SHREYA LUBANA

Syllabus
Environment
Resources and Wealth Environmental Degradation

Environmental Management

What is Environmental Management?

It is the management of
All the components of biological, physical and

chemical in both biotic (living) and abiotic (non living) The interaction of social, cultural and economic environment with bio physical environment.

Environmental Components
Abiotic Components:

Lithosphere (Land) Atmosphere (Air) Hydrosphere (Water) Biotic Components: Plants Animals Micro-organisms

Abiotic Components

LITHOSPHERE

 Lithosphere (Land):

30% of the Earths total surface. Oceanic, Continental Crust and Rigid upper portion of the mantle. Contains: elements like Copper, Iron, Silicon, Aluminium etc. Fossil fuels coal, oil and natural gas. Soils consists of rock material

ATMOSPHERE

 Atmosphere (Air)

Contains gaseous substances like Oxygen, Nitrogen, Carbon Dioxide, oxides of Nitrogen, neon, argon, helium, water vapour and dust particles. Oxygen (29.05%) Nitrogen (78.08%) Carbon Dioxide (0.03%) vital for photosynthesis No water vapour no rain or snow Minute solid / liquid particles aerosols.

 Aerosols act as nuclei for cloud formation and

precipitation of rain. Ozone (O3) stratosphere Aerosol sprays and refrigerating agents containing CFC harmful.

HYDROSPHERE

 Surface, ground and oceanic water.

70% of earths surface is water Hydrologic cycle

BIOTIC COMPONENTS
Plants autotrophs , natural filters
Animals heterotrophic, herbivores, carnivores,

tertiary carnivores Microoganisms break down complex compounds to simpler ones.

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Carbon Cycle
CO2 is utilised by plants.
Photosynthesis brings carbon back into biotic pool

while respiration by plants, animals, humans, decomposition put carbon back into the atmosphere. Increase in levels of CO2: Human activity Excessive deforestation Intensive grazing Heavy industrialization Progressive urbanization

Carbon Cycle (contd)

Deforestation and urbanization reduced natural

conversion of CO2 to oxygen High output of CO2 has adverse effect on plant life.

Nitrogen Cycle
Nitrogen essential element in organisms in form of

amino acids Amino acids building blocks of protein Oxides of nitrogen through rain get deposited on earths surface. Nitrogen Fixation Nitrogen fixing bacteria present in the root nodules of leguminous plants have the capacity to convert atmospheric nitrogen into nitrates which is readily absorbed by plants. Eg: Blue green algae.

Nitrogen Cycle
Nitrogen is released through decay and decomposition

of plant and animal waste. Oxides of nitrogen are responsible for causing environmental degradation.

Man & Nature

Food
Clothing Shelter

Occupation

Man & Nature (contd)

Clothing basic need

eg: Egyptian cotton, silk, khadi, wool, leather etc. Shelter materials used in construction, in furniture Occupation- hunting, farming, animal husbandary

 Natural Resources

Types of Resources
Renewable Resources:

Replenished through natural rapid cycles eg: Water, Soil, Solar energy, crops, forests etc. Non Renewable Resources: Available in limited quantity, will be exhausted in time eg: Minerals, Fossil fuels, Natural gas, Metals. A) Non recyclable: Oil, Coal etc. B) Recyclable : Metal scrap, plastic

Resource exploitation
At our disposal: vegetation, water, air , soil, minerals,

animal wealth. Loss of forest cover Decrease in animal species and numbers Excessive fishing seas, rivers Excessive farming Setting up industries, transportation etc.

Wealth
Wealth generation business motive
Resources can be used to create wealth Optimum conversion of resources into wealth:

Redesign products & adopt new technologies Use less raw material in mfg and try to reuse wastes Reduce consumption Think Green develop eco friendly concepts Adopt natural substitutes

Eco friendly solutions

Use of solar energy for lighting
Concentrated Solar Power Plants Hydroelectricity

Wind energy
Developing Green Coal Power plant

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Biogeochemical cycles: Carbon cycle diagram

Carbon cycle diagram 2

Nitrogen Cycle

Hydrologic cycle

 WASTE MANAGEMENT

Anthropogenic Waste
Waste generated by human agency in conducting

activities like industries, agriculture, domestic, mining, sewage, biomedical waste, nuclear installations.

Types of waste
Domestic waste
Agricultural residues, fertilizers and pesticides Industrial waste both hazardous and non hazardous

Radioactive wastes
Mining and Quarry wastes Sewage sludge Construction sites debris, unused materials Flash (Power stations) Biomedical waste

Principles of waste Management

Minimum production of wastes using substitutes,

altering product design, using clean technology Maximizing reuse of wastes and recycling Japan recycles 40% of solid waste paper, cans, glass by separating it into 32 categories Promoting environment friendly waste disposal practices incineration, composting, land filling

Incineration
Reduces weight and volume
Bacteria are destroyed Residue ash could be used for recovery of metals

Toxics are released dioxins and furans.

Eg: source of energy used coal, sulphur in coal combines with dioxins

Landfills
Used only for biodegradable materials
Unpopular practice due to foul odour, worms, flies and

scavenging animals Releases gases such as Methane decomposing During rains water collects in decomposing waste forming leashate which pollutes underground water.

PLASTIC WASTE MANAGEMENT

1996 National Plastic Waste Management Task Force Indian Centre of Plastics in Environment set up to promote and upgrade plastic industries. 1999 Recycled Plastic Manufacture and Usage Rules were outlined. Prohibited use of plastic carry bags made of recycled plastic for storing, carrying and packaging food. (BPA free)

 Carry bags minimum thickness 20 microns, in

natural shade of white and must be virgin plastic Recycling of plastic should be done according to the specifications of Bureau of Indian Standards. At the end the product should be marked Recycled and how much % of recycled plastic is used must be shown

Biomedical Waste (BMW)

Waste generated during diagnosis, treatment or

immunization of human beings and animals Research activities pertaining to production and testing of disinfectants, insecticides, medical formulations from plants and animals. Includes used bandages, lint and gauze pieces, disposable syringes, needles, clamps not recycled or put to use again Accumulation unhygienic conditions, source of infection

CBMWTF
Common Biomedical Waste Treatment Facility

consists of incineration, autoclaving, microwaving and effluent treatments. This concept prevents proliferation of treatment equipment in the city. Parameters of CBMWTF: Site located reasonably away from city limits Should be set up on plot of land not less than 1 hectare. Should cater to not more than 10,000 beds (hospitals)

Hazardous Waste Management

Clubbed with other wastes and dumped water and

land pollution and health issues. Basel Convention: Checked on export of Hazardous waste from developed nations to developing nations. Garbage imperialism Signed by 33 countries requires environmentally sound disposal of hazardous waste. African countries signed the Bamko convention by which the entire continent of Africa was completely closed to all hazardous waste.

