ADDIS ABABA SCIENCE AND TECHENOLOGY

UNIVERSTY

COLLEGE OF ELECTRICAL AND MECHANICAL

ENGINERRING DEPARTMENT OF ELECTRICAL AND
COMPUTER ENGINEERING
COURSE TITLE: POWER SYSTEM QUALITY AND
RELIABILITY
INDIVIDUAL ASSIGNMENT ONE ON ELECTRICAL
POWER SYSTEM QUALITY AND RELIABILITY

Submitted by: Firaol Temesgen FTP 0522/10

SUBMITION DATE:21/12/2013
1. Define:
A. at least three types of power quality disturbances and their main sources for
poor power quality
B. The voltage and current distortion
Solution
#1 A) There are different type of power quality disturbances that cause poor power
quality. Three of those power quality disturbances are defined as follow with their
main sources.
1 Voltage sag: - is a short duration reduction in RMS voltage which can be
caused by a short circuit, overload or starting of electric motors. Or decrease
in rms voltage at power frequency for duration from 0.5 cycles to 1 minute”
although they typically only last 1 min to a few cycles. The RMS voltage
will decrease between 10 to 90 percent of nominal voltage.
Primary sources of voltage sags are:-
starting of large motors
Energization of heavy loads (e.g., arc furnace).
Transmission and distribution faults.
Local starting faults.
Protection system faults.
Load transferring from one power source to another.
Fig. 1 shows voltage dip of reduction of line voltage to half.

Figure:1:-voltage sag

Consequences: Malfunction of information technology equipment, namely

microprocessor-based control systems (PCs, PLCs, ASDs, etc) that may lead to a
process stoppage. Tripping of contactors and electromechanical relays.
Disconnection and loss of efficiency in electric rotating machines

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 2 .Harmonic distortion:-
Voltage or current waveforms are non-sinusoidal shape. The waveforms are
corresponds to the sum of different sine-waves with different magnitude and
phase, having frequencies that are multiples of power-system frequency.

Causes: Electric machines working above the knee of the magnetization curve
(magnetic saturation), arc furnaces, welding machines, rectifiers, DC brush
motors, solid state electronic devices such as PC/CPUS ,solid state device like
fluorescent ,and VFD(variable frequency drives).

Consequences: Increased probability in occurrence of resonance, neutral

overload in 3-phase systems, overheating of all cables and equipment, loss of
efficiency in electric machines, electromagnetic interference with communication
systems, errors in measures when using average reading meters, nuisance tripping
of thermal protections.

Figure 2 harmonic distortion

3. Voltage swell:-is momentary increase of the voltage, at the power frequency,

outside the normal tolerances, with duration of more than one cycle and typically
less than a few second.
Causes: Start/stop of heavy loads, badly dimensioned power sources, badly
regulated transformers (mainly during off-peak hours).
Consequences: Data loss, flickering of lighting and screens, stoppage or damage
of sensitive equipment, if the voltage values are too high.

Figure voltage swell 2

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4. Voltage flicker;-
Flicker is the effect of random and repetitive variations in
Voltage between 0.9-1.1 Pu. It result in rapid visible changes in brightening and
dimming of screen and variation in the luminosity produced by light bulb. It causes
irritation to
human sight.
Primary sources of voltage flicker are:-
witching on and off of electric motor
Pulsating load
Arc furnaces and welding equipment
B) Voltage distortion: - any distortion from the nominal sine waveform of the AC
Line voltage. When distorted current passing through the linear, series impedance
of the power delivery system, the voltage is distorted. The amount of voltage
distortion depends on impedance and distorted current. But load has no control
over voltage distortion. I.e. the same load put in two different locations on the
power system will result in two different voltage distortion values.
Current distortion:-any distortion from the nominal sine waveform of the AC line
Current. Assuming that the source bus is a pure sinusoid, there is a nonlinear load
that draws a distorted current.
Figure 4 non-linear load produce distorted current and distorted current

Produce distorted voltage.

