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International Geology Review

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Neogene lithologic associations of the continents

V. Ye. Khain, A. B. Ronov & A. N. Balukhovskiy Available online: 05 Jan 2010
To cite this article: V. Ye. Khain, A. B. Ronov & A. N. Balukhovskiy (1981): Neogene lithologic associations of the continents, International Geology Review, 23:4, 426-454 To link to this article: http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/00206818109455078
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Neogene Iitho logic associations of the continents

V.Ye. Khoin, A.B. R o n o v , a n d A.N. B o l u k h o v s k i y
Downloaded by [Ohio State University Libraries] at 23:27 07 February 2012
This paper marks the end of a s e r i e s of works (23-31, 37), devoted to Phanerozoic lithologic associations of the continents. We present an analysis of the distribution and quantitative relationships between the principal groupings of Miocene and Pliocene lithologic associations. The Neogene sedimentary associations of the oceans and marginal and internal seas will b e discussed in a separate paper. Neogene deposits occupy a somewhat smaller a r e a than those of the Paleogene System. Among them, continental formations are extraordinarily widespread. This is the result of a n overall increase in the land area, which enables u s to recognize the Neogene Period and, in particular, its later epoch (Pliocene) as an extrenie geocratic stage in the Earth's history.
The widespread distribution of continental, and a l s o lagoonal deposits, including a n endemic fauna, has created major difficulties in determining the boundaries of the Neogene System and i t s s e r i e s in many regions of the globe. At present, the stratigraphy of this system is in the phase of intense development as a result of the large volume of new data, obtained during drilling on the floors of the oceans and seas, and a l s o as a result of the extension of geological, paleontologic, radiometric, and paleomagnetic studies. A zonal scale for the Neogene has been created for marine deposits of the tropical and subtropical belts, based on data on the distribution of remains of planktonic foraminifers and nannoplankton (11, 12, 13, 45, 60, 63). It is now being employed on a global scale. It has normally been linked to all the regional scales for marine deposits of areas of high latitude, constructed on the basis of siliceous organisms (13) and mollusks (6, 7 ) , and various regional schemes for subdividing marine and continental formations, worked out on the basis of benthic foraminifers, ostracodes, and mollusks (for marine deposits), and the remains of the vertebrate and malacofauna, palynologic analysis, and radiometric and paleomagnetic studies (for continental deposits). During construction of the maps, we used all
these data, and a l s o such general geological criteria as changes in the lithologic composition and color of the rocks, and the presence of unconformities and other signs, which must be taken into account when plotting the boundaries of the Neogene s e r i e s in sequences poorly defined paleontologically.
The lower boundary of the Neogene in o u r reconstructions quite closely coincides with i t s position accepted in the compilation of the Atlas of Lithologic-Paleogeographic Maps of the USSR (1, 2, 19, 39). Small changes have been effected f o r the Bashkirian Cisural region, where the boundary has been moved downward beneath the Tyul'gan Suite (40), and the Soviet Far East (Kamchatka, Sakhalin, and the Kuril Islands), where it has been shifted upward beneath the Utkholok-Viventek level (7). At present, the boundary has been shifted even higher, to the base of the Kuluveno Suite in Kamchatka and its equivalents in neighboring regions of the Soviet Far East.
Translated from Neogenovyye litologicheskiye formatsii kontinentov, Sovetskaya Geologiya. 1979, no. 10, p. 3-35. The authors a r e with nIoscoiv University and the Institute of Geochemistry and Analytical Chemistry of the USSR Academy of Sciences (GEOWI), ~IOSCOW.
The accepted level of the OligoceneMiocene boundary is close to the lower boundary of the Neogene. This is supported by the 6th Congress of the Regional Committee on Neogene Stratigraphy of the Mediterranean Area (36), so that in marine deposits of Tethys and beyond i t s limits, the boundary of the Neogene System h a s been plotted at the base of the Aquitanian Stage, a t the base of microfaunal zone No. 4B of Blow (11-13; 39). More fundamental changes concern the lower and upper boundaries of the Pliocene Series. The lower boundary of the Pliocene has been shifted upward as compared with its accepted position in the USSR, namely, from the base to the top of the Pontian Stage. Thus, Pontian deposits and their equivalents outside the USSR are included in the Miocene Series, increasing its duration and biostratigraphic volume. The upper bounda r y of the Pliocene, on the other hand, has been stratigraphically lowered; it has been placed a t the base of the Apsheronian Stage in the Caspian Basin and its equivalents (the Calabrian of the Mediterranean area and the equivalents of the latter in other continents). These Pliocene boundaries are presently accepted as a basis for subdividing the Cenozoic sequence of both the ocean floor during deep-sea drilling (13, 44, 55) and a l s o marine and continental sediments on the continents (36). F o r different reasons, but mainly because of inadequate biostratigraphic information, Pliocene boundaries have not been plotted ubiquitously a t a single level. Deposits of the Miocene Series and the Quaternary sequence have apparently been
Internat. Geology Rev., V. 23, no. 4 IGR is not registered with the Copyright Clearance Center, hc.
426
\'.YE. K I I A I N , A.U. RONOV, A K ' D A.K. BALUK11O\'SKIY

partially included in the composition of the Pliocene. This could result in a n insignificant overestimate of the total volume of Pliocene formations of the continents. The vigorous growth of the mountain systems (over 6 km in the Himalaya) was accompanied by repeated fold and nappe formation, and intense t e r r e s t r i a l rift and orogenic volcanism. Cooling down progressed significantly during Neogene time. The glaciation, which began in Antarctica in late Oligocene time, contracted into a covering shield type toward late Miocene time, as emphasized by the broad train of glacial-marine deposits that surround the continent. Near the Oligocene-Miocene boundary, tectonic movements of the Savian phase occurred. They were expressed in the unconformity or transgressive attitude of the basal hliocene s t r a t a on the older formations in the marginal parts of the sedimentary basins. In the axial zones, Miocene deposits usually r e s t conformably on Oligocene sequences. Subsequently, during the Neogene Period, the tectonic movements were distinguished by greater intensity, and w e r e accompanied by repeated change in sign and migration of the zones of downwarping. On the whole, the transgressions of the Neogene s e a s and the deposition of Neogene sediments took place in a n exceptionally complicated, rapidly changing tectonic and paleogeographic environment, which controlled the formation of a wide range of lithologic associations and their varied facies composition.
MIOCENE LITHOLOGIC ASSOCIATIONS (Figures 1and 2, Table 1)
On the basis of radiometric data, used during subdivision of the sequences of terrestrial volcanics and tuffs o r when determining the age of their intercalations in continental and marine sediments, the lower boundary of the Miocene has been taken at the 25 m. y. level, that of the Plioceneat the 6 m.y. level, and the Pliocene-Quaternary boundary at 1.8 m. y. , that is, with certain changes mainly following Berggren and Van Cowering (4, 44, 55). These publications indicate that the boundaries lie respectively at the 24-23 and 1.8 m. y. levels (21).
The Neogene Period is the principal stage in the formation of the present global structure and relief. During the process of uplift of a continental block, we can recognize two phases (early and late). The early phase (Oligocene early Miocene) is characterized by a still lower rate of uplifts and subsidences, and deposition mainly of finely clastic marine molasse. The late phase, which began at the end of middle hfiocene time, appeared as intensified uplift of the mountain systems (besides the mountain ranges of Eurasia, the uplift involved the Cordillera of North and South America, Kamchatka, Sakhalin, Japan, etc. ). Such acceleration in uplift h a s been associated with the formation of numerous intramontane basins. The principal role in sedimentation has already been ascribed to the coarsely clastic continental molasse of the intermontane and pre-montane troughs, and finely clastic lacustrine and coalbearing molasse associations. During the Neogene, rift systems developed (Arabian-African, Baykalian, TransMexican, and Rio Grande) in the zones of epiplatformal orogeny, and a n unusual system of grabens and horsts of the Basin and Range Province in the Cordillera of North America, the Santiago graben in Chile, etc., developed. The uplift of the continents was accompanied by tilting of the surface of their marginal zones toward the oceans and a marked contraction of the shelves (especially on the Gondwana continents), which was one of the reasons for the broad expansion of the major r i v e r deltas beyond the limits of the continental blocks (Amazon, Niger, Indus, Ganges, Mississippi, etc.) and the onset of favorable conditions for the generation of turbidity currents. At the beginning of Neogene time, the ancient Tethyan Ocean finally broke up into two systems of internal s e a s (Para-Tethys in the north and Tethys proper (the Mediterranean Sea) in the south), from which the Mesopotamian Basin separated (at the end of middle Miocene time). The connection between Para-Tethys and the North Sea Basin terminated.
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During Miocene time, the overall area of sedimentation expanded somewhat as compared with the Oligocene (28% versus 23%), mainly as a result of growth in the depositional a r e a s of continental sediments. The area of distribution of marine sediments increased insigni% , Pg3 %), reflecting the effect ficantly (N1 1 of transgressions of the early Miocene and the first half of the middle Miocene, and local and temporary ingressions of the second half of the middle and late Miocene. Transeressions and features of marine " Miocene associations. Miocene transgressions proceeded under conditions of increased rates of uplift of the continental blocks, which were reflected in their scale (extremely small) and shape (marginal and ingressional) of development, and a l s o in their relative geological brevity and ephemeral nature. Against this background, a very short interval was recognized (early or "old" Burdigalian), when synchronous expansion of the marine basins was observed in various tectonic zones, on the platforms (especially along the margins of the Gondwana platforms) and in the troughs (orogenic (Mediterranean Belt, Pacific Ocean girdle) and geosynclinal (Caribbean Basin, etc. ) zones). After this, i f we disregard bracklish and certain marginal basins, transgressions
427
IKTEKKATIOSAL GEOLOGY KEkIEa
m2 m3 B~
FIGURE 1. Distribution of hIiocene
1 - areas of erosion; associations: 2 - continental clastic, 3 marine clastic (a - clayey, onal salt- and gypsum-bearing (evaporites), 7 - coal-bearing sand-clayey, 8 marine and volcanogenic, mainly: a) basaltic, b) andesite-rhyolitic; 12 - boundaries
a b c
were localized in the troughs of orogenic areas, that is, in the zones of most stable subsidences. However, the maxima of such transgressions were not contemporaneous and were confined to the middle o r to the last third of Burdigalian (old Helvetian of the Mediterranean area, and the Ottnangian and Kozachurian of Para-Tethys) time (the Mediterranean Belt and, in part, its platformal surroundings), or to the middle and even late Miocene (the intermontane and frontal troughs of the Northern Andes, etc. ).
The expansion of the Miocene marine basins has also been noted in the northwestern sector of the Pacific Ocean girdle (from Kamchatka to Indonesia). But here the trans428
gression occurred differentially. In Indonesia (Sumatra and Java), it served as a continuation of the Eocene transgression, and in the Philippines, Taiwan, Japan, Sakhalin, and Kamchatka, the Oligocene transgression. In the area o f Miocene folding and uplifts (the Philippines, Sulawesi, and the Banda a r c s ) a regression has been observed in the middle Miocene sequence, which in other regions (Sumatra and Java) was reflected in the appearance of clastic rocks in an overall carbonate sequence (64). Renewed subsidence and transgression occurred during late Miocene time. In the north @amchatka, Sakhalin, and Japan), the maximum of the Miocene transgression has been observed in the middle Miocene. In Japan it developed mainly on the side of the Sea of Japan Basin,
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lithologic associations of the continents.

