Electric Power Systems Research 66 (2003) 5 /14 www.elsevier.

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Review

What is power quality?

M.H.J. Bollen *
Department of Electric power Engineering, Chalmers University of Technology, Horsalsvagen 11, Gothenburg 412 96, Sweden

Abstract This paper introduces the terminology and various issues related to power quality. The interest in power quality is explained in the context of a number of much wider developments in power engineering: deregulation of the electricity industry, increased customer-demands, and the integration of renewable energy sources. After an introduction of the different terminology two power quality disturbances are discussed in detail: voltage dips and harmonic distortion. For each of these two disturbances, a number of other issues are briefly discussed, which are characterisation, origin, mitigation, and the need for future research. # 2003 Elsevier Science B.V. All rights reserved.
Keywords: Power quality; Harmonic distortion; Voltage dips

1. Introduction Classically, the aim of the electric power system is to generate electrical energy and to deliver this energy to the end-user equipment at an acceptable voltage. The constraint that was traditionally mentioned is that the technical aim should be achieved for reasonable costs. The optimal level of investment was to be obtained by means of a trade-off between reliability and costs. A recurring argument with industrial customers concerned the definition of reliability: should it include only long interruptions or also short interruptions or even voltage dips. The term power quality came in use referring to the other characteristics of the supply voltage (i.e. other than long interruptions). But, immediately, the first confusion started as utilities included the disturbances generated by the customers in the term power quality. This difference in emphasis will be discussed in more detail below. The main complaint of domestic customers concerned the costs which were perceived too high, especially where cross-subsidising was used to keep prices low for industrial or agricultural customers. This classical model of the power system, as it can be found in many textbooks, is found in Fig. 1. The customers are traditionally referred to as loads.

Various developments have led to a different view at the power system. These developments are strongly interrelated, but the three main ones are: . The deregulation of the electricity industry makes that there is no longer one single system but a number of independent companies with customers. . Electricity customers have become more aware of their rights and demand low-cost electricity of high reliability and quality, where the priorities are different for different (types of) customers. Customers are certainly no longer willing to accept their position as merely one parameter in a global optimisation. . Generation of electricity is shifting away from large power stations connected to the transmission system towards smaller units connected at lower voltage levels. Examples are combined-heat-and-power and renewable sources of energy like sun and wind. Because of this the power system can no longer be seen as one entity but as an electricity network with customers. This new model is shown in Fig. 2. Note that the physical structure of the power system/network has not changed, it is only the way of viewing it that has changed. In Fig. 2 the electric power network connects some or many customers. Customers may generate or consume electrical energy, or even both albeit at different moments in time. Different customers have different

* Tel.: '/46-31-772-3832; fax: '/46-31-772-1633. E-mail address: mathias.bollen@elteknik.chalmers.se (M.H.J. Bollen).

0378-7796/03/$ - see front matter # 2003 Elsevier Science B.V. All rights reserved. doi:10.1016/S0378-7796(03)00067-1

M.H.J. Bollen / Electric Power Systems Research 66 (2003) 5 /14

Fig. 1. Classical model of the power system.

Fig. 2. Modern model of the power system.

demands on voltage magnitude, frequency, waveform, etc. Different customers have different patterns of current variation, fluctuation and distortion, thus polluting the voltage for other customers in different ways. The power network in Fig. 2 could be a transmission network, a distribution network, an industrial network, or any other network owned by one single company. For a transmission network, the customers are, e.g., generator stations, distribution networks, large industrial customers (who could be generating or consuming electricity at different times, based on the electricity price at that moment), and other transmission networks. For a distribution network, the customers are currently mainly end-users that only consume electricity, but also the transmission network and smaller generator stations are customers. Note that all customers are equal, even though some may be producing energy while others are consuming it. The aim of the network company is only to transport the energy, or in economic terms: to enable transactions between customers. The technical aim of the power network becomes one of allowing the transport of electrical energy between the different customers, guaranteeing an acceptable voltage and allowing the currents taken by the customers. With an ideal network each customer should perceive the electricity supply as an ideal voltage source with a zero impedance. Whatever the current is, the voltage should be constant. As always, reality is not ideal. Power quality concerns this deviation between reality and ideal. Note that this same model also becomes attractive when considering the integration of renewable or other environmentally /friendly sources of energy into the power system. The power network is no longer the

