EEEg-3154 Introduction to Power Systems

Lecture 1
Course Introduction
ADDIS-ABABA SCIENCE AND TECHNOLOGY UNIVERSITY
SCHOOL OF ELECTRICAL ENGINEERING AND COMPUTING
DEPARTMENT OF ELECTRICAL AND ELECTRONICS
ENGINEERING

BY M.A
2016

1
 Course Outline

Course Objectives
The course aims to introduce students to the fundamentals of power systems.
•The students will have a sound understanding of fundamentals of power systems
and modelling power system components for power transmission and
distribution.
•The students will be able to understand analytical methods for calculation of
line parameters.
•The students will have a sound understanding of performance analysis of
transmission lines, cable and overhead line insulators.

Pre-request Courses: EEEg-3131: Introduction to Electrical Machines;

Year/Semester: Third year/ SEM-II;
Status of Course: Compulsory;
Teaching Methods: Lecture supported by tutorial, assignment & lab. exercises;
Course Requirements: Ass(10%) Lab-R and PE-exam (20%) Tests(30%),Final Exam 40%
Attendance Requirements: 75% Lecture Attendance.

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 Cont’d Course Content:

[Link]
1.1 Introduction
1.1.1 Historical Development of Electric Power System
1.1.2 Source of Energy
1.1.3 Structure of a power system
1.2 AC and DC transmission
1.3 Single-phase and three-phase transmission
1.4 Complex power
1.5 Introduction to power transformers, CTs and PTs
1.6. Representation Of Power System Components
1.6.0 Single-phase solution of balanced three-phase networks
1.6.1 One-line diagram and impedance or reactance diagram
1.7. Per unit (p.u.) system
2. TRANSMISSION LINE PARAMETERS
[Link] of transmission lines
[Link] effect and proximity effect
[Link] of single-phase two-wire line,
[Link] conductor lines,
[Link]-phase line with unsymmetrical spacing,
[Link] circuit 3-phase lines & bundled conductors
[Link] of a two-wire line,
[Link]-phase line with equilateral and Unsymmetrical spacing,
[Link] of earth on transmission line capacitance 3
 Cont’d

3. MECHANICAL DESIGN OF TRANSMISSION LINES

[Link] and Tension Calculations
[Link] of Wind and Ice
[Link] chart
[Link] template
4. CHARACTERISTICS AND PERFORMANCE OF TRANSMISSION LINES
1 Classification of Lines
2 Representation of Transmission Lines
2.1 Short Lines
2.2 Medium Lines
2.3 Long Lines
3 Steady – State, Performance – Efficiency and Regulation
5. CORONA
[Link]
[Link] Critical Voltage
[Link] Loss
[Link] Design Based on Corona
[Link] and Disadvantages of Corona

4
Cont’d

6. OVERHEAD LINE INSULATORS

[Link] of Insulators
[Link] of Insulators
[Link] distribution over a string of insulators
[Link] of equalizing potential

7. UNDERGROUND CABLES
[Link] of cables,
2. Capacitance of single core and three core cables
3. Insulation resistance of a cable
4. Power factor and heating of cables
Text Books:
[Link] Electrical Power Systems, New Age International publishers 2006.
DP Kothari,IJ Nagrath Modern Power System Analysis 3 rd Edition
Reference
Dr. George G. Karady, Dr. Keith E. Holbert, Electrical Energy Conversion and Transport:
An Interactive Computer-Based Approach, Wiley-IEEE Press, 2005.
J. D. Glover and M. S. Sarma, Power System Analysis and Design, Brooks/Cole, Third
Edition.
Allen J. Wood and B.F. Wollenberg, Power Generation, Operation and Control, 2nd
Edition, John Wiley, 1996.
C. L. Wadhwa, Electrical Power Systems, New Age International Publishers, 2004. 5
 Chapter One

Fundamentals of power
system

6
 1. Fundamentals

1.1 Introduction to Power System

Power System is a network of high tension wires/cables by which the generated

Electrical power is transmitted and distributed throughout a region.
Power System consists of the following main components:
Generation System- Energy Conversion Methods
Transmission System- Ultra-high, Extra-high, High and Medium Voltage
levels
Distribution System- Low voltage levels
The Load or Energy sink- Resistive, Capacitive and inductive Electrical
devices

7
Cont’d

Power System main components

[Link] System

Types of Energy Resources:

