DC Machines

Introduction
D. C. machines are seldom used in ordinary applications because all electric supply companies furnish alternating current However, for special applications such as in steel mills, mines and electric trains, it is advantageous to convert alternating current into direct current in order to use D.C. motors. The reason is that speed/torque characteristics of D.C. motors are much more superior to that of a.c. motors. Therefore, it is not surprising to note that for industrial drives, D.C. motors are as popular as 3-phase induction motors. Like D.C. generators, D.C. motors are also of three types viz., series-wound, shunt-wound and compoundwound. The use of a particular motor depends upon the mechanical load it has to drive. In DC Machines the field poles are present on the stator called as YOKE. Armature windings and Commutator are on the Rotor. The Figure gives the cross-sectional view of a 4-pole DC machine. Brushes press on to the Commutator view for collecting the power from a dc generator or for feeding the DC Power to the armature of a DC Motor. DC Machines are of three types:

1. Series (A) 2. Shunt (B) 3. Compound (C)

DC Series machines has the field winding in series with armature circuit, DC Shunt Machine has field winding across the armature circuit. Where as DC Compound machine has two Field Windings. One across the armature and the other in series with the armature. DC Machines has inter poles. Large DC machines have also compensating windings embedded in the pole faces of the main poles.

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DC Machine Posses very versatile characteristics. DC motor is easily adaptable for drives requiring wide range speed control and maintenance. It is highly versatile energy conservation device. It can meet the demand of loads requiring high starting torques, high accelerating and decelerating torques. In view of these outstanding features, DC Machines are widely used for the industrial purpose particularly for tough jobs as are in steel mills. There are two types of DC Machines depending on their field system employed, they are: HOMO-POLAR Machines HETERO-POLAR Machines
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HOMO-POLAR Machines
These types of machines are used where low Voltage and High Currents are required and the fields system is unusual as in the Faraday Disc Dynamo, which is an example of this type of machine.

HETERO-POLAR Machines
These types of machines are most commonly used in Practice. The magnetic poles are mounted as shown in figure to form alternate south and north poles when traversed along the circumference of an armature. These machines are used for moderate voltage and high output power.

Construction of a DC machine
Basically the construction of a DC machine includes mainly 7 parts. They are: i. ii. iii. iv. v. vi. vii. Magnetic Frame (or) Yoke Poles a. Pole Face (or) Pole Core b. Pole Shoe Pole Windings (or) Field Windings Armature Core Commutator Armature Windings Brushes and Bearings

i. Magnetic Frame (or) Yoke

PURPOSE:

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It is cylindrical in shape and made out of cast steel or cast iron. It is the outer most part of the DC machine on which the poles are located on the inner part of the Yoke.

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It gives mechanical support to the poles situated on the inner part of the Yoke. It acts as a protecting layer to the entire DC machine and protects from the atmospheric ailments. It acts as Magnetic Flux carriers in the DC machine.

ii. Poles (Pole Core and Pole Shoe) Pole Shoe:

The field magnet consists of mainly pole shoe and pole core. The pole shoe serves mainly for two purposes.

In spreading the magnetic flux in the air gap and being of larger cross-section, reduce the reluctance of the magnetic path. It supports the exciting coils (or field coils) shown in figure.

Pole Core:
The pole core itself maybe a solid piece made up of either cast iron or cast steel. But the pole shoe is laminated.

Construction:

Method: 1 1. In this method the pole core is a simple solid, made out of cast iron or cast steel. 2. Pole shoe is laminated and is fastened to the pole face by means of COUNTER SUNK SCREW as shown in figure. Method: 2:

1. In this method both the pole shoe and pole core are laminated and are riveted permanently under hydraulic pressure. 2. The thickness of each laminated sheet varies from 1 mm to 0.25 mm.

