of load cells such as Strain gauge load cells, Tension load cells, Pneumatic load cells, Pneumatic load cells, Hydraulic load cells, Shear Load Cells, Compression Load Cells, Bending Load Cells, Ring Torsion Load Cells, Pancake Load Cells, Single Point Load Cells and their working advantages and disadvantages are given in this assignment. How can we select a good load cell according to our requirements is presented in this assignment. Operating conditions are mentioned and limitations of each load cells are also presented in this assignment.

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Table of Contents
Load Cells ........................................................................................................................................ 5 1.1-Definition .............................................................................................................................. 5 1.2-Types of Load cells ................................................................................................................ 5 1.3-Strain Gauge Load Cells ........................................................................................................ 6 1.3.1-Working principle .......................................................................................................... 6 1.3.2-Construction and working ............................................................................................. 6 1.3.3-Advantages .................................................................................................................... 7 1.3.4-Disadvantages ................................................................................................................ 8 1.4-Tension Load Cells ................................................................................................................ 8 1.4.1-Working Principle .......................................................................................................... 8 1.4.2-Construction and working ............................................................................................. 8 1.4.3-Advantages .................................................................................................................... 9 1.4.4-Disadvantages .............................................................................................................. 10 1.5-Pneumatic Load Cells .......................................................................................................... 10 1.5.1-Working Principle ........................................................................................................ 10 1.5.2-The Force-Balance Principle ........................................................................................ 10 1.5.3-Working of pneumatic load cell................................................................................... 10 1.5.4-Advantages .................................................................................................................. 11 1.5.5-Disadvantages .............................................................................................................. 12 1.6-Hydraulic Load Cells ............................................................................................................ 12 1.6.1-Working Principle ........................................................................................................ 12 1.6.2-Construction and working ........................................................................................... 12 1.6.3-Advantages .................................................................................................................. 13 1.6.4-Disadvantages .............................................................................................................. 14 1.7-Shear Load Cells .................................................................................................................. 14 1.7.1-Working Principle ........................................................................................................ 14 1.7.2-Construction and working ........................................................................................... 14 1.7.3-Advantages .................................................................................................................. 15 1.7.4-Disadvantages .............................................................................................................. 15 3
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References .................................................................................................................................... 16

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Load Cells
1.1-Definition
Load cells are sensors which are used to measure the level or pressure by converting the force (torque or mass) into electrical signals and then these signals are displayed by the display unit to show the level or pressure. Load cells are also known as load transducers. In dictionary, a load cell is known as weight measuring device necessary for electronic signal that displays weight in the form of digits. Load cells can be classified according to their operations:

Load cells that utilize liquid pressure or air pressure. Load cells that utilize elasticity. Load cells that utilize a magnetostriction or piezoelectric effect.
The strain gauge load cell is the mostly used among the all kinds of load cells. Therefore, when we say load cell, we are mostly referring to strain gauge load cells. Although there are many other measurement devices, such as piezoelectric sensors, magnetostrictive sensors, capacitance sensor and other sensors.

1.2-Types of Load cells

Strain gauge load cells Tension load cells Pneumatic load cells Hydraulic load cells Shear Load Cells Compression Load Cells Bending Load Cells Ring Torsion Load Cells Pancake Load Cells Single Point Load Cells

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1.3-Strain Gauge Load Cells

This is a type of load cell which is use to measure the level of any storage vessel. 1.3.1-Working principle

When pressure is applied on a conductor its length changes due to which resistance of the conductor changes and relative to the change in resistance display unit displays the change in level. 1.3.2-Construction and working

A strain gauge is consists of a long length conductor which is arranged in zigzag way on the flexible membrane which is exposed to the applied pressure area. This conductor is connected in a wheat stone bridge as a resistor and when pressure or weight is applied on the membrane which is connected to the conductor it gets stretched and due to stretching the length of the conductor changes and due to change in length the resistance of the conductor increases. These are usually four or a multiple of four, are connected into a wheat stone bridge configuration in order to convert the very small change in the resistance into the suitable electrical signal. As these gauges are combination of mechanical and electrical components so the mechanical parts are located at the site but electrical parts are in the control rooms due to their environmental and temperature sensitivities. And the wires used for the transmission of the signals also have their own resistance so that resistance also considered during their construction. The adjustment and placement of the strain gauge load cell in the wheat stone bridge and its working phenomena is shown in the following diagrams. Strain gauge load cells are placed at the bottom of the vessels mostly to measure the level of the column or vessel.