•Oil, Natural Gas, Coal, Atomic energy (Fossil fuel resources)
•Solar, Hydro, wind, hot water/spring, Biomass (Renewable energy
Resources)
Types of Energy Conversion Methods/Generation Systems:
•Diesel Generator, Gas Turbine, Steam Turbine, Steam Injected Gas
Turbine, Nuclear power (Conventional systems)
•PV System, Solar Thermal, Hydropower, Wind Power, Geothermal,
Biomass (Renewable conversion systems)

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 Cont’d

2. Transmission Systems:
This component of the power system transmits the bulk electrical energy
from generation stations where it is produced to the main load centres.
The transmission system is composed of:
•Step-up and Step-down substations
•Transmission lines
[Link] Systems
The distribution system gives out the energy from the medium voltage
substations to customers’ location. It is composed of:
•Medium Voltage (MV) lines (33kV, 15 kV)
•MV/LV transformer substations (33/15/ kV to 400/380/220 V)
•Distribution lines (33/15 kV, 380 V 3-phase and 220 v single phase)

4. Load or Energy Sink:

Load is the end equipment of the power system where the transmitted
electrical energy is converted to other forms of useful energy.
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The Ethiopian Electric Power Corporation

10
 Cont…
 Generation, transmission and distribution systems are the main
components of an electric power system. The transmission line is
used to transmit bulk power from the generation station to the
distribution centers.
 Large powers can be transmitted at different voltage levels in
different countries. For example, USA uses 345kv, 500kv and
765kv. When we come to Ethiopia, the commonly used voltage
levels are 66kv, 132kv and 230kv. The other voltage levels that
are rarely used in Ethiopia are:

i. 45kv which runs from Harer old Substation to Babile Substation.

ii. 400kv which runs from Gilgel Gibe II to Sebeta Substation and
from Tana beles to Sulilta Substation
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 Cont…

 Now, EEPCo has designed to use 500kv for the transmission line
of the grand Ethiopia Renaissance dam.

 The power supply network can be divided in to transmission and

distribution systems. Transmission line is also divided into
primary and secondary (Sub transmission) transmission system
according to the range of voltage levels, i.e. Primary
transmission systems use voltage levels greater than 200kv. The
schematic diagram of power system is shown in fig. below.

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Cont…

13
Structure of a Power System

Single line diagram of a Power System Structure

Generation Transmission
System System
15,20 kV 400,500 kV 400,500 kV 66,45 kV
Generator-1
Large
Consumers

Step-up Step-down
Transformer 132,230 kV Transformer

Distribution
System
Generator-2 400,500 kV
15,20 kV 132,230 kV
66,45 kV
Step-down
Transformer
Step-up
Transformer 33,15 kV

11,11.5 kV
400/220 V
33/15 kV
Medium
Generator-3 and small
Consumers

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 Types of Load

i. Domestic: it mainly consists of lights, fans, refrigerators, air-

conditioners, mixer, grinders, heaters, ovens, small pumping motors etc.

ii. Commercial: it mainly consists of lighting for shops, offices,

advertisements etc. fans, heating, air conditioner and many other
electrical appliances used in commercial establishments such as market
places, restaurants etc.

iii. Industrial: it consists of small, medium, large scale, heavy and cottage
industries.

iv. Agriculture: it is mainly motor pump-sets load for irrigation purposes.

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• In early days, there was a little demand for electrical energy so that
small power stations were built to supply lighting and heating loads.
• However, the widespread use of electrical energy by modern
civilization has necessitated producing bulk electrical energy
economically and efficiently.
• The increased demand of electrical energy can be met by building big
power stations at favorable places where fuel (coal or gas) or water
energy is available in abundance. This has shifted the site of power
stations to places quite away from the consumers centers.

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 Power System Generation

Sources of Power System Generation are:

 Conventional Energy (Non-Renewable) and

 Non-Conventional Energy (Renewable) sources

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 Non-Conventional Energy Sources

Renewable energy sources also called non-conventional energy, are

sources that are continuously replenished by natural processes.
A renewable energy system converts the energy found in
- sunlight
- wind
- falling-water
- sea-waves
- geothermal heat or
- biomass
 Solar Energy

Solar energy can be utilized through two different routs

Solar thermal rout.
Solar thermal route uses the sun's heat to produce hot water or air,
cook food, drying materials etc.
Solar electric rout(Photovoltaic) rout.
Solar photovoltaic uses sun’s heat to produce directly electricity for
lighting home and building, running motors, pumps, electric
appliances, and lighting.
 Solar water heaters

