Islam Science 2

27
www.MinhajBook s.com
29
31
(un iverse)

life)
(human
32
33
34

35
36

O

O

37

38
39
40
O

O
-
41
O

O

O

O
42
O

O

43
44
45

O
O

46

O

O

O

O

-

47

O

O

48
49
50

O O

O
O
O O
O
51
O
O
O
O
-
52

53
55

(Cosmology)
56
57
(cosmology)

(contemporary knowledge)
58

(Creator)

(creation)
(internal
(external
signs)

signs)
59

(conflict & contradiction)
60

(conflict)
61

-1

(trial & error)
62

(human
ac q u i r e d
wis d o m)
(God-gifted wisdom)
(certainty & finality)

(degree of

(hypothesis)

probability)

(law)

63
-2

(meta

(physical
world)

physical world)

(nature)
(supernature)
-3

64
(functions)

(trial & error)

(ab so lut e ) (u n c han geab le )

65

(trial &
error)

(trial & error)

(metaphysical)

66
67

1609

68
(r e ac t io n )

69
(B a g h d a d ) (S p a i n )

(Damascu s)
(Asian
section)
(dark ages)
70

(Theory
of Relativity)
"S c ie n c e wit h o ut re ligio n is lame an d r e ligion

without science is blind".
71
73
75
( P l a t o ) (S o c r at e s )

76

(Aristotle)

(Ale xand ria) (Greece)
O

O
O
O
o
o
77

(u n i ve r s al
78
ph e n o me n o n )
(human world)
(sciences)

150
Catalogue of A rabic Manuscripts (xxi) Fasciule 2 by J.

J. Witkam, (Leiden University Press, Leiden, 1984)
79
(education & literacy)

600
(Sic ily)
3,000
(B agh d ad ) ( Hal ab ) (Damas c u s)

(Jerusalem)
(Egypt) (Mosul)
(Central
Asia)

(Cordoba)

6,000
(law
63 and jurisprudence)
4 11 52

(medical sciences)

631

80

62 62

96
86
(mobile
(dispensar ies)

(medical aid centres)
medical units)

indoor patients

1- Department of Systematic Diseases

2- Ophthalmic department
3- Surgical department
4- Orthopaedic department
5- Department of mental diseases
(medical

medical
, colleges)
(N o o rie
sc ie n c e
81
(Ibn-i-Tulun
Hospital)
Hospit al)

medical sciences

371 (Azdi
Hospital)

(N o o r ie
(M o ro cc an
Ho s p it a l)
(M an su r i
H o sp it al)

Hospit al)

( Co r d o b a )

(Tarabulus)
(Baghdad ) (Granada)
(Quranic Sciences)
82

77,450

(th eology)
(pro nun ciation )
(grammer & syntax)

(mor pho logy)
(exe gesis)
(linguistic s)
(science of fundamentals)
(science of branches)

(law & jurisprudence)

(law of inheritance)
(the olo gy)
(crimin olo gy)

(science of war)
(histor y)
(th eosoph y)
83
(oneiromancy)
(literature)
(algebra)
(rhetoric)

(polemics)
(philosophy)
(psychology)
(ethics)
(political science)
(culture)

(calligraphy)

(economics)
(sociology)
(chemistry)
(physics)
(biology)
(botany)
(agronomy)
(zoology)
(medical science)
(pharmacology)
84
(embryology)
(cosmology)
(cosmogony)
(astronomy)
(geography)
(geology)
(archaeology)
(timekeeping)

(Astronomy)

Prof Hitt i
Not only are most of the star
names in
85
Eu ro p ean langu ages of Ar abic o rigin s
nu mb e rs o f t e ch nic al t e rms
b ut a
are like wise o f
Arabic etymology and testify to the rich legacy of

Islam to Christian Europe."
(History of the A rabs, pp.568-573)

Averroes

Gregorian
(sun spots)

(timekeeping)

(timekeeping)

(History of the Arabs, pp.373-378)