All the poles should be fitted on to the Yoke by means of screws inside the pole such that it should enter the Yoke and gets fixed. This is shown in the figure.

iii. Pole Windings (or) Field Windings

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The field coils or pole coils which consists of copper wire or strip, are former- wound for the correct dimension shown in the left figure. Then the former is removed and wound coil is put into place over the core as shown in the right figure.

iv. Armature Core

1. It is the main part of the DC machine which houses or holds the armature coils or conductors. 2. It is basically cylindrical in shape built by several circular steel disks. 3. Every disk is punched, the punched portion is called as SLOTS and the unpunched portion is called as TEETH.
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4. The slot must be covered with the insulating material MICA. 5. The laminations are perforated for air duct which permits the axial flow of air through the armature for cooling purpose. 6. The inner peripheral consists of KEYWAYS where as the outer peripheral consists of SLOTS and TEETH. 7. Keyways are used to fix the shaft, which appears as a DOVE- Tailed or Wedge Shaped.

v. Commutator
1. The shape of a Commutator appears to be wedge-shaped and cylindrical structure. 2. The function of the Commutator is to facilitate collection of current from the armature conductors or coils. 3. It rectifies i.e., it converts the alternating current induced in the armature conductors into unidirectional current in the external load circuit. 4. The wedge-shaped segments are insulated from each other with the help of thin layers MICA. 5. Each Commutator segment is connected to the armature conductor by means of a copper lug or strip (riser). 6. To prevent them from flying out under the action of centrifugal forces, the segments have V-shaped grooves, these grooves being insulated by conical micanite rings. This is shown in the figure.

vi. Armature Windings

1. The armature windings are done by using high grade copper wires or strips. 2. The armature windings includes any other factors such as a. Pole Pitch b. Conductor c. Pitch of a Winding (Y) d. Back Pitch (YB) e. Front Pitch (YF) f. Resultant Pitch (YR) g. Commutator Pitch (YG)

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It is the distance between the segments to which the two ends of a coil are connected is defined as Commutator Pitch. h. Single Layer Winding i. Two Layer Winding j. Multiplex Winding etc.

vii. Brushes and Bearings

1. The function of Brushes is to collect the current from the Commutator, is usually
made of carbon or graphite and is in the shape of a rectangular block. 2. These brushes are housed in brush-holders usually of the box-type variety.

3. The brushes are made to bear down on the commutator by a spring whose tension can be adjusted by changing the position of the lever in the notches. 4. A flexible copper wire is mounted at the top of the brush conveys current from the brushes to the holder. 5. The number of brushes per spindle depends on the magnitude of the current to be collected from the Commutator. 6. Because of the reliability, ball-bearings are frequently employed, though for heavy duties. Roller bearings are most preferred. 7. Sleeve bearings are used which are lubricated by ring oilers fed from oil reservoir in the bearing bracket. This is shown in the figure.

Operation of a DC Machine as a Generator Principle:

An Electric Generator is a machine which converts mechanical energy or Power in to Electrical energy or power. The energy conversion is based on the principle of the production of dynamically induced emf. Whenever a conductor cuts the magnetic flux dynamically, induced emf is produced in it according to the Faradays laws of Electromagnetic induction. This emf causes a current to flow if the conductor circuit is closed. Hence, two basic essential parts of an electrical generator are Magnetic Field Conductor or Conductors which can move as to cut the flux

Construction of Generators

The generator mainly consists of magnetic poles which are mounted on the stator and a armature core in between the magnetic field. The armature conductors are placed within the slots in the armature core. Initially the armature conductors are wounded in rectangular shape flat coils. Let us consider a single turn rectangular copper coil rotating about its own axis in a magnetic field provided by either permanent or electromagnets. The two ends of the coil are joined to two slip rings which are insulated from each other and from the central shaft as shown in the figure. The collecting brushes are made up of copper or carbon and are pressed against the split rings. Their function is to collect the current induced in the coil and to convey it to the external load resistance R. The rotating coil may be called as Armature and the magnets as Field Magnets.

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Working (Generator)
Assume the coil to be rotating in clock-wise direction as shown. As the coil assumes successive position in the field, the flux linked wit it changes. Hence an emf is induces in it which is proportional to the rate of change of flux linkage

