CHAPTER 4: COASTAL AND MARINE Introduction

The IGAD sub-region is endowed with a long and biodiversity-rich ocean shoreline with extensive and diverse coastal and marine resources. In line with the UN Convention Law of the Sea the shorelines have exclusive access to a large Exclusive Economic Zone (EEZ) with potential for marine fisheries, seaweed harvesting, tourism and oil exploration (see table 4.1 and box 4.1). In view of the important potentials of EEZ the coastal hinterlands support considerably large populations and a range of economic activities. Human populations living within the coastal zone obtain the following primary resources and services from the terrestrial and marine environments: land for building, agriculture and infrastructure; fish and other marine organisms for food and other products; recreational benefits that support local, domestic and international tourism; protection from waves and erosion by coral reefs and rocky coastlines. The marine environment is now also known to offer ecological services in regard to local and global climate regulation. In view of the ecological sensitivity of the marine and coastal environments to human populations and economic pressure, this chapter cites a critical need for a sustainable development framework to guide settlement and development of coastal and marine resources in general and in the eastern African sub-region in particular. These assets exist as an endowment from which future generations will need to derive their livelihoods.
Box 4.1: Exclusive Economic Zone (EEZ) All countries with direct access to the sea have exclusive use of marine resources found along their coastline up to 200 nautical miles out to sea. These resources are the waters, seabed, subsoil, living and non-living things. The United Nations Law of the Sea Convention (UNCLOS), to which the coastal countries of the region are signatories, empowers coastal states to control activities in the EEZ. Beyond that limit, the resources fall under the worlds common heritage and can be utilized by other states without permission, except where there are specific international laws demanding otherwise (such as the ban on hunting for whale for consumption). Under the UNCLOS, states are required to prevent, reduce and control pollution of the marine environment from dumping. Coastal states may adopt laws and regulations for their EEZs that are compatible with international rules and standards to combat pollution. The law also requires approval by coastal states before dumping can take place in their territorial waters in the EEZ, and onto the continental shelf. Coastal states have a duty to make sure that activities in their EEZ do not harm the marine environment of other states. Under UNCLOS, land-locked and geographically disadvantaged States have the right to participate on an equitable basis in exploitation of an appropriate part of the surplus of the living resources of the EEZ's of coastal States of the same region or sub-region. Source: WCED 1987; WRI 2003

Overview and state of resources

The coastline of the IGAD sub-region extends from the Red Sea bordering the coast of Sudan and Eritrea, through the Gulf of Aden by Djibouti, to the Indian Ocean off Somalia and Kenya. Somalia boasts the longest coastline in Africa at 3 898 km (WRI 2003). The shoreline is generally characterised by extensive fringing coral reefs, several sheltered bays and creeks, limestone cliffs, mangrove forests, sand dunes and beaches. The tidal amplitude is rather large up to 4m near Mombasa, Kenya (UNEP-WCMC 2003). Globally 39 per cent of the

worlds populations live within 100 km of a coastline, 21 per cent for sub-Saharan Africa (WRI 2003), and in eastern Africa, the proportions of national populations living in the coastal zone ranges from 100 per cent in Djibouti to 3 per cent in Sudan (see table 4.1). Apart from a few coastal cities, population distribution is sparse. In 2000, Kenyas coastal population was estimated to reach 2 million people, concentrated around the main port of Mombasa (Obura et.al 2000). This population increase and new ethnic compositions due to migration and competition from external actors, are putting coastal and marine resources increasingly under pressure. New livelihood opportunities have often not been adequately developed to cope with the changing scenario, and people have resorted to increasingly environmentally damaging techniques to cater for their needs (Francis and Torell, 2004).
Table 4.1: Key coastal and marine indicators for the sub-region Djibouti Eritrea Kenya Coastline (km) 443 3446 1586 Claimed EEZ (km2) 2488 - 104056 Number of Scleractina coral genera 55 56 54 Mangrove forests (km2) 10 0 530 Mangrove forests (species) 1 3 9 People living within 100 km of coast (%) 100 73 8 Per capita fish consumption (kg/year)* 3 <1 5 Number of marine or littoral protected areas 2 0 14 Av annual marine fish production (metric 350 12609 4733 tons) in 2000 Source: WRI 2003; *UNEP-WCMC 2001 Somalia 3898 50 910 6 55 2 2 20000 Sudan 2245 56 0 3 3 2 2 6000