boundary condition that limits e.g. the amount of wind power that can be produced at a certain location. Instead the power networks task becomes to enable the transport of the amount of wind power that is produced. It will be clear to the reader that the final solution should be found in co-operation between the customer and the network operator considering various technical and economic constrains. There are many aspects to the limitations set by the network on the market. A much discussed one is the limited ability of the network to transport energy. Note that lack of generation capacity is not a deficiency of the network but a deficiency of the market. In this modern way of looking at power systems, the utility no longer buys and sells energy, but instead sells transport capacity and access to the network. This paper will give a short overview of power quality with emphasis on the two issues that currently receive most attention: harmonic distortion and voltage dips. But first another attempt will be made at defining the term power quality.

2. Denitions There is a lot of confusion on the meaning of the term power quality, not in the least because power is used as a synonym for electricity in American English whereas it is also the energy transport per unit of time. Different authors use different definitions. A consistent set of definitions is given as follows: . Voltage quality is concerned with deviations of the voltage from the ideal. The ideal voltage is a singlefrequency sine wave of constant amplitude and frequency. . Current quality is the complementary term to voltage quality: it is concerned with the deviation of the current from the ideal. The ideal current is again a single-frequency sine wave of constant amplitude and frequency, with the additional requirement that the current sine wave is in phase with the voltage sine wave. . Power quality is the combination of voltage quality and current quality. . Quality of supply is a combination of voltage quality and the non-technical aspects of the interaction from the power network to its customers. . Quality of consumption is the complementary term to quality of supply. Note that not all these terms are equally commonly used, especially current quality and quality of consumption are used more frequently. Also note that other sources give other, often conflicting, definitions. All definitions given above apply to the interface between

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the network (company) and the customer. This may be for example a domestic customer and the public lowvoltage distribution network, an individual plant and the industrial medium-voltage distribution network, a power station and a transmission network, or a transmission network and a distribution network. The term power quality is certainly not restricted to the interaction between the power grid and end-user equipment. The term electromagnetic compatibility (EMC) has in this context a more restricted meaning: it applies only to the interaction between equipment and its electromagnetic environment (e.g. the power system). Strictly speaking it would thus only apply to low-voltage networks but the terminology is also being applied to higher voltage levels. Note that in the international (IEC) standards power quality is treated as a subset of EMC. Power quality disturbances (i.e. deviations of voltage and/or current from the ideal) come in two types, based on the way a characteristic of voltage or current is measured: . Variations are small deviations of voltage or current characteristics from its nominal or ideal value, e.g. the variation of voltage r.m.s. value and frequency from their nominal values, or the harmonic distortion of voltage and current. Variations are disturbances that are measured at any moment in time. Harmonic distortion will be discussed as an example of a power quality variation. . Events are larger deviations that only occur occasionally, e.g. voltage interruptions or load switching currents. Events are disturbances that start and end with a threshold crossing. Voltage dips will be treated below as an example. The difference between variations and events is not always obvious, and related to the way in which the disturbance is measured. The best way of distinguishing between the two is as follows: variations can be measured at any moment in time; events require waiting for a voltage or current characteristic to exceed a predefined threshold. As the setting of a threshold is always somewhat arbitrary there is no clear border between variations and events. Still the distinction between them remains useful and it is in fact done (implicitly of explicitly) in almost any power quality study. However, note that here also there is no consistency in terminology. For example, measurements of the r.m.s. voltage can be the basis for a variation (when 10-min averages are continuously recorded) but also for an event (starting and ending when the r.m.s. voltage dips below 90% of the nominal voltage). The definitions of power quality events and variations as given here are much wider than the general interpretation of power quality. This has to do with the fact

that power quality remains in most cases as a part of the phrase bad power quality. A power quality disturbance is only seen as an issue when it causes problems, either for the customer or for the network operator. Voltage dips and harmonics are seen as a power quality issue by many; but voltage and frequency variations are not seen as a power quality issue because the latter were incorporated in the design of power systems many years ago.