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2. Calculate the reliability indices due to the power quality problems around
AASTU based on the assumed twelve outages that occur end to the customers
around AASTU in May13, 2021. The EEP has 3000 customers around AASTU
(Tulu Demtu condominium).
The summary of each interruption and its duration as given by;

a. Determine SAIDI, SAIFI, CAIDI, CAIFI and ASAI

b. How do you compare the system average interruption frequency index (SAIFI)
with the IEEE/EEP standards? If it’s less or greater than the standards what is your
recommendation related with the reliability improvement the network

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 Solution
Date time No of Duration(min) Customer
customer interrupted
interrupted *duration(hours)
13th 8:15 24 80 32(24*(80/60))
13th 10:10 10 30 5
13th 11:23 5 140 11.667
13th 12:50 4 200 13.333
13th 13:00 34 120 68
13th 15:27 3 30 1.5
13th 16:30 2 10 0.333
13th 17:10 15 15 3.75
13th 18:34 120 20 40
13th 19:50 80 10 13.333
13th 20:10 30 5 2.5
13th 23:00 40 15 10

∑= 367 ∑= 675 ∑= 201.413

A) Now from the table we can determine SAIDI, SAIFI, CAIDI, CAIFI,ASAI as
follow:-

SAIDI = ∑(customer interrupted*duration(hour))

Total no. Of customers
= 201.413/3000
=0.067hr*60 ( to change to minute)
SAIDI= 4.028min

SAIFI = Summation of customers interrupted

Total no. Of customers
=367/3000
SAIFI=0.122
So on 13th of the month, customer of this utility had a 0.122 probability of
experiencing an outage.

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 CAIDI = ∑(customer interrupted*duration(hour))
Total no. Of customers interruption
= 201.413*60min/367
CAIDI=32.93min
That means on average any customer who experience an outage on 13th was out of
service for 32.93min.
CAIFI = total no. Of customer interruption
total No.of customer interrupted
=12/367
CAIFI =0.033
So the average number of interruption for a customer who was interrupted on 13 th
is 0.033.
ASAI = customers hours service availability
Customers hour service demand

=1- customer hours of service non-availability

Customers hours service demand
= 1- 201.413/(3000*24) ( as one day 13th is under study customers hours
service demand is 24hrs)
ASAI=0.9972
ASAI=99.72%

B) System average interruption frequency index (SAIFI) standard of Ethiopia

electric agency is 20 interruption per year per customers. So the daily standard
becomes 20 divide by day of the year.
Standard SAIFI per day= 20/365
Standard SAIFI =0.055 interruption/day.customer
Now compare the practically calculated SAIFI value with the standard value i.e
0.122 > 0.055. so there are more interruption per customer on 13th around tulu-
demtu condominium.

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My recommendation to improve the reliability or SAIFI around tulu-demtu
condominium is:-
 replace aging infrastructure and maintain equipment which is the major
concern in our country.
 Optimize equipment loading to provide maximum value. Loading of
equipment such as transformer, cables, and lines should be determined
based on evaluation of the value obtained rather than any arbitrary
standard value. Mostly the transformers have the duty to carry over rated
values this leads to failure of insulation which results interruption.
 Avoid trees which affect the lines.
 Add reclosers and fuses.
3.What do harmonic do in electrical power system network? Thus,
a. Define total harmonic distortion (THD)
b. What is the adverse effect of harmonics on entire electrical power network
c. What is its relation with parallel and series resonant circuits
d. What are the main sources and mitigation techniques that are used for harmonic?
Solution

Harmonics are created by loads drawing current in abrupt short pulses. The short
pulses causes distorted current waveforms which is in turn cause harmonic current
to follows back onto other parts of power system network. Thus distorted current
can nearly double the amount on the neutral conductor in three phase four wire
distribution
A Total harmonic distortion (THD):-is a common technique to calculate
harmonics distortion of current and voltage. For an ideal system, THD is equal
to zero. THD is determined by:

Vn is the rms voltage at harmonic, N is the maximum harmonic order and V1is
line to neutral rms voltage.
B Harmonics are very dangerous for the remaining power system and the
equipment’s that are attached with the power system. The main effects of voltage
and current harmonics within the power system are:

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 The possibility of amplification of harmonic levels resulting from series
and parallel resonances
Degradation of the power factor
Overheating of the phase and neutral conductors
Efficiency of the generators is reduced day by day due to harmonics
Eddy current and hysteresis losses in transformers
Overheating of the system components e.g. generators, motors and
transformers
Flow of additional current through power capacitors
Decrements in the useful lives of the incandescent lamps
Increase skin and proximity effects
Interference problem with telecommunication
C) Elements of power system circuit are predominantly inductive.so power
factor correction capacitors are commonly used in practical electrical system
to offset utility imposed power factor penalties. The combination of
capacitors and and inductive elements in the system can result either in
series or parallel resonance, or a combination of both, depending on system
configuration, which can result in an abnormal situation.
 Parallel resonance is more common as capacitor banks act in parallel
with inductive system impedance, which can be a problem when the
resonant frequency is close to one of those generated by the harmonic
source. It may produce excessive harmonic voltage across network
elements. This will cause capacitor or insulation failure.
 Series resonance can result in unexpected amounts of harmonic currents
flowing through certain elements. Excessive harmonic current flow can
cause inadvertent relay operation, burned fuses, or overheating of cables.
So the effect of series and parallel resonant circuit is the same as harmonic since
they produce their on current harmonics and voltage harmonics.