The IGAD coastal area has important marine fisheries resources, as well as the inshore and reef fisheries traditionally exploited by artisanal fishers. There are prolific fisheries associated with the upwelling of the Somali Current off the northern coast of Somalia most notable between Ras Asir and Ras Mabber (TRAFFIC 1997) and seasonally rich resources off Djibouti and Eritrea. Coral reefs, sea grass beds and mangrove forests are among the dominant ecosystems fringing the coastline and accessible to human populations for resource use. They are characterized by a high diversity and productivity of potential resources. Coral reefs occur extensively in the sub-region, except where there is upwelling or where sediment is discharged. Northern Somalia has both fringing reefs and patches of coral reefs (UNEPWCMC 2001) while on the southern Somali coast they occur as an interrupted barrier from Caldale to the Kenyan border (UNEP-WCMC 2000). Fringing reefs are well developed in southern Kenya with over 50 coral genera and up to 200 species having been recorded (UNEP-WCMC 2001). In Sudan, coral occurs extensively on the Sanganeb Atoll. They are some of the most biologically diverse reefs in the entire Western Indian Ocean region and have been proposed for World Heritage Status (UNEP-WCMC 2001; Pilcher and Alsuhaibany 2000). Djibouti has some of the best developed reefs outside the Red Sea including fringing reef communities along parts of the mainland coast and fringing and platform structures around the reefs and islands of Maskali and Musha and the Sept Frres just south of the Bab-el-Mandeb. Box 4.2 describes the state of coral reefs in Eritrea.

Box 4.2: State of coral reefs in Eritrea During the war for independence, there were very low levels of human damage to the reefs in Eritrea. The coral reefs therefore generally remain in very good condition, despite a moderate growth in tourism, some coastal development, and significant growth of commercial fisheries since independence. Coral cover ranges from 20-50 per cent at most sites in the west of the Dahlak Archipelago, the islands near the port cities of Massawa in the north and Assab in the south. Cover approaches 100 per cent at some sites. The coral eating mollusc Drupella usually occurs in high densities on many reefs; and COTS and coral diseases are comparatively rare. Development of commercial fisheries is now a high priority, including an aquarium fish trade that was discontinued in the late 1990s. Artisanal fisheries target pearl oysters, Trochus, Strombus, finfish, marine turtles and sea cucumbers. The majority of the coastline is sparsely populated, with Massawa and Assab the two main population centres. Only 4 of the 350 offshore islands are inhabited, hence human stresses remain relatively low. Land reclamation, sedimentation, and resort developments in Massawa and on nearby islands may have damaged the adjacent coral reefs. There are signs of anchor and diver damage on the few reefs visited by tourists, but curio collection is minimal. Eritrea has ratified several international conventions, including the Jakarta Mandate, the Convention on Biological Diversity, and CITES, but this has not translated into legal protection for the coral reefs. National environmental legislation has been drafted, but is unlikely to be implemented in the near future. Source: Kotb et al., 2004