3. Harmonic distortion The term harmonics refers to the decomposition of a non-sinusoidal but periodic signal into a sum of sinusoidal components: f (t) 0
 X h01

Ah cos(2phf0 ' 8 h )

with Ah and 8h amplitude and phase angle for harmonic order h , f0 0/1/T and T the period. For a power system operating at 50 Hz, any non-sinusoidal voltage or current can be decomposed into a fundamental (50 Hz) component plus a number of harmonic components with frequencies that are a multiple integer of 50 Hz. The latter are called harmonic components. The 150-Hz component (h 0/3) is referred to as the third harmonic, etc. A more appropriate term would be waveform distortion where one could distinguish between: . Harmonic distortion is distortion where the waveform is non-sinusoidal but periodic with a period equal to the period of the power system frequency (50 or 60 Hz). Most of the literature on waveform distortion only considers this harmonic distortion, which is an acceptable approximation in many cases. However most power quality studies consider more or less exceptional situations, so that we cannot limit ourselves to harmonic distortion only. . The presence of a dc component can be seen as a special case of harmonic distortion, but is often treated separately due to difference in measurement techniques and consequences. . Interharmonic distortion is mathematically the same as harmonic distortion. The difference with harmonic distortion is that the period is a multiple of the period of the power system frequency. For example, a 50 Hz signal with a 180 Hz interharmonic component has a period of 100 ms (5 cycles of 50 Hz, 18 cycles of 180 Hz). Mathematically, a frequency component at an irrational multiple of the power system frequency would lead to a non-periodic signal, but that case does not need to be considered in practice. Interharmonic distortion is discussed in more detail in [1].

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. Subharmonic components are components with a frequency less than the power system frequency. They can be considered as interharmonic distortion, but are often treated separately because their consequences are different from those of higher frequency components. . Voltage flicker , or more accurately, voltage fluctuations leading to light flicker , are mathematically another special case of interharmonic distortion. The special interest in this type of disturbance is again due to the consequences. Even very small fluctuations in the r.m.s. voltage with frequencies between 1 and 15 Hz lead to light-intensity variation for which our eyes are very sensitive. . Noise , are all non-periodic frequency components. The power system is not a static entity but it changes all the time, so that strictly applying the above definitions would imply that everything is noise. To distinguish between the different types of distortion is indeed not always possible. A way of distinguishing would be by taking the spectrum of the signal over a reasonable number of cycles, e.g. 50 cycles (1 s). Harmonics and interharmonics show up as sharp lines in the spectrum whereas noise is seen as a continuous spectrum. Light flicker cannot be observed directly from the spectrum, although the presence of frequency components within 10 Hz of the fundamental component is a good indication. For the analysis of light flicker, the flickermeter algorithm has been developed. Fig. 3 shows the spectrum of a current signal containing several types of waveform distortion. The spectrum was obtained by applying a discrete Fourier transform to a 20-s window of the measured current to an arc furnace. The harmonic distortion shows up as the spectral lines at integer multiples of 50 Hz. The spectral components close to the spectral lines are due to time variations in the amplitude of these harmonics. Interharmonic distortion shows up as spectral lines in