b sandy, c sand-clayey), 4 marine carbonate-clastic, 5) marine carbonate, 6 lagocontinental siliceous, 9 - underwater-volcanogenic, 10 - trappean and rift, 11 - terrcstrialof platforms. and orogenic and geosynclinal areas; 13 - orugenic areas.
and a broad regression is found in the upper Miocene sequence. In Indonesia and i n the Philippines, regression ensued only during Pliocene time, whereas transgressions are found in New Caledonia and New Zealand, during Pliocene time. Of the late Miocene transgressions, attention should be paid to the broad shallow-water transgression with a total thickness of accumulated sediments up to 20 m, beds with Ostrea patagonica and 0, parasitica in the valley of the Parana River (previously assigned to the base of the Pliocene), the transgression in Northe r n Australia (58), and the pulsating expansions and contractions of the inner isolated and semi-isolated basins of Para-Tethys.
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But since the end of middle Miocene time, a broad regression and a continuous spread of uplifts in general on the continents have been observed. T h i s process, which began during the second half of early Miocene time on the platforms, spread to a number of troughs in the orogenic zones toward the end of middle Miocene and especially late Miocene time. The nature of the replacement of marine deposits by continental types, containing members of marine sediments, indicates recurrent invasions of the sea, more probably pointing to recompensation of downwarping by sedimentation rather than any decrease in the r a t e of subsidence ($amchatka, Sakhalin, Taiwan, etc. ). The regression also contributed to the migration of the major river deltas toward the margins of and
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\'.YE. KHAIR', A.B. RONOV, AIVD A.N. RALUKHOVSKIY

beyond the continents, which was evidently also the reason for the increase in the velocity of deposition of sediments in the oceans, that began in middle Miocene time (51). Attention is also drawn to the fact that marine deposits a r e almost completely absent on the eastern shores of Asia to the south of Penzhina Gulf as f a r as the Malaysian Peninsula and in the north of Eurasia, where a landmass, judging by the absence of marine Neogene deposits to the east of Spitsbergen, extended a s f a r a s the continental slope of the deepwater basins of the North Arctic Ocean. There was also a vast land a r e a in the Arctic part of North America. Allowing for these areas, the overall extent of the land during Neogene time (subsequently covered by the s e a during the Quaternary transgression) exceeded that of the present day, in spite of the existence of marginal and internal marine basins in the Mediterranean Belt and other regions. Expansion of the a r e a s of sediment development during Miocene time on the Gondwana platforms took place primarily as a result of continental (e. g., Africa) and to a lesser degree, marine deposits (Australia, N:-2), which a r e a distinguishing feature for the entire late Cenozoic interval. As a consequence, deposition diminished somewhat on the Laurasian platforms, The total volume of Miocene platformal deposits in general exceeds that of the Oligocene (N13.7 and Pg3 2.8 million km3 ), the average size of the subsidences also increases somewhat (N1 181 and Pg3 161 m), but the average velocity of subsidence decreases (N1 9 and Pg3 15 m/m.y ,). A more significant change in the quantitative parameters of sedimentation occurred in the epiplatformal orogenic belts. Whereas the volume of accumulated sediments, and the average dimensions and average velocity of subsidence in the areas of epiplatformal orogeny during Oligocene time, were even lower than on the platforms, a marked increase in their values is observed in the Miocene interval (N1 1.4 and Pg3 0.23 M km3; N1373 and Pg3 95 m; and N120 and Pg3 9 m/m. y. ), The a r e a of the geosynclines was reduced . 0 by almost half during Miocene time (N1 3 versus 5.8 m km2 in Pgs), mainly as a result of orogenic activity of the Mediterranean geosynclinal belt. Nevertheless, the overall volume of the geosynclinal deposits (N1 2.8 versus 2.7 m km3 in Pg3) and especially the average dimensions (N1 1255 versus 670 m in Pg3) and average veloctiy of subsidence (N1 66 versus 61 m/m. y. in Pgg), markedly increases, which has been associated with an intensification (resulting from the growth of uplifts) in the supply of clastic material, which exceeded the real velocity of subsidence.
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With a relatively small increase in the area of the epigeosynclinal orogens (N1 21.1 versus 18.1 m km2 in Pgs), the volume of the Miocene deposits within them is almost three times greater than that of the Oligoce e sediments (N1 10.6 versus 3.8 m km3 in Pg3), evidently for the same reason. The average dimensions also increased, but the average velocity of subsidences was also maintained at the same level (51 m/m. y. ). That is, the overall volume of the deposits and the average dimensions of subsidence with respect to those in the Oligocene epoch were proportional to the length of the corresponding epochs. Brief description of Miocene lithologic associations. The distribution of the marine carbonate associations has been maintained at almost the same low level as in the preceding epoch (N1 5.4% and Pg3 4.6% of the total volume of deposits). They were deposited in the same tectonic zones (31). These associations a r e similar in composition to the Oligocene types and often continue them in the vertical sequence. Such, for example, are the Oligocene - lower Miocene carbonate associations in the Near and Middle East (Djerba, Asmara, Efrat, Kum, and other limestones), which are associated with oil and gas fields (Kirchuk, etc. ). The most favorable areas for the accumulation of carbonate associations, as previously, were the neritic spaces of the open-sea basins with relatively little subsidence and insignificant introduction of terrigenous material (arid zone). The principal components of these associations were organogenic-clastic limestones, in which limestone coquinae played a significant role in Miocene time (the Bvdigalian Pecten limestones of East Africa, and the Sarmatian and Pontian coquinae in the southern USSR). It is interesting that this type of carbonate deposit is encountered in the thick Miocene terrigenous sequences of Kamchatka and the Aleutian Islands. Another and predominant variety was the organogenic-clastic limestones with corals, and Lithothamnion and stromatolite algae (dark-red and blue-green), often forming independent reefal masses, lepidocyclinid, miogypsinid, operculinid, bryozoan, and other faunas, clearly concentrating toward the basins of the tropical zone, Coral reefs of the b a r r i e r type a r e rare (Levant) in the Miocene deposits of the continental blocks (with marked distribution of biostromes), but were widely developed in Indonesia and the island a r c s of the western and southwestern parts of the Pacific Ocean. Laterally and vertically the carbonate associations most commonly adjoin carbonateclastic, and l e s s frequently, lagoonal gypsiferous associations (Cuba and Libya). On the platforms, in Australia (the Eucla, Murray, and other basins), in the Arabian
43 1
IKTEHNATIONAL GEOLOGY R E V I E W
TABLE 1. Areas, volumes, and distribution of
1 - Including New Guinea and New Zealand. 2 - Marine molasse comprises 7.0% by area and 14.6% 12.2% by a r e a and 23.0% by volume. 6 Coal-bearing molasse comprises 1.9% by area and 6.4% by 8 - Marine molasse formations comprise 15.4% by area and 24.8% by volume. 9 - hIarine paralic prises 1.4% by area and 1.8% by volume. 11 - hIarine molasse comprises 4.8% by area and 15.0% 13 - Marine molasse comprises 3.1% by area and 10.6% by volume. 14 - Paralic association comby volume. 16 Marine paralic association and coal-bearing molasse (respectively) comprise 0.5
432
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V.YE. KHAIN, A.B. RONOV, AND A.N. BALUKHOVSKIY

lithologic associations in hfiocene sequences.
_c
'2;x
2.
Distribution of lithologic associations as % of area of regions of deposition (I) and total volume of deposits (II) hlarine carbonate Marine carbonateclastic
I I1
3\E
:g >5l I
< m
EE
Marine sand-clay
hlolas s e
11
,agoonal salt. and gypsum- Coal-bearing bearing sand-clay (evaporite)
-- --- -- 30. I
I1
I1
9 19 74 64 33 22 23 36 30 27 7 46 24
10 39 10
3.1 9.5 5.3 3.7