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3Rs of Waste Management

Source reduction eg. Do away with layers of

unnecessary packaging, purchase supplies in bulk to reduce need for individual packing. Reuse eg. Items such as computer ribbons and catridges are mfg. using reused material from previous copiers and laser printers. Recycle collection, sorting and processing of discarded materials which will serve as a new material for new products.

Waste Management Practices

Autoclaving / Sterilization
Microwaving Incineration

Hydroclaving

Autoclaving/ Steam Sterilization

Similar to pressure cooking
Limited to certain types of waste such as lab cultures

and substances contaminated with infectious organisms. Waste generated is subjected to steam in a sealed, pressurized chamber with temp. upto 130 dgrs. And high pressure of 300 amperes. Liquid formed is drained off to the sewer / processing. Unit is reopened after vapour release and solid waste is taken out for further treatment.

Incineration
Reduces weight and volume
Rotary kiln is the unit of method used in it. Its is popularly used by hospitals where in two

chambers which are hearth burning controlled air incinerator units Waste is fed into primary chamber, when it burns with less than a tachomeric quantity of air at 800 drgs cntgd more air added to secondary chamber to completely oxidise waste. Temp of second chambe is at 1000 drgs cntgd.

 Ash is removed from the backend of the combustion

unit. A complete system often includes a waste heat broiler for energy recovery followed by an air pollution control system to remove acid gas and meet the particulate standards.

Microwaves
Involves use of radiation produced by the microwave

to break apart molecular bonds leading to disinfect infectious medical waste. Waste treated at temp. 97-100 drg cntgd. While being rotated. Waste is collected in puncture proof containers at the source of generation. Containers are then transported to the microwave and directly placed inside the treatment chamber for infection cleanse.

Hydroclaving
Steam is introduced into hollow walls of the

hydroclave. Steam does not come directly into contact with the waste. This ensures better heat penetration and uniform temperatures. The fragmenter consists a series of rods that spin slowly and feed material into steam chamber. After sterilization waste is passed through a shedder and then transported to a landfill.

INDUSTRIAL WASTE
Industrial units convert naturally occurring vegetables,

fruits and mineral wealth into a variety of products. Major waste producing industries: Metallurgical industries zinc, copper, aluminium,steel Paper, pulp and newsprint Refineries and fertilizers Pesticides Paints and dyes Leather tanning Rayon Pharmaceuticals Plastics Cement Asbestos

Nature of Industrial Waste

Note dictation

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Management of Hazardous Wastes

Control of generation
Storage Transport

Reuse
Recycling Disposal

Policies for Hazardous Waste Management

Hazardous Waste Management handling rules were

introduced in 1989. These provide for control of generation, collection, treatment, transport, import, storage and disposal of wastes. Besides these rules, in 1991 Ministry of Environment and Forests (MEF) issued guidelines for mnmgt and handling of Hazardous wastes for generators, transport of hazardous waste, owners and operators of hazardous waste storage, treatment and disposal facility.

Policies for Hazardous Waste Management

These guidelines were also established the mechanism

for development of reporting system for the movement of hazardous waste and for the first time outlined the procedures for closure and post closure requirements of landfills. In 1995, further to this Guidelines for Safe Road Transport of Hazardous Chemicals basic rules for Hazardous Goods Transport and provided for the establishment of a transport emergency plan.

Initiatives Taken for Hazardous Waste Mnmgt

MEF initiated task of Hazardous Waste Inventory in

various states to gather updated info. State govts. are in the process of identifying HW disposal sites based on EIA ( Envt Impact Assessment) of the potential sites. CPCB (Central Pollution Control Board) has prepared a ready reckoner providing technical info on sources of HW, their characteristics and methods of recycling and disposal. Training programs emphasizing on precautionary measures and testing methods for HW constituents organized for personnel in ports and Pollution Control Boards

Initiatives Taken for Hazardous Waste Mnmgt

Ban on import of HW containing beryllium, selenium,

chromium, thallium, pesticides, herbicides and their residues based on recommendations by an Expert Committee To control trans boundary movement, cyanide wastes, mercury and arsenic bearing wastes have been prohibited for exports and import since Dec 1996 Import of Waste Oil and metal bearing wastes such as zinc ash, skimming brass dross and lead acid batteries for processing to recover resources would be regulated in MEF and allowed only by envmtal acceptable technologies.

Projects to regulate disposal of wastes

Australian Aid project Australian Aided Hyderabad

Waste Management Project was started in 1 996 to develop a common treatment, storage and disposal facility for HW generated from industries located in Hyderabad. SPCB also recd technical assistance through this Alus Aid project for training in HWM. German Project German Technical Cooperation Project for assisting Ktaka in development of HWM infrastructure was initiated in 1995. Work completed includes HW inventory, status of existing disposal system, evaluation of waste disposal alternatives with focus on incineration and landfilling.

Municipal Solid Waste (MSW)

Waste generated in the urbanized cities is called Municipal

Solid Waste. According to CPCB recycle content of such waste varies from 15% to 20%. Only few cities follow good practice of waste disposal such as tipping of waste using mechanized equipment for levelling and compacting and placing a daily soil cover on top of it before compacting it further. Some municipalities practice composting the organic fraction of waste. However, Indian cities do not adequate waste collection and dumping methods, leading to littering.

Municipal Solid Waste (MSW)

MSW is unscientifically disposed off ( no sanitary

landfill exists) This has adverse impact on ecosystem and human life. Unscientific disposal leads to unattended disposal sites, which attract birds and scavengers, rodents, fleas etc. This creates unhygienic conditions i.e odour release of airborne pathogens) Plastic content is picked by rag pickers and recycled in factories which do not have adequate technologies to safe disposal. This exposes workers to toxic fumes and unhygienic conditions.

Municipal Solid Waste Management and Handling Rules 2000

These rules are meant to regulate collection,

segragation, transport and disposal of MSW arising from household and commercial establishments by municipal auhtorities. Rules provide for recycling and colour scheme for bins for collection and segragation. Municipal authorities are also required to obtain authorization for setting up waste processing and disposal facilities including landfills from SPCB. These rules also provide options for processing and disposal of wastes like composting, recycling or incineration as alternatives to landfills.