E = Nd dt
When the plane coil is at right angle to the lines of flux. Then the flux linked with the coil is maximum, but rate of change of flux linkage is minimum. As a result, the coil sides do not cut the flux, rather they move along them parallel. Hence there is no emf induced in the coil. As a result coil continues rotating further, rate of change of flux linkage increases when it makes an angle of 90. Here, the coil will be in horizontal, the flux linked with the coil is minimum but rate of change of flux is maximum. Hence maximum emf is induced in the coil at 90. In the next quarter revolution (i.e. from 90 to 180), flux linked with the coil gradually increases but the rate of change of flux linkages decreases. Hence the induced emf decreases gradually till the position, it is reduced to zero. In the first half revolution, emf is induced at the initial position, maximum when it is at 90 and no emf at 180. The direction of this induced emf can be found by applying Flemings right-Hand Rule which gives its direction. Hence the current flows. In the next cycle (i.e. from 180 to 360) the variations in the magnitude of emf are just like to that of the first half revolution. Therefore for every half revolution, the current gets reversed in its direction which is known as alternating current. It is later converted in to unidirectional current (DC) by replacing the slip ring with the split rings. Split rings are made out of a conducting cylinder cut into two halves or segments insulated from each other by a thin sheet of mica. As before the coil ends are joined to the segments on which rest the copper or carbon brushes. It is seen that in the first half revolution current flows i.e. the brush will be in contact with the segment acts as a positive end of the supply and other as negative. In the next half revolution, the direction of induced current in the coil has reversed. But at the same time the position of the segments are also reversed with the result that the initial brush comes in contact with the segment which is positive.

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Hence the current continuous.

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Operation of a DC machine as a motor Principle:

An electric motor is a machine which converts electrical energy in to mechanical energy. Its action is based on the principle that when a current carrying conductor is placed in a magnetic field, it experiences a mechanical force whose direction is given by Flemings Left-Hand Rule and whose magnitude is given by

F = BIL Construction of Motors

Newtons

Constructionally there is no basic difference between a DC generator and DC motor. In fact, the same dc machine can be used interchangeably as a generator or as a motor. DC motors are also like generators. They were been classified into three, they are:

Working of a Dc Motor

Let us consider a part of multipolar DC motor as shown in figure. When the field magnets are excited by passing current in their field windings and its armature conductors are supplied with current from the supply mains, they experience a force tending to rotate the armature. Armature conductors under N-Pole area assumed to carry current downwards (crosses) and those under S-Pole, to carry current upwards (dots). By applying Flemings Left hand Rule, the direction of the force on each conductor can be found. It is shown by small arrows placed above each conductor. It can be seen that each conductor experiences a force F which tends to rotate the armature in anti-clockwise direction. These forces collectively produce a driving torque which sets the armature rotating.

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1. Series-Wound DC Motors 2. Shunt-Wound DC Motors 3. Compound-Wound Dc Motors

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The function of the commutator in the motor is the same as in a generator. By reversing current in each conductor as it passes from one pole to another, it helps to develop a continuous and unidirectional torque.

Comparison of Generator and Motor Action

The same DC Machine can be used interchangeably as a generator as well as motor. When operating as a generator, it is driven by a mechanical machine and it develops voltage which I turn produces a current flow in an electric circuit. When operating as a motor, it is supplied by electric current and it acquires torque which in turn produces mechanical rotation.
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Generator Action
Let us consider a part of a generator whose armature is being driven clockwise by its prime mover as shown in figure. Fig.1 represents the field setup independently by the main poles and the armature conductors like A in the shown figure. The resultant field or magnetic lines of flux may be linked to the rubber bands under tension. Hence, the bet lines of flux set up a mechanical force on A much, just like as the bent elastic rubber band of a catapult, Produces a mechanical force on the piece of a stone. The direction of this force is opposite to that of armature rotation. Hence, it is known as backward force or magnetic drag on the conductors. Therefore, against this drag action on all the armature conductors that the prime mover has to work. The work done in overcoming this opposition is converted into electrical energy.

E.M.F Equation in a DC Machine Generator

Generated EMF or EMF Equation of a Generator

Generator works on the principle of Faradays laws of Electromagnetic Induction i.e. when a revolving armature conductors cuts the magnetic lines of flux, a dynamically induced emf is produced in the armature coils and this emf causes current flow in it. If the rotor circuit is closed. We shall now derive an expression for the emf generated in a D.C. generator. Let

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= flux/pole in Wb Z = total number of armature conductors P = number of poles A = number of parallel paths = 2 for wave winding = P for lap winding N = speed of armature in r.p.m. EG= emf of the generator = emf /parallel path

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General EMF Equation (1)

For a simple wave-wound generator

No. of parallel paths A =2 No. of conductors in one path = Z 2 EMF generated per path = PN 60 = PNZ 120 Z 2 Volt