8.8
8.6
25.7
6.0 0.9 64.1 12.7 11.6 52.3
10.4 0. I 70.1 12.1

20.5
74.9
90.2
1.3 0.9
2.6 3. I
7.2' 13.9 8.9 3.6 7.41
6.47 5.2 5.7 0.99 2.8'0
4.2 6.6 5.8 3.8
9.3 15.1 16.4 10.1
11.3 11.2 12.2 2.0 53.9 9.8 9.2 2.4
4.2 2.0
5.0 3.7
$7.53 54.80 28.71 42.81 0.74 8.0' 18.44 24.84
89.1
27.9 0.3 3.5
8.4 0.5 1.5
47. I 5.8 7.7 5.4
25.0 1.4 15.2 17.0 20.7 18.6 1.9 1.1 I .9 1.1 54.9 16.8 8.8 0.8 55.1 12.4 11.8
37.7 0.6 20.9 35.8 26.8 28.2 6.5 0.7 6.0 3.4 53.6 40.8 21.6 0.1 62. I 14.2 22.0
34.35
0.9 - - 14.9 11.3 0.6 - - - - - - 3.3: 0.W 45.85
24.22 31 -93
0.1
0.3
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6.69
1.1 0.5 0.9 9.9 1.1 55.9 10.5 42.6 6.1
1 .o
57.04 63.2' 25.24 53.3'
3.6: 1.6: 1.1
5.23 4.43 9.7
0.9 0.7 13.2 1.7 66.5 7.1 27.4 10.1
3.0 8.9 87.5 10.4 5. I 21.4 9.9 14.3
0.4 8.2 85.1 14.0 3.5 21.2 16.6 14.0
0.1
0.04 0.02 1 .o 0.1
0.1 1.5 0.1
1.1
8.9
9 63 25 9 20 66 51 26
0.4 56.8
- - 3.81 13.5 5.2 3.5' 4.81 5.514 4.5 3.8 3.115 3.811
0.1 79.4
0.5 0.8
1 .O 2.6
0.03 3.1
11.1 3.0
5.0
5.5 4.5 5.4
19.9 8.9 11.5
18.0 8.2 10.2
20.8'
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0.1 2.1
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byvolume. 3 :oal-bearinp: molasse. 4 - Continental molasse. 5 Marine molasse comnrises k e (paralic) coal-bearing association comprises 0.9% by area and 4 . a b i volume. volume. I - I association comprises 1.0% by a r e a and 0.7% by volume. 10 Marfne paralic association comby volume. 12 Marine paralic association comprises 0 . 6 % by area and 1.1% by volume. prises 0.3% , b y area and 1.4% by volume. 15 BIarine molasse comprises 10.5% by area and 18.5% and 1.7% in area and 0 . 4 and 2.6% by volume.
[Table 1 continued on following page]

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43 3
IKTEKKATIONAL GEOLOGY REVIEW

TABLE 1 (cont.) Distribution of lithologic associations as %of area of regions of deoosition and total volume of deposit! m Continents Platforms, geosynclines, and orogenic belts Continental sand-clay Siliceous Submarine olcanogenic
I
I
Eurasia
Platforms Epiplatformal orugenic belts ;eosynclines Epigeosynclinal orogenic belts Total o r average for Eurasia Platform Epiplatformal orogenic belts Oeosynclines Epigeosynclinal orugenic belts Total o r average for North America Platform Epigeosynclinal orogenic belts rota1 o r average for South America Platform Geosynclines ~ o t aol r average for Africa Platform Geosynclines Total o r a v e n g e for Australia Platforms Epiplatformal orogenic belts 2eosynclines Epigeosynclinal orogenic belts rota1 o r average for continents
53.1
33.0
3.1 6.2 1.4 6.9 5.1
3.3
1.1
4.3 24.0
5.2 7.6
0.7
4.0
3.0
rlorth America
76.9
5.9 3.5 70.3 74.6
tl.6 0.6 17.6

8.1
28.9
0.4 3.8
53.9 31.8
61.1
South America
42.9 73.2
9.5 20.7
3.3
Africa
13.9 54.2
71.6 25.9 2.2 19.0 58.9
19.2 3.1 0.4 1.1 28.2
- -
13.6 50.1 12.0 3.5 0.9
qustralia'
6.5
:oh1 data f o r continents
7.0 19.4 17.0 13.2 0.8 20.3 11.5 0.5 7.6 9.2
0.6 2.2 32.9
0.1 3.3
7.5
Peninsula, Yucatan, and in Florida (the carbonate associations are Connected with phosphorites with a high uranium concentration), the thicknesses of the deposits varywidely, but usually do not exceed 500 m. In the geosynclines, where they contain associations of pelagic foraminifera1 limestones, the thickness of the sediments exceeds 1500 m (Indonesia and Puerto Rico).
43 4
Marine carbonate-clastic associations arc more widely distributed in the Miocene than in 1 0 . 2 4 6 v e r s u s 3.8% the Oligocene sequence (NJ~ of the total volume of deposits in Pg3). They are characterized by the great variety of components and rapid variation in facies composition, both laterally and vertically. In the Northern Hemisphere, they are developed mainly in the south of the Turanian Plate and
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V.Y E. K I I A I N , A.B. ROKOV, AND A.X. BALUKIIOVSKIY

insignificantly in the north of Florida. These associations consist of organogenic-clastic limestones, sands, sandstones, and l e s s frequently, clays and marls. They are more widely distributed on the Gondwana platforms, especially along the margins of Africa, where they reach their maximum variation. The associations include littoral and shelf clays, sands, and limestones with heterosteginids, replaced in the interior of the continent by red "Continental Terminal" in Senegal; clays, marly limestones, and sands with seams of lignites, replaced by varicolored deposits (ferruginous sandstones, conglomerates, and laterites) of the humid continental association of the equatorial zone, and on the ocean side, by the deepwater association of greenishblack plastic clays with benthic and planktonic foraminifers of Serravaui (Ivory Coast). The carbonate-clastic association of similar composition in the Niger delta,, developed betmeen the deltaic sands with lignites ("Sables Sup6rieurs") and the deepwater (outer shelf and continental slope) Burdigalian association of black clays of Suelaba (42), a l s o forms a narrow band on the shelf. Farther south, in Angola (provinces of Kabinda, Kwanza, Benguela, and Mossfmedes), associations of early Burdigalian time occupy a s i m i l a r position, consisting of clays and sands with intercalations of limestones, marls, algal limestones, and conglomerates, but their deepwater equivalent comprises slope foraminiferal marls. In North Africa, Libya and Egypt, associations of this kind occupy a n intermediate position in the lateral s e r i e s between carbonate gypsiferous and continental sandy types. Similar relations have been observed in the eastern part of the Horn of Africa and on the Somali coast. But here, the Miocene deposits comprise a single sequence with the Oligocene deposits and are replaced upward in the sequence by sandy marine and continental sediments, reflecting the regression in the second half of the hliocene epoch. The platformal carbonate-clastic associations of the Near E a s t (Syria and Cyprus) are extremely varied. In the lower part, various limestones (chalk-like, argillaceous, sandy, massive algal), marls, clays, sandstones, and conglomerates predominate, and there are occasional basalt flows. T h e upper part of the association consists of a transgressive sand-clay-marl "Helvetian" and a regressive, but compositionally analogous, Tortonian complex (11). Associations of this kind, variable in composition, are known in South America (south of Aracaju), and in Western Australia in the Carnarvon Basin (limestones with intercalations of beach sands and their lateral more "seaward"
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equivalent, a neritic carbonate association). The association located between the Great B a r r i e r Reef and the northeastern margin of the continent has a somewhat different composition. Here, limestones predominate, but there are also calcarenites and glauconitic quartz sandstones. In the geosynclines (the Caribbean, and the west and southwest of the Pacific Ocean girdle), associations of this kind comprise 1 s of the total volume and are distributed mainly within the island-arc rises. The main components of these associations are organogenic-clastic limestones, dolomites, and clays with thin s e a m s of evaporites (Cuba); limestones, marls, sandy chalk, and sandstones (Puerto Rico); limestones, clays, sands, siltstones, and conglomerates, and in the south, turbidites a l s o (Trinidad); limestones, sands, and conglomerates of the Nepui association (New Caledonia); and marls, clays, and siltstones (Solomon Islands). The carbonate-clastic molasse associations of the Alpine orogenic belt of Eurasia and Northwest Africa are distinguished by the presence of deepwater sequences (outer shelf and slope), consisting of various marls, foraminiferal or with thin-shelled mollusks. These are the Burdigalian, Langhian, Serravallian, and Tortonian blue m a r k of the Western Mediterranean area and the Baden m a r k of the Vienna Basin. On the periphery of the troughs, they usually pass into shallow-water carbonate-clastic associations (pectinid and other organogenic-clastic limestones with a varied fauna, sandstones, clays, and sometimes conglomerates) or toward the centers of the basins, into relatively deepwater carbonate clays (11, 48). The thickness of the platform associations of this kind reaches 1 kni (Kirenanka), whereas the molasse in the troughs of the Alpine orogenic belt (11) reaches 5-6 km in thickness (up to 6 km in the Seyhan trough). The distribution of the marine sand-clay associations in the Miocene sequence has been markedly reduced as compared with the Oligocene (respectively 11.5 and 21.5% of the total area; 22.0 and 31.9% of the total volume of deposits). They are typical both of the geosynclines and epigeosynclinal orogens, and also of the platforms, and to a s m a l l degree, the epiplatformal orogens. The platformal sand-clay associations (Gulf Coast, North Sea Basin of Europe, the northeastern states of Brazil and the coast of Patagonia, Morocco, Gabon, etc. ) are varied in composition, and are often associated with deltaic and continental deposits. Thus, the thick petroliferous Gulf Coast sand-clay association (up to 6 km) consists of deltaic sediments, spread along a broad shelf by 43 5
I KTE I (K AT1 0S A L C,EOLO G Y R E \'I EN'