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Figure 1

Figure 2

1.3.3-Advantages

Strain gauge load cells are used in automotive industry to check the structural performances of the material used in doors, hoods, trunks etc. Strain gauge load cells can be use for weighing purposes. Strain gauge load cells can also be use for material testing in process industry also. Strain gauge load cells are also used in tensile test machines as a major component. Strain gauge load cells accuracy is 0.07% of the rated capacity Strain gauge load cells can be used for both expansion and compression. Strain gauge load cells are less costly so mostly used in the industry. 7
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1.3.4-Disadvantages

Strain gauge load cells require continuous electric energy for the production and display of signals. Strain gauge load cells also requires an amplification circuit for the generation of output display because the signals produced by the gauge itself are of very much low voltage almost in milli volts. Strain gauge load cells cannot be used for the pressure measurement of highly reactive or corrosive materials because they can damage the gauge. Strain gauge load cells cannot be used for the measurement of very high pressure if the diaphragm use is of plastic.

1.4-Tension Load Cells

This is another type of load cell which is also use to measure to the level. 1.4.1-Working Principle

It consists of a vibrating wire transducer, fixed in a thick-vessel metallic cylinder, designed to provide a highly stable and sensitive means of monitoring tensile loads in weighing systems, like process weighing systems and batch systems. As the applied load increases on the load cells the force on the internal vibrating wire also increases by changing its tension, and hence the resonant frequency of the vibrating wire. The frequency is measured and proportional to the applied weight. 1.4.2-Construction and working

The main part of this load cell is strain gauged diaphragm which is permanently secured in the transducer casing. The transducer is fitted with a metallic eye allowing in line connection to the weighing system, and a metallic hook, attached to the sensitive diaphragm, provides a means by which weight is applied in a suspended mode. The load cell is vented to the atmosphere to eliminate barometric effects for the maximum or optimum accuracy. The signal cable which is attached to the load cell is connected with the control room where these signals can be monitored. 8
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There are also some thermistors placed inside its casing which are used to measure the temperature of the working fluid or vessel.

Figure 3

1.4.3-Advantages

The main advantage of the tension load cell is that it is highly sensitive and stable. As it is a vibrating element wire sensor and its output is frequency so it is not affected by the change in the cable resistance and hence long signal cables are not problems. The frequency of the vibrating wire is measured by either the portable readout box or data logger. So it can give more accurate readings. The output signal ranges in the voltage from 0 to 5 volts so there is no amplification unit required and thus the cost decreases. The rated capacity of the torsion load cell is from 10 kg to 15 kg. The accuracy of the torsion load cells is 0.1% The temperature ranges for the working or operation of the torsion load cells is -20C to +80C. Such types of transducers have almost zero drift and have also very low effect of temperature on its accuracy. 9
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1.4.4-Disadvantages

This type of load cells cannot be used for high temperature fluids to find level or weight of fluid containing column. This type of load cells cannot also be used for high capacities or for large tanks column or weight measurements. This type of load cell is highly affected by the high temperatures due to its sensitive nature of the sensing wire.

1.5-Pneumatic Load Cells

This is another type of load cells which are used to measure the weight in the industry and these are used for low capacity. 1.5.1-Working Principle

This type of load cells works on the force-balance principle. 1.5.2-The Force-Balance Principle

The inertial force produced by a seismic ground motion shifts the mass from its original equilibrium position, and the change in position or velocity of the mass is then interpreted into an electric signal. This principle is for low range load cells. For long range load cells the inertial force is balanced with an electrically generated force so that the mass moves as low as possible. 1.5.3-Working of pneumatic load cell

This kind of load cells consist of a sensing element which is exposed to the site or the vessel of which pressure or lying fluid weight is to be measured. And in this kind of load cell the force transferring medium is air as compare to the any other fluid in case of hydraulic load cell. When force is applied by the lying fluid on the sensing part of the load cell it transfers this force to the inside air and then this force is applied on the potentiometer which is placed in the wheat stone bridge. As the force is applied on the sensing part of the load cell the resistance of the variable resistance potentiometer changes due to this force and thus the potential

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equilibrium between the resistances is disturbed and this shows the magnitude of the applied force on the sensing element by displaying it on the display unit.

Figure 4

Another technique which is mostly used in such kind of load cells is the usage of the piezoelectric crystals. In this kind the sensing element transfers applied force to the inner fluid (air) and it imparts this force on the crystal. And due to the application of the applied force on the crystal by means of air its structure gets disturbed and due to disturbance in the structure the potential across the crystal changes and this change in the potential across the crystal is detected by the voltmeter and then this voltage is converted into weight of force units and displayed on the displaying unit. Most of the time wheat stone bridge is used for this kind of load cell and there is only variable resistor mostly used while other resistors in the wheat stone bridge are of fixed resistance. 1.5.4-Advantages

They are mostly used on smaller loads when safety and protection are of prime concern. They are better in accuracy as compare to the hydraulic load cells because there is no change in the density and accuracy of the fluid being used for the transfer of applied force. They also preferred on the hydraulic load cells because there is no use of liquid in these kinds of load cells. These types of load cells are inherently explosion proof and insensitive to temperature variations. As they contain no fluids so there is no problem of contamination of the process if the diaphragm gets ruptured. 11
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Pneumatic load cells are also used to measure small weights that depend upon cleanliness and safety.