Mangroves protect coastlines from wave energy and protect offshore ecosystems from terrestrial sediments flowing downstream. Throughout the tropics mangroves exist in intertidal areas and are utilized as habitat by thousands of animal species and as fuel, medicine, food and timber by human coastal populations (UNEP-WCMC 2003b). Mangroves colonize some sheltered inlets on the Red Sea and in southern Somalia, and, in Kenya, are extensive as lush forests in Lamu district and as linings to tidal creeks further south with a total estimated area of 610 km2 (UNEP-WCMC 2003b). The coastal zones are host to rich marine biodiversity with that of the Red Sea coasts of Eritrea and Sudan being globally significant. Five sea turtle species have been recorded in the Western Indian Ocean and the Red sea; as well as the cetacean Dugong dugon which is threatened with extinction due to loss of breeding and nursery grounds (UNEP 2002). There is a vast array of insects, birds and mammals found within the coastal zones of the subregion. For example, the 30-acre Kaya Kinondo forest found on the south coast of Kenya has 45 species of butterfly representing 5 per cent of Kenyas known species (WWF 2004). The Kiunga Marine National Reserve in northern Kenya, near the border of Somalia is also known for having the worlds largest breeding populations of roseate terns, and is a key feeding ground for many migrant species (Obura et.al. 2004). Sudanese waters contain among the highest diversity of fishes and corals in the Red Sea (Pilcher and Alsuhaibany 2000). Exploration for minerals in the form of oil and gas is on-going in Eritrea, Kenya and Somalia where they are through to occur. Other minerals that occur in the coastal zone include limestone from Pleistocene reefs which currently supplies raw material for a cement factory at Bamburi in Kenya. Similar limestones are quarried for aggregate and building stone in parts of Somalia. Kenya has been found to have rich deposits of titanium-containing sands in beach and inshore dunes (Obura et.al. 2000). Mining of these sands is likely to pose potential risks to marine habitats. Legally-required EIAs have been conducted and approval for mining is now dependent on these EIAs and feasibility studies.

Opportunities provided by coastal and marine resources

Coastal and marine environments provide a number of opportunities for sustainable development. Key opportunities for economic diversification are discussed below and include coastal and marine biodiversity and products for food security and livelihood support; tourism, energy and maritime transport development; and various ecological services. The value of the sub-region's coastal and marine resources is not only monetary but also includes values such as ecosystems function and non-use values. Such non-use values as shown in figure below include intrinsic significance in terms of culture, aesthetic, heritage and bequest. Figure 4.1 shows a detailed breakdown of the values provided by marine ecosystems.
Figure 4.1: Benefits of coastal and marine ecosystems.

Source: Emerton 1999

Biodiversity for food security and livelihoods Biological resources form the mainstay of the diets and livelihoods of many coastal peoples. As shown in table 4.1, the per capita fish consumption of the countries of the sub-region is quite low ranging from 5kg/yr in Kenya to less than 1kg/yr in Eritrea (WRI 2003). In some countries of the Pacific island economies, per capita fish consumption is as high as 40 kg/yr (South and Skelton 2000). This despite the fact that coastal people, and in particular, fishing communities and traditional cultures are strongly dependent on wild fish production for protein. However there is considerable scope for expanding the diversity of marine species utilized as food, as well as for targeting offshore fish resources, the development of environmentally sound mariculture, and substituting terrestrial products for food. Coastal populations traditionally utilize inshore and reef-related fisheries.The Red Sea coasts of Sudan, Eritrea and Djibouti support extensive reef-based artisanal fisheries. There are also productive offshore fisheries due to the seasonal upwelling in the Gulf of Aden. In some of the countries, artisanal and inshore fisheries are generally over-harvested while in others they have not yet reached the maximum sustainable yield. The Fisheries Administration of Sudan suggests that the maximum sustainable artisanal yield is around 10,000mt, with present annual production of 1,200mt (Pilcher and Alsuhaibany 2000). Neither commercial nor artisanal landings approach the estimated maximum sustainable yield in Sudan and prospects