between the harmonic lines. In this case there are no clear interharmonic components present, instead there is a significant amount of noise, especially below 100 Hz. Part of this noise is the cause of light flicker. Note that according to the IEC standard for measurement of harmonic distortion (IEC 61000-4-7) all spectral content in between integer harmonics is counted as interharmonic distortion even if the term noise would be more appropriate. 3.1. Origin of waveform distortion Harmonic distortion is due to the presence of nonlinear elements in the power system (i.e. either in the network or in the loads). The main distortion is due to power-electronic loads like computers, televisions, energy-saving lamps. Such loads can be found in increasing numbers with domestic and commercial customers leading to an increasing level of distortion in the network. An example of the non-sinusoidal current due to a normal computer is shown in Fig. 4. This waveform is typical for many loads at home and in the office. Also adjustable-speed drives and arc furnaces are famous for the distortion they cause. But these loads are mainly found with large industrial customers where mitigation methods are applied to limit the resulting voltage distortion. Therefore the resulting voltage distortion is mainly determined by small non-linear loads and not by the large ones, although large non-linear loads sometimes cause local problems. The daily variation of the harmonic distortion shows clearly the pattern of domestic load, mainly televisions. This pattern is visible round the globe as shown in Figs. 5 and 6, where each figure shows the 5th harmonic and the THD obtained as averages over 10-min intervals. Interharmonic distortion is much more related to industrial loads, so is the noise component of waveform distortion. Capacitor banks are often incorrectly mentioned as a source of harmonic distortion. They are not a cause of

Fig. 3. Spectrum of a signal with different types of waveform distortion. (Current in A, Frequency in Hz.)

Fig. 4. Example of voltage at the terminals of a computer (sine wave) and the resulting non-sinusoidal current.

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harmonic components are obtained by applying a Fourier transform to the waveforms. . Frequency domain study : a separate system model is made for each frequency component included in the study. Each single-frequency model is relatively simple as it only needs to be valid for that specific frequency. The resulting models are the same as used for fundamental-frequency analysis resulting in complex voltages and currents. The main difference, and also the main difficulty, is in the choice of the impedance values. Especially for higher frequency components different models are needed because various capacitive currents become significant, but the calculation methods remain the same. More details of frequency-domain studies are found in [3]
Fig. 5. Harmonic voltage distortion (5th harmonic and THD) measured over a 6-day period in Gothenburg, Sweden.

The term harmonic analysis is normally used for the second method, but the first method will equally result in a harmonic spectrum. The reason that the second method is most commonly used is its simplicity: the same analysis methods can be applied to harmonic components as to the fundamental frequency. The basic assumptions behind this method are that the nonlinearity is restricted to a limited number of components (in most cases loads) and that the current waveform of a non-linear component is not significantly affected by the voltage waveform. Harmonic analysis studies for large transmission systems are discussed in detail in [3].

3.3. Consequences
Fig. 6. Harmonic voltage distortion (5th harmonic and THD) measured over a 6-day period in Shanghai, China.

harmonic distortion but their resonance with (mainly transformer) impedances leads to an amplification of the harmonic currents and voltages generated by non-linear loads. The harmonic distortion due to rotating machines is discussed in detail in [2]. 3.2. Harmonic analysis Harmonic analysis aims at predicting the harmonic distortion at one or more locations in the power network. Such a study can be done to estimate the effect of a new non-linear load or of the installation of a harmonic filter. There are two distinctly different methods of harmonic analysis. . Time domain study : the system (i.e. network and load) are modelled in detail after which a time-domain study is done resulting in the actual waveforms. The

Harmonic voltage distortion leads to harmonic currents through linear loads. These harmonic currents may cause extra losses in the loads which in turn requires derating of the load. The effect is especially severe for lower-order voltage harmonics at the terminals of rotating machines. Negative-sequence voltages have the same effect. Rotating machines are designed for a given maximum amount of voltage unbalance. The presence of voltage distortion limits the immunity of the machine for voltage unbalance. The effect of harmonic distortion in rotation machines is discussed in detail in [2]. Whereas machines are mainly affected by lower-order harmonics, capacitor banks are mainly affected by higher-order harmonics. Some sensitive electronic loads are negatively affected by high harmonic voltage distortion. The effect on such loads is however not so much related to the harmonic spectrum but to the actual waveform, e.g. notching and multiple zero-crossings. An indirect effect of harmonic voltage distortion is that the efficiency of rectifiers becomes less when the crest factor (the maximum of the voltage waveform) decreases. Loads also become more sensitive to voltage dips.