marine currents (20). On the side of the continent, its area of development is surrounded by a narrow band of continental, lagoonal, littoral, and deltaic, mainly sandy deposits. The principal part of the association consists of neritic and slope sand-clay sediments, passing laterally into bathyal clays toward the center of the Gulf of Mexico. It is characterized by a clearly defined regressive structure; its non-carbonate and bituminous nature is similar to the ewinic associations of the maykop type. The sand-clay association of the North Sea Basin (Federal Germany, the Netherlands, and Denmark) is characterized by intercalations of glauconitic rocks in the section. Glauconitic rocks and associations, s o widely spread in Cretaceous and Paleogene rocks, are rare features of Neogene continental associations. This association, like the Gulf Coast sand-clay association, is almost non-carbonate and here and there includes only thin layers of neritic coquinae. In the ingressional basins of the Patagonian coast, an associational series ranging from sandy shallow-water (with intercalations of continental sediments) to argillaceous sediments of the outer shelf and slope, has been identified. One of the exceptions is the San Jorge Basin; here, the argillaceous association is replaced on the ocean side by a deepwater carbonate type (71). In the peri-oceanic zones of the African continent (Morocco, Senegal, and the Gulf of Guinea coast), mainly beyond the limits of the continent, there is an argillaceous association (the Tah clays) of late Miocene age (42). Farther south in Gabon, there is a thick sandclay association. On the ocean side, it is replaced by a deeper-water clay association with thin intercalations of dolomites (the M'Bega "Formation"), and on the continent side, by a continental association of kaolin clays and clayey sands with siderolite laterites. The associations of this grouping reach 1 km in thickness. Marine sand-clay molasse associations a r e exceptionally common in the Mediterranean Belt and in the orogenic zones of the Pacific Ocean girdle. They are distinguished by their variable composition and are clearly associated with marine carbonate-clastic associations, into which they pass gradually in a number of cases (Mediterranean Belt), o r with coalbearing paralic associations (the northwestern sector of the Pacific Ocean girdle). In the Alpine orogenic belt, euxinic associations of the maykop type have been recognized among them (the troughs of the Caucasus and the Balkans, consisting of non-calcareous clays with intercalations of silts and sandstones,
43 6
often with interlayering of the flysch type (basal parts of the Miocene sequence on Cyprus). The lower molasse is evidently similar to the Numidian of the Betic Cordillera, hlagriba, Northern Sicily, and Italy, consisting of a thick sequence (3-4km) of cyclically alternating brownish clays and sandstones. Previously, the Numidian had been assigned to the flysch. But at present the view prevails that it is partially of deltaic origin (crossbedding, and the presence of silicified tree stumps), a s a result of the removal of material mainly from the side of the African continent during Aquitanian and Burdigalian time (63, 68). The sand-clay molasse of the North Apennine troughs a r e also of complicated structure. Fluctuations in the depths of the floor of these troughs led to a marked change in the conditions of deposition of sediments from compensated to uncompensated. This process was accompanied by irregular migra4 8 ) . The tion of their axial parts over the area ( troughs have been filled by sequences of sandstones, clays, and turbidites, each several hundred meters thick (300-400 m), replacing one another laterally and vertically. Neritic and pelagic marls containing 30-4a C a C e are confined to them. Relatively deepwater argillaceous associations a r e common in the Kuban' and TerskCaspian troughs. However, the deepwater sediments of the Alpine orogenic belt were deposited mainly during middle Miocene time. Beginning with Sarmatian time (middle Miocene), they were preserved only in narrow portions of the troughs, and the role of coarsely clastic rocks increased among the clastic associations (the thickness of the Sarmatian-Pontian deltaic conglomerates of Pizzunda is about 2 km). In contrast to the lower finely clastic molasse, the late orogenic molasse sequences a r e commonly replaced by continental types on the landward side.
In the northwestern and western sectors of the Pacific Ocean girdle, the Miocene sand-clay molasse associations, as noted above, are associated with paralic coal-bearing types, which a r e also encountered at the base of the sequences (e. g. , the upper Burdigalian-Langhian, upper Duya Suite on Sakhalin), and a t middle Miocene (in areas with positive vertical movements) and late Miocene levels (in regions of the late Miocene regression). Another feature is the participation of tuff and ash intercalations in the structure of the associations, and sometimes also, layers of lavas. The quantity of these components increases toward the side of the volcanic island arcs. The relatively deepwater shelf and slope portions of the associations are of middle-late Miocene age and have an essentially clay composition (the Funakawa Formationof Japan, etc. ).
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\'.YE. K H A I K , A.B. KOKOV, A X D A.X. BALUKHOVSKIY

The thickness of the deposits of this kind of association in the troughs of Eastern Papua (New Guinea), Sumatra, Taiwan, Sakhalin, and Kamchatka is 3-5 km, whereas in the troughs of the Apennines, the Hellenides, the TerskCaspian and Cis-Zagros, the Northern Andes, and others, it exceeds 3 km. Lagoonal salt- and gypsum-bearing (evaporite) associations are m o r e substantially heveloped in the Miocene than in the Oligocene sequences (N1 2.2 and Pg3 0.3% of the total volume). They are concentrated mainly in the western part of the Alpine orogenic belt and in i t s platformal surroundings in a band from the Mudug trough in Somalia in the south to the Turanian Plate in the north. Toward the east, the broad belt of salt deposition contracts and shifts into the zone of epiplatformal orogeny. Conditions favorable f o r the precipitation of salts sporadically developed mainly in isolated and small lacustrine basins in the Tien Shan. Besides this area, salt deposition in Eurasia and Africa has been confined t o the northern arid zone. Small lagoonal evaporite basins (lacustrine) have been identified in Cuba and in California. In the southern a r i d zone, evaporites are known only i n the Nequen Basin in Patagonia. Miocene marine lagoonal salt- and gypsumbearing associations can be separated into principal types, not counting the Messinian evaporite association of the Mediterranean area, which because of i t s vast a r e a of distribution and significant thickness of sediments can be recognized a s a n independent type. The first group of associations formed a s a result of evaporation of waters of normal salinity. It includes the Miocene evaporites of the Rhine graben (9), the Vorotische and Stebnik Suites of Ciscarpathia and their equivalents in Romania, Poland, Transylvania, Central and Eastern Anatolia, the L e s s e r Caucasus, the Mesopotamian Basin, the Red Sea from the Gulf of Suez to the Sudan coast, on the Horn of Africa (in the Mudug trough, the salt-bearing sequence is associated with carnotite-vanadium deposits), and in Libya. The age of this group of evaporites corresponds mainly to the e a r l y and first half of the middle Miocene interval, but their maximum is confined to Aquitanian-Burdigalian time, with the exception of the Red Sea Basin and the western closure of the Mesopotamian Basin, where salt precipitation proceeded actively, beginning in the Burdigalian age up to the end of the Miocene epoch (41, 65). The composition of the evaporites is varied: gypsum, anhydrite, halite, sylvite, etc. The second group of evaporite associations accumulated in the brackish-water basins of Para-Tethys and consists exclusively of sulfates (the gypsum deposits of the Tiras Suite of Ciscarpathia and i t s stratigraphic equivalents in Romania, Poland, and the Karagan gypsum deposits of the Ustyurt Plateau).
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The Messinian gypsum-salt association i s widely distributed in the Mediterranean Sea. On the present land area, it i s developed mainly in the Apennine Peninsula and in Sicily. In the marginal parts (shelf and slope), it almost without exception includes sulfates (gypsum and anhydrite), whereas inthe central zones of the present deepwater basins and in Sicily, there are also rock s a l t and potassium s a l t s (63, 65). The thickness of the association in the basins exceeds 1500 m, and on the land, i t is several hundred meters thick. The sequences of chlorides (up to 1000 m thick) are developed in the present deepwater basins, forming the first "level" of the association. Higher in the sequence is anhyd r i t e and gypsum (up to 500 m thick), also distributed in the shallow-water flanking zones. It occupies vast areas of the Mediterranean Sea region. Sulfates predominate, The significance of the salt-gypsum associations of the pre-montane and intermontane basins of the Tien Shan is small, but their thicknesses are sometimes significant (the Fergana and Kochkor Basins). Sulfates predominate in the associations, with rock s a l t l e s s frequently present. On the whole, they are markedly distinguished in composition from the evaporite associations discussed above (glauberite, thenardite, etc., are present). The thickness of the salt-bearing associations i s great, often exceeding 2 km (the Ciscarpathian and Transcarpathian troughs, the evaporites of Anatolia and the Fergana Basin), but the thickness of the true salts in the Fergana Basin does not exceed 200-400 m. The gigantic scale of s a l t deposition in the Gulf of Suez has been established; h e r e the thickness of the s a l t in the sections in individual bore holes exceeds 1000 m (41, 53). It is usually substantially less, and gypsum predominates, whereas chlorides (members not more than 50-100 m thick) are not ubiquitous. The proportion of coal-bearing sand-clay associations in the Miocene sequences has diminished as compared with that in the preceding epoch (N1 4 . 8 and Pg3 8.1%of the total area; N1 3 . 8 and Pg3 5. Y% of the total volume). This is associated with intensification of the a r i d climate, and more and more intense uplift of the mountain systems and continents in general. The influence of the climatic factor shows up in the West Siberian Lowland. The coal-bearing deposits (the Abrosimovo Suite and i t s equivalents in the lowest p a r t s of the Miocene, 50-100 m thick) are replaced by lacustrine clays with nodules of gypsum belonging to the Aral' and other suites, which were deposited under semi-arid conditions. The effect of the tectonic factor is seen in the Soviet Far East, where as a result of intensified removal of clastic
437
ISTEWKATIOSAL GEOLOGY REVIEW material, the areas favoring the formation of lacustrine-paludal coal-bearing complexes rapidly contracted during hliocene time, and deposition of coal-bearing sediments ceased toward late hliocene time in a number of basins (the Zeya-Bureya, hliddle Amur, and other basins). The a r e a s of development of Miocene coalbearing associations are confined to the western and eastern margins of Eurasia, forming the major p a r t of the total volume of coal-bearing associations of the continents (more than 40%). The relative distribution of coal-bearing associations in the epiplatformal orogenic belts (in fact, both a climatic and a tectoni'c factor) of Eurasia decreased markedly (N1 13.5 verus 21.9% in Pg3 of the total area). The significance of the coal-bearing associations a l s o decreased in the zones of the epigeosynclinal orogens (N1 3.5% of the total a r e a versus 5.9% in Pgg), and also on the platforms (N1 3.8% versus Pg3 8.2%). Whereas in the geosynclines undergoing orogeny, a seemingly "compensating" increase in the areas of coal accumulation has been observed (N1 5.2% of the total area versus 3.6% in Pgg), with repeated renewal of coal deposition in the regression zones in the northwestern part of the Pacific Ocean girdle. The Neogene paralic and limnic coalbearing associations form parallel, regularly arranged belts. A paralic belt developed along the margins of the continents, highlighted by marine transgressions, and a limnic belt i s located a t its rear. In the e a s t of Eurasia (Kamchatka, Sakhalin, Japan, Philippines, and Indonesia), paralic associations predominated, whereas in Europe and on the other continents, limnic associations prevailed, possibly with the exception of the deltaic "lignite series" of the Niger (42) and the Filaret lignite-bearing formation of the Straits of Magellan (71). The thickness of the Miocene coal-bearing associations usually does not exceed 1km. Extremely great thicknesses have been observed in Kalimantan (over 5 km), where they are clearly associated with deltaic sediments. The brown-coal deposits of Europe have been intensely exploited. The coal r e s e r v e s in the largest deposits usually do not exceed a few billion tons. The distribution of continental sand-clay associations in the Miocene sequences has diminished by more than twice (N1 7.5 and Pg3 15.6% of the total volume of sediments), but their area of development has remained almost the same as in the preceding epoch (N1 32. m, Pg3 35. %). The associations of this kind have been grouped with the polyfacies deposits of the Miocene platforms, Among them sediments of the lacustrine, Channel, 43 8 floodplain, and cover complexes predominate. The maximum changes in the distribution of the continental sand-clay association took place on the African continent. The a r e a s occupied by these associations, increased by m o r e than hvo times, and their volume exceeds threefold that of the analogous Oligocene associations. In Australia, on the other hand, with a small reduction in the area, the volume of this group of associations diminished by more than two times. The thickness of this group of associations is s m a l l and usually does not exceed 500 m. The significance of the continental molasse associations more than doubled during Miocene time (N1 27.3 and Pg3 12.1% of the total volume). At the s a m e time, the ratio between marine and continental molasse changed markedly in favor of the latter, whereas in Oligocene time, marine molasse comprised more than half of i t s total volume. During hliocene time, continental molasse for the first time became predominant as compared with other kinds of associations, and reached 27.38 of the total volume of deposits. The proportion of molasse in the epiplatformal orogens increased in volume by more than 10 times, and in the epigeosynclinal orogens, by almost four times. The Miocene continental molasse was represented initially by plain-valley, and l a t e r by mountain-valley facies complexes. They included rocks f r o m lacustrine limestones to cobbles. The continental molasse of the troughs of the rising mountain regions has a n asymmetric structure, which is most completely expressed in the Cis-Himalayan trough, the intermontane and pre-montane troughs of the Hindu Kush, Pamir, Tien Shan, Karakorum, and other mountain systems of the High Alps. Usually a t the bottom, a red finely clastic molasse (sandstones and clays) is replaced higher up by mottled formations (reddish-brown, greenish-gray, and gray) with coarsely clastic rocks, then straw-colored (in the foothills), and coarsely clastic gray sequences (the Siwalik, and the molasse of the Tadzhik and other basins of the Tien Shan). That is, their color range contrasts directly with the color change in the Hercynian molasse of Central Europe (from gray to red), and is associated with the replacement of a n arid by a glacial climate, and not humid by arid, a s in the Hercynian sequences (3). In addition to the orogenic zones of Eurasia, thick molasse associations developed in the intermontane and pre-montane troughs of the Andes. The molasse in the North America Cordillera has a significantly different composition. It contains volcanic material and breakdown products of volcanic rocks in abundance.
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\'.YE. K I I A I K , A . U . ROKO\', AKD A.N. RALUKIIOVSKIY