Solar flat plat collector

Solar Flat plate collector

 Solar Electricity Generation

Solar Photovoltaic (PV): Photovoltaic is the technical term

for solar electric. Photo means "light" and voltaic means
"electric".
 PV cells are usually made of silicon, an element that
naturally releases electrons when exposed to light.
Amount of electrons released from silicon cells depend
upon intensity of light incident on it.
The silicon cell is covered with a grid of metal that directs
the electrons to flow in a path to create an electric current.
 This current is guided into a wire that is connected to a
battery or DC appliance.
 Solar Photovoltaic (PV):

Solar Photovoltaic
Array
22
PV system Components

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 Case Example:

Photovoltaic Water
Pumping 24
 Wind Power

 The wind is a free, clean, and inexhaustible energy source.

 It has served humankind well for many centuries by propelling
ships and driving wind turbines to grind grain and pump water.
 Denmark was the first country to use wind for generation of
electricity.
 One of the most critical features of wind generation is the
variability of wind. Wind speeds vary with time of day, time of
year, height above ground, and location on the earth’s surface.
 Wind energy is basically harnessing of wind power to produce
electricity. The kinetic energy of the wind is converted to
electrical energy.

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Cont…

26
 Bio Energy/Biomass Energy

Biomass is a renewable energy resource derived from the

carbonaceous waste of various human and natural activities. It is
derived from numerous sources, including the by-products from the
wood industry, agricultural crops, raw material from the forest,
household wastes etc.
 Hydro-power

Hydroelectric power generation involves the storage of a

hydraulic fluid, water, conversion of the hydraulic (potential)
energy of the fluid into mechanical (kinetic) energy in a hydraulic
turbine, and conversion of the mechanical energy to electrical
energy in an electric generator.

The early generation of electricity from about 1880 often derived

from hydro-turbines, and the capacity of total worldwide
installations has grown at about 5% per year since.
Hydro-power now accounts for about 20% of world’s electric
generation. Output depends on rainfall and the landscape.

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 Hydropower Generation

The term hydro-power is usually restricted to the generation of shaft

power from falling water. The power is then used for direct mechanical
purposes or, more frequently, for generating electricity.

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 Tidal Energy

 Tidal electricity generation

involves the construction of a
barrage across an estuary to
block the incoming and
outgoing tide. The head of
water is then used to drive
turbines to generate
electricity from the elevated
water in the basin as in
hydroelectric dams.

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 Geothermal Energy

Utilizes the Earth’s inner heated rocks to heat water that reaches
these areas through seismic faults. This water is turned to steam
then captured to operate steam-powered generators.
 Geothermal Potentials in Ethiopia

Aloto Langano (Ziway) Tendaho (Afar)

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 Conventional Energy sources

Is a stocks of energy Not continuously replenished using natural

process.
They are:
 Fossil fuels - Coal, Oil, & Natural Gas
 Nuclear fuel –
 Natural gas

A natural gas is a mixture of different gases the main ingredient is

Methane, a natural compound that is made from the decay of plant
and animal remains.

Nuclear Fission

Splitting uranium atoms produces a great deal of heat energy that is

processed into electrical energy in nuclear plants.
 AC AND DC TRAMSMISSION SYSTEMS

 Two ways to transport electricity

• Alternating current (AC)
• Direct current(DC)
 Two ways to increase the transported power.
• By increasing the current level (I), It needs larger
conductor cross-section.
• By increasing the voltage level (V),It needs more
insulation.

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 AC TRANSMISSION SYSTEM
  Active and reactive power in the same line
 Frequency of 50Hz or 60Hz that means current
changes direction 100 or 120 times a second.
 Three phase system.
 Line voltage can be easily and economically
transformed up and down.
 AC current does not use the whole conductor so that
AC conductors have larger diameters than adequate DC

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 DC TRANSIMISION SYSTEM
 Only active power is transmitted through the line so that
• Current flows in one direction
• Conductor cross-section fully used
• Low transmission loss
 Requires DC-AC converters to control the voltage level
so that expensive.
 Switching of higher voltage DC more difficult

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 Comparison of AC and DC transmission

 The electric power can be transmitted either by means of d.c. or a.c.