86
(o b se r vat i o n al
almanac astronomy)

(figures of the stars)

Alhazen
(astrology)
(astronomy)

(Cordoba)

(Planetarium)
87
(al-Biruni)

equatorial instruments (Azarquiel)

(lunar & solar eclipses)

To le d an

Astronomical Tables
"M uslim astr ologers also disco vere d (arou nd

the t hirt een th ce ntu ry) t he syste m for giving t he
ep h eme rid s o f t h e sun an d th e mo on --- lat er
extended to the other planets --- as a function of
concrete annual dates. Such was the origin of the
almanacs whic h we re t o b e so wid ely use d wh en
trans-oceanic navigation began."
(The Legacy of Is lam , pp. 474-482)
88

(Mathematics, Algebra, Geometry)
algo r it h m
a lgo r ism

(al-Khwarizimi)
(textbook)
(integration)

(equation)
trigonometrical functions

(zero)
tangents
250

geometry algebra arithmetic

trigonometry

70
mechanics optics
mathematics
89

mathematics
(Physics, Mechanics, Dynamics)
(cosmology )
(Aristotole)

(velocity) (motion)

weight measurements atmosphere density
c ap illar y
gr avit at io n ve lo c it ie s t ime sp ac e

attraction

mechanics
(physics)

dynamics
(optical
thesaurus)

90

dynamics

galileo

momentum
gravitational force
lever

liber karatonis

mechanical

godgets devices
(Optic s)

(optics)
(Arnold)

"On
Optics"

magnifying power lenses

magnifying lenses

(nature of vision)
(rays)
91
(external objects)
(retina)

(brain) optic
nerve
Euclid

Kepler

(optics)

Peckham Witelo
Roger Bacon
Newton Kepler

light velocities

mete oro lo gy ast ron omical ob se rvations lenses

camera

(Botany )
Encyclopaedia Botanica

Strassburg
"Anyho w it is asto nish in g e no ugh th at th e
92
entire botanical literature of antiquity furnishes us
only two parallels to our book (of Dinawari). How
was it that the M uslim people could, during so early
a period of its literacy life, attain the level of the
people of such a genius as the Hellenic one, and
even surpassed it in this respect."
(Zeits chrift fuer As s yriologie, Stras s burg, vols. 25,44)
(Spain)

biological science

585

(botany)

Hitt i
"In th e fie ld o f natu r al h isto r y espe cially

botany, pure and applied, as in that of astronomy
93
and mathematics, th e western M uslims (o f Spain)
enriched the world by their researches. They made
accurate observations on the sexual difference (of
various plants)."
(Ameer Ali, The Spirit of Is lam. pp. 385-387)
(Cordoba)

(botany)
(medical sciences)

(botanist)
94

(Medical Science)
(medical colleges)

(surgery)

(p harmacy)
(Islamic Science, S.H. Nasr, pp.156)
200 (medical
science)

40
1866
1498

measles smallpox
(Avicenna)

(Canon of M edicine)
95
1650

pharmacology

ophthalmology
textbooks medical colleges

E. G. Browne

The practice of medicine was r egulated in

the M uslim world from the tenth century onwards.
At one time, Sinan ibn Thabit was Chairman of the
Board of Examiners in Baghdad. Pharmacists were
also regulat ed an d t he Ar ab s p ro du ce d t he first
phar amc opia dru g sto res. Barb er sh ops were also
sub je ct to insp ec tion . Trave llin g h ospitals we re
kn o wn in t h e e le ve n t h c e n t u r y Th e gr e at
hospital of al-M ansur, founded at Damascus around
1284 AD, was open to all sick persons, rich or poor,
male or female, and had separate wards for men
and wo me n. One ward was set apart fo r fevers,
96
another for ophthalmic cases, one for surgical cases
an d o n e fo r d yse n t r y an d kin d r e d in t e st in al
ailme n t s. Th e r e we r e in ad d it io n , kit c h e n s,
lecture-rooms, a dispensary and so on.
(E. G. Br owne, Arabian M edicine, pp.101)
(mobile)