T h e thickness of the Miocene molasse is exceptionally great, more than 9 km in Assam (the Surma, Tipam, and Dupi Tila Series in the Surma River valley), more than 7 km in the Cis-Hindu Kush, and more than 3 km in the Cis-Himalayan troughs and the intermontane basins of the Tien Shan. Siliceous associations have been provisionally separated in the Miocene deposits. Typical geosynclinal siliceous associations, so characteristic of the Cretaceous Period (37), disappear along with ophiolite associations (31). A s a consequence, Miocene siliceous rocks consist only of opokas and diatomites of lacustrine and marine origin, and the area of their distribution is often concentrated around volcanic areas (the island a r c s of the Pacific Ocean girdle, the Mediterranean area, and California). But individual l a y e r s and horizons of siliceous rocks are a l s o encountered in the lacustrine facies of continental associations of various a r e a s , Amongst the thickest siliceous sequences we note the lower part of the Onnagawa Formation of Southwestern Japan, 5 ) , the siliceous with a thickness of 300-400 m ( sequences in the sections of Western Kamchatka and Sakhalin, the diatomaceous group on Apsheron Peninsula, the chert members in various p a r t s of the Mediterranean area, often directly associated with volcanism (69), and the middle Miocene Monterey "Formation" of California, etc. Submarine volcanogenic associations are aenerallv not characteristic of the Miocene sequence of the continental blocks, whereas typical eugeosynclinal or ophiolitic associations are a l s o rare in the island a r c s of the oceans (61). In this group, we include geosynclinal volcanics of varied composition (basalts, andesites, and rhyolites), similar to islandarc types or genetically associated with them and distributed mainly in the northwestern sector of the Pacific Ocean girdle (from Kamchatka to Indonesia). The overall volume of the associations is not great, and as a rule, they have no independent significance, but have been reckoned by u s quantitatively as the products of volcanism of the geosynclinal zones. T e r r e s t r i a l volcanogenic associations represent an intense multiphase terrestrial voicanism, typical of the ifiocene epoch. On the whole, it is distinguished from the predominantly andesitic volcanism of the Oligocene epoch by i t s variation and the contrasting nature of the petrochemical types of volcanics. The Miocene volcanics also have widespread products of intense explosions (ash tuffs and ignimbrites), distributed in many of the volcanic provinces ,and often far beyond their boundaries (by thousands of kilometers), for example, the Oka-Don interfluve, and Florida), in the form of intercalations of a s h tuffs or volcanic glass among continental and marine sediments (10, 20, 66).
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During Miocene time, a number of large stratovolcanoes appeared (Kilimanjaro, Kisinjiri, Erjijasdag, and others, with a diameter of 50-100 km a t the base), which are still active today, volcanic chains extending for many thousands of kilometers (the Cordillera of North and South America), and vast lava plateaus (the Columbia Plateau in North America). Orogenic and platform-rift volcanism became very significant, and trappean and late geosynclinal (island-arc) volcanism fell into second place. Rift and trappean platformal volcanism took place in the Arabian-African rift zone, including the surroundings of the Red Sea rift and the t r a p s of the Levant, the Rhine graben, numerous occurrences of volcanism in Africa, associated with the Kamerun lineament and faults within and along the margins of the continent, the bimodal t r a p s of Eastern and Southeastern Australia, the northwestern surroundings of the Alpine orogenic belt, Eastern Brazil, Patagonia, etc. Epiplatformal orogenic volcanism (Baykal Rift, the basalts of Mongolia, etc. ) was characterized by trachybasaltic and bimodal petrochemical types of rocks, whereas in the East African rift zone, these s a m e types, but in combination with alkaline formations (phonolites), are encountered (8, 14). In the epigeosynclinal orogenic zones, calc-alkaline volcanism with a large variety of eruption products predominated (the Pacific Ocean girdle and the Alpine orogenic belt). In some regions, tholeiitic volcanism developed substantially (the Columbia River plateau basalts, USA). The following lateral s e r i e s of petrochemicaltypes of volcanics (from the margin into the interior of the continent) have been observed: tholeiitic, alkaline-basaltic (shoshonitic), calcalkaline, and alkaline, in the North American Cordillera (8, 47), the Argentine Andes (62, 67), and the northwestern sector of the Pacific Ocean girdle (57). Another feature of hliocene t e r r e s t r i a l volcanism, defined by radiometric data, is the synchroneity of individual phases o r episodes of volcanic eruptions in different zones of the continents, Early Miocene volcanism was especially widely manifested in the North American Cordillera (22-17.5 m. y. ), in Central America (the Honduras volcanics) (20-15 m. y. ), in the P e r u - Northern Chile province (the Takasa and Juilacolo volcanics (21.7-16.1 m. y. ), and in Southern Kenya (the Samburu sheet basalts) (23-18m. y. ) (14; 43, 46, 49, 52, 70), and extremely numerous occurrences of volcanism in the Alpine orogenic belt (22-15.5 m. y. ), and on the east coast of Australia (the Tweed volcanics with a n age of 21.8-20 m. y . ) (52, 5 4 ) . This phase includes the commencement of volcanism in the Canary Islands, the deposition of the "Green Tuff" Series of the inner island a r c s of Japan, etc.
439
ij
11
m I -
1 rcdbcd deposits: a) arid, b) humid; 2 - cvaporitcs: a) salts, b) gypsum and anhydritc; 3 coal-bcarlng scdimcnts; 4 assumed dlstribution of: a) glacial cover on contincnts, b) glacial-marlnc sediments; 5 - scdlrnentary lron ores (Fe); G bauxites @): laterites (L), and kaolln wcathcrlng crusts (K); 7 b a r r l c r reefs; 8 systems of mountain r'angcs, afreetcd by intense uplift: a) slncc beginning of Mloccnc tlmc, b) slncc second half of Miocene cpoch; 9 boundaries of zones; 1 0 assumed boundary of Innd; 11 - arcas of rcpentcd changes in humid and arid climatic conditlons; 12 land; 13 sea.
$ .
V.YE. K I I A I K , A.B. ROKOV, AKU A.X. BALUKIIOVSKIY