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A high crest factor (harmonic overvoltage) on the other hand may cause faster ageing of the insulation. The main effect of harmonic current distortion is overheating of series components like transformers and cables. The heating is proportional to the r.m.s. current; whereas, the transported energy is related to the fundamental component. For a given active power, the heating increases with increasing current distortion. The effect, however, is more severe than would follow from this reasoning as the resistance of transformers increases with frequency. The higher order harmonics thus produce more heating per Ampere than the fundamental component. Heavily distorted current waveforms require a de-rating of transformers. The effect is also present for cables and lines, but to a lesser extent. The rating of power-electronic series components like UPS and static transfer switch is determined mainly by the peak value of the current, not so much by its r.m.s. value. A current with a high crest factor (as is very common with electronic load) will require a significant derating. Third harmonic currents lead to a large sum current through the neutral conductor. This current may cause overheating if the neutral conductor is designed not to carry any significant current and is not equipped with overload protection. Many single-phase loads cause a large third harmonic current which could lead to neutral overload. The problem is especially present in lowvoltage installations with large amounts of computers or energy-saving lighting. 3.4. Mitigation Mitigation is in the harmonic context often seen as synonym to reduction of harmonic voltage or current distortion. However the problem can also be mitigated by improving the immunity of equipment. De-rating of transformers and motors is a way of mitigating the harmonic problem, albeit not necessarily the most economic solution. A more common way of tackling the harmonic problem is by installing filters, typically LC-series connections that shunt the unwanted harmonic current components back to the load. The harmonic currents remain high but they do not spread through the system and do not cause much harmonic voltage distortion. The disadvantages of these so-called passive filters (high risk of overload, introduction of new resonances) has led to the development of so-called active filters where the current is fully controlled and adjusted to the existing voltage or current distortion. Other mitigation methods include improvements in the network (de-rating of transformers, splitting sensitive and polluting loads) and improvements in the load. The latter includes a more sinusoidal current waveform (reduced emission) but also an increased immunity to

voltage distortion. Reduced emission is seen by many as the preferred long-term solution of the harmonic distortion problem. One may however wonder if this is indeed the cheapest solution. As the number of concrete problems due to harmonic distortion remains relatively small, keeping the distortion at its current level or even allowing a further increase may be a cheaper overall solution. An important component in addressing harmonic problems is in defining limits to harmonic voltage and current distortion. The limits on harmonic voltage distortion as mentioned in various national and international standards are mainly a formalisation of the already existing distortion. For harmonic current limits, IEC and IEEE use two principally different approaches. The IEC standards set limits to the amount of emission of individual equipment, whereas the IEEE harmonic standard limits the emission per customer. Under the IEEE standard the responsibility lies with the customer who may decide to install filters instead of buying better equipment. Under the IEC standards the responsibility lies with the manufacturers of polluting equipment. The difference can be traced back to the aim of the documents: the IEEE standard aimed at regulating the connection of large industrial customers, whereas the IEC document mainly aims at small customers that do not have the means to choose between mitigation options. 3.5. Future research directions Most of the research on harmonic waveform distortion has been done at universities, with emphasis on harmonic analysis studies in large transmission systems. Further calibration with measurements is required to test the various network and load models. The availability of a growing amount of monitoring equipment make such studies feasible. An important question that remains to be answered is where the optimal distortion level is. The consequences of harmonic distortion should be studied, both for existing distortion levels and for higher levels. The discussion is ongoing about how much the distortion level may increase before serious problems occur. Another direction of research is in improved equipment. Large PWM converters are not only able to produce a sinusoidal waveform, they are even able to mitigate the distortion produced by other loads. The installation of additional control algorithms on equipment with PWM converters (wind turbines, large drives) may lead to a reduction of harmonic distortion without much extra costs. The development of these algorithms may be encouraged by the network operators by setting up a harmonic-distortion market. Such a market requires some additional fundamental research in finding adequate market mechanisms. Another develop-

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ment-related research direction is on active harmonic filters.