 BASEL CONVENTION

The Background
In 1980s the world was shocked with news about lethal

underworld trade in the export of hazardous waste from developed countries to developing countries. Toxic flyash dumped by USA in Guinea and Sierra Leone. Proposal to export HW from West Germany to Liberia Waste from Italy dumped in Koko, Nigeria Mercury laced sludge from New Jersey dumped in South Africa.

The Background
Worst affected continent due to waste dumping was Africa. Greenpeace did the most commendable work to monitor

toxic wastes trade and alert govts. Of the danger. The African govts reacted with anger to this growing threat of garbage imperialism. Nigeria found over 3000 tonnes of Italian wastes including radioactive matter on the port of Koko. When workers unloading the shipment started vomiting blood, Nigeria entered into a bitter diplomatic row with Italy. The Nigerian govt impounded the ships and arrested the involved businessmen and threatened to execute all those found guilty in the toxic wastes deal. The Italians took the waste back.

The Convention
The United Nations (UN) had to intervene for devising

a Treaty to set global rules for the control of Trade of Hazardous Wastes The Basel Convention. This convention requires environmentally sound disposal of Hazardous Wastes. Many developing countries sought ways to control the trade in waste through regional cooperation. Countries of Africa, Carribean and Pacific collectively joined with EU to prohibit the waste trade between their countries.

The Convention
The Organisation of African Unity (OAU) an

intergovernmental political organisation of all African countries expect South Africa and Morocco, declared that dumping of Hazardous waste was a crime against Africa and adopted a resolution to refrain from entering into waste agreements. 16 member states of the Economic Community of West Africa (ECOWAS) agreed to make trade in toxic wastes a criminal offence by enacting national legislation against dumping of foreign wastes.

The Convention
UNEP worked on a treaty to set global rules for the

control of the trade of HW on the basis of a request from the Heads of the African Governments. The Treaty called, the Convention on Control of Transboundary Movement of Hazardous Waste and their Disposal also called the Basel Convention was signed in March 1989 by 33 countries. But the very African countries which pushed for the treaty were so disappointed with the final outcome that they refysed to sign.

 Bamako Convention

About Bamako Convention

Disillusioned with global solidarity, African nations came

together after Basel Convention in 1991 to formulate a treaty which closes the continent to all hazardous wastes. The convention on the Ban of the Import into Africa and the Control of Trans boundary Movement and Management of Hazardous Waste within Africa, also known as Bamako Convention is direct outcome of the failure of the Basel Convention. Official explaining the new treaty claim, after Basel Africans realized that we would have to take the responsibility for protecting our own continent as it was clear that many industrialized nations were unwilling to help us do so.

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Lome Convention
The agreement under Lome Convention bans all

radioactive wastes shipment from the European Community (EC) countries to ACP countries ( Africa, Caribbean and the Pacific countries) In addition to the Lome convention the ACP countries have agreed to ban imports of wastes from any other country.

Bamako vs Basel Convention

Bamako Convention totally bans the import of Hazardous

wastes (HW) including radioactive wastes to the African subcontinent. The convention in contrast to the Basel Convention requires HW generation audits and imposes strict unlimited liability on HW generators. Greenpeace has called this convention (Bamako) probably the most progressive hazardous waste legislation in the world is the direct consequence of the failure of the Basel Convention to address issues of immediate envmtal concern to African nations and their people.

Terms
HW generation audits annual environmental reports

explaining all the measures adopted in ensuring that the production process leading to HW was done under strict control. Eg: Siemens all employees are required to act in an environmentally conscious manner, created environmentally compatible production process to take a product back and recycling scheme.

Example
Indian cities are still trying to bring down their

emission levels under control, in countries like Germany automobile technology has become so advanced and accurate that nitrogen emission in diesel cars has been reduced by as much as 70%.

Promoting Environmentally Sound Waste Disposal

To establish waste treatment and disposal quality criteria

and standards based on assimilative capacity of the recvg environment. To establish mechanisms for monitoring waste related pollution . To ensure that 50% of all wastes are treated or disposed in conformity with national / international standards by all the developing countries by 2005 and 100% by 2025. Various options for waste disposal are: a) Recycling and reuse Cola bottles, cans, steel boxes b) Landfills Landfill tax Green tax c) Composting Composting plants leading to fertilizer prodn. d) Incineration burning of waste

E-Waste
Consists of television sets, refrigerators, telephones, computers,

mobile phones, micro chips etc. E-waste comprises of toxic heavy metals such as lead, mercury, cadmium that can seep into water, soil and atmosphere and can significantly damage health, human life and environment. Growing e-waste problem short life span of electronic goods. Life span of cell phones and computers is usually approx 2 yrs. Electronic goods are increasingly being treated as disposable items. Companies create such consumer climate by constantly mktg new technologies and declare fairly recent products old fashioned.

Examples of E-waste problems

California discards more than 6000 computers daily
The primary source of e- waste in India is imports

from developed countries and domestic sources of ewaste. In Europe, the volume of E-waste is growing three times faster than the growth of MSW. United Nations Environment Program (UNEP) estimates that each yr 20 million to 50 million tonnes of e-waste is dumped into landfills around the world.

E- waste Disposal Options

1) Developing nations destinations for E-waste
2) Landfills 3) Incineration

4) Reuse
5) Buyback Policy

Problems of Non Degradable Wastes

Such waste require a long time period for their natural

decomposition. Non degradable waste consists of household products such as tube lights, bulbs, plastic, thermocol, glass bottles. Hazardous industry products such as mercury, tin, lead, rubber and metal scrap.

The type of litter we generate and approx time it takes to degenerate

Type of litter Organic waste: veges, fruits, leftover food Paper Cotton cloth Wood Approx time taken to degenerate A week or two 10-30 days 2-5 months 10-15 years

Woollen items Tin, aluminium, other metal cans

Plastic bags Glass bottles

1 year 100-500 years

One million years Undetermined

Recycling of Waste Following measures can be taken to dispose waste for a safer and better envmt
Landfill site should not be too close to the surface water

and or ground water. The geological and hydrological conditions should be stable while selecting a landfill site Sites sensitive due to their natural or cultural heritage must be avoided The incineration ash containing dioxins, cadmium and lead can be destroyed when treated to a very high temp. likely to be in excess of 12000 c One way to reduce a dangerous emission is to remove batteries containing heavy metals and plastics containing chlorine before wastes are burned.