Each system has its own merits and demerits. It is, therefore,
desirable to discuss the technical advantages and disadvantages of
the two systems for transmission of electric power.
D.C. transmission.
 For some years past, the transmission of electric power by d.c. has
been receiving the active consideration of engineers due to its
numerous advantages.
Advantages.
(i) It requires only two conductors as compared to three for a.c.
transmission.
(ii) There is no inductance, capacitance, phase displacement and surge
problems in d.c. transmission.
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 Cont’d Advantages
(iii) Due to the absence of inductance, the voltage drop in a d.c.
transmission line is less than the a.c. line for the same load and
sending end voltage. For this reason, a d.c. transmission line has
better voltage regulation.
(iv) There is no skin effect in a d.c. system. Therefore, entire cross-
section of the line conductor is utilized.
(v) For the same working voltage, the potential stress on the insulation
is less .Therefore, a d.c. line requires less insulation.
(vi) A d.c. line has less corona loss and reduced interference with
communication circuits.
(vii) The high voltage d.c. transmission is free from the dielectric
losses, particularly in the case of cables.
(viii) In d.c. transmission, there are no stability problems and
synchronizing difficulties. 39
 Disadvantages
(i) Electric power cannot be generated at high d.c. voltage due to
commutation problems.
(ii) The d.c. voltage cannot be stepped up for transmission of power at
high voltages.
(iii) The d.c. switches and circuit breakers have their own limitations.
A.C. transmission.
 Now-a-days, electrical energy is almost exclusively generated,
transmitted and distributed in the form of a.c.
Advantages
(i) The power can be generated at high voltages.
(ii) The maintenance of a.c. sub-stations is easy and cheaper.
(iii) The a.c. voltage can be stepped up or stepped down by
transformers with ease and efficiency.
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 This permits to transmit power at high voltages and distribute it at
safe potentials.
Disadvantages
(i) An a.c. line requires more copper than a d.c. line.
(ii) The construction of a.c. transmission line is more complicated than
a d.c. transmission line.
(iii) Due to skin effect in the a.c. system, the effective resistance of the
line is increased.
(iv) An a.c. line has capacitance. Therefore, there is a continuous loss
of power due to charging current even when the line is open.

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 Conclusion
 From the above comparison, it is clear that high voltage d.c. txn is superior to
high voltage a.c. txn.
 Although at present, transmission of electric power is carried by a.c., there is an
increasing interest in d.c. transmission. The introduction of mercury arc rectifiers
and thyratrons have made it possible to convert a.c. into d.c. and vice-versa easily
and efficiently.
 Such devices can operate up to 30 MW at 400 kV in single units.
 The present day trend is towards [Link] generation and distribution and high
voltage d.c. for transmission.

42
Fig. shows the single line diagram of high voltage d.c. transmission. 42
 The electric power is generated as a.c. and is stepped up to high
voltage by the sending end transformer TS.
 The a.c. power at high voltage is fed to the mercury arc rectifiers
which convert a.c. into d.c.
 The transmission of electric power is carried at high d.c. voltage.
 At the receiving end, d.c. is converted into a.c. with the help of
thyratrons.
 The a.c. supply is stepped down to low voltage by receiving end
transformer TR for distribution.

43
43
Power in single phase and three phase systems

44
Cont…

45
Cont…

46
Active Power and Reactive Power

47
Cont…

48
Cont…

49
Cont…

50
Cont…

51
Cont…

52
 Cont…
• As the power is flowing in alternating direction (i.e.
from source to load in one half cycle and from load to
source in next half cycle) the average value of this
power is zero. Therefore this power does not do any
useful work so it can be concluded that it will store
energy as a magnetic field during positive cycle and
give away during negative half cycle

53
Cont…

54
Cont…

55
Cont…

56
Cont…

57
Cont…

58
Cont…

59
Cont…

60
Cont…

61
 COMPLEX POWER
Review of Phasors
Goal of phasor analysis is to simplify the analysis
of constant frequency ac systems

62
Single-Phase Power Consumption

63
Single-Phase Power Consumption

64
Complex Power, cont’d

65
Complex Power

S  V I  cos(V   I )  j sin(V   I ) 
 P  jQ
 V I* (Note: S is a complex number but not a phasor)

P = Real Power (W, kW, MW)

Q = Reactive Power (var, kvar, Mvar)
S = Complex power (VA, kVA, MVA)
Power Factor (pf) = cos
If current leads voltage then pf is leading
If current lags voltage then pf is lagging
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 Complex Power, cont’d

Relationships between real, reactive and complex power

P  S cos 
2
Q  S sin   S 1  pf

Example: A load draws 100 kW with a leading pf of 0.85.