4. Voltage dips Voltage dips are short-duration reductions in r.m.s. voltage caused by short-duration increases of the current, typically at another location than where the voltage dip is measured. The most common causes of overcurrents leading to voltage dips are motor starting, transformer energising and faults. Also capacitor energising and switching of electronic load lead to shortduration overcurrents, but the duration of the overcurrent is too short to cause a significant reduction in the r.m.s. voltage. These events are normally not referred to as voltage dips but as voltage notches or voltage transients. Voltage dips due to short circuit and earth faults are the cause of the vast majority of equipment problems. Most of the recent emphasis on voltage dips is directed towards these fault-related dips. An example of a measured voltage dip is shown in Fig. 7, where the three voltage waveforms are given. A more common way of presenting a voltage dip is through the r.m.s. voltages as a function of time. The r.m.s. voltage is calculated over a window of typically one cycle duration and updated one or more times per cycle. Fig. 8 shows the r.m.s. voltage for the dip in Fig. 7; the calculation is updated every sample in this example. The voltage dip shown is due to a phase-tophase fault in an underground cable that develops into a three-phase fault within two cycles. Voltage dips are generally seen as undesired events, but a more positive viewpoint could equally well see them as a consequence of the high reliability of the power supply. Without the wide-spread use of protection equipment any fault would lead to the loss of supply for a large fraction of the customers. The protection significantly limits the numbers of customers that experience a long interruption, in many cases to

Fig. 8. R.m.s. voltages for the voltage dip shown in Fig. 7.

zero. However many customers who would experience an interruption without protection now experience a voltage dip. This way of protection has been good enough for many years, but recently more and more problems with end-user equipment are reported due to these voltage dips. Not only has, especially electronic, equipment become more susceptible to voltage dips, companies have also become less tolerant of production stoppages. 4.1. Consequences As mentioned before, a voltage dip is a reduction in voltage. This reduction in voltage leads to a reduction in energy-transfer capability of the system. This has, for long been, a well-known basis of transient-stability studies: the undervoltage due to a fault leads to a reduction of the power transfer from the generators to the motors; motors slow down, generators speed up. This phenomenon limits e.g. the fault-clearing time in transmission systems and also rules the connection of wind farms to the grid. Motor-starting dips equally become a concern when they lead to excess loss of speed for neighbouring motors (or speed gain for generators). Typical limits for stability concerns in distribution systems are 70% voltage during 1 s. These events do not occur very often in the public supply, and in industrial power systems the stability issues are a standard part of the design. Many modern (power)-electronic devices like computers, process-controllers, and adjustable-speed drives already experience operational problems when the voltage drop below 85% for 40 ms. These events occur ten times per year or more, causing a serious concern. What most sensitive equipment has in common is that it is connected to the power system through a rectifier that converts a.c. to d.c. The d.c. voltage is then converted to the actual application voltage. A voltage dip on the a.c. side of the rectifier leads very fast to a drop in d.c. voltage. This in turn causes problems with

Fig. 7. Example of a voltage dip.