Recycling of Waste Following measures can be taken to dispose waste for a safer and better envmt
Plastics can be segregated from waste before burning,

this will control dioxin emission. Keep the plastic items out of all incinerator waste. Those producing more of waste should be imposed with a tax as in case of UK, where the govt has imposed landfill tax escalator Green tax and Polluter Pay Principle should also be imposed. The best practice before disposal is segregation of waste, recycling and reuse so that very less amount of waste is left for disposal.

Recycling of Waste Following measures can be taken to dispose waste for a safer and better envmt
Composting a better method od disposal as compared

to landfills for biodegradable waste such as kitchen and garden waste. Backyard composting, vermicomposting, biogas plants etc are good examples of waste disposal. Upcycling a practice of converting waste materials into products of greater value. Eg: Converting tetra packs into bags, junk jewellery etc. Eg: State of the art designs created using discarded electronic materials , metals etc

 Case Study KHIAN SEA

 LAND MANAGEMENT AND SOIL POLLUTION

Introduction
Land is a finite resource. Comprises of soils, minerals, water and living creatures. Land is source of livelihood for almost 60% of the

population through agriculture and related activities Population growth, water and biological resources has put tremendous pressure on land. This has lead to significant land degradation. Under various categories lands under cultivation face the biggest problem followed by grazing land and pastures, forests, barren lands and unculturable lands in decreasing order. Negative effects of land degradation have a great impact on Indias envmt and economy.

Land degradation
Of Indias reporting area for land use about 46.6% is under

agriculture, 22.6% is under forests and 13.6% is not available for cultivation. Its estimated that about 174 million hectares of land (53%) suffers from different types and varying degrees of degradation. About 800 heactare of arable land are lost annually due to ingress of ravines. More than 5000 million tonnes of topsoil are eroded every year. All this has direct bearing on food production and the livelihood of the people.

Other factors contributing to land degradation

Desertification
Over grazing of pastures Drought

Improper water management

Undefined agro forestry land consumption

Strategies for sustainable Land Management

Sustainable land management means managing land without damaging ecological processes or reducing biological diversity. It requires the maintenance of the following key components of the environment: biodiversity: the variety of species, populations, habitats and ecosystems; ecological integrity: the general health and resilience of natural life-support systems, including their ability to assimilate wastes and withstand stresses such as climate change and ozone depletion; and natural capital: the stock of productive soil, fresh water, forests, clean air, ocean, and other renewable resources that underpin the survival, health and prosperity of human communities. Land is often managed for multiple benefits, such as agricultural production, biodiversity conservation, water quality, soil health and supporting human life. To ensure long-term sustainability, land managers need to consider economic, social and environmental factors.

Soil
Land degradation manifests itself in the form of

erosion (water erosion and wind erosion) of the soil. Its estimated that the 1/3 of the worlds cropland is losing top soil that supports flora and fauna at a very rapid rate. Also 50% of worlds range land is overgrazed and is changing into deserts. The result is loss of productivity, both grains and the livestock.

Introduction - contd
Change in agricultural practices and caring for the soil

by preventing its pollution would help eco-economy. Raising crop yields is an ecological challenge. Increasing no. of crops per hectare through multiple cropping, getting more out of existing crops, new crop varieties that are drought tolerant, that do not require much of pesticides, strip cropping are some of the examples of sustainable agricultural practices, besides the genetic engg and other biotechnological means.

Introduction - contd
Prevention of soil erosion and desertification and

detoxification of soils are the essential steps in the management of land use.

Soil Pollution
Chiefly occurs through agricultural chemicals and

human refuse. Landfills major contributor to soil pollution Landfills breeds diseases, germs, release methane a green house gas while the waste decomposes. Pesticides and fertilizers its estimated that only 1/4of the fertilizer is used by plants, remaining reaches beyond roots of the plants or is lost through volatilization and thus reach ground water.

Soil Pollution
Pesticides reaching the water tables and through the food

chain reach the non target organisms including human. DDT famous pesticide that is still found on soil after its ban many years ago. DBCP (Dibromocholropropane) which is used as a fumigant on the fruits is still found in water supply even after its ban. One thing about many of these chemicals is their long life. Chemical companies are now developing chemicals that are short lived at the same time more effective.

Management issues
Agriculture practices need to be changed so that they

require reduced quantities of pesticides. New methods of agriculture that involve genetic engineering would lead to pest resistance varieties of crops. Subsidizing pesticides and fertilizers encourages use of these chemicals more than what is justified. Subsidy issue may be thoroughly re examined

Recommendations
Increasing the utilization of irrigation potential,

promoting water conservation and efficient water management along with expansion of irrigation facilities need urgent attention. A threshold value for adding fertilizers or use of any other agrochemical needs to be defined. Pollution of soils should be prevented from toxic chemicals and pesticides by properly disposing off municipal wastes.

Recommendations
A well defined integrated land use policy should be

developed at the earliest, as also rural fuelwood and grazing and fodder policies to guide management of land and forest scientifically and sustainably. Land mnmgt in conjunction with water mnmgt needs to be the core agenda for national development.

Ocean Dumping
This is a very common practice of waste disposal in

coastal areas. It is defined as the practice of dumping all sorts of wastes into the ocean waters. Non degradable materials like plastic when disposed off in the ocean often cause marine life and birds to choke and die. Dumping of toxic wastes results in soaking up on oceanic oxygen causing loss of fish and other marine life.

Ocean Dumping (contd..)

There are three main direct public health risks from ocean

dumping: (1) occupational accidents, injuries, and exposures; (2) exposure of the public to hazardous or toxic materials washed up on beaches; and (3) human consumption of marine organisms that have been contaminated by ocean disposal. Periodically, medical and other wastes from both legal and illegal dumping have washed up on beaches, resulting in exposure to beachgoers and, in some cases, the closure of beaches until the wastes could be removed. Consumption of fish and shellfish contaminated from radioactive wastes may pose a serious problem worldwide because of nuclear waste dumping in the oceans.

Ocean Dumping

Desertification
Desertification is the process which turns productive into

non- productive desert as a result of poor landmanagement. Desertification occurs mainly in semi-arid areas (average annual rainfall less than 600 mm) bordering on deserts. Causes of desertification: Expolitation of lands Overgrazing Agricultural activitites Industrialization Countries like: Ghana, Mali, Somalia, Senegal and Middle east Gulf nations.