1284

(fever
(surgical
ward)
(eye ward)
(d y s e n t r y )
war d )
(intestinal ailments)

97
"Their medical studies, later translated into

Latin and th e Euro pean langu ages, reve ale d t heir
advan ce d kno wled ge of b lo od circ ulat ion in t he
human body. The work of Abu`l-Qasim al-Zahrawi,
Ki tab al-Tasri f, on sur ge r y, was t ran slat ed in to
Latin by Gerard of Cremona and into Hebrew about
a c en tur y later b y S he m-tob b en Isaac. An oth er
important work in this field was the Kitab al-Maliki
of al-M ajusi (died 982 AD), which shows according
to B r own e t hat t h e M u slim p h ysic ian s h ad an
elemen t ar y c on ce p tion of t h e cap illar y syst e m
(o pt ic) an d in t he wo krs of M ax M eye rh o f, Ib n
al-Nafis (died 1288 AD) was the first in time and
rank of the precursors of William Harvery. In fact,
he propounded the theory of pulmonary circulation
th r e e c e n tu r ies b e fo r e M ic h ae l S er ve tu s. Th e
blood, after having been refined must rise in the
arterious veins to the lung in order to expand its
volume, and to be mixed with air so that its finest
par t may b e c lar ifie d an d may r each the ve nou s
artery in which it is transmitted to the left cavity of
the heart.
98
(Ibn al-Nafis and his Theory of the Lasser Circulation,
Islamic Science, 23:166, June, 1935)

Gerard Cremona

Shem-tob ben Isaac

982

1288

(Pharmacology)
Gulick Seirton

(collection of simple
drugs)

99

(b otany)

(Spain)

(Syria)

1,400
150

Ibn al-Baytr wrote the Collection of Simple
Dru gs, wh ic h is r egar de d as t he gr eate st Ar ab ic
boo k o n bo tany of t he age. He c ollec te d plan ts,
her bs an d d ru gs aro un d t he M e dit er rane an fro m
Sp ain t o S yria an d d e sc rib e d mo r e t han 1400
medicinal drugs, comparing them with the records
of over 150 writers before him.
(pharmacologists)
Albucasis

Aben Bethar
(Ibn Rushd)
medicine

(textbook)

colliget

(Islamic Science , p.181)

100
(Surgery)
Hitti
Albucasis (1013 AD) was not only a physician

but a surgeon of the first rank. He performed the
most difficult surgical operations in his own and the
obstetrical departments. The ample description he
has left o f the surgical instru men ts emplo yed h is
time gives an idea of the development of surgery
among the Arabs in lithotomy, he was equal to the
fo r emo st su r ge o n s o f mo d er n time s. His wor k
al-Tasrif li -Man Ajaz an al-Ta'ali f (an aid t o him
who is not equal to the large treatises) introduces
or emp hasise s n ew id eas. It was t ranslated in to
Lat in b y Ge rar d of Cre mon a an d vario us e dit io ns
were published at Venice in 1497 AD, at Basle in
1541 AD and at Oxford in 1778 AD. It held its own
for centuries as the manual of surgery in Salerono,
M ontpellier and other early schools of medicine."
(Hitti, History of A rabs, pp.576-577)

101

Lithotomy

1497
Gerard (Cremona)

1778
1541

Al-Zah rawi's ran k in the art of surgery was

paralle led by t hat o f Ib n Zuh r (Aven -Zo ar) in th e
sc ie nc e of me dic in e (1091-1162 AD). O f th e six
medical works written by them three are extent.
Th e mo st valu a b le is al-Tay sir fil-M u d awat
al-Tadbir (the Facilitation of Therapy and Diet). Ibn
Zuhr is hailed as the greatest physician since Galen.
At least he was the greatest clinician in Islam after
al-Razi. Ib n Z u h r wr o t e an ot h e r b o o k, Ki tab
al-Aghdh iyah (the Boo k of Diet s) whic h is amo ng
the best of its kind dealing with the subject.
(Islamic Science, p.181)
102