for increasing the fishery would have to consider expansion of refrigeration and transport facilities (Pilcher and Alsuhaibany 2000). Although most countries in the sub-region have not yet developed the capacity to fully exploit or regulate their offshore fisheries, this is changing with some now prioritizing the development of commercial fisheries. Eritrea aims to increase production three- to fourtimes, up to between 50 000 and 60 000 t/a (Kotb et.al. 2004). Of this, about 80-85 per cent is expected to be generated by foreign industrial fleet, especially trawlers, but the contribution from artisanal fisheries may also be increased (FAO 2002). In Djibouti, the fisheries sector is also targeted as a major sector for development for both domestic and export markets and government support is focusing on the organisation of fishermen and marketing, and on improving the gear and boats used (Emerton 1999). Priority should also be given to the protection of resources in artisanal fisheries as this has livelihood implications for the coastal communities. Mariculture and use of coastal wetlands for production provide an opportunity for economic and livelihood diversification for the coastal communities. Proposals to develop mangrove and estuarine/deltaic areas for prawn mariculture have been attempted in Kenya along the Tana River but are still in preliminary stages. A number of other small scale projects in Kenya are investigating the potential for household and village-based mariculture that emphasize the status of mangroves as the primary asset for mariculture, and hence their conservation. Shrimp (Penaeus spp.) farming has been attempted at Ngomeni, north of Malindi. Oysters and seaweeds (Euchema spp.) are cultured on a small scale, mainly within the reefs and creeks, using semi-intensive, inter-tidal technology (FAO 2005). The development of aquaculture is increasing in the sub-region, and large shrimp farms are being developed in some countries like Sudan and Eritrea (Kotb et.al 2004). The Kenyan government is currently looking into prospects of private/public partnerships in developing shrimp farms along the coast. A project concept by a private entrepreneur for over 800 hectares is in the final design Experimental oyster culture at Gazi in Kwale district, Kenya using a stages (FAO 2005). combination of intertidal racks and raft suspension is producing However it is essential to promising results ensure sustainable practices. Other countries in Asia and other parts of the world that have pursued strong development policies in these areas have faced severe environmental and resource degradation from overuse, poor management and poor regulation. Misguided and hasty development through large commercial projects in these areas will undermine the sustainability of local ecosystems and cause hardship and increasing Source: UNEP undated poverty to adjacent poor communities.

There are other marine and coastal products, including non-food commodities, in the subregion are under utilized and could have the potential for vast earnings for the countries. For example, a wide range of marine products in addition to fish are marketed locally and exported from Eritrea including turtle meat, sea cucumbers, sharks fin, shells and aquarium fish. Using the volumes of products collected and sold, and their market price, the total annual value of these sales was estimated to be in excess of US$ 1.6 million (Emerton and Asrat 1998). The biotechnology potential of marine invertebrates is also very high, though the sub-region is lagging behind the rest of the world in bio-prospecting and enacting property rights to protect local and national property. For more information on biotechnology, see chapter 11. Tourism development Coastlines provide beautiful scenery, unique assets and new opportunities for tourism development. To date, however, tourism development has tended to degrade the primary asset, that is the physical beauty, ecological integrity and cultural history of coastal and marine locations, for instance along the Diani/Bamburi beaches in Kenya. However there are examples of high-end tourism development that do not degrade the natural asset and are thus sustainable, such as in ecologically sensitive areas such as the Tana Delta in Kenya. Countries are starting to promote ecologically friendly and sustainable tourism developments, which include smaller, more exclusive hotels and resorts, diving and wilderness-oriented activities, as well as co-management of the reef resources between communities, developers and government (Obura et.al. 2000). Community-oriented ecotourism opportunities are being tried where community members co-manage, guide and are the primary operators of the resource, though these are still at early stages of development. For example a community mangrove boardwalk was constructed in Watamu in Kenya and bird hides rehabilitated for ecotourism to demonstrate sustainable mangrove uses and help generate funds for local schools (Obura et.al. 2004). Coastal tourism is starting to develop in Djibouti and has shown a moderate growth in Eritrea (Kotb et.al. 2004). In Somalia, ecotourism is an opportunity that has potential, but is reliant on an effectively governed and peaceful country for development (Coffen-Smout 1998). Potential for mining and energy generation Exploration for oil and gas is underway in some parts of the sub-region including Somalia (UNDP 2001), Kenya, Djibouti and Eritrea. Energy extraction may also be possible from the high tidal range experienced in Somalia and Kenya caused by the geometry of the Indian Ocean. While these technologies are still experimental in parts of the developed world, long term feasibility plans should be established for technology transfer, and regional research and technology development, to utilize this resource. The tidal range in the Gulf of Aden and southern Red Sea is unlikely to be sufficient to generate energy, however current flows through the narrow strait of Bab-el-Mandeb between the two water bodies may have a greater potential for energy generation. Opportunities for the development of energy are also discussed in chapter 2. Potential for development of international maritime industry and coastal development The coastal cultures of the region developed through maritime trade and linkages throughout the sub-region and the Middle East. Local and regional maritime trade has decreased in modern times due to competition from western shipping models, and internally focused national policies. Re-energizing a regional maritime trade based on local products, vessels and markets will provide significant economic boost to populations along the coastlines, particularly those less touched by modernization and supplying products valuable in local