For a simple lap-wound generator

No. of parallel paths A = P No. of conductors I one path = Z P EMF generated per path = PN 60
X

Z P

= NZ Volt 60

If we multiply and divide the above general equation of EG by 2 EG = 2 2

X

PN 60

Z A

By solving, we get

But for a given DC machine Z,P and A are constants. Hence putting Ka EMF equation, we get EG = KaN 60 Volt

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P Volts A

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-omega- in radians ZP in the general A

EG = KaN Volts

(where N is in r.p.s)

Motor
When the motor armature rotates, the conductors also rotate and hence cut the flux. In accordance with the laws of electromagnetic induction, emf is induced in them whose direction, as found by Flemings right-Hand Rule, is in opposition to the applied voltage. Because of its opposing direction. It is referred to as counter emf or back emf Eb.

Eb= ZN X P Volts 60 A

The equivalent circuit of a motor is as shown below. The rotating armature generates the back emf Eb is like a battery of emf Eb put across supply mains of V volts. This V has to drive the current Ia against the opposition of Eb. the power required to overcome this opposition is

EbIa
The back emf depends on other factors as the armature speed. If the speed of the armature is high, Eb is large. Hence armature current Ia is small. If the speed is less, then Eb is less. Hence more current flows which develops motor torque. So Eb acts like a governor.

Voltage Equation of a Motor

The voltage V is applied across the motor armature, has to Overcome the back emf Eb The armature ohmic drop IaRa

V = Eb + IaRa

This is known as voltage equation of a motor.

Multiplying ob both sides by Ia in the above equation, we get VIa =EbIa + IaRa

Where VIa Electrical input to the armature EbIa Electrical equivalent of mechanical power developed in the armature IaRa - Cu Losses in the armature Hence out of the armature input, some is wasted in IR loss and rest is converted into mechanical power within the armature. The motor efficiency is given by the ratio of power developed by the armature to its input i.e

Eb is higher as compared to V, there fore the motor efficiency is higher.

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Production of Torque in a DC Machine

The term torque is meant the turning or twisting moment of a force about an axis. It is measured by the product of the force and the radius at which this force acts. Consider a pulley of radius r meter acted upon by a circumferential force of F Newtons which causes it to rotate at N rpm as shown in figure. Then torque = F X r (N-m) Work done by this force is one revolution = force X distance
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Power developed = F x 2r x N = (Fr) x 2N

= F x 2r Joule Joules / Second or watt watt

Now 2N = Angular Velocity in radian/second and F x r = torque Therefore power developed = x watt Or P = watt Moreover, if n is in rpm Then = 2N radians/second 60 Therefore P=2N x T 60

P = 2 NT = NT 60 9.55
Armature Torque of a Motor

Let Ta be the torque by the armature of a motor running at N rps. If T a is in N/m, them power developed Ta x 2N watt ------ (1)

We also know that electrical power converted into mechanical power in the armature EbIa watts ----- (2) Equating (1) and (2), we get

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= EbIa ------ (3)

Since Eb = ZN

P Volts A P Ia A N-m

We have, Ta x 2N = ZN Ta = 1 x Z Ia P A

i.e. Ta = 0.159 Z Ia P N-m A From (3) as shown above Ta =EbIa N-m were N is in rps 2N If N is in rpm, then Ta = 60 EbIa = 9.55 EbIa 2N 2N N-m
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Shaft Torque
The whole of the armature Torque, as calculated above, is not available for doing useful work, because a certain percentage of it is required for supplying iron and frictional losses in the motor. The torque which is available for doing useful work is known as Shaft Torque (TSh). It is so called because it is available at the shaft. The motor output is give by Tsh = Output in watts 2N N-m N in rps

= 60 output 2 N The difference (Ta - Tsh) is known as lost torque and is due to ion and friction losses of the motor.

Note
Ta can also be expressed in kg-m at 1kg=9.81 Nw-m T= 0.0612 x Z Ia P Kg-m A Since Z,P and A are constant for a particular machine Therefore Ta Ia

1. In case of series motor, field winding carries full current. Hence before saturation is
directly proportional to the armature current. Ta Ia

2. In case of shunt motor, is practically constant.

Some Definitions of Armature Windings

Coil-Span or Coil Pitch (YS)
It is the distance measured in terms of armature slots (armature conductors) between the two sides of a coil. It is in fact, the periphery of the armature spanned by the two sides of the coil.