(medicine)

(surgery)

(clinic)

(Ophthalmology)
Tadhkirat al-Kahhalin

Tractus de Oculis Jesu
ben Hali
M u slim p h ysic ian s also ad d e d valu ab le

knowledge to another branch of medicine, Ali ibn
Isa wrote the famous work, Tadhkirat al-Kahhalin
(Tr e asu r y o f O p h t h almo lo gist s) an d Abu Ru h
103
M u h ammad al-Ju r an i en t it le d Z ar rin d ast (t h e
Golden Hand) wro te Nur al-A in (the Light o f th e
Eye). The last book has served practitioners of the
art for cen tur ies. Ali ib n Isa's wo rks wer e taugh t
eve rywh er e an d eve n t r an slat e d in t o Latin as
Tractu s de Oc uli s J esu b en Hali . M any o f t h e
te ch nical te rms pe rt ainin g t o op ht halmo lo gy in
Lat in as we l l a s in so me mo d e r n Eu r o p e a n
languages, are of Arabic origin, and attest to the
influence of Islamic sources on this subject.
(Is lamic Scien ce , pp.166-167)
(Anaesthesia)
Ali ib n Isa was also t h e fir st p e rso n t o

propose the use of anaesthesia for surgery. Another
per so n ap pe are d at th is time in Tunis, Ish aq ibn
Sulaiman al-Isr aili, who p ractised oph th almolo gy
104
and his works were also translated into Latin and
Hebrew languages.
(Is lamic Scien ce , p.178)
(Chemistry)
(hypothesis

& speculation)
(objective experimentation)
(A l c h e my )
crystallization sublimation evaporation
The Jabirean Corpus
(The Seventy Books )

(The Book of

Balance)

105

Abucasis Avicenna
Rhazes

Alhazen

(Arabic

origin)
1. Pro f. Hitt i, History of th e A rab s, pp .578-579

(London, 1974).
2. A and R. Kah an e, The Krater and the Grai l,
Herm eti c S ou rc es of the P arz i val, Ur b an a
(Illinois, 1965).
3. Cor bin , En Islam irani en vo l.2, c hap.4 (P ar is,
1971).
4. F.a.Yate s, Giordana Bru no and the Hermetic
Tradition (London, 1964).
5. Syed Hu sain N asir , Islami c S ci en ce (Lon do n,
1976).
6. George Sorton, An Introduction to the History
of Science.
7. Briffault, The Making of Humanity.
8. Sc haclt. J and Bo swo rt h C.E. Th e Legac y of
Islam (Oxford, 1947).
9. Watt-W.M . and Cachina P, A History of Islamic
106
Spain (Edinlwrgh).
10. Ro b e r t Gu lic k L.J u n io r , Mu h am m ad , Th e
Educator (Lahore, 1969).
(Fine Arts)

(calligraphy)

(decorative art)
(architecture)

(architecture
(music)
(calligraphy)
(painting)
& decorative
art)

(Law & Jurisprudence)
107
-1

private public international law

international law

oppeheim strake

30

(law)

dark ages

-2
comparative case law
-3

(c o n st it u t io n al
law)
-4
108
(The
(articals) 63 Pact of M adina)
King John

1215
593 (M agna Carta)
622

(written constitution)

322 300
500
(Athenian
Constitution )

1891

109
(judiciary) (executive) (legislature)
(juristic &
Common law
-5
legal codes)
(parts & chapters)

(family
(penal
laws)
(r e ligiou s
(civil &
(procedural &
laws)
contractual laws)
(fiscal
laws)
laws)

evidence laws)

110

Case
law

(judicial
decisions)
administrative
law
fiscal
& taxation law
-6
111
(Historiog raphy & Sociology)

socio logy political thought

(Geography & Communications)
(Egypt)
(Central
Asia)
topo grap hy geogr aphy

112

(alphabetic
order)
cartography
(circular

shape)
(mediterranian sea)

9

(Nile)

6,670
(sources)

(dictionary)

(alphabetic

(Image
of the Earth)
order)

Prof.