markets. Infrastructural development in the small local harbours and ports must be undertaken to support this, necessitating decentralized policies within each country away from the main international ports of Port Sudan, Mombasa, Mogadishu, Djibouti and Massawa. In addition, the coastal zone can support human settlement and the development of towns, where the assets of freshwater supply, transport (including maritime) and accessibility are combined. These would then provide unique opportunities for economic development and investment, such as in infrastructure, industry, ecotourism, urban development, and transport. The land/sea boundary also has the potential to provide additional space for development through conversion of shallow water ecosystems to land through reclamation, or through maximizing the use of the marine and water assets adjacent to land-based developments. Marine ecosystem services Marine ecosystem services, as well as generating economic benefits, help to avoid economic costs for example by minimising the impacts of storms and flooding or by protecting shorelines. By absorbing carbon, coral reefs may help to mitigate the effects of global warming. Djiboutis coral reefs, with a surface area of at least 6.105 million m2, are estimated to have a net primary productivity in excess of 2,500 g carbon/m2/year (Emerton 1998). With the costs of damage arising from global warming estimated at an average of US$ 20/tonne, marine ecosystems in Djibouti may generate economic benefits of over US$ 0.3 million a year in terms of global warming damage avoided (Emerton 1998). The physical capacity of wetland habitats, particularly marshes, floodplains, estuaries, deltas and mangrove swamps to buffer and reticulate waste water flows into the open seas have been neglected in the sub-region. Wetlands are increasingly being used to treat pollution, and they provide natural buffers for floodwaters and siltation during extreme rains. These contributions need to be quantified in two critical areas: local rivers, marshes and creek habitats and their roles in pollution absorption; and major river and estuarine systems and their management of floodwaters and silt supplied to the marine environment. Other ecological services of coastal wetlands include the provision of breeding and feeding grounds for fish and other marine resources, habitat for migratory birds, seasonal pasture for turtles, and more. For instance, the Daloh Forest Reserve and Maydh Island on the Gulf of Aden coast of Somalia is a seabird breeding site of international significance (Kotb et.al. 2004). The devastating tsunami of 26 December 2004 showed conclusively in Sri Lanka, India, Indonesia and Thailand how natural vegetation in mangrove swamps, wetlands and areas with trees, coral reefs, sand dunes and other coastal ecosystems absorbed much of the destructive force of the tsunami waves (UNEP 2005). Northern Somalia suffered about 300 deaths due to coastal flooding (UNEP 2005), while Kenya was spared the worst impacts. The preservation of mangrove forest belts, forested estuaries and deltas, and forested sections of coastlines (particularly adjacent to beaches rather than on elevated rocky shores) must be maintained as a high priority to mitigate potential future disasters of this nature. These will also improve the resistance of coastal areas to the impacts of sea level rise, where freak storm waves are predicted to cause damage to vulnerable coastlines.

Threats to achieving the potential

The main concerns are the loss of biodiversity and degradation of habitats through climate change and the modification of ecosystems. Human-related pressures come from over-

exploitation of resources, pollution, increasing urbanization and tourism development. Climate change issues include coral bleaching which has contributed to coral reef degradation, and the impacts of sea-level rise, particularly with regard to the incidence of coastal erosion and inundation of coastal lowlands. Inadequate investment in coastal zones leads to poor enforcement and management regimes ultimately affecting sustainable utilization of the marine resources. Impacts of climate change The impacts of climate change were seen when wide areas of this region were affected by the 1997-98 El Nio Southern Oscillation event and warm waters swept across wide areas of the Indian Ocean, leading to bleaching and massive levels of coral mortality on reefs (UNEPWCMC 2001). Some of the reefs near Berbera in Somalia were reported to have suffered very extensively from bleaching and mortality during the 1998 bleaching event (UNEPWCMC 2001). In early 2001, there was renewed threat of coral bleaching predicted on the basis of potential El Nio predictions and slightly elevated sea surface temperatures. Small outbreaks of the crown-of-thorns (COT) starfish have been recorded in Somalia and Kenya (Obura et.al. 2000). Coastal erosion is a common phenomenon along the coast (UNEP 2002). Natural and human factors are the main causes as well as beachfront developments and mining of sand, coral and lime (UNEP 2002; UNEP 2005). Coastal erosion impacts on infrastructure and the attractiveness of the coastal environment on which tourism largely depends. Shoreline accretion can also be a problem resulting in shifting coastal features such as dunes, beaches, cliffs and shorelines. For example the Tana delta and Sabaki estuary in Kenya have accreted extensive coastal plains due to coastal drift and the high sediment loads carried by the Tana and Sabaki rivers (UNEP 2002). Coastal erosion is likely to be compounded by sea level rise resulting from global climate change (UNEP 2002). Habitat loss and degradation Marine biodiversity such as mangroves are under threat from land-based pollution, decreasing freshwater discharge from rivers and over-harvesting. In Kenya, there has been over-harvesting to meet an increased demand from tourism developments for construction timber, also mangrove clearance from the expansion of agriculture and solar saltpans (UNEP/GPA and WIOMSA A degraded mangrove forest in Djibouti 2004). In Somalia, some mangrove stands have been completely denuded and are now salt marsh ecosystems between Saada Din Island and Saba Wanak, in the estuaries of three watercourses which reach the sea west of Bosaso, and in the three estuaries just north of the Kenyan border (Hughes and Hughes, 1992). These and other stands have been seriously ravaged for firewood and construction timber. Overall the regenerative capacity of the mangrove ecosystems may Source: Djibouti National Focal Point for AEO-2 have declined in recent decades a

state which will almost certainly affect the capacity of these areas to function as breeding and nursery sites for near and offshore fish, crustaceans and molluscs, but one which also now affords less protection to the coastline. The worlds main transport route for hydrocarbons passes through the Gulf of Aden 590 million tons of oil a year (UNEP 1987). This makes the threat of oil pollution very real. Some countries in the sub-region lack the basic facilities for handling bilge in their ports and small oil spills are common. For example, Somalia has no national capacity to deal with an oil pollution incident (World Bank undated) which is of concern given the volume of traffic and ecological importance of some marine and coastal ecosystems in the region. The closest available clean up equipment is located at the IMO Regional Response Centre in Djibouti for the Gulf of Aden region (UNCTAD, 1998).The absence of surveillance means that tankers routinely discharge oily ballast off the Somali coastline: annual discharges were once estimated at 33,000 tonnes (UNEP 1982). Tar balls are also regularly found on certain sections of the Somali coastline, above all high-energy beaches in the western sector (World Bank undated). Coastal zones are used as dumping sites by textile, chemical, paper, sugar and oil industries (UNEP-WCMC 2003). In Kenya, agricultural and silvicultural effluents enter mangrove areas, while in Somalia the concentration is mainly on livestock industries (UNEP-WCMC 2003). In Eritrea all domestic waste from the port Massawa ends up in the Red Sea (EAE 1995). Although still small scale, industrial pollution could become a severe problem in the future. It has also been reported that Somali shores and coastal waters have been used as dumping grounds for hazardous wastes (UNEP 2005). To address these problems, IGAD is planning to establish an environmental pollution control mechanism at national and subregional level. Over-fishing and fishing-related damage Over-fishing and destructive fishing in poorly managed fisheries are among the main threats and will continue unless regulations are strengthened and enforcement improved. The lack of a management regime means that along the Somali coast, fishers from Somalia, Djibouti and other countries can operate without any constraints, fisheries management, or enforcement (Kotb et.al 2004). Indeed uncontrolled fishing for shark, lobsters and more recently sea cucumbers is a growing concern along the entire Somali coast. In certain areas of Djibouti, coral reefs and their component species are considered to be particularly threatened because of unsustainable collection of coral and shells, spear fishing, dredging, anchor damage from fishing and tourist boats, explosions in the course of military activity, turbidity, sedimentation, urban and shipping effluents such as wastewater, oils and industrial byproducts (Djibril 1998). There is also an influx of illegal fishing vessels seeking to meet the demands of an evergrowing international fish market. Industrial fishing within Somalis EEZ by local and foreign vessels in joint venture operations with Somali business people and faction leaders is leading to Somalias rich marine resources being over-fished (UNDP 2001). In 2000, Somalia exported US $2.5 million worth of fish and fish products, a 464 per cent increased from 20 years earlier (WRI 2003). It is expected that with the advent of peace, procedures for the sustainable management of coastal and marine resources will be developed. Inadequate investment in coastal zones

National processes for development and management of the coastal areas are inadequate. The lack of sufficiently trained personnel, inadequate legal and institutional framework, and inadequacy of equipment and logistical support for the development and implementation of either Integrated Coastal Zone Management (ICZM) or an adequate marine protected areas system needs to be addressed. Low levels of awareness of the issues, poor enforcement of the legal framework, weak institutions and a lack of effective governance are some of the reasons contributing to the severity of the above threats. For example, Somalia has limited ability to implement legislation and meet national and international obligations due to a severe lack of effective institutions, funding and trained staff (Kotb et.al. 2004). This lack of institutions has also led to the threat of pollution from toxic waste dumping (UNEP 2005) and inadequate preparation to address natural disasters including tsunamis.

Strategies for enhancing the coastal and marine resources

NEPAD priorities for coastal and marine environments include the support and implementation of the Abidjan and Nairobi Conventions and the African Process for the management of Africas coastal and marine resources. These seek to: control pollution and coastal erosion; promote sustainable use of living resources; promote sustainable management of key habitats and ecosystems; promote sustainable economic development. The Regional Seas Programmes of UNEP is promoting a regional approach to the control of marine pollution and for the management of marine and coastal resources through enhancing national capacities. There are also a number of international and regional agreements governing the management of coastal and marine environments. Those that may be of relevance to the sub-region are listed in box 4.3. The countries have a history of sectoral policies and legislation such as land, fisheries, shipping, water resources, and others that all have implications for the management of coastal and marine resources. More recently, policy and legislation fostering environmental impact assessments and ICZM have attempted to bridge the gaps between the sectoral groups. For example the National Environment Management Coordination Act of Kenya promotes a multi-sectoral approach to coastal environment issues. The Eritrean National Environmental Management Plan and Framework Marine Conservation Strategy are also promoting conservation and sustainable use of the globally important biodiversity of Eritreas coastal, marine and island ecosystems. Somalia lacks an efficient regulatory mechanism for the management of marine resources, an issue that requires urgent attention. The Red Sea and Gulf of Aden Strategic Action Programme, supported by GEF has helped develop a series of model integrated coastal zone management experiences for use at different scales including a national coastal-scale version for Djibouti and Sudan. Recent awareness of the ecological importance of some of the resources in the sub-region has resulted in areas being protected based on environmental qualities such as Sanganeb atoll marine park which was established in Sudan in 1990. However, management levels are still low (Pilcher and Alsuhaibany 2000). Although, there are no declared marine protected areas in Eritrea, four areas have been proposed near Massawa and Asseb. (Pilcher and Alsuhaibany 2000). Djibouti is developing several marine protected areas including Moucha, Maskali and Sept Frres/Ras Siyyan and Godoria (Kotb et.al. 2004). As indicated earlier, the Red Sea and Gulf of Aden form an important transport route between Europe and the Far East, particularly for the haulage of oil and commodities. Although

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approximately 11 per cent of the worlds seaborne oil is transported through the region, there have been no major spills (>5,000 tonnes) resulting from shipping accidents (ITOPF 2003). However, in response to this threat, Somalia, Djibouti and Yemen have established a subregional centre to combat oil pollution in the Gulf of Aden. The oil spill response facilities are stored at Djibouti. With increasing levels of dredging, construction and industrial waste associated with coastal development, as well as the existence of potentially hazardous areas for navigation and other natural disasters, early warning and disaster preparedness needs to be addressed more critically.
Box 4.3: International Agreements relevant for coastal and marine management

The Protocol for Regional Cooperation for Combating Pollution by Oil and other Harmful Substances in Cases of Emergency (1982); The Convention for the Prevention of Pollution of the Sea by Oil (MARPOL); The Convention on International Trade in Endangered Species of Wild Fauna and Flora (CITES); The African Agreement for the Conservation of Nature and Natural Resources (Algiers 1988); The Bamako Convention on the Ban of the Import into Africa and the Control of Transboundary Movement and Management of Hazardous Wastes within Africa (1993); The Protocol Concerning Regional Cooperation in Combating Pollution by Oil and other Harmful Substances in Cases of Emergency (1984); The United Nations Convention on the Law of the Sea (1985); The Convention of the Prevention of Marine Pollution by Dumping Wastes and other Matter (London Convention) and its four annexes; The Regional Convention for the Conservation of the Red Sea and the Gulf of Aden Environment (Jeddah Convention); The Convention for the Protection, Management and Development of the Marine and Coastal Environment of the Eastern African Region (1988); The Convention on the Conservation of Migratory Species of Wild Animals (1986); The Protocol Concerning Co-operation in Combating Marine Pollution in Cases of Emergency in the Eastern African Region (1988); The Convention on Biological Diversity (CBD).

Conclusions
The coastal and marine environment of the IGAD sub-region contains a variety of habitats made up of unique ecosystems that support a rich biodiversity and valuable assortment of natural resources. This array of resources has supported an expansion of social and economic opportunities through enterprises such as fishing, agriculture, aquaculture, tourism, and industry expansion. Owing to the abundant natural resources with which they are endowed, the coastal zone holds the key to the social and economic well-being of the coastal people and countries. However, this holds true only if resources are exploited in a rational and prudent manner that ensures economic gains while preserving the integrity of the environment. The recent tsunami event underscored the interlinkages between individual resources within an ecosystem. The natural vegetation and other coastal resources were instrumental in absorbing much of the force of the waves. This highlights the relationships between the individual resources and provides further justification for employing holistic approaches to managing the environment. ICZM methodologies are increasingly being adopted in the subregion. Elements for consideration should include: coastal zone management activities; investments that support national economic policy and regional integration; institutional arrangements for sustainable programs, including revenue-generating mechanisms for

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services such as coastal erosion prevention and marine protected areas; incentives for fisheries conservation; and reinforcing interlinkages with other sectors. If communities and economies are to derive maximum benefit from these coastal and marine environments, sustained financing, effective institutions, human resources support and monitoring through improved scientific understanding of these ecosystems is required.

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