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D) main source of harmonics:-
Non-linear loads such as diode, rectifiers, power electronic converters etc.
Saturated transformers
Machines
Florescent lamps
Arc furnace
Mitigation techniques:
 Line reactor.
 K-factor transformer.
 Tuned harmonic filter.
 Active harmonic filter.
 IGBT based fast switch harmonic filter.
 Phase shift transformer.
 12 and 18 pulse rectifiers

4.Mention:

a. the difference between voltage sag, swell, dip and interruption and explain how
voltage sag occur using power network schematic diagram
b. In addition try to mention the source of voltage sag and interruptions
c. the procedures to estimate voltage sag performances
Solution
The main difference between voltage sag, swell, dip and interruption is
Voltage sag :-short duration reduction in RMS voltage
Typical duration for instantaneous 0.5 to 30 cycles
Momentary 30 cycle to 1 second temporary 3 second to 1
minute Typical voltage magnitude in Pu 0.1 to 0.9pu
typical duration.
Voltage dip:- means the amount of voltage decline from nominal value.
Example a voltage dip of 30% is equal to voltage sag to 70%.

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Voltage swell:- short duration increase in nominal supply voltage.
Typical duration for instantaneous 0.5 to 30 cycles with voltage magnitude of
1.1 to 1.8pu Momentary 30 cycle to 1 second with voltage magnitude of 1.1 to
1.4pu temporary 3 second to 1 minute with voltage magnitude of 1.1 to 1.2pu
Voltage interruption:- much decrease in voltage which approaches to less than
0.1pu of nominal voltage magnitude.

Voltage sags and interruptions are generally caused by faults (short circuits) on
the utility system.4 Consider a customer that is supplied from the feeder supplied
by circuit breaker 1 on the diagram shown below.
If there is a fault on the same feeder, the customer will experience a voltage sag
during the fault followed by an interruption when the breaker opens to clear the
fault. If the fault is temporary in nature, a reclosing operation on the breaker
should be successful and the interruption will only be temporary. It will usually
require about 5 or 6 cycles for the breaker to operate, during which time a
voltage sag occurs. The breaker will remain open for typically a minimum of 12
cycles up to 5 s depending on utility reclosing practices. Sensitive. Equipment
will almost surely trip during this interruption
A much more common event would be a fault on one of the other feeders from
the substation, i.e., a fault on a parallel feeder, or a fault somewhere on the
transmission system (see the fault locations shown in Fig.3.1). In either of these
cases, the customer will experience a voltage sag during the period that the fault
is actually on the system. As soon as breakers open to clear the fault, normal
voltage will be restored at the customer

To clear the fault shown on the transmission system, both breakers A and B
must operate. Transmission breakers will typically clear a fault in 5 or 6 cycles.
In this case there are two lines supplying the distribution substation and only
one has a fault. Therefore, customers supplied from the substation should
expect to see only a sag and not an interruption.

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B. causes of voltage sags and interruptions are:
Starting of large motors.
 Sudden change in heavy loads (e.g., arc furnace).
 Transformer connection.
 Faults and switching operation.
 Protection system faults.
 Load transferring from one power source to another.
C to estimate voltage sag performance to design
the CPD and equipment specifications to assure
the optimum operation of production facilities.
For the estimation of voltage sag performance, the following procedure is
considered:
1. Determine the number and characteristics of voltage sags that result from
transmission system faults.
2. Determine the number and characteristics of voltage sags that result from
distribution system (for facilities that are supplied from distribution
systems).
3. Determine the equipment sensitivity to voltage sags. This will determine the
actual performance of the production process based on voltage sag performance
calculated in steps 1and 2.
4. Evaluate the economics of different solutions that could improve the
performance, either on the supply system (fewer voltage sags) or within the
customer facility (better immunity).