What are  (power factor angle), Q and S ?
  -cos 1 0.85  31.8
100kW
S   117.6 kVA
0.85
Q  117.6sin( 31.8)  62.0 kVar

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Conservation of Power

Real power supplied by the source is equal to the sum of the real powers
absorbed by the load and the real losses in the system
Reactive power must also be balanced: The balance is between the sum
of leading and the sum of lagging reactive power producing elements i.e.
≡ Generator_MVARs + System_gain + Shunt_capacitors =
MVAR_Demand + Reactive_losses + Shunt_reactors
The ‘System gain’ is an important source of reactive power in the above
power balance equation, which is generated by the capacitive nature of
the transmission network itself.
The total complex power delivered to the loads in parallel is the sum of
the complex powers delivered to each

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Conservation of Power

At every node (bus) in the system

 Sum of real power into node must equal zero
 Sum of reactive power into node must equal zero
This is a direct consequence of Kirchhoff’s current law, which
states that the total current into each node must equal zero.
 Conservation of power follows since S = VI*

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 Conversation of Power Example

I = V/Z=20-6.9 amps

S  V I *  10030  206.9  200036.9 VA

  36.9 pf = 0.8 lagging
SR  VR I *  4  20  6.9 206.9
2
PR  1600W  I R (QR  0)
SL  VL I *  3 j  20  6.9 206.9
2
Q L  1200 var  I X (PL  0)
70
Power Consumption in Devices

Resistors only consume real power

2
PResistor  I Resistor R
Inductors only consume reactive power
2
Q Inductor  I Inductor X L
Capacitors only generate reactive power
2 1
QCapacitor   I Capacitor X C XC 
C
2
VCapacitor
QCapacitor   (Note-some define X C negative)
XC
71
 Example to solve the Apparent Power
A. For Series loads

First solve
basic circuit

400000 V
I   4000 Amps
1000 
V  400000  (5  j 40) 4000
 42000  j16000  44.920.8 kV
S  V I *  44.9k20.8  4000
 17.9820.8 MVA  16.8  j 6.4 MVA
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 Example, cont’d
B. For Parallel-series connected loads

Now add additional

reactive power load
and resolve

Z Load  70.7 pf  0.7 lagging

I  564  45 Amps
V  59.713.6 kV
S  33.758.6 MVA  17.6  j 28.8 MVA

73
Power Factor Correction Example

Assume we have 100 kVA load with pf=0.8 lagging,

and would like to correct the pf to 0.95 lagging
S  80  j 60 kVA   cos 1 0.8  36.9
1
PF of 0.95 requires desired  cos 0.95  18.2
Snew  80  j (60  Qcap )
60 - Qcap
 tan18.2  60  Qcap  26.3 kvar
80
Qcap  33.7 kvar
74
Single-phase and three-phase transmission lines

INTRODUCTION
 Almost all electric power generation and most of the power
transmission in the world is in the form of three-phase AC
circuits. A three-phase AC system consists of three-phase
generators, transmission lines, and loads.
 There are two major advantages of three-phase systems over a
single-phase system:
1) More power per kilogram of metal form a three-phase machine;
2) Power delivered to a three-phase load is constant at all time,
instead of pulsing as it does in a single-phase system.
The first three-phase electrical system was patented in 1882 by
John Hopkinson - British physicist, electrical engineer, Fellow of
the Royal Society.
75
 Cont…
 Now-a days 3-phase, 3-wire a.c. system is universally adopted
for generation and transmission of electric power as an
economical proposition.
 However, distribution of electric power is done by 3-phase, 4-
wire a.c. system.
 The underground system is more expensive than the overhead
system. Therefore, in our country, Overhead system is mostly
adopted for transmission and distribution of electric power.
 Single-phase loads may be connected to a three-phase system
in two ways. Either a load may be connected across two of the
live conductors, or a load can be connected from a live phase
conductor to the neutral conductor.

76
 Cont…
why is the three- phase a. c, system most popular?
 (a) It is well known that a .c. generation is simpler (than d.c.
generation through electrical machines because of absence of
commutators in a .c. machines).
 Further, mechanical commutation system in d.c. machines sets
an upper limit of their size. while the rating of the individual
generators in modern power stations is too large. say about
1500 times the rating of a single largest feasible d.c. machine.
 AC. further facilitates in stepping down or stepping-up of a
voltage to suit a particular requirement. with the help of a
simple device. the well-known transformer.
(b) Changing over from a.c. to d.c. is very easy these days due
to the rectifiers of sufficiently high power ratings. so that a wide
range of d.c. — applications can now be catered to
77
Three Phase Transmission Line

78
 Generation of three-phase voltages and currents

A three-phase generator
consists of three single-
phase generators with
voltages of equal
amplitudes and phase
differences of 1200

79
Each of three-phase
generators can be
connected to one of three
identical loads.
This way the system
would consist of three
single-phase circuits
differing in phase angle
by 1200.
The current flowing to
each load can be found as

I = V/Z
80
 Cont…
• Therefore, the currents flowing in each phase are

81
 Cont…

 We can connect the negative (ground) ends of the three single-

phase generators and loads together, so they share the common
return line (neutral).