Middle Miocene volcanism is especially characteristic of the Pacific Ocean girdle, where it has been associated with the Columbia River plateau basalts, synchronous alkaline basalts, developed to the south, with an age of 16-13 m. y. (47), and the volcanics of the Alpine orogenic belt and its surroundings, etc. The formation of the Circum-Pacific Belt, and the so-called "andesite line," began in the Miocene epoch. MIOCENE PALEOCLIMATIC CONDITIONS (Figure 3) Antarctica was not intense and continuous, because there were s e c t o r s covered by a grassy vegetation. But toward the end of Miocene time, it evidently took on a sheet-like form (59). PLIOCENE LITHOLOGIC ASSOCIATIONS (Figures 4 and 5, Table 2) During the Pliocene epoch, the relations between the a r e a s of erosion and deposition were the s a m e as in the Miocene epoch, but the area of deposition of marine associations of the was reduced by half (N2 5 and N1 10% total a r e a of distribution of deposits). Allowing for the fact, however, that the a r e a s of development of marine deposits in Eurasia include those of freshened marine basins of the Kimmerian and Akchagylian type, not connected with ocean basins, i t becomes evident that during the Pliocene very little area within the present continents was covered by a sea with normal salinity. Only during the Quaternary glaciations did the land occupy greater a r e a than in the Pliocene, and stand a t a higher topographic level. The overall volume of Pliocene deposits is almost l e s s than half the total volume for the Miocene (N2 9.5 and N1 18.5 M km3). But allowing for the different duration of these epochs (Nl 19 and N2 4.2 m. y. ), it s e e m s that the velocity of sedimentation had greatly increased in the Pliocene epoch. This is explained by intensified erosional processes in the rising mountain systems and generally on the continents, which were affected by an overall uplift. The scale of the transgressions of marine basins with normal salinity was small during Pliocene time; it has been identified mainly i n the Northern Hemisphere. In the North Atlantic, a n early Pliocene shallow-water transgression of the English Coralline Crag has been recognized which corresponds to the Enemten transgression in the north of the Pacific Ocean girdle (7) An extremely s m a l l transgression in the Northern Hemisphere has also been identified in the late Pliocene interval. It was manifested in thedepositionof theEnglish Red Crag strata and their equivalents in neighboring regions of the Atlantic Ocean; in the northwestern Pacific Ocean it is known as the "Bering Transgression" (7). In addition, separation of the Pacific and Atlantic Oceans took place during Pliocene time as the Panama Isthmus developed.
The climatic zonation of the Miocene is similar to that of the Oligocene only a t the very beginning of the epoch. It l a t e r underwent significant changes, which w e r e expressed in a rapid cooling. It f i r s t involved the polar regions and led to spreading of the Antarctic ice sheet, which originated in late Oligocene time (56), and in West Antarctica, in Eocene time (59).
Cooling was accompanied by significant and rapid changes in the paleo-landscapes, and the flora and fauna in the high and middle lattitudes of the Northern Hemisphere. The deciduous Turgay flora, typical of the late Paleogene, diminished, and Arcto-Tertiary elements of the flora appeared and spread, the area of distribution of which gradually shifted southward. The Paleogene laterites in the northern humid zone were almost completely replaced by semilaterites (red-earth weathering crusts), with the exception of the Pacific Coast of the USA, where conditions favorable f o r bauxite formation (35) existed in Oregon and Washington, and individual regions of Eurasia (bauxites of the Pre-Alps, and laterites in the east of Central Asia). The main area of laterite formation finally shifted to the equator and i t s adjoining tropical zone. The extension of the arid zones i n t h e a r e a s screened by mountain systems (especially in Eurasia and North America) w a s accompanied by intensification of the contrast between the humid and arid zones. The landscapes of the wooded lacustrine-paludal plains, optimal for coal formation, were gradually replaced by forest-steppe types, and then by steppe areas o r landscapes of the d r y savannah with Krasnozem ferralite soils, inhabited during late Miocene time by hipparionids and ancestors of the modern horse. However, the generally directed climatic changes in some regions were of a recurrent nature, with alternation of humid and arid phases. Toward the end of Miocene time, a physicogeographical zonation was established, extremely like that of the present: well-defined and wide belts of temperate and a r c t i c climate, tundra zones, etc., developed. During the first half of the Miocene epoch, the glaciation of
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Transgressions of the inner s e a s (Tethys and Para-Tethys) developed synchronously. In the Mediterranean Belt of the Messinian regression, a vast relatively deepwater basin arose. The incisions of the ancient valleys of the Nile, Rhone, and other rivers, carved during the Messinian regression, filled with sediments, and sea waters invaded the valley of the Nile River deep into the African continent
441
IKTEHN;iTIONAL GEOLOGY R E V I E U
FIGURE 4. Distribution of Pliocene lithologic associations of the continents. see Figure 1.
For symbols,
over a distance of more than 1000 km as f a r as Assouan (32, 38). However, the area occupied by the Pliocene ingression in the Mediterranean region lay entirely within the contour of distribution of Miocene sediments. The history of Pliocene transgressions of Central and Eastern Para-Tethys is different. In Central Para-Tethys, which includes the Black Sea Basin, the maximum of the transgression occurred during the f i r s t half of the Pliocene epoch. In the Caspian area, the basin a t this time contracted s t i l l farther and mainly occupied the a r e a of the South Caspian Depression (the time of the deposition of the productive sequence o f the Apsheron Peninsula and the Cheleken Suite of Western Turkmenia). Here, the broad brackish-water transgression was confined t o the second half of the Pliocene (Akchagylian time), with the waters of the basin passing along old valleys northward as far as
442
Ufa and eastward as f a r as the Tashkent region. A huge branching inlet, extending as far as Badkhyz, was located in the Kopet-Dag trough (2).
During Pliocene time (see table 2), the :ole of the marine-carbonate (N2 1.3%; N1 5.4%), carbonate-clastic (N2 1.2%; N1 10.2%), and salt-bearing associations (N2 0.1'3; N1 2.2%) became negligible. The distribution of the marine sand-clay (N2 9.4%; N1 2%), terrestrial-volcanogenic (N2 6.1%; N1 9. ZO), and underwater-volcanogenic associations was substantially reduced. Only the coalbearing associations maintained their importance (N2 3.4%; N1 3 . a ) . The total of the clastic associations increased from 80.4% in Miocene to 91.3% in Pliocene time, and the carbonate and carbonate-clastic associations respectively
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V.YE. KHAIN, A.B. RONOV, AND A.N. BALUKHOVSKIY
FIGURE 4 (continued)
diminished from 8.7 to 0.8% of the total volume of deposits. Sand-clay molasse associations,' distributed in the orogenic zones of the Pacific Ocean girdle and the Alpine orogenic belt, played the principal role among,the marine assocations. They can be subdivided into two groups. The sediments of the f i r s t group w e r e deposited under relatively deepwater conditions of the outer shelf, the slope, and the abyss. These are the Zanclean and Plaisancian clays and m a r l s of the Mediterranean area, the Kimmerian and Akchagylian clays of the Pontian-Caspian area, the clays and turbidites of the Santa Barbara Formation, and the deepwater siltstones of the Fernando Suite in California (20) and the Tubara Suite in Colombia (50). The
deposits of the second group formed under shallow-water conditions (the Astian sands and the sandstones of the Enemten Suite in Kamchatka), and they are usually associated with continental deposits, most commonly characterizing the marginal parts of the basins. The thickness of the rocks of the associations reaches l a r g e proportions (more than 2 km in Western Iran and Papua, and up to 4 k m in Northern Italy). The distribution of the platformal marine sand-clay associations during the Pliocene was the same as in Miocene time. The associations of this group include deposits of the Akchagylian Stage of platformal areas of southern USSR. Small areas were occupied by these associations on the east coast of North and South America, and in Africa. The maximum thickness of the sediments reaches 500 m. Marine carbonate associations are exclusively shallow water in origin. They developed in the Arabian Peninsula, along the shores of
1The characteristics of the Pliocene associations a r e given on the basis of their significance, with allowance for their distribution.
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443
1ST E K N. I T 1 0NAl. G EOLO GY
R EV I EW
TABLE 2. Areas, volumes, and distribution of
l%
Areas, l o 3 km2 Platforms, gcosynclines, and orogenic belts
Continents
;a
2$
-0
a,
2
3
ro
1 sg z.
O+
g2 J S <! Eurasia Platforms Epiplatformal orogenic belts Geosynclines Epigeosynclinal orogenic belts Tot31 o r average for Eurasia Platform Epiplatformal orogenic belts Geosynclines Epigeosynclinal orogenic bclts Total o r average for North America Platform Epigeosynclinal orugenic belts Total o r average for South America Platform Geosynclines Total o r average for Africa Platform Geosynclines Total or average for Australia Platforms Epiplatformal orugenic belts Geosynclines Ep igeosynclinal o mgenic belts Total o r average for continents
E 02 sfis- 2 $ :i
0 %
!-I-
EZ
W d
20 553 9 900 605 5 146
7 915 3 669
9-18 4 774
28 27
54
9 0.3
79-1 100 367 I27

383 3567
3s 32 9 52
34 12
6
409 747 30 1 I12 62
36 404 17 306 14 012

4%
+0.6
5216
162 33
North America
I436 535 71 2 496 4 550
2 0
I33
4 297
18 948
33 26 37 5
19
8 242 559 224 -3.0 762 I67
3
7
South America
8 643 5 296 1366 2 562

10009 23 271 16 23 269
6 926 367 7 293
38 65 44
7
7
567 1 1 1 1899 742 -2.2 24% 402 37 439 316 68 308 73 I35 898 438 96 119
7 856
Africa
5 925 20 1 120 67 27 6 0-15 21 2

850 559 1.109
11 3 GO 35 16 G
-3.2
Australia
-1
.o
I I5 502 617
2060 500
Total data for continents
73 405 21 434 23
10 396
4 204 29
1 333 10 809
5
0.3
1698 9 832
56 34 48 9 26
935 55 1 6025 613 -1.4 9520 256
95 943 37 168
association comprises 2.7% by area,and 5 . 9 % by volume. 9 - Marine molasse sequences comprise . 3 and 2.1% by volume. 1 molasse (respectively) comprise 0.5 and 5.5% by area and 0 1 - Marine a marine paralic association (respectively) comprise 1.7 and 0.6% by a r e a and 1.5 and 0.8% by 14 Continental coal-bearing molasse comprises 0.9% by area and 1 . a by volume. 15 - Marine comprises 14.4% by area and 29.6% by volume. 17 Marine paralic coal-bearing association and volume. 18 Marine molasse comprises 3.8% by area and 16.7% by volume. 19 - Marine paralic by area and 0.5 and 1 . aby volume.
--- - -- 1 - Including New Guinea and New Zealand. 2 - Continental molasse. 3 - hIarine molasse comprises volume. 5 - Bituminous continental sediments. 6 - Marine paralic coal-bearing association comprises -
444
IGR 81/4
\'.YE. KHAIN, A.B. R O N O V , AND A.N. BALUKHOVSKIY

lithologic associations in Pliocene sequences.
2 . ;?
:Q
Distribution of lithologic associations as % of area of regions of deposition (I) and total volume of deposits (11) IIarine carbonate Marine carbonateclastic
I
I1
2E 1
EE 00'
Marine sand-clay
AIolasse
2fg
- --
--- --31.4 1.1 38.6 13.0 1.9 36.1