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the application voltages. An additional problem is the large inrush current that occurs when the voltage recovers after the dip (i.e. upon fault clearing). This recovery inrush may lead to damage in the rectifier components. For three-phase rectifiers, also the unbalance of the currents through the rectifier and the ripple in the d.c. voltage are of concern. An example of the d.c. bus voltage behind a three-phase diode rectifier is shown in Fig. 9. The simulated event is a drop in the voltage between two phases to 50% of its pre-event value. The effect of voltage dip on adjustable-speed drives is discussed in more detail in [4]. 4.2. Characterisation and indices To be able to characterise voltage dip events some kind of processing of the sampled voltage waveforms is needed. This is defined rather well in the standard document IEC 61000-4-30, where remaining voltage and duration are defined as the two main characteristics to quantify a voltage dip. Both are obtained from the r.m.s. voltage as a function of time (see Fig. 8). The characterisation of three-phase measurements remains a point of discussion. The current practice (using the worst channel) is not very satisfactory. The characterisation of three-phase measurements is discussed in more detail in [5]. Having defined the characteristics of a single event, it becomes possible to describe the performance of a site and even of a whole network. For processing of event indices into site and system-indices, there exist two different schools of thought which for the time being have shown incompatible. . The principle dont throw away too much information , typically results in a table with the number of

events per year for different remaining voltage and duration. There is an ongoing discussion about how to group remaining voltage and duration into bins. Examples are the Unipede disdip table, IEC 61000-28 and IEEE Std. 493 and 1346. . The opposite principle keep it simple , results in a small number of indices, ideally just one index. The commonly-used SARFI indices belong to this school as well as several proposals to quantify supply performance by just one number. Important in the discussion on voltage-dip indices is to consider that they can be obtained by measurements as well as by simulations. Measurement (power quality monitoring) is a good way of assessing the performance of a site or system, in the end measurement is the only exact method. But measurements have limited predictive value due to the large year-to-year and site-to-site differences. To predict voltage-dip performance a large number of monitors are needed for a long period of time. Stochastic prediction methods are much more suitable for performance prediction, e.g. for comparing different mitigation methods. 4.3. Mitigation methods What has to be mitigated here is the tripping of equipment due to voltage dips. This can be done in a number of ways: . Reducing the number of faults . There are several wellknown methods for this like tree-trimming, animal guards, and shielding wires, but also replacing overhead lines by underground cables. As most of the severe dips are due to faults, this will directly affect the dip frequency. . Faster fault clearing . This requires improved protection techniques. Much gain can be obtained in distribution networks, but at transmission level the fault-clearing time is already very short. Further improvement at transmission level would require the development of a new generation of circuit breakers and relays. . Improved network design and operation . The network can be changed such that a fault will not lead to a severe dip at a certain location. This has been a common practice in the design of industrial power systems, but not in the public supply. Possible options are to remove long overhead feeders from busses supplying sensitive customers, and connecting on-site generators at strategic locations. Also the use of very fast transfer switches can be seen as a network-based solution. . Mitigation equipment at the interface . The most commonly-used method of mitigating voltage dips is connecting a UPS or a constant-voltage transfor-

Fig. 9. Voltage at the d.c. bus of a three-phase adjustable-speed drive before and during a voltage dip. Solid curve: large capacitor; dashed curve: small capacitor.

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mer between the system and the sensitive load. For large loads the static series compensator of DVR (dynamic voltage restorer) is a possible solution. Power-electronic solutions are discussed in more detail in [6]. . Improved end-user equipment . Making the equipment immune against all voltage dips would also solve the problem, but it is for most equipment not (yet) feasible. Methods of improving equipment behaviour will be discussed in more detail in [4]. The ongoing discussion on voltage-dip mitigation concerns the responsibility sharing between the customer and network: should the solution be sought in the network or with the customer. In some cases the costs of mitigation equipment are shared or power quality contracts define the responsibility. In the long run an agreement has to be reached between what are normal dips and what are abnormal dips. For normal dips end-user equipment is expected to be immune, whereas abnormal dips should have a small frequency of occurrence, see Fig. 10.

Fundamental research is also needed on stochastic prediction methods, including a large number of comparisons with monitoring results to find the limitations of stochastic prediction. Most of the work on consequences of voltage dips has been directed towards adjustable-speed drives. With the increase in embedded (renewable) generation more work should be done on the effect of voltage dips on generation, especially on inverter-based interfaces.

