Basic Motivation Concepts

OBJECTIVES LEARNING

After studying this chapter, you should be able to:

1. Outline the motivation process.
2. Describe Maslows need hierarchy. 3. Contrast Theory X and Theory Y. 4. Differentiate motivators from hygiene factors. 5. List the characteristics that high achievers prefer in a job. 6. Summarize the types of goals that increase performance.

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O B J E C T I V E S (contd)

After studying this chapter, you should be able to:

7.
8. 9.

Explain the job characteristics model.

State the impact of underrewarding employees. Clarify key relationships in expectancy theory.

LEARNING

10. Explain how the contemporary theories of motivation complement each other.

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MOTIVATION
The willingness to exert high levels of effort to reach organizational goals, conditioned by the efforts ability to satisfy some individual need
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The Motivation Process

Unsatisfied Need Tension Drives Search Behavior Satisfied Need Reduction of Tension

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Defining Motivation
Motivation The processes that account for an individuals intensity, direction, and persistence of effort toward attaining a goal. Key Elements 1. Intensity: how hard a person tries 2. Direction: toward beneficial goal 3. Persistence: how long a person tries

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Hierarchy of Needs Theory (Maslow)

Hierarchy of Needs Theory
There is a hierarchy of five needsphysiological, safety, social, esteem, and selfactualization; as each need is substantially satisfied, the next need becomes dominant.

Self-Actualization
The drive to become what one is capable of becoming.
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Maslows Hierarchy of Needs

Lower-Order Needs
Needs that are satisfied externally; physiological and safety needs.

Higher-Order Needs
Needs that are satisfied internally; social, esteem, and self-actualization needs.

Source: Motivation and Personality , 2nd ed,, by A.H. Maslow, 1970. Reprinted by permission of Prentice Hall, Inc., Upper Saddle River, NJ.

E X H I B I T 61 67

Theory X and Theory Y (Douglas McGregor)

Theory X
Assumes that employees dislike work, lack ambition, avoid responsibility, and must be directed and coerced to perform.

Theory Y
Assumes that employees like work, seek responsibility, are capable of making decisions, and exercise self-direction and self-control when committed to a goal.
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Theory X and Theory Y

Theory X
Avoid Work Must be Controlled Avoid Responsibility

Theory Y
Work is Natural SelfDirection Seek Responsibility Good Decisions Widely Dispersed

Seek Security

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Two-Factor Theory (Frederick Herzberg)

Two-Factor (Motivation-Hygiene) Theory Intrinsic factors are related to job satisfaction, while extrinsic factors are associated with dissatisfaction.

Hygiene Factors
Factorssuch as company policy and administration, supervision, and salarythat, when adequate in a job, placate workers. When factors are adequate, people will not be dissatisfied.
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Comparison of Satisfiers and Dissatisfiers

Factors characterizing events on the job that led to extreme job dissatisfaction

Factors characterizing events on the job that led to extreme job satisfaction

Source: Reprinted by permission of Harvard Business Review. An exhibit from One More Time: How Do You Motivate Employees? by Frederick Herzberg, SeptemberOctober 1987. Copyright 1987 by the President and Fellows of Harvard College: All rights reserved.

E X H I B I T 62 611

Contrasting Views of Satisfaction and Dissatisfaction

E X H I B I T 63 612

Motivation-Hygiene Theory
Achievement Recognition Work Itself Responsibility Advancement Growth Supervision Company Policy Supervisor Relations Working Conditions Salary Peers Personal Life Subordinate Relations Status Security
Extremely Dissatisfied
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Extremely Satisfied

Neutral

ERG Theory (Clayton Alderfer)

ERG Theory There are three groups of core needs: existence, relatedness, and growth.

Core Needs Existence: provision of basic material requirements. Relatedness: desire for relationships. Growth: desire for personal development.

Concepts:
More than one need can be operative at the same time. If a higher-level need cannot be fulfilled, the desire to satisfy a lowerlevel need increases.
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David McClellands Theory of Needs

Need for Achievement
The drive to excel, to achieve in relation to a set of standards, to strive to succeed.

Need for Affiliation

The desire for friendly and close personal relationships.

Need for Power

The need to make others behave in a way that they would not have behaved otherwise.

nPow

nAch

nAff

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Matching High Achievers and Jobs

E X H I B I T 64 616

McClellands Three-Needs Theory

Need for Achievement (nAch)
Drive to excel, strive to succeed Want personal responsibility, feedback and an intermediate amount of risk Best Entreprenurs

Need for Power (nPow)

Desire to be influential Best managers

Need for Affiliation (nAff)

Desire to be liked and accepted
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E X H I B I T 65 618

Goal-Setting Theory (Edwin Locke)

Goal-Setting Theory The theory that specific and difficult goals, with feedback, lead to higher performance. Factors influencing the goals performance relationship: Goal commitment, adequate selfefficacy, task characteristics, and national culture. Self-Efficacy The individuals belief that he or she is capable of performing a task. (Details in other ppt)
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Implementation: Management By Objectives

MBO is a systematic way to utilize goal-setting. Goals must be:
Tangible Verifiable Measurable

Corporate goals are broken down into smaller, more specific goals at each level of organization. Four common ingredients to MBO programs:
Goal Specificity Participative decision making Explicit time period Performance feedback

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Equity Theory
Equity Theory Individuals compare their job inputs and outcomes with those of others and then respond to eliminate any inequities.