82
 Cont…

The current flowing through a neutral can be found as

I N  I A  I B  IC  I     I     1200  I     2400
 I cos( )  jI sin( )  I cos(  1200 )  jI sin(  1200 )  I cos(  2400 )  jI sin(  2400 )
 I cos( )  cos(  1200 )  cos(  2400 )   jI sin( )  sin(  1200 )  sin(  2400 ) 
 I cos( )  cos( )cos(1200 )  sin( )sin(1200 )  cos(  )cos(2400 )  sin( )sin(2400 ) 
 jI sin( )  sin( )cos(1200 )  cos( )sin(1200 )  sin( )cos(2400 )  cos( )sin(2400 ) 

 
Which is:
1 3 1 3
I N  I cos( )  cos( )  sin(  )  cos(  )  sin(  ) 
 2 2 2 2 
 1 3 1 3 
 jI sin( )  sin( )  cos(  )  sin(  )  cos(  ) 
 2 2 2 2 
0
83
Balanced 3 -- No Neutral Current

84
 Cont…
• As long as the three loads are equal, the return current
in the neutral is zero!

85
 Balanced 3 Phase () Systems

Residential balanced 3 phase () system has

 three voltage sources with equal magnitude, but with an angle
shift of 120
 equal loads on each phase
 equal impedance on the lines connecting the generators to the
loads
Bulk power systems are almost exclusively 3
Single phase is used primarily only in low voltage, low power
settings, such as some commercial.

86
 Advantages of Balanced 3 Cont’d

Can transmit more power for same amount of wire

(twice as much as single phase)
Torque produced by 3 machines is constant
Three phase machines use less material for same
power rating
Three phase machines start more easily than single
phase machines

87
Voltages and currents

88
Voltages and currents

89
Voltages and currents

90
Cont…

91
Cont…

92
Cont…

93
Cont…

94
Cont…

95
Cont…

96
Cont…

97
Cont…

98
Cont…

99
Cont…

100
Cont…

101
Cont…

102
Cont…

103
 Three Phase Example

• Assume a -connected load is supplied from a 3

13.8 kV (L-L) source with Z = 10020Ω. Find the
phase currents and power factor of the load.

104
 Cont…

I a  I ab  I ca  138  20  1380

 239  50 amps
I b  239  170 amps I c  2390 amps

*
S  3  Vab I ab  3  13.80kV  138 amps
 5.7 MVA
 5.37  j1.95 MVA
pf  cos 20   lagging
105
 Introduction to power transformers, CTs & PTs

 Power transformers can be classified as

Step-up transformers to be connected between the
generator and the transmission line. They permit a
practical design voltage for generators, and at the same
time an efficient transmission line voltage.
Step-down transformers connected between the
transmission line and various electrical loads.
The transformer consists of two or more insulated
windings wrapped around an iron core. By definition, the
primary winding is the input winding, and the secondary
winding is the output winding

106
 Instrument Transformers
Some other types of transformers are used in measuring
voltage, current, and power flow in the power system.
The majorities are potential transformers and current
transformers.
Potential transformers (PT) are single-phase transformers of
special design, which step down the voltage to be measured to
a safe value.
Current transformers (CT) step down the currents and have
insulation adequate to isolate metering equipment and
personnel from the line voltage.
One terminal of the secondary of both potential and current
transformers is usually grounded for safety.