1.5.5-Disadvantages

The main disadvantage of these types of load cells is that they cannot be used for high quantity measurement. Although they are very resistive to the temperature effects but their accuracy even get disturbed at very high temperature.

1.6-Hydraulic Load Cells

This is another type of load cells which are used to measure the magnitude of the applied force and their conversion to the electric signals and its digital display. 1.6.1-Working Principle This type of load cells also work on the force-balance principle. The difference between the pneumatic load cell and hydraulic load cell is only the transferring medium. In case of pneumatic load cell the force transferring medium is air while in hydraulic load cells the force transferring medium is mostly liquid or incompressible oil which is also known as break oil. 1.6.2-Construction and working

Hydraulic load cell consists of a fluid which act as a force transferring medium and a piezoelectric crystal which is use to convert this applied force into potential difference and then there is an arrangement for the conversion of this potential difference in terms of weight or pressure. There is a diaphragm which is use to sense the force exerted from the external side and the whole casing in which this complete cell is enclosed. When the pressure or weight by the vessel or column is applied on the diaphragm of the load cell it sense that force and then transfers this force to the fluid which is filled in the casing of this load cell. Then this force is transferred to the piezoelectric crystal by the fluid or oil and this oil transfers this force by the Pascals law. So when the force is transferred by the oil it disturbs the internal structure of the piezoelectric crystal and due to this change in the structure of the 12
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piezoelectric crystal a potential difference is generated across the piezoelectric crystal. This potential difference is detected by the electric detector and electric signal is transferred to the display unit to display the magnitude of the applied force, weight or pressure.

Figure 5

1.6.3-Advantages

These are mostly use to find the weight of the material in the storage tanks, bin or hopper. The output given by these types of load cells is linear and mostly unaffected by the amount of the filling fluid (oil) or by its temperature. If the hydraulic load cells have been properly installed and calibrated then accuracy is mostly within 0.25% full scale or better and this is acceptable for most process weighing applications. As these types of load cells have no electrical components therefore it is ideal for use in hazardous or corrosive areas. For more accurate measurement, the weight of the tank should be obtained by locating a load cell at different points and summing their outputs.

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1.6.4-Disadvantages

One disadvantage of this type of load cell is that the elastomeric diaphragm limits the maximum force that can be applied on the piston or diaphragm to about 1,000 psig. Electronic totalizer is required in case of getting more accurate reading by summing the readings of the individual load cells. Another disadvantage of hydraulic load cell is that they are expensive and are complex to use.

1.7-Shear Load Cells

This is another type of load cells which is use to measure the weight or the level of the column containing fluid or some material. 1.7.1-Working Principle

This type of load cells works on the shear of the web. A web of an elastic material is inserted at some level in the vessel or storage tank and a shear stress exerted by the fluid column stretches the web according to the load of the fluid column. Thus by measuring the shear stress the level or weight of the fluid in a column can be measured. 1.7.2-Construction and working

This type of load cells consists of a web and a frame which is moveable and the web is fixed with this frame. There are strain gauges which are directly connected with this web and measure the weight or level of the column by measuring the shear stress exerted by the liquid present in the column on the web. As the web is inserted in the liquid column, liquid exerts the force on this web as this web is stretchable and elastic so it gets stretched and this stretched state of the web is sensed by the strain gauges. This web is inserted in the liquid column perpendicular to the axis of the column. Then strain gauges transfers the measured value of the shear stress exerted by the height of the liquid column to the electrical transducers which converts it into electrical signals and then transmits it to the display unit to display the measured value of the weight in terms of level or pressure as we required.

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Figure 6

1.7.3-Advantages

Shear load cells are popular now for all type of mediums and for high capacities. Shear-web is not limited to only beam configurations. Shear-web sensing element is also being used by high capacity BSP and USP in a more complex way. Shear load cell technology is also being used in reverse transducers. Shear loads cells can readily be sealed and can be protected from the environmental effects.

1.7.4-Disadvantages

Shear load cells have relatively small sensitivity at the loading point so cannot be used for small scale measurements. Shear load cells are expensive as compare to the strain gauges. Shear load cells are delicate just because of the web which is very delicate and can be easily damage due to overload fro few moments even.

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References
(i) (ii) (iii) (iv) (v) (vi) (vii) (viii) (ix) William, C., Dunn; Fundamentals of Industrial Instrumentation and Process Control ; McGraw-Hill, New York; (2005). http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Load_cell http://www.lcmsystems.com/what_is_a_load_cell.html http://www.futek.com/load_cell_types.aspx Tony, R., Khuphaldt; Lessons In Industrial Instrumentation; Version 1.11-Last update August 27, 2010; http://www.allaboutcircuits.com/vol_1/chpt_9/7.html http://www.rdpe.com/ex/hiw-sglc.htm http://www.omega.com/prodinfo/loadcells.html http://www.meterforall.com/technical/3-Load-Cell-Principle.html

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