Water Pollution
It means contamination of water bodies. Water pollution occurs when pollutants are discharged

directly or indirectly into water bodies without adequate treatment to remove harmful compounds. Water gets polluted due to: Domestic effluents Sewage Industrial effluents Thermal pollution Heavy metal contamination Entry of radioactive material in water

After effects of water pollution

Damages water resources by changing its natural

balance and entirely damages the ecosystem. Dangerous to birds and fishes Affects the health and well being of human beings at large

Air Pollution
It is defined as the presence in: the outdoor atmosphere, of

a substance or substances, released directly or indirectly through human activity, in quantities that are detrimental to health, safety or wellbeing of the biosphere. Pollutants causing air pollution: Particulate matter Oxides of sulphur Oxides of nitrogen Carbon monoxide Hydrocarbons Photochemical Oxidants Other Pollutants

Particulates
Solid and liquid aerosols suspended in the atmosphere

are referred to as particulates Substances present in the particulate matter are: ammonium, sulphate, nitrate and metals like iron, copper, arsenic, mercury etc. Particulates are divided into 2 categories: a) Dustfall (those that settle out rapidly) b) Suspended particulate matter (those that remain suspended in the air for long periods mostly permanently)

Particulates
The most harmful are the small particles.
Larger particles are more easily swept out of the

respiratory system by the hair like cilia. Smaller particles reach the lung more readily and cause most adverse effects on health. These contain toxic substances like the carcinogenic hydr0carbons. The chief human illnesses resulting from the particulate matter are: Chronic bronchitis, bronchial asthma, lung cancer and emphysema.

Oxides of Sulphur

Environmental degradation
Environment is a set of relationships between the

living and the non living. Environmental degradation means the exploitation of natural environment to such an extent that it is not possible to regenerate itself to its original pristine condition. The environment is the sum total of its biotic and abiotic constituents which interact with one another.

Causes of Envmt Degradation

Clearing of forest lands wild animals to lose their

natural habitats Increased industrialization increase in pollution (air, water, land) development of concrete jungles Heavily populated cities increased strain on water supply and waste mngmt Increased pollution greenhouse gases, global warming, increase in sea levels Release of effluents in rivers depletion of marine life, ecosystem

Degradation of land
Overgrazing due to hungry and malnourished

animal population accelerates soil erosion Deforestation building industries, cities, dams etc Desertification dry conditions Over cultivation croplands being frequently cultivated Neglect of grazing lands Spread of ravines and soil erosion Mining

Neglect of Grazing lands

Huge wealth of livestock has important role in rural

life. Animal husbandry contributes to the national income indirectly. Village industries like cane crushing and oil extraction depend on animals. Huge population of livestock needs fodder which isnt enough. Because of shortage of green fodder the animals get crop residues like rice and wheat straws having low nutritional values.

Neglect of Grazing lands

Since fodder is scare, there is illegal grazing on private

cultivated lands. There is also a lot of haphazard grazing which has serious consequences on the environment. Overgrazing leads to land degradation and finally desert like conditions. This reduces animal productivity and increases economic pressure on human beings who depend on animals for livelihood. Overgrazing takes places because there are too many animals and too little grass.

Options for optimizing grazing lands

It is the need of the hour to tend and maintain grazing

lands to protect the fragile ecosystem in arid and semiarid regions. Possible measures to avoid land degradation are: 1. Afforestation 2. Social forestry 3. Controlled grazing allows grass to grow 4. Grow Subabul trees to be used as fodder 5. Better animal husbandry practices could stop land degradation

Degradation of Urban lands

Growth of industries requires a large workforce

leading to rapid urbanization. Over populated cities city development has become sprawling unplanned development. (Metro and Monorail projects in Metro cities) Unplanned growth and often dirty sordid conditions of industrial cities have inspired city planners to build townships combining scientific farming, communal living and progressive social princples.

Social Forestry
Social forestry tree raising programs for supply of

firewood, fodder, small timber and minor forest products. Social forestry is criticized because it benefits urban and industrial India instead of the rural poor and reducing rural unemployment. Land which is good for cultivation is diverted to grow trees of commercial value. If trees are grown they do not require to be tended with much attention promotes absentee landlordism

Social Forestry (cntd)

Social forestry programs have three components

1. Farm forestry 2. Encouraging farmers to grow trees on their won farms by giving free or subsidised seedlings. 3. Woodlots planted by the forest department for the needs of community, especially along the sides of the roads, banks of canals and other such public lands. Communities are also encouraged to plant trees on a co-op basis in the community lands and to share the profits arising out of the forest produce.

Social Forestry (cntd)

Social forestry projects were a big hit in the UP and

Gujarat among the big farmers. In Kolar district of Karnataka, farmers have taken to intensive tree farming because pulp and rayon factories pay an attractive price for pulpwood.

Social Forestry (cntd)

To summarise, social forestry programs have been largely

successful in farm forests. Big farmers have profitted while the rural poor have not got anything back. The trees grown under this program teak, pine and eucalyptus have commercial use and can be used as fuel. But there isnt any provision in social forestry for increasing fodder for livestock. Eucalyptus trees draw a lot of ground water and soil nutrients and have been found to discourage other plants to grow under them.

Social Forestry (cntd)

The species chosen in social forestry have 3 drawbacks:

1. They do not help to restore ecology 2. Neither enhance the fertility of the soil 3. Nor conserve the soil and water.

Soil Erosion and Ravines

Ravines and gully erosion are the most spectacular

types of erosion that have already degraded 40 lakh hectare of land in India. Ravines occur along the river Chambal, Yamuna, Mahi, Sabarmati and their tributaries. Ravines are encroaching productive table lands which has resulted in ppl living near the rivers moving away to crowded areas. This displacement results in fragmentation of land holding making cultivation inefficient and uneconomic.

Soil Erosion and Ravines

Ravines are formed when the rain falls on unprotected

soil with a stable cover of vegetation. The rain drops make the soil muddy and soil particles flood down the slope with the sheet of water causing sheet erosion. The uneven topography gives rise to rifts which develop into gullies which grow bigger and bigger and finally into ravines. Ravines are deep gorges containing group of gullies parallel to one another and entering a river flowing much lower than the surrounding table lands.

Soil Erosion and Ravines

Another way is when the water cuts very deep channels

in alluvial lands while undergoing a large fall in a short distance. The alluvium is deposit left by a flood of water. This helps form gullies along the river banks. Once a ravine is formed, waterfall erosion deepens it further and land can cave in.