Hitti
113
"The bulk of this scientific material, whether
ast r o n o mic al, ast r o lo g ic al o r ge o gr a p h ic al,
pene trated t he we st th rough Spanish and S icilian
channels."
(History of the A rabs , pp.383-387)
(S p ai n )
(Sicily)

(geography)
1331

(official map) (China)
(Islamic Culture, 8:514, Oct.1934)
(Scandinavia)

(Russia) (Kazan) (Finland)

Vasco de

G a ma

(compass)

114
tariff monsoon cable admiral arsenal

15 10

115
The coming of Islam six hundred years after

Christ, was the new, powerful impulse. It started
as a local event, uncertain in its outcome; but once
M uh ammad c onq uer ed M akkah in 630 AD, it too k
the southern world by storm. In a hundred years,
Islam conquered Alexandria, established a fabulous
city of learning in Baghdad and thrust its frontier to
the east beyond Isfahan in Persia. By 730 AD the
M uslim Empir e re ac hed fro m S pain an d So ut her n
Fr an ce t o t h e bo r d e rs o f Ch in a an d In d ia. An
emp ir e of sp ec tacu lar str en gt h and grace wh ile
Europe lapsed into the Dark Age M uhammad had
bee n fir m th at Islam was n ot t o b e a re ligio n o f
mir acle s, it b ec ame in int e lle c t u al c o nt e n t a
pattern of contemplation and analysis.
116
(J Br onowski, The Ascent of M an, London 1973, pp.165-166)

630

730

Robert L. Gulick
It sho uld be bo rne in mind, ho wever , t hat
the se aph orisms (maxims fou nd in ahad it h) h ave
been widely accepted as authentic and it cannot be
do u b t e d t h at t h ey h ave e xe r t e d a wid e an d
salu t ar y in flu e n c e . Th e wo rd s at t r ib u t e d t o
M uh ammad mu st assu re dly have st imulat ed an d
encouraged the great thinkers of the Golden Age of
Islamic civilisation.
117
(Muhammad, The Educator )
Robert
These statements must not be construed as

idle and useless words. The results have been very
substantial. The strength of Islamic science was its
devotion to p rac tical matte rs r at her than t o th e
vague notions of the Byzantine Greeks.
Robert L. Gulick
Robert Briffault

It is highly probable that but for the Arabs,

moder n Euro pean civilisation neve r h ave assume d
t h at
118
c h ar ac t e r wh ic h h as e n a b le d it t o
tr an sc en d all pr eviou s ph ases o f evolut ion . Fo r

although there is not a single aspect of European
growth in whic h the d ecisive influe nce o f Islamic
culture is not traceable, nowhere is it so clear and
momentous as in the genesis of that power which
constitutes the paramount distinctive force of the
mo d e r n wor ld an d th e su p r eme so u r ce o f it s
vic tor y, n atu ral scienc e an d th e sc ie ntific spirit .
What we call science arose in Europe as a result of
a n e w sp ir it o f e n q u ir y, o f n e w me t h o d s o f
in ve st igat io n , e xp e r ime n t ,
o b se r vatio n an d
measurement of the development of mathematics

in a form unknown to the Greeks. That spirit and
those methods were introduced into the European
world by the Arabs.
(The Making of Humanity, pp.190-191)

119
There is no doubt that the Islamic sciences

exerted a great influence on the rise of European
scienc e; an d in this Re naissance o f kn owledge in
the west there was no single influence, but diverse
on e s; th e main in flu en c e was o f c o ur se , fro m
Spain, the n fr om Italy an d Pale stine t hro ugh th e
crusaders, who had mixed with M uslims and seen
the effect of sciences in M uslim culture.
(Joseph Schacht & C.E.Bosw or th, The Legacy of Is lam, pp.426-427)