1 11 I
Lagoonal salt. and gypsumbearing (evaporite)
Coal-bearing sand-clay
42 2-1 30
-3.9 0. I 0.2 0.4 -
I1
11
-0.3
-3.39 1.1'
7.46
1.17
II
0.3
88.3
90.0
97 178
0.5 0.1 0.1 0.4
4.2 0.8 0.6 5.7
1.3 0.1 0.2 3.8
42.51
72-91;
86.49 94.89
16.76 32. Is 6.01( 2 . w

4.9'
72 27 15 58 53 40 26 177 75
16.7 11.3
9.4
5.21'
8.9
2.8
2.1
84 35 86.15
0.1
0.1
79.2
70.0
3.6 19.0 7.5 15.3 4.0
1.2
2.6
2.0
59.93 83.23
3.0
I .5
I
I .9 42.@ 64.74
16.1 4.8 7.4 3.4
I .o
2.3 8.6 2.4 25.6 1.7 16.1
2.3 2.7 2.3 35.2 0.6 16.9 5.4
3.7 1.2
0.8
2.0 0.7
1.9
3.6 2.8 1.1 43.2 4.7
61 .72 80.72
20.12 61 .6?
1.5
16 73 17
32 214 104 23 28 131 146
61
22.2 I .2
3.9 10.3 34.4 23.9

18.6 0.9
3. I
67.42 53.82 I . 3 2 4.52
0.6
3.7 37.2 36.62 36.62 31 .0 14.52 29.82 22.8 I .8 87.8

35.0 I .5
I .21: 1.3"
14.9'' 3.8" 2.51s
2.9'3 1.1" 13-31; 2.311 3.4'9
1.7
I
0 7 7.2 1.3 1 .'I
89.8
3.4 0. I
0.6 0.05
2.8 I .2
1.2
36.2 2.0 13.0
16.8 21.8 73.21 89.3"
1.1
1.3
9.4
30.11 63.31f
--
--
13.4% by area and 40.6% by volume. 4 hIarine molasse comprises 7 . 3 8 by area and 29.8% by 0.7% by areaand l.Z%by volume. 7 Coal-bearing molasse. 8 - Marine paralic coal-bearing 22.6% by a r e a and 46.6% by volume. 10 Marine paralic coal-bearlng association and coal-bearing molasse comprises 6.2% by area and 29.8% by volume. 12 - Continental coal-bearing molasse and volume. 1 3 Marine paralic coal-bearing association comprises 0.3% by area and 0.4% by volume. paralic coal-bearing association comprises 1.5% by area and 2.5% by volume. 16 - Marine molasse continental coal-bearing molasse (respectively) comprise 0.2 and 3.0% by area and 0.2 and 1.5% by coal-bearing association and continental coal-bearing molasse (respectively) comprise 0.3 and 0.9%
[Table 2 continued on following page]

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445
I K TE K h 'AT I 0 NA L G E 0 LOGY R E V I E \T'

TABLE 2 (cont.) listribution of lithologic asso rea of regions of deposition ! of deposits U Continents Platforms, gcosynclines, and orogenic belts Continental sand-clay ibmarine vol Lanogenic rtlons as % ' of and total vol-
'errestrial volcanogenic
I
II
Eurasia
Platforms Epiplatformal orogenic belts Geosynclines Epigeosynclinal omgenic belts Total o r average for Eurasia Platform Epiplatformal orogenic belts Geosynclines Epigeosynclinal orogenic belts Total o r average for North America Platform Epigeosynclinal orogenic belts Total o r average for South America Platform Geosynclines Total or average for Africa Platform Geosynclines Total o r average for Australia Platforms Epiplatformal orogenic belts Geosynclines Epigeosynclinal orogenic belts Total o r average for continents
55.4
46.7
6.4 9.4 3.8 5. I
2.6 6.9 5.4 1.6 2.5 13.2

11.8
8.7 27.2 78.7
8.2 7.7 73.7
6.5
3.9 12.9
North America
20.8
30.0
38.9 24.1 3.0 24.6
14.2
25.4 78.0 0.5 52.7 79.7
16.1
77.4 0.4 18.6 58.8
13.7 6.5 8.6

8.1
South America
10.0
13.2 1.8 13.0
Africa
78.2 49. I
53.9 7.6 1.4 57.7
34.4 0.3 31.5 0.5 0.3
4 u s t ralid
15.0 5.0
11.0
29.6 70. I
0.3
rota1 data for continents
7.6 9.9 3.9 18.7
10.6 7.2 2.4 5.0 6.1
5.7 0.1 40.7
3.7 0.1 12.9
10.6
the R e d Sea and the Gulf of Aden, and on the east coast of Africa (Kenya, Tanzania, and Mozambique). Their thickness does not exceed 100 m. Not only neritic, but also deeper-water types a r e present in the group of carbonateclastic associations, consisting of blue marls and clays in the Mediterranean area. Platformal associations of this group with minor
development appear in the west of the Indian subcontinent (Cambay Basin) and on the southeast coast of Sumatra. The thickness of the deposits on the platforms is about 200 m, and in the orogens (molasse) 3 km. tions during Pliocene time expanded even further in the epigeosynclinal and especially the epiplatformal orogens, consisting of 87.890 of
446
IGR 81/4
The a r e a s of continental molasse associa-
\.YE.K I I A I K , A-B. ROKOV, AlVD A.K. BALUKIIOYSKIP