Soil Erosion and Ravines

Other reasons for ravines formation:

Cultivation it removes the natural protection vegetation cover. Tilling the soil exposes it to the abrasive effect of cascading water which washes away the soil. Development work by the way of irrigation schemes Deforestation of lands

Initiatives to halt soil erosion

Afforestation and soil conservation massive afforestation

helps bind the topsoil so that it is not washed away. Protective bunding ravines in some areas have been reclaimed by proactive bunding. As a result the following methods are being used: 1. contour bunding 2. use of agronomical practices on to lands 3. Establishing green belts on the submarginal lands 4. reclaiming ravine lands by constructing soil saving dams. Afforestation by aerial seeding

Mining
Coal, iron ore, copper, bauxite, manganese, chromite

and limestone are mined extensively. 2 basic mining methods: a. Open Cast Mining: the entire top soil, rocks and other earth strata are removed to reach the ore layer which is called as the ore seam. This is then blasted to break it into the size of rocks. b. Underground Mining: involves tunneling first vertical and then horizontal corridors with roofs supports to prevent collapse.

Effect of Mining on Environment

Mining areas are monochromatic in appearance. This

is due to fine ore particles that settle as dust on everything. Near an asbestos mine, one cannot but inhale fine asbestos particles suspended in the air. Nearly 90% of mine workers in such mines suffer from carcinogenic disease called asbestosis. Mineral dust is detrimental to health. Mining ruins lands, water, forests and air. There is loss of agricultural land not only for mines but also for factories, workers townships, roads and rail.

Effect of Mining on Environment

It causes desertification mining of phosphorite,

gypsum, kaolin and stearite increases soil salinity. Uncontrolled quarrying affects water, grazing lands and vegetation Continuous dewatering of underground mines causes flooding, silting, water logging and pollution. Water table is also lowered.

Global warming and Green house effect

GW (Global Warming) means gradual increase in

world temperatures caused by green house gases. Main green house gas (ghg) is Carbon dioxide (CO2) Other gases are Nitrous oxide, CFCs, methane, perfluorocarbons and sulphuric fluoride. GHGs come from burning fossil fuels. These gases trap suns rays in the earths atmosphere causing the temperature to rise resulting in Green House Effect.

Global warming and Green house effect

The gases mentioned previously, in lower atmosphere

act like glass in green house. The allow solar radiations to strike the earths surface, resist the earths surface to reflect or radiate the heat back into space. The suns rays consist of ultraviolet, visible, infrared radiations (IR). The ozone layer absorbs most of the UV radiations and allows the visible and IR radiations to pass through the atmosphere and reach the surface of the earth.

Global warming and Green house effect

As IR radiations are of short wavelength, they pass

easily through the atmosphere. These infrared radiations are primarily responsible for heating the objects on the earths surface. Large amount of Cos present in the atmosphere raises temperatures.

Sources of Green House Gases (GHGs)

CO2 is released by burning fossil fuels such as wood,

coal, charcoal etc. Industrial activities also release CO2. Decomposition of decaying plants, animals and deforestation also gives rise to CO2. Methane is released from coal mines and paddy cultivation, decaying matter etc. CFCs through refridgeration and cooling

Effects of Global Warming (GW)

Climate change
Hydrological cycle Rise in sea levels

Rising temperatures result in decreased soil moisture

and increase in drought like conditions Stratosphere will begin to cool owing to accumulating CO2 levels in lower atmosphere Floods, typhoons and cyclones will increase

India in picture
6 areas that are threatened due to warming of Indias

atmosphere: 1. Rising sea levels 2. Widespread contamination of rivers 3.Forests 4. Urban flooding 5. Wildlife 6. Ladakh

 Environmental Assessment

Environmental Impact Statement (EIS)

Developed countries have evolved a National

Environmental Policy which requires all projects on govt lands or projects funded by the govt to be examined from the point of view of their impact on the environment. This environment impact statement (EIS) assesses the possible effects of the project on the environment and suggests corrective and or remedial steps.

Environmental Impact Assessment

In USA, the National Environmental Policy Act passed

in 1969, makes it a requirement for projects to receive EIS. The short term as well as the long term effects of the project are examined in the light of the real needs. In other countries EIS is called the Environmental Impact Assessment (EIA)

Environmental Impact Assessment

An environmental impact assessment (EIA) is an

assessment of the possible positive or negative impact that a proposed project may have on the environment, together consisting of the environmental, social and economic aspects. The purpose of the assessment is to ensure that decision makers consider the ensuing environmental impacts when deciding whether to proceed with a project. The International Association for Impact Assessment (IAIA) defines an environmental impact assessment as "the process of identifying, predicting, evaluating and mitigating the biophysical, social, and other relevant effects of development proposals prior to major decisions being taken and commitments made."

Environmental Impact Assessment

EIAs are unique in that they do not require adherence

to a predetermined environmental outcome, but rather they require decision makers to account for environmental values in their decisions and to justify those decisions in light of detailed environmental studies and public comments on the potential environmental impacts of the proposal

Environmental Impact Assessment

Environment Impact Assessment is carried out in the

following steps: 1. Project Conception 2. Planning and Design of Project Alternatives 3. Baseline Survey 4. Public Consultation 5.Final Decision on the project

EIA: Project Conception

An established company conceives a project after it has

explored the market and made a feasibility report and after assessing if the project is technically possible. The feasibility report should make a study of the economic viability of the project. If the project is technically possible and economically viable it is said to be techno-economically feasible. It is imp to examine whether the project is environmentally compatible or not. This will facilitate the stage when the project is designed and various alternatives are made available.

EIA: Planning and Design or Project Alternatives

In this stage various design options are considered.

Each design may require a separate plan. The project developer must pay attention to determine which design is more environmentally compatible this can be done by assessing the site and locations. At this stage a detailed Environment Impact Assessment (EIA) should be done for each alternatives If that is not possible a quick survey called Rapid Environment Screening (RES) should be done for all the alternatives.

EIA: Baseline Survey

Environment Impact Assessment should include a study of

the components that make up the environment which would experience an impact if the project was finally implemented. These envmnt components are as follows: a) Abiotic Environment: How much land would be used? Would this land use cause a material change in the existing nature of the soil? What would be the efffect of the completed project on the air quality? What would be the amount and nature of gaseous emissions? What are the provisions for disposal of solid factory waste?

EIA: Baseline Survey

The biotic environment:

What is the nature of natural vegetation? What species of animals exist? Will human settlements have to be displaced? The built up enmnt: Are there any ancient monuments, temples or structures having religious or sentimental attachment to the local people? What permissions will be required for tehir demolition archeological dept, state and local bodies?

EIA: Baseline Survey

Social Envmt:

What will be the effect on the local people in the areas of agriculture , soil erosion, health, displacement of occupations? What will be the employment opportunities in the factory? Will there be a change in the socio-economic life of the people?