(Spain)

Islam, impingin g c ultu rally u po n ad jace nt

Christian countries, was the virtual creator of the
120
Renaissance in Europe.
(Stanwood Cobb, Islam's Contribution to World Culture)

Stanwood Cobb
Robert L.
Gulick
Th at imp o r t an t c o n t r ib u t io n s t o wo r ld
intellectual progress were made by the Arabs is not
open to question. But were these development the
result of the influence of M uhammad?
121

Reverend George Bush
No r evo lut io n in h istor y, if we acc ept that
affe c t e d b y t h e r e ligio n o f t h e Go sp e l, h as
int rod uce d gr eat er c hange s in to t he st at e of t he
civilised world than that which has grown out of the
rise, progress and permanence of M uhammadanism.
(The Life of Muhammad )
123
ww w .MinhajBooks.com
125

(Iberian Peninsula)
(Pyrenees)
(Spain)

800

(Portugal)
( N a r b o n n e )

(Toulouse) (Carcassonne)
(Perpignan )

(Gr anada)

126

773
711 19
1008
773
1091
1008
1145
1091
1214
1147
1232
1214
1492 2
1232
-1
-2
-3
-4
-5
-6
-7
715
705
127
100 710
400

92 711

7,000

13
(Gib ralt ar)

128

711 19

(Cordoba)

711

18,000
712

(M erida) (Se ville)

(Tledo)

129

(Bay of Biscay)

(Gijo n)

(Cordoba)

756 714

43
22
130

132 40

20

32
788 756

131
30 822
(Iberian
Peninsula)

912 21

49
961 912

132

1010
21
1031 1010

9

1031
1 0 9 1 )

( 1106

133

12 100 1086

8,000 (Se ville)

(Leon) (Zar agoza)

80,000

20,000
(Se ville)
3,000
1091

54

134

1145

1120

1145

(Se ville)
(Cordoba)

135

1 2 1 4

1232

700
(Cadiz) (M alaga) (Alme ria) (Granada)

(Jaen) (Baza)
260
1492 1232

1423

1492 2
(Granada)

136
137
( B a g h d a d )

(Damascu s)

(Cordoba)
138
Alr eady whe n th e fo rt un es o f th e M u slims

were in the ascendant, their learning had attracted
sch olars of all faith s. Sp anish Je ws in particu lar
were -- including the great M aimonides (1135-1204)
-- sat at the feet of Arabic-speaking teachers and
wrote their books in Arabic.
(W. Montgomery Watt A History of Islamic Spain P.157 )
139
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137
138
139
140
141
142
143

144
145
146
147
149
148
149
150
151
150
961
912

200

(a s t r o n o my )

(me d ic a l sc ie n c e )
(mat h e mat ic s )

(botany)
(chemistr y)
(astrolo gy)
151

(geography)
976
961

20
170

(M alaga) (Gr anad a)

(Cor do b a)
(Jaen) (Se ville) (Zar agoza)

27

152
976
961

(mat hematics)
(astrono my)
(c he mist ry) (ast ro lo gy) (me dical
scie nc es)
(lo gic ) (p h ilo so p h y) (p h ysic s)
4
(geography) (history)

44

(Cordoba)

153

10,000
800
(Granada)
70

154

1155
1065
(medical sciences)
(astrono my)

(botany)
155
(Medical sciences)
(M edical sciences)
(translated)
156

(surgery)

24
(clinic)

100

Frederich
Pare

(anaest hesia)
157
(tonsils)

(surgery)

10

(expert)

(ophthalmologist)

158

(Astronomy)
961
912

(time keeping)

159

(astrono my)

(a s t r o n o my )

(astrolo gy)

(medical sciences)
(astrono my)

(mat h e mat i c s )
(medical science) (astrono my) (astrolo gy)
160
(Se ville)

(Arzac hel)

(elliptic
orbits)
1514

(planetarium)

161

(astronomical
table)