Referent Comparisons:
Self-inside Self-outside Other-inside Other-outside
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Equity Theorys Relevant Others

Can be four different situations:

Self-Inside
The persons experience in a different job in the same organization

Self-Outside
The persons experience in a different job in a different organization

Other-Inside
Another individual or group within the organization

Other-Outside
Another individual or group outside of the organization

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Equity Theory (contd)

E X H I B I T 67 623

Equity Theory (contd)

Choices for dealing with inequity:

1. Change inputs (slack off) 2. Change outcomes (increase output)

3. Distort/change perceptions of self

4. Distort/change perceptions of others 5. Choose a different referent person

6. Leave the field (quit the job)

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Equity Theory (contd)

Propositions relating to inequitable pay:

1. Overrewarded hourly employees produce more than equitably rewarded employees.

2. Overrewarded piece-work employees produce less, but do higher quality piece work. 3. Underrewarded hourly employees produce lower quality work.

4. Underrewarded employees produce larger quantities of lower-quality piece work than equitably rewarded employees
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Equity Theory (contd)

Distributive Justice Perceived fairness of the amount and allocation of rewards among individuals. Procedural Justice The perceived fairness of the process to determine the distribution of rewards.

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Justice and Equity Theory

Organizational Justice
Overall perception of what is fair in the workplace Made up of:
Distributive Justice Fairness of outcome Procedural Justice Fairness of outcome process Interactional Justice Being treated with dignity and respect Exhibit 6-8

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Lessons in Equity Theory

Pay attention to what employees perceive to be fair and equitable Allow employees to have a voice Employees should have opportunity to appeal Organizational changes, promoting cooperation, etc. can come easier with equitable outcomes Failure to achieve equity could be costly Climate of justice
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Vrooms Expectancy Theory

The strength of a tendency to act in a certain way depends on the strength of an expectation that the act will be followed by a given outcome and on the attractiveness of the outcome to the individual. Important linkages:
Expectancy of performance success Instrumentality of success in getting reward Valuation of the reward in employees eyes Exhibit 6-9

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Expectancy Theory
Expectancy Theory (Victor Vroom) The strength of a tendency to act in a certain way depends on the strength of an expectation that the act will be followed by a given outcome and on the attractiveness of that outcome to the individual.

E X H I B I T 68 630

Expectancy Theory Relationships

EffortPerformance Relationship
The probability that exerting a given amount of effort will lead to performance.

PerformanceReward Relationship
The belief that performing at a particular level will lead to the attainment of a desired outcome.

RewardsPersonal Goals Relationship

The degree to which organizational rewards satisfy an individuals goals or needs and the attractiveness of potential rewards for the individual.

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Vrooms Expectancy Theory Concepts

Expectancy: Belief that effort leads to a
specific level of performance

Instrumentality: A performance outcome

perception.

Valence: The Value of a reward or outcome

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The Expectancy Theory of Motivation

figure 6.2
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Process Perspectives on Motivation (contd)

Elements of Expectancy Theory (contd)
Valence
An index of how much an individual values a particular outcome. It is the attractiveness of the outcome to the individual.
Attractive outcomes have positive valences and unattractive outcomes have negative valences. Outcomes to which an individual is indifferent have zero valences.

For motivated behavior to occur:

Both effort-to-performance expectancy and performanceto-outcome expectancy probabilities must be greater than zero. The sum of the valences must be greater than zero.

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Figure 16.4: The Expectancy Model of Motivation

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The Porter-Lawler Model

The model predicts that satisfaction is determined by the perceived equity of intrinsic and extrinsic rewards for high-level performance.

figure 6.3

Reference: Figure from Porter, Lyman W., and Edward E. Lawler, Managerial Attitudes and Performance. Copyright 1968. Reproduced by permission of the publisher, McGrawHill, Inc. 6-36

Process Perspectives on Motivation (contd)

The Porter-Lawler Extension of Expectancy Theory
Assumptions:
If performance results in equitable and fair rewards, people will be more satisfied. High performance can lead to rewards and high satisfaction.

Types of rewards:
Extrinsic rewards are outcomes set and awarded by external parties (e.g., pay and promotions). Intrinsic rewards are outcomes internal to the individual (e.g., self-esteem and feelings of accomplishment).

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Figure 16.5: The Porter-Lawler Extension of Expectancy Theory

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Evaluation and Implications

Research studies have confirmed:
The association of both kinds of expectancies and valences with performance and outcomes. That motivated behavior by people arises from their valuing expected rewards, believing effort will lead to performance, and that performance will lead to desired rewards.

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Guidelines for the Use of Expectancy Theory

Practical use of the theory by managers:
Determine the primary outcome each employee wants. Decide what levels and kinds of performance are needed to meet organizational goals. Make sure the desired levels of performance are possible. Link desired outcomes and desired performance. Analyze the situation for conflicting expectations. Make sure the rewards are large enough. Make sure the overall system is equitable for everyone.

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Managerial Implications of Expectancy Theory

Determine the outcomes employees value. Identify good performance so appropriate behaviors can be rewarded. Make sure employees can achieve targeted performance levels. Link desired outcomes to targeted levels of performance. Make sure changes in outcomes are large enough to motivate high effort. Monitor the reward system for inequities.

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Organizational Implications of Expectancy Theory

Reward people for desired performance, and do not keep pay decisions secret. Design challenging jobs. Tie some rewards to group accomplishments to build teamwork and encourage cooperation. Reward managers for creating, monitoring, and maintaining expectancies, instrumentalities, and oucomes that lead to high effort and goal attainment. Monitor employee motivation through interviews or anonymous questionnaires. Accommodate individual differences by 642 building flexibility into the motivation