the area of the sedimentary basins. In a numb e r of areas, the associations described continue the sequence of the Miocene molasse, sometimes reaching a n exceptionally great thickness (with the Miocene sequence) (14 km in the Cis-Hindu Kush trough of Afghanistan (34)), and fill the superimposed internal depressions (Pannonian Basin, etc. ). Pliocene molasse of the intermontane troughs has a coarsely clastic composition, and its component rocks are gray o r strawcolored. In places, they are associated with lacustrine evaporites (gypsum in the Bakhtiari Suite in the Cis-Zagros trough, the gypsiferous sequences of the intermontane basins in the Tien Shan, etc. ). Coal-bearing molasse (lignites and brown coals) is not very significant in the Pliocene sequence. The thickness of the continental molasse reaches 5 km in the Cis-Hindu Kush trough and 7 k m (?) in the Cis-Andean trough of Argentina, The continental sand-clay associations, like the continental molasse w e r e distributed more widely in Pliocene than in Miocene time (N2 12.9 and N1 7.5% of the total volume of deposits). They were confined to the platforms and epiplatformal orogenic zones (molassoids). Alluvial and lacustrine deposits occurred most frequently in them, with the exception of coal-bearing sequences. The associations of this group have a more complicated structure and a more varied composition, since they formed under various tectonic conditions. In the Northern Hemisphere, they consist mainly of gray humid associations. Redbed deposits occur in individual regions and are associated with erosion of thin weathering c r u s t s of the semi-laterite type (France). The area of arid redbeds as compared with the Miocene sequence, has beer. reduced (see fig. 6), and the northern boundary of their distribution has shifted southward, into the arid part of the tropical zone. In the equatorial humid and adjacent tropical zone, redbed and varicolored associations occupied vast areas. Laterites accumulated here, The ferralite laterites of the Australian Northern Territory are associated with small iron deposits (33). The thickness of the deposits of this group of associations is small (tens, and less frequently, a few hundred meters). The preceding information on submarine volcanogenic associations of the Miocene sequence also applies to those of the Pliocene, which we assigned to this group. We need only note that typical ophiolite associations of this age are rare and are known only in the island-arc areas (Fiji, Tonga, and the Kermadecs). Their thickness is more than 1000 m. T e r r e s t r i a l volcanogenic associations are widely developed in the Pliocene sequence, as a rule, in the same a r e a s as the hliocene associations. Pliocene volcanism inherited the
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features of the Miocene occurrences and appeared in the s a m e zones. It is somewhat different i n the basic composition of the eruption products. In a number of volcanic provinces, acid rocks also occur, sometimes forming thick sequences (Kamchatka, the K u r i l Islands, Japan, etc. ). But acid magmatism was replaced in these areas during the second half of Pliocene time by basaltoid magmatism. The alkaline s e r e i s continued to play a significant role in the composition of the Pliocene orogenic volcanics: the shoshonites of the island of Lesbos in the Aegean Sea, the trachytes and comendites of Chechudo Island, the potassic basalts of the Great Basin in the USA, the jamellites*, verites, and fortunites of the Betic region, the basanites, tephrites, nephelinites, and limburgites of Eastern Serbia, and the trachyte-basalt series of the E a s t African system involving phonolites (the Kenya volcano, etc. ). In a number of provinces, a decrease in the scale of volcanic activity has been observed. These are the North and Central American Cordillera, the western part of the Alpine orogenic belt with its platformal surroundings (16), Excluding the surroundings of the Alboran Sea, East Africa (14), and Japan (5). Volcanic activity has intensified as a result of increased andesitic volcanism in the Andes, and as a result of alkaline volcanism, in West Antarctia (the stratovolcano association), where the peak of volcanism occurred in the Quaternary and Miocene epochs (the plateaubasalt association). The thickness of the orogenic volcanics exceeds 1 km in the North American Cordillera, 2 k m in the Andes (43, 49), individual regions of the Alpine orogenic belt (16, l?), and the northwestern sector of the Pacific Ocean girdle (5). The thickness of the platformal volcanics reaches several hundred meters. PLIOCENE PALEOCLIMATIC CONDITIONS (Figure 6) In spite of the brevity of the Pliocene epoch, two climatic phases can be recognized. These have been established in the southern USSR, and in the north of the Atlantic and Pacific Oceans, and in general correspond to hvo phases of Pliocene transgression. During early Pliocene time, climatic conditions deteriorated a t moderate rates. The savannahs, inhabited by the hipparionids, were replaced by steppe landscapes, where equids, ancestors of the modern horses, lived. The boundaries of the climatic belts shifted southward, and
*Name not verified.
447
150"
150'
1200
30"
' 0
3 0 '
600
9 0 '
FIGURE 6 . Plioceno thicknesses.
For symbols, see Figure 2.
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\'.YE. K H A I K , A.B. RONOV, AKD ASK. BALUKIIOVSKIY
449
1K I E K K AT1 0K A I. C, EO LO C, Y R EV I E U
the configuration of the a r i d zones remained similar to that prevailing at the end of hliocene time. Cooling mainly affected the polar and high-mountain areas, as emphasized by a relatively warm transgression of the English Coralline Crag and the Enemten transgression in Kamchatka. At this time, South Boreal mollusk assemblages predominated in the Northern Hemisphere (7), and relatively warm-water fauna inhabited the Kimmerian lake-sea (18). The second late Pliocene phase (about 3 m. y. ago) was characterized by marked climatic cooling, and at the latitude of Rostov, the average annual temperature was 5" lower than a t present (15, 19). During this phase, the zone of taiga coniferous forests extended to the northern shores of the Caspian Sea. The southern and northern humid zones consequently expanded a t the expense of the neighboring arid zones. The boundary of the humid zone in the Northern Hemisphere shifted into Southern Turkey, the contrasting nature of the climatic conditions was smoothed out, and evaporite deposition sharply decreased. Laterite weathering crusts formed in an extremely narrow band in the equatorial humid zone. We can assume an increase in the area of the Antarctic glacial cover, and also discern mountain glaciation, as indicated by the increase in the quantity of roundstone conglomerates in upper Pliocene p a r t s of the Siwalik and other molasse sequences. Rapid cooling during Pliocene time primarily involved the circum-polar regions, and later i t s influence spread as f a r as lat. 30"N and lat. 50"s (56, 59). In addition to forest landscapes, the Pliocene is typified by tundra and foresttundra of the cold-temperature zone and steppe landscapes of the warm-temperate zone, including the areas of most of t h e present deserts, such as the Sahara, the Karakumy, Kyzylkum, Gobi, etc.
INTRUSIVE MAGhfATISM AND MINERAL RESOURCES
Among them, we distinguish the polymetallic belt of Central Peru, the T e r t i a r y auriferous belt of Ecuador, the tin-bearing belt and the copper-deposit belt (cupriferous sandstones) in Bolivia, the cupriferous sandstones of the Miocene molasse in the Tadzhik Depression, the major deposits of porphyrycopper o r e s with molybdenum (Panama, the North American Cordillera, and the Solomon Islands), and the copper-silver deposits of Central America (22). In the northwestern and western p a r t s of the Pacific Ocean girdle, there are cassiterite-sulfide, pyritic, antimony, and mercury o r e provinces, and deposits of tin and polymetals. The Alpine orogenic belt i s characterized by polymetallic and mercury ore provinces, and deposits of copper and a number of other metals. Significantly l e s s widely developed, but f a r from rare, as might be expected, and depending on the magnitude of the erosion profile, are the Miocene granite batholiths: the Chilliwack batholith on the boundary between Canada and Washington, and the Montana batholith, located somewhat southeast of the former; batholiths injected along the margins of the intermontane depressions in the Colombia-Ecuador Andes; the batholith of the Blanca Cordillera in Peru; the batholiths of Honshu Island in Japan; the Toros batholith of the Philippines province of Batantos, associated with copper mineralization; the huge Kockhar granitoid pluton of the Akhalkalaki uplands in the L e s s e r Caucasus, etc. Of the sedimentary mineral resources, we must f i r s t note the hydrocarbon pools, confined to the foothills and intermontane troughs in the southern USSR, the Near and Middle East, California, Venezuela (Falcon, Maracaibo, etc. ), Alaska, Sakhalin, Japan, Indonesia, Sicily, and the Adriatic region (gas), the Vienna Basin (oil), and the Gulf Coast deltaic deposits. There are numerous deposits of brown and hard coals, and lignites. Their r e s e r v e s are significant. Sulfur deposits, associated with the sulfates of the evaporite associations (Ciscarpathia, the Apennine Peninsula, and Sicily), and potassic and rock salts, are being intensely exploited. Placer deposits of titanium, tin, etc., are varied. Deposits of diatomites, bentonites, amber, and building materials are substantial. Thus, a large volume of sedimentary rocks (28-lo6 km3) was deposited during the Neogene Period within the continents, somewhat less than that f o r the Paleogene deposits (36.4 -lo6 km3). However, allowing for the different duration of these periods, respectively 23 and 40 m. y., it is evident that the average velocity of sedimentation during Neogene time increased significantly, and mainly as a result of the formation of continental molasse associations. In this case,
450
IGR 81/4
The Neogene Period was characterized by widespread subvolcanic intrusive activity, controlled by orogenic, rift, and geosynclinal volcanism. It, along with the volcanics of the volcanic-plutonic associations, consists of an extremely broad range of rocks from graniteporphyries to ultra-alkaline types, including rare-metal carbonatites. Extrusions, stocks of varied shape, layered bodies, dikes, and ring intrusions from basalts to rhyolites are widely represented (Lesser Caucasus, Central Iran, the E a s t African rift system, and many other regions). These were associated with numerous and varied deposits of metals (mercury, tin, lead, zinc, antimony, and other elements) in different Neogene volcanic provinces, often forming extensive ore belts.
V.YE. KIIAIK, A.B. ROKOV, AKD A.N. RALUKIIO\'SIiIY

the main "relief" for the clastic material transported from the land a r e a s was already taking place in the areas of the continental margins. The Neogene deposits are made up of 81.1% clastic, 7.3% carbonate, 10.1% volcanogenic formations, and 1.5% evaporites. During Neogene time, the process of replacement of the ophiolite associations by island-arc types was greatly stimulated within the present land areas. The place of the ophiolites in volume and especially in distributional area become occupied by terrestrial platformal, rift and orogenic associations, exceptionally varied in petrochemical type and composition. Finally, the island a r c s formed (Aleutian, Koryak-Kamchatka, Kuril, Japanese, L e s s e r Antilles, South Sandwich, etc. ), as well as the huge systems of the present mountain ranges, and the deepwater internal and marginal basins. A widespread regression took place on the continents along with significant climatic cooling, and glacial sheets formed in Antarctica and Greenland. REFERENCES
7. Gladenkov, Yu. B. , 1978, THE MARINE UPPER CENOZOIC SEQUENCE O F THE NORTHERN REGIONS: Geol. Inst. AN SSSR Trudy, vyp. 313, Izd-vo Nauka, Moscow.
8 . Zonenshayn, L. P., Kuz'min, M.I., and Moralev, V. M. , 1976, GLOBAL TECTONICS, MAGMATISM, AND METALLOGENY: Izd-vo Nedra, Moscow. 9 . Ivanov, A.A., and Voronova, M. L. , 1972, HALOGENIC ASSOCIATIONS: Izd-vo Nedra, hIoscow. 10. Iosifova, Yu. hl., 1977, COMPARISON BETWEEN THE MIOCENE SEQUENCE O F THE OKA-DON PLAIN AND THE CONTEMPORANEOUS DEPOSITS O F ADJACENT REGIONS. In hlIOCENE SEQUENCE O F THE OKA-DON PLAIN: p. 212-226, Iz-vo Nedra, Moscow. 11. Krasheninnikov, V. A. , 1971, STRATIGRAPHY OF MIOCENE DEPOSITS OF THE MEDITERRANEAN REGION BASED ON FORAMS: Geol. Inst. AN SSSR Trudy, vyp. 220, Izd-vo Nauka, Moscow. 1 2 . Krasheninnikov, V. A., 1973, STRATIGRAPHY OF MIOCENE DEPOGITS OF THE ATLANTIC, INDIAN, AND PACIFIC OCEAN AREAS BASED ON FORAMS: Geol. Inst. AN SSSR Trudy, vyp. 233, Izd-vo Nauka, Moscow. 13. Krasheninnikov, V.A. , 1978, SIGNIFICANCE OF OCEANIC DEPOSITS IN DEVELOPING A STRATIGRAPHIC SCALE FOR THE MESOZOIC AND CENOZOIC SEQUENCES (PACIFIC AND ATLANTIC OCEANS). In PROBLEMS OF MICROPALEONTOLOGY: p. 42-160, Geol. Inst. AN SSSR Trudy, vyp. 21, Izd-vo Nauka, Moscow. 14. Logachev, N. A. , 1974, SEQUENCE AND CONDITIONS O F FORMATION O F THE NEOGENE-QUATERNARY ROCK COMPLEX. In EAST AFRICAN RIFT SYSTEM: v. 1, p. 62-237, Izd-voNauka, Moscow.
15. Markov, K. K. , 1960, PALEOGEOGRAPHY: Izd-vo Mosk. Univ. , Moscow.
1 . ATLAS O F LITHOLOGLC-PALEOGEOGRAPHIC MAPS O F THE RUSSIAN PLATFORM AND ITS GEOSYNCLINAL SURROUNDINGS, P a r t 2 . MESOZOIC AND CENOZOIC, 1961: Gosgeoltekhizdat, Moscow-Leningrad.
2. ATLAS O F LITHOLOGIC-PALEOGEO-
GRAPHIC MAPS OF THE USSR. . PALEOGENE, NEOGENE, VOLUME 4 AND QUATERNARY PERIODS, 1967: Izd-vo Nedra, Moscow-Leningrad.
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This article was downloaded by: [Ohio State University Libraries] On: 07 February 2012, At: 23:27 Publisher:

International Geology Review

Neogene lithologic associations of the continents

Neogene Iitho logic associations of the continents

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\'.YE. K I I A I N , A.U. RONOV, A K ' D A.K. BALUK11O\'SKIY

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IKTEKKATIOSAL GEOLOGY KEkIEa

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lithologic associations of the continents.

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1STEH S AT I 0 S A L CEO LOGY

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TABLE 1. Areas, volumes, and distribution of

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3.1 9.5 5.3 3.7

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[Table 1 continued on following page]

IKTEKKATIONAL GEOLOGY REVIEW

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