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5. The radial power system supplying one of the industrial customers in Addis Ababa
with several large AC and DC adjustable-speed drives is shown below. The DC and
AC drives are fed via dedicated transformers at 100V and 380V, respectively.
System information including source impedance, feeder and transformer data are
provided in Tables below.
a. Identify Pcc points for faults on one of the 15kV, 33KV 132kV and 230kV
feeders and calculate the critical distances (Lcrit) that results in critical voltages
applying the fault at each bus at different time span.
b. Compute the critical distances (Lcrit) in table below for sag magnitudes of
10%,30%,50%,70%and90% on the 15kV,33KV,132kV and 230kV feeders.

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 Solution
A) in sag analysis Pcc points have to be identified first. Pcc points “point of
common coupling” means the point from which both the fault and load fed (the
load current branch off from fault current).
For any fault on one of 15KV feeders, the fault current will flow through kalit-
15KV bus, but not farther to wards the load. So the Pcc bus is kalit-15KV for
all fault within 15KV feeders. In the same way , kalit-33KV bus is the Pcc for
any of the fault within 33KV feeders. Other Pcc’s are kalit-132KV and kalit-
230KV.
To calculate the critical distance that result critical voltage sag by applying
fault on the bus for a radial power system
Vsag= Zf/(Zs+Zf) but Zf=0 since the fault happens at the bus the impedance
from the bus to the fault is zero. Now the sag magnitude becomes zero to find
the critical distance Lcrt= Zs*Vsag/(Z(1-Vsag)) in km.since Vsag=0 the
critical distance becomes zero when applying fault at the bus.
B) the critical distances (Lcrit) in table below for sag magnitudes of 10%, 30%,
50%,
70% and 90% on the 15 kV, 33 KV, 132 kV and 230 kV feeders. Using the
formula Lcrit = Zs*V/(Z(1-V)) we can get the critical distance for each buses.
For a sag magnitude of 10% on bus 15KV, Zs=70% and Z=22% from the table
given below. The critical distance becomes

Lcrit = Zs*V/(Z(1-V)) = 0.7*0.1/(0.22(1-0.1)) =0.354km, in the same way,the

critical distance at each bus and sag level can be calculated in the table 2 . note
that critical distance measured in kilo meter(KM).

15KV 33KV 132KV 230KV-Seb 230KV-Sul

eta ulta
Z 22% 4% 0.3% 0.02% 0.02%
Zs 70% 20% 3% 1% 1.2%
V=10% Lcrt=0.35 Lcrt=0.56 Lcrt=1.11 Lcrt=5.56 Lcrt=6.67
V=30% Lcrt=1.36 Lcrt=2.14 Lcrt=4.29 Lcrt=21.43 Lcrt=25.74
V=50% Lcrt=3.18 Lcrt=5 Lcrt=10 Lcrt=50 Lcrt=60
V=70% Lcrt=7.43 Lcrt=11.67 Lcrt=23.33 Lcrt=116.6 7 Lcrt=140
V=90% Lcrt=28.64 Lcrt=45 Lcrt=90 Lcrt=450 Lcrt=540

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 Solution

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Kaliti power distribution system was facing the voltage interruptions and sags for
the last two years due to many industrial loads like Industrial park that are
connected to the network has resulted the utility to loss much money, the loss in
money increase as the percentage voltage sag increases. Thus, the weighting factor
increases as the voltage sag increase. The following table combines the weighting
factors with expected performances.

If an interruption cost 100,000 Birr, then determine the total cost that utility losses
associated with the total voltage interruption and sags

Solution
Utility’s losses much money due to voltage interruption and sags, the losses in
money increases as the percentage voltage sag increases. The weighting factor
increases as voltage sag increase as shown in the table 3. The total equivalent
interruption is determined by:-
Category of events Weighting factor of each Number of Total
events for economic events per equivalent
analysis year interruptions

Interruptions 1 10 10
Sag with minimum voltage 0.8 20 16
below 50%

Sag with minimum voltage 0.4 28 11.2

between 50% and 70%

Sag with minimum voltage 0.1 100 10

between 70 % and 90%

Total 47.2

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 Then we can determine the total cost that utility losses associated with the
total voltage interruption and sags.
Given that the cost of an interruption is 100,000Birr, now from the table the
total equivalent interruption is 47.2.
Total cost that utility losses= total equivalent interruption * cost per
interruption
= 47.2/yr * 100,000Birr
Total cost that utility losses =4.72 million Birr/yr but this interruption is the
same for the last to years. So the total cost of the 2 year becomes
Total cost that utility losses = 4.72 million birr/yr*2year
Total cost that utility losses =9.44 million birr

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