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Ta Ia

Pitch of the winding (Y)

In general, it may be defined as the distance round the armature between the two successive conductors which are directly connected together or it is the distance between the bearings of the two consecutive turns. Y=YB-YF ---- for Lap Winding Y=YB+YF ---- for Wave winding

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Back Pitch (YB)

The distance measured in terms of the armature conductors, which a coil advances on the back of the armature is called back pitch and is denoted by YB.

Front Pitch (YF)

The number of armature conductors or elements spanned by a coil on the front (commutator end of an armature) is called the front pitch and is denoted by YF. Or The front pitch may be defines as the distance (in terms of the armature conductors) between the second conductor of one coil and the first conductor of the next coil which are connected at the front i.e. commutator end of the armature.

Resultant Pitch (YR)

It is defined between the beginning of one coil and the beginning of the next coil to which it is connected.

Commutator Pitch (YC)

It is the distance (measured in commutator bars or segments) between the segments to which the two ends of a coil are connected. YC =YB-YF ---- for Lap Winding YC =YB+YF ---- for Wave winding

Armature Windings

Two basic types of windings mostly employed for drum type armature are as follows

Wave Winding

The most distinguish feature of this winding is that electrically, it divides the armature conductors in to parallel paths between the +ve and ve brushes irrespective of the no. of poles of the machine. As shown in figure, as the armature current enters the ve brush, it finds 2 parallel paths of equal resistances available for going to the =ve brush. Hence it divides into 2 paths, each path consists of Z/2 conductors connected in series (Z-being the total no. of armature conductors) and each carries of Ia/2. Where Ia is the total armature current. For example, in the case of a 4 pole wave wound generator having 30 armature conductors, each of 2 parallel paths will have 15 conductors.

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Wave-Winding Lap Winding

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The wave winding is one in which the coil end, diverge and go to the segments widely separated. This is called series winding.

Lap winding
Lap winding is one in which the adjacent ends of the coils are connected together in closed to each other on the commutator segments. In the lap windings the armature conductors are divided into many parallel paths as the no. of poles of the generator. If there are P poles and Z armature conductors, then there will be P parallel paths, each consisting of Z/P conductors connected in series between the positive and negative set of brushes. From the figure, as the armature current enters the negative brush, it has four parallel paths available for going to the positive brush. Each path has Z/4 conductors and carries a current if Ia/4 amps.

Advantages

1. The wave windings giving (gives) more emf than the lap winding for the same no. of poles and armature conductors. 2. In a wave winding equalizing connections are not necessary which are in lap windings. 3. Lap winding gives more parallel paths, hence its importance lies when large currents are required.

Armature Windings
Types of DC Windings

Dc armature windings can be divided into two groups mainly depending upon the way in which the coil ends are connected to the commutator segments. They are 1. Lap Windings 2. Wave windings

In the lap windings, the two ends of any coil are taken to the adjacent commutator segments and the coil ends are bent inwards as shown below. Where as in the wave wingding, the coil ends are bent in opposite directions and taken to the commutator segments some distance apart as shown. A Simplex lap winding can be progressive or retrogressive. In general, lap windings, the coil ends are connected to the adjacent commutator segments. In progressive winding, the start and finish of the coils ends are connected to the respective commutator segments in an ascending order and in the retrogressive winding the ends are connected to the connected segments in the descending order. In a wave winding, the conductors in each parallel path are distributed symmetrically over all the poles of the machine. They are used for high voltage and low current equipment.

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Difference between Lap and Wave Windings Lap Windings

1. Number of parallel paths is equal to the number of poles. 2. The number of brush positions on the commutator equals to the number of poles. 3. The two ends of an armature coil are connected to the two adjacent commutator segments. 4. The winding forms a continuous closed circuit. These are used for supplying low voltages and high current loads.

Wave Windings
1. Number of parallel paths are always 2. 2. A minimum of two brush positions are required irrespective of the number of poles. 3. Two ends of an armature coil are connected to the two commutator segments. 4. The winding forms a continuous closed Circuit. These are used for supplying High voltages and low currents.

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