107
 Current Transformers

• These transformers are used with low-range

ammeters to measure currents in high-voltage ac
circuits where it is not practicable to connect
instruments and meters directly to the lines.
• In addition to insulating the instrument from the
high voltage line, they step down the current in a
known ratio.
• The current (or series) transformer has a primary
coil of one or more turns of thick wire connected
in series with the line whose current is to be
measured as shown in the following figure (a).
108
Cont…

109
 Cont…
• In fact, line current is given by the current transformation ratio times
the reading on the ammeter.
• One of the most commonly used current transformer is the one
known as clamp-on or clip-on type.
• It has a laminated core which is so arranged that it can be opened
out at hinged section by merely pressing a trigger-like projection.
• When the core is thus opened. it permits the admission of very
heavy current- carrying bus bars or feeders whereupon the trigger is
released and the core is tightly closed by a spring.
• The current carrying conductor or feeder acts as a single-turn
primary whereas the secondary is connected across the standard
ammeter conveniently mounted in the handle.
• It should be noted that. since the ammeter resistance is very low the
current transformer normally works short circuited.
110
 Cont…
 If for any reason, the ammeter is taken out of the secondary winding,
then this winding must be short-circuited with the help of short-circulating
switch S.
 If this is not done then due to the absence of counter amp-turns of the
secondary, the unopposed primary m.m.f. will set up an abnormally high
flux in the core which will produce excessive core loss with subsequent
heating and a high voltage across the secondary terminals.
 This is not the case with ordinary constant-potential transformers. because
their primary current is determined by the load in their secondary whereas
in a current transformer the primary current is determined entirely by the
load on the system and not by the load on its own secondary.
 Hence. the secondary of a current transformer should never be left open
under any circumstances.

111
Examples

Example 1. A 100: 5 transformer is used in conjunction with a 5-amp ammeter:

If the latter reads 3.5 A, find the line current.
Solution. Here, the ratio 100 : 5 stands for the ratio of primary-to-secondary
currents i.e.
I1/I2=100/5
therefore, Primary (or line) current= 3.5 x(100/5)=70 A
Example 2. It is desired to measure a line current of the order of 2,000A to
2500A. If a standard 5-amp ammeter is to be used along with a current
transformer. what should be the turn ratio of the latter? By what factor
should the ammeter reading be multiplied to get the line current in each
case?
Solution. I1/I2= 2000/5 = 400 or 2500/5 = 500.
Since I1/I2 =N2/N1 hence N2/N1 = 400 in the first case and 500 in the
second case. It means that N1 : N2:: 1: 400 or 1: 500.
Ratio or multiplication factor in the first case is 400 and in the second case
is 500.
112
 Potential Transformers
• These transformers are extremely accurate-ratio step-down transformers and are
used in conjunction with standard low-range voltmeters (usually 150-V) whose
deflection when divided by voltage transformation ratio gives the true voltage on
the high voltage side.
• For safety, the secondary should be completely insulated from the high-voltage
primary and should be in addition grounded for affording protection to the
operator.
• The following Fig. shows the connections of such a transformer

113
230/132 kV Power Transformer

114
Instrumentation Transformers: Gibe-I 400/230 kV Substation

115
 REPRESENTATION OF POWER SYSTEM COMPONENTS

• 1.6.0: Single-phase solution of balanced three-phase networks

116
 Cont…

• Since, in a balanced system, three phases are similar

except of the 1200 phase shift, power systems are
frequently represented by a single line showing all
three phases of the real system.
• This is a one-line diagram.
• Such diagrams usually include all the major
components of a power system: generators,
transformers, transmission lines, loads.

117
Cont…

118
 1.6.1 One-line (single-line) diagrams
• Almost all modern power systems are three-phase
systems with the phases of equal amplitude and shifted
by 120˚. Since phases are similar, it is customary to
sketch power systems in a simple form with a single
line representing all three phases of the real system.
• Combined with a standard set of symbols for electrical
components, such one-line diagrams provide a compact
way to represent information

119
Cont…

120
 One-line (single-line) diagrams
Example A power system containing two synchronous machines, two loads, two busses,
two transformers, and a transmission line to connect busses together

All devices are protected by oil circuit breakers (OCBs). We notice that the
diagram indicates the type of connection for each machine and transformer,
and also the points in the system connected to the ground.
The ground connections are important since they affect the current flowing in
nonsymmetrical faults. These connection can be direct or through a resistor or
inductor (they help reducing the fault current that flows in unsymmetrical
faults, while having no impact on the steady-state operation of the system
since the current through them will be zero). Machine ratings, impedances,
and/or consumed (or supplied) powers are usually included in the diagrams.
121
 1.6.2 Per-phase, per-unit equivalent circuits
• As we have learned, the easiest way to analyze a balanced three-phase circuit is
by a per-phase equivalent circuit with all  connections converted in their
equivalent Y connections. The solution obtained can be extended to three phases
knowing that the voltages and currents in other two phases would be the same
except for the 120˚ phase shift.
• An advantage of per-unit representation is that circuits containing transformers
can be easily analyzed.
• Real power systems are convenient to analyze using their per-phase (since the
system is three-phase) per-unit (since there are many transformers) equivalent
circuits. The per-phase base voltage, current, apparent power, and impedance
are
S1 ,base
I base 
VLN ,base
 