5. Conclusions Power quality is a very wide and dispersed area that somewhat accidentally became viewed as one subject. The two examples presented in this paper (harmonics and voltage dips) show the variety of aspects related to even these two disturbances. Other disturbances that would deserve an equal amount of attention are (long and short) interruptions, transients, and high-frequency waveform distortion. Note also that flicker is presented here as a subset of waveform distortion, even though it is commonly (and more correctly) treated as a separate disturbance. For more information on these and other powerquality disturbances, the reader is referred to the extended literature on power quality. Good overviews can be found in some of the books [8 /18], but also the IEC standards [19 /27] and the IEEE standards [28 /34] on power quality contain useful basic knowledge and overviews. Harmonics, voltage dips and interruptions will become a normal part of power system design and operation and of the design of end-user equipment. Transients and high-frequency distortion will require much more attention before they reach this stage. The fact that power quality is becoming more mature does not mean that it will disappear as a subject that deserves attention from academics. There remain interesting research topics that await being taken up. Some examples for harmonics and voltage dips are presented in this paper. Another important task for academics is to incorporate power quality issues in education. Spreading knowledge on potential power quality problems (and not only to power engineers) will make it more likely that future problems will be addressed before they actually occur.

4.4. Future research Research on voltage dips includes development-related research on mitigation equipment and improved end-user equipment. It also includes education-related research on the relation between voltage-dip frequency and system design and operation. Fundamental research is needed on voltage dip characteristics and indices, especially on methods for extracting system indices with a limited number of monitors and on suitable single-index methods. Related work is needed on the extraction of additional information from voltage-dip recordings. This is one of the possible applications for signal-processing techniques as are discussed in [7].

Acknowledgements The measurements presented in this paper were obtained with the help of Christian Roxenius (Go teborg Energi Na t), Mats Ha ger (STRI) and Gu Zengti.

Fig. 10. Distinction between events that are the responsibility of the customer and those that are the responsibility of the network operator.

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M.H.J. Bollen / Electric Power Systems Research 66 (2003) 5 /14 [16] W.E. Kazibwe, M.H. Sendaula, Electric Power Quality Control Techniques, Van Norstad Reinhold, New York, 1995. [17] G.J. Wakileh, Power Systems Harmonics */Fundamentals, Analysis and Filter Design, Springer, 2001. [18] D. Blume, J. Schlabbach, T. Stephanblome, Voltage Quality in Electrical Power Systems, IEE, 2001. [19] IEC 61000-2-8, Voltage dips and short interruptions on public electric power supply systems with statistical measurement results, in preparation. [20] IEC 61000-3-2, Limits on harmonic current emissions (equipment input current 5/16 A per phase). [21] IEC 61000-3-4, Limits on harmonic current emissions for equipment with rated current greater than 16 A. [22] IEC 61000-3-6, Assessment of emission limits for distorting loads in MV and HV power systems. [23] IEC 61000-3-7. Assessment of emission limits for uctuating loads in MV and HV power systems. [24] IEC 61000-4-7, General guide on harmonic distortion and interharmonics measurement and instrumentation, for power systems and equipment connected thereto. [25] IEC 61000-4-11, Voltage dips, short interruptions and voltage variations immunity tests. [26] IEC 61000-4-15, Flickermeter */functional and design specications. [27] IEC 61000-4-30, Power quality measurement methods, in preparation. [28] IEEE Std. 493, Recommended practice for the design of reliable industrial and commercial power systems. [29] IEEE Std. 1100, Recommended practice for powering and grounding sensitive electronic equipment. [30] IEEE Std. 1159, Recommended practice for monitoring electric power quality. [31] IEEE Std. 1250, Guide for service to equipment sensitive to momentary voltage disturbances. [32] IEEE Std. 1346, Recommended practice for evaluating electric power system compatibility with electronics process equipment. [33] IEEE Std. 1453, Voltage icker, in preparation. [34] IEEE Std. 1564, Voltage sag indices, in preparation.

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