(astronomical
tables)

(Bot any)
(botanists)

(botany)
162
(G u a d i x )

(M ulhacen)
(Granada)
(Alme ria)

(botanists)
(To le d o )
(B e y asa ) (Ve le n c ia)

(Hijara

Valley)
(botanists)
163
(Se ville) (Guadix)
cotton alagodon

(sugar)

(botanists)

164
165
(Cordoba)

166
(Vale ncia)
(Genil River)
(Guadalimor River)
167

168
(decorative art)

169
(cook)

170

12

(Cordoba)
(Bagh dad)

2,00,000 10,00,000

20,000 80,400

(dark ages)
700 50 80
3,000

4,300

12

171

(Pyrenees)
172

173

(Paper industry)

174

704

706

175
794

(papyrus)

Harun ar-Rashid's vizier, Yahya the Barmakid,
built the first paper-mill in Baghdad about the year
800. Th e man u fac t u r e o f p ap e r t h e n sp r e ad
westwards through Syria and North Africa to Spain,
an d it came in t o c ommo n u se. In t h e t we lfth
cent ury p ilgrims from Fr anc e to Compostela took
back pieces of paper as a great curiosity, though
Roger II of Sicily had used paper for a document in
1090. From Spain and Sicily the use of paper spread
in to weste rn Eur o pe , b u t p ap e r-mills we r e n ot
e st ab lish e d in It aly an d Ge r man y u n t il t h e
fourteenth century.
(W. Montgomery Wa tt, The Influence of Islam on Medieval Europe, p. 25 )
176

1085
(Xat iua)

(Xat iua)

(Xat iua)

(Granada)
(Vale ncia)
(Cordoba)

(Textile engineering)
177

(newly conquered)

(leade r)
(garments)
(Alme ria)
4,500

178
(botanists)

Cotton was in India and ancient Egypt but it
became an important textile only after the advent
of Islam. Indeed, one of the results of the M uslim
agricultural revolution was that cotton plantations
spread throughout all Islamic lands, in the east as
well as t he west . Fine c ott on was manu factu red
and exported to various countries, including China
and the Far East.
(Ahmed Y. Al-Hassan, Islamic Technology, p.181)
179
(Watches)
(t i me
(a st r o n o my )

keeping)

(Velenc ia)

180

(timekeeping)

(Kinetic energy)

(wind mills)

(water mills)

(Genil
(Guadalimar River)

Rive r)

181
(kinetic
energy)

(wind mills)
(Chemical technology)
(Cordoba)
182
(Alme ria)

(M urcia)
(Co r d o b a)
(Gr an a d a)
(M a lag a)
(Beja)
(Lorca)

(Beja)
(Cordoba)

cordovan
183
cordonniers

(Zar agoza)

(Bay
of Biscay)

(M urcia)

(Ordnance)
184
(Toledo)

(Cordoba)
(Se ville)
(A l me r i a) (M u r c ia) (G r a n a d a)
(Zar agoza)

692
1346

(A eroplane)
185
1903 17
1903 12
186
(Civil engineering)
187
959

4,700 70

24,000

1,093

Whatever the human eye has witnessed this

is t h e mo st c h ar mi n g o f t h e m all , an d it s
craftsmanship and splendour are not to be found in
any of the ancient or modern monuments.
188
400
189
This palace is su ch a wo nd er o f th e wo rld

that a concept of the design of this type could not
oc c u r t o an y h u man be in g fr om t h e d awn of
cr e at io n t o t h is d ay an d h u man int e lle ct h as
thr ou gh t he ages faile d to p ro duc e a parallel or
even approaching it in beauty of design.
(Dr. Musta fa Siba', Some Glittering Aspects of the Isla mic Civ iliz ation)
190
(Guadalimar
River)

400

10,000

4

4,316

191

2,200

(calligraphy)

192
(calligraphy)