EIA: Public Consultation

It is the sorry experience in India that not only in govt. but

also in pvt enterprises, the technocal and finanacial experts are consulted and decisions are taken about project finalisation. The opinion of others who have stake in the project are not consulted at all. Even in a social welfare scheme like afforestation, it is observed that local people are kept in the dark and never taken into confidence. Sharing of info is necessary. With this in mind Envt Protection act 1986, has made it public hearing compulsory for certain types of developmnt project. Otherwise envmntal approval is not given.

EIA: Final Decision on the project

The last step is to take a final decision on starting the

project. The emphasis is to get a green project underway.

Environmental Movement in India

It may be said that conservation of nature was a way of

life in ancient India. Agricultural land was considered as the source of food and equated it with the concept of Mother Nature. British rule from 1857 brought about new dimensions. It was the government who could exploit resources themselves. Thus, what was once treasured and protected by the rich ancient Indian culture was being exploited at the hands of the British government.

Environmental Protection Act

This act deals with general principles of management

for protection of the environment. It deals specially with the disposal of toxic wastes. It also seeks to remove loopholes in the Water and Air Acts. It provides for a controlling and co-ordinating agency to deal with emergencies. Its powers are summarised below: 1. Co ordination of actions of all bodies

Environmental Protection Act

2. Planning and execution of all pollution control

programs 3. Laying of standards of quality for the envmt 4. Laying of standards for emission of pollutants 5. Restricting certain areas from starting industries 6. Safeguards for preventing accidents causing pollutions 7. Inspection of factories of hazardous chemicals and requiring full disclosure of info 8. Make rules and notifications for EIA 9. It is compulsory for public hearing for certain categories of projects before EIA clearance is given

Environmental Audit (EA)

The concept of sustainable development first emerged

in 1987 during the World Conference of Environmental Development made people aware of the need to protect the environment wherever development of infrastructure is undertaken. This concern led to laws to preserve the quality of the environment. Industry also persuaded to adopt efficient management practices and accept enmntal liability. It is from this thinking EA developed

Environmental Audit
EA is a combination of the following :

1. Pollution Audit 2. Pollution Prevention Audit which includes Waste Minimisation Audit 3. Environmental Management Systems Audit Purpose of EA : Not only find faults but also identify the areas of weaknesses in the system Take measures to improve overall productivity of the industry It is proactive and forward looking

Environmental Statement
Ministry of Environment and Forests (MEF) has called

Environmental Audit as Environmental Statement. Objectives of ES: To prevent or reduce waste generation To maximize raw material conversion and to improve past practices To evolve alternatives of raw material substitution or to change processes To examine whether it is possible to recycle, recover or reuse To treat the waste so as to minimize its adverse effect on the environment

Environmental Statement
ES as mnmgt tool:

Good technique to detect wastage and improve productivity Reduce environmental damage and helps to comply with official rules. ES Promotes introspection, self discipline and self interest. ES helps monitor the effectiveness of the envmntal mnmgt system of the company.

Environmental problems in India

Pressure on natural resources due to increasing

population Certain percentage of productive land suffering from varying degrees of degradation (arid, alkaline, saline, waterlogging, ravines etc.) A substantial chunk of land degraded on account of a loss of tree cover and top soil leading to floods and droughts. Depletion of forest cover due to increasing population Shortage of fuelwood and holder for rural needs, leading to pressure on our forests.

Environmental problems in India

Threats to faunal and floral species and biological

diversity because of disturbance of their habitat. Adverse impacts of developmental activities such as mining, power generation, industrialisation and irrigation. Degradation of fragile ecosystems, such as mangroves, wetlands, beaches, and hill areas for reasons, such as over exploitation lack of tree cover, ill advised agricultural practices, tourism and indiscriminate building activities.

Environmental problems in India

Pollution of water bodies from domestic and industrial

wastes. Pollution of coastal areas and seas. Air pollution due to emission from industries and automobiles. Global warming and depletion of ozone layer. Degradation of urban enmnt because of rapid expansion and inadequate basic services Increased prodn, transportation and use of hazardous chemicals . (some of the problems mentioned)

Actions taken :

The Wildlife Protection Act 1972 The Forest Conservation Act 1980 amended in 1988 Water Act -1974 amended in 1978 and 1988 The Air Act 1981 amended in 1988 Environmental Protection Act 1986 Hazardous Waste Rules 1989 The Public Liability Insurance Act 1991 The manufacture, storage and import of Hazardous Chemicals Rules 1989 The Biomedical Waste Management Rules, 1998

Actions taken :
The following major institutions were established apart

from existing ones: Dept of Environment 1980 and the integrated Ministry of Environment and Forests in 1985 Departments of Environment in 20 states and 3 union territories Central Pollution Control Board and State Pollution Control Boards in 24 states and Uts Indian Council of Forestry Research and Education National Land use and Wasteland development Council in 1985 Indian Board for Wildlife in 1982

Actions taken :
All India Soil and Land use survey orgainisation
Island development Authority set up in 1986 National Wetlands committee identified 19 wetlands

for conservation, mnmgt and research. National Mangroves committee set up

Carbon Fund or Carbon Bank

"Carbon Bank" is a term used to describe the

international effort to reduce carbon gas emissions (Carbon dioxide, Methane, CFC's etc) which may contribute to global warming. An industrialized nation may produce more than its share and a less developed nation may be provided incentives for not destroying its rain forests such as food aid and so on, since plant life, and especially the very rich plant life of the tropical rain forests removes carbon dioxide from the air by photosynthesis.

Carbon Fund or Carbon Bank

Thus, fear of increased sea level and lower agricultural

yield have made people around theworld to want to reduce consumption and lower their personal shares of global emissions. With growing concerns among nations to curb pollution levels while maintaining the growth in theireconomic activities, the emission trading (ET) industry has come to life. Thus, the conception of Kyoto Protocol was formed.

The Kyoto Protocol - Concept

It is a protocol to the United Nations Framework

Convention on Climate Change (UNFCCC or FCCC), an international environmental treaty produced at the United Nations Conference on to achieve "stabilization of greenhouse gas concentrations in the atmosphere at a level that would prevent dangerous anthropogenic interference with the climate system."

The Kyoto Protocol - Purpose

The Kyoto Protocol is established to legally bind for the reduction

of four greenhouse gases(carbon dioxide, methane, nitrous oxide, sulphur hexafluoride), and two groups of gases(hydrofluorocarbons and perfluorocarbons) produced by "Annex I" (industrialized) nations, as well as general commitments for all member countries. The agreement aims to lower overall emissions from a group of six greenhouse gases by 2008-12, calculated as an average over these five years. Cuts in the three most important gases - carbon dioxide (CO2), methane (CH4), andnitrous oxide (N20) - will be measured against a base year of 1990. Cuts in three long-lived industrial gases - hydrofluorocarbons (HFCs), [[perfluorocarbon]s (PFCs), and sulphurhexafluoride (SF6) - can be measured against either a 1990 or 1995 baseline." The target agreed upon at the summit was an average reduction of 5.2% from 1990 levels by the year2012.

The Kyoto Protocol - Purpose

National limitations range from 8% reductions for the

European Union and some others to 7% forthe United States, 6% for Japan, and 0% for Russia. The treaty permitted GHG emissionincreases of 8% for Australia and 10% for Iceland.

The Kyoto Protocol Members

As of January 2009, 183 parties have approved the

protocol, which was initially have been adopted for use on 11 December 1997 in Kyoto, Japan and which entered into force on 16February 2005.

The Koto Protocol - Working

Kyoto initiated "flexible mechanisms" such as

Emissions Trading, the Clean DevelopmentMechanism and Joint Implementation to allow Annex I economies to meet their greenhouse gas(GHG) emission limitations through financial exchanges, projects that reduce emissions in nonAnnex I economies, from other Annex I countries, or from Annex I countries with excessallowances.

The Koto Protocol - Working

Under Joint Implementation (JI) a developed country with relatively high costs of domestic greenhouse reduction would set up a project in another developed country.
Under the Clean Development Mechanism (CDM) a developed country can 'sponsor' a greenhouse gas reduction project in a developing country where the

cost of greenhouse gas reduction project activities is usually much lower, but the atmospheric effect is globally equivalent. The developed country would be given credits for meeting its emission reduction targets, while the developing country would receive the capital investment and clean technology or beneficial change in land use.

Under International Emissions Trading (IET) countries can trade in the international carbon credit market to cover their shortfall in allowances. Countries with surplus credits can sell them to countries with capped emission commitments under the Kyoto Protocol.

What is Carbon Credit / Carbon Funding

The Kyoto Protocol has created a mechanism under which

countries that have been emitting more carbon and other gases (greenhouse gases include ozone, carbon dioxide, methane,nitrous oxide and even water vapour) have voluntarily decided that they will bring down the level of carbon they are emitting to the levels of early 1990s. Thus, Carbon credit can be defined as a permit that allows the holder to emit one ton of carbon dioxide. Credits are awarded to countries or groups that have reduced their green house gases below their emission quota. Carbon credits can be traded in the international market at their current market price

Carbon Funding / Credit working

A company has two ways to reduce emissions. One, it can

reduce the GHG (greenhouse gases)by adopting new technology or improving upon the existing technology to attain the new norms for emission of gases. Or it can tie up with developing nations and help them set up new technology that is eco-friendly, thereby helping developing country or its companies 'earn credits. India, China and some other Asian countries have the advantage because they are developing countries. Any company, factories or farm owner in India can get linked to United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change and know the 'standard' level of carbon emission allowed for its outfit or activity.

Types of Carbon Credits

There are two distinct types of Carbon Credits: Carbon

Offset Credits (COC's) and CarbonReduction Credits (CRC's). Carbon Offset Credits consist of clean forms of energy production,wind, solar, hydro and biofuels. Carbon Reduction Credits consists of the collection and storage of Carbon from atmospherethrough reforestation, forestation, ocean and soil collection and storage efforts. Both approaches are recognized as effective ways to reduce the Global Carbon Emissions crises.

Carbon Credits - working

Emissions limits and trading rules vary country by

country, so each emissions-trading market operates differently.

For nations that have signed the Kyoto Protocol, which

holds each country to its own C02 limit, greenhouse gas-emissions trading is mandatory

Carbon Credits working

Another fast-growing voluntary model is carbon offsets. In this global

market, a set ofmiddlemen companies, called offset firms, estimate a companys emissions and then act asbrokers by offering opportunities to invest in carbon-reducing projects around the world.Unlike carbon trading, offsetting isnt yet government regulated in most countries; its up tobuyers to verify a projects environmental worth. Offsets are typically achieved through financial support of projects that reduce the emission ofgreenhouse gases in the short- or long-term. The most common project type is renewableenergy, such as wind farms, biomass energy, or hydroelectric dams. Others include energyefficiency projects, the destruction of industrial pollutants or agricultural byproducts,destruction of landfill methane, and forestry projects. Some of the most popular carbon offsetprojects from a corporate perspective are energy efficiency and wind turbine projects.

Advantages
Companies in different industries face different costs

to lower their emissions. A market-based approach allows companies to take carbon-reducing measures that everyone can afford. Reducing emissions and lowering energy consumption is usually good for the core business. Buying into the carbon market boom now suggests significant dividends later on. Carbon credits are relatively cheap now, but their value will likely rise, giving companies another reason to participate.

Disadvantages
As with any financial market, emissions traders are

vulnerable to significant risk and volatility.

Carbon offset firms in the United States and abroad has

been caught selling offsets for normal operations that do not actually take any additional C02out of the atmosphere, such as pumping C02into oil wells to force out the remaining crude.
The lack of offset regulations has also made marketing

problematic.

Carbon Credits
How buying carbon credits can reduce emissions?
Carbon credits create a market for reducing

greenhouse emissions by giving a monetary valueto the cost of polluting the air. Emissions become an internal cost of doing business and arevisible on the balance sheet alongside raw materials and other liabilities or assets.

Carbon Credit example

For example, consider a business that owns a factory

putting out 90,000 tonnes of green house gas emissions in a year. Its government is an Annex I country that enacts a law to limit the emissions that the business can produce. So the factory is given a quota of say 70,000 tonnes per year. The factory either reduces its emissions to 80,000 tonnes or is required to purchase carbon credits to offset the excess. After costing up alternatives the business may decide that it is uneconomical or infeasible to invest in new machinery for that year. Instead it may choose to buy carbon credits on the open market from organizations that have been approved as being able to sell legitimate carbon credits.

 Additional slides on Carbon credits / bank and Kyoto

Protocol

The Kyoto Protocol

In 1990, the UNs intergovtmental panel on Climate

Change (IPCC) ( of which USA is the largest funder) reported on the problem of global warming which is by far the most imp and serious evmntal issue. It was once considered a long term problem. In 1997 a protocol was developed at Kyoto, Japan under which countries formally undertook to reduce the emissions of greenhouse gases by specific percentages of the