2
VLN ,base V
LN ,base
Z base  
I base S1 ,base
122
 Per-phase, per-unit equivalent circuits

• Where VLN,base is the line-to-neutral base voltage in the three-phase

circuit (same as the base phase voltage in a Y-connected circuit)
S1,base is the base apparent power of a single phase in the circuit.
• The base current and impedance in a per-unit system can also be
expressed in terms of the three-phase apparent power (which is 3
times the apparent power of a single phase) and line-to-line voltages
(which is 3 times the line-to-neutral voltage):
S3 ,base
I base 
3VLL ,base

 
2
VLL ,base V LL ,base
Z base  
3I base S3 ,base
123
 Cont…
• In the per-unit system, all quantities are represented as a fraction
of the base value:
actualvalue
Quantityin per  unit
basevalueof quantity

124
 Per-phase, per-unit equivalent circuits

• If any two of the four base quantities are specified, the other base
values can be calculated. Usually, base apparent power and base
voltage are specified at a point in the circuit, and the other values
are calculated from them. The base voltage varies by the voltage
ratio of each transformer in the circuit but the base apparent power
stays the same through the circuit.
• The per-unit impedance may be transformed from one base to
another as
2
 Vold   S new 
Per  unitZ new  per  unitZ old    
 Vnew   Sold 

125
 Examples
Example. A power system consists of one synchronous generator
and one synchronous motor connected by two transformers and a
transmission line. Create a per-phase, per-unit equivalent circuit
of this power system using a base apparent power of 100 MVA
and a base line voltage of the generator G1 of 13.8 kV. Given
that:
G1 ratings: 100 MVA, 13.8 kV, R = 0.1 pu, Xs = 0.9 pu;
T1 ratings: 100 MVA, 13.8/110 kV, R = 0.01 pu, Xs = 0.05 pu;
T2 ratings: 50 MVA, 120/14.4 kV, R = 0.01 pu, Xs = 0.05 pu;
M ratings: 50 MVA, 13.8 kV, R = 0.1 pu, Xs = 1.1 pu;
L1 impedance: R = 15 , X = 75 .

126
Per-Unit Example solution

To create a per-phase, per-unit equivalent circuit, we need first

to calculate the impedances of each component in the power
system in per-unit to the system base. The system base apparent
power is Sbase = 100 MVA.
everywhere in the power system. The base voltage in the three
regions will vary as the voltage ratios of the transformers that
delineate the regions. These base voltages are:
127
 Cont…

• These base voltages are:

Vbase,1  13.8kV Region 1

110
Vbase,2  Vbase,1  110kV Region 2
13.8
14.4
Vbase,3  Vbase,2  13.2kV Region 2
120

128
Per-Unit Example solution

The corresponding base impedances in each region are:

The impedances of G1 and T1 are specified in per-unit on a base

of 13.8 kV and 100 MVA, which is the same as the system base
in Region 1. Therefore, the per-unit resistances and reactances of
these components on the system base are unchanged

129
 Cont…
• RG1,pu = 0.1 per unit
• XG1,pu = 0.9 per unit
• RT1,pu = 0.01 per unit
• XT1,pu = 0.05 per unit

130
 Per-Unit Example solution

 There is a transmission line in Region 2 of the power system. The impedance

of the line is specified in ohms, and the base impedance in that region is 121
. Therefore, the per-unit resistance and reactance of the transmission line
are: 15
Rline , system   0.124 perunit
121
75
X line , system   0.620 perunit
121
The impedance of T2 is specified in per-unit on a base of 14.4 kV and 50 MVA
in Region 3. Therefore, the per-unit resistances and reactance of this component
on the system base are:
  
2
per  unitZ new  per  unitZ given Vgiven Vnew Snew S given

RT 2, pu  0.01 14.4 13.2   100 50   0.238 perunit

2

X T 2, pu  0.05  14.4 13.2   100 50   0.119 perunit

2

131
Per-Unit Example solution

• The impedance of M2 is specified in per-unit on a base of 13.8

kV and 50 MVA in Region 3. Therefore, the per-unit resistances
and reactance of this component on the system base are:

132
 ? Any Question ?
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