E. Rosenthal
In M u slim days, Cord ova was t he c ent re o f

European civilisation and one of the greatest seats
of learning in the world. After the expulsion of the
193
M oo rs fr om Sp ain , however, Cord ova san k t o the
le vel o f a pr o vin c ial to wn. Yet h er wo n d er ful
mo sq u e is a sup e r b legac y o f t h e d ays wh e n
Co rd ova was th e c ap it al of t h e Ar ab Emp ir e in
Spain. "Traces of Arabic Influence in Spain"
(Islamic Culture 11:336 July, 1937)
Sir Thomas W.
Arnold
900
70
(Navarre )
(Leon)

(Barcelona)
(Dressmake r)
(Architect)

(Singer)
(The legacy of Islam)
194
C. H.
Haskins
Th e b ro ad fact re main s t hat t he Ar ab s o f

Spain were the principal source of the new learning
for Western Europe.
(Studies in the History of Medical Science)
H.
E. Barnes

In many ways, the most advanced civilisation
of the M iddle Ages was not a Christian culture at
all, but rather the civilisation of the people of the
faith of Islam.
(H.E. Barnes, A History of Historical Writings)
"Ye t it was the c ultur e of th e Arabs whic h

became the matrix of the new Islamic civilisation,
an d all t h at was b est in th e old er and h igh e r
culture was assimilated into the new culture."
(W. Montgomer y Watt, A History of Islamic Spain , p.166)
195
G.
R. Gibb

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27

(conflict & contradiction)

(trial & error)

(certainty & finality)

(trial & error)

"S c ie n c e wit h o ut re ligio n is lame an d r e ligion

Catalogue of A rabic Manuscripts (xxi) Fasciule 2 by J.

(education & literacy)

(B agh d ad ) ( Hal ab ) (Damas c u s)

(medical aid centres)

1- Department of Systematic Diseases

(grammer & syntax)

(crimin olo gy)

Not only are most of the star

are like wise o f

Arabic etymology and testify to the rich legacy of

(History of the Arabs, pp.373-378)

equatorial instruments (Azarquiel)

"M uslim astr ologers also disco vere d (arou nd

geometry algebra arithmetic

(Physics, Mechanics, Dynamics)

magnifying power lenses

mete oro lo gy ast ron omical ob se rvations lenses

"Anyho w it is asto nish in g e no ugh th at th e

"In th e fie ld o f natu r al h isto r y espe cially

(Islamic Science, S.H. Nasr, pp.156)

textbooks medical colleges

The practice of medicine was r egulated in

"Their medical studies, later translated into

(Islamic Science , p.181)

Albucasis (1013 AD) was not only a physician

Al-Zah rawi's ran k in the art of surgery was

M u slim p h ysic ian s also ad d e d valu ab le

Ali ib n Isa was also t h e fir st p e rso n t o

crystallization sublimation evaporation

The Jabirean Corpus

(The Seventy Books )

1. Pro f. Hitt i, History of th e A rab s, pp .578-579

comparative case law

(articals) 63 Pact of M adina)

(judiciary) (executive) (legislature)

& taxation law

(Geography & Communications)

topo grap hy geogr aphy

(Islamic Culture, 8:514, Oct.1934)

(Russia) (Kazan) (Finland)

tariff monsoon cable admiral arsenal

The coming of Islam six hundred years after

These statements must not be construed as

It is highly probable that but for the Arabs,

tr an sc en d all pr eviou s ph ases o f evolut ion . Fo r

measurement of the development of mathematics

There is no doubt that the Islamic sciences

Islam, impingin g c ultu rally u po n ad jace nt

(Gib ralt ar)

(M erida) (Se ville)

8,000 (Se ville)

(Cadiz) (M alaga) (Alme ria) (Granada)

Alr eady whe n th e fo rt un es o f th e M u slims

(M alaga) (Gr anad a)

(Jaen) (Se ville) (Zar agoza)

(lo gic ) (p h ilo so p h y) (p h ysic s)

(Se ville) (Guadix)

Whatever the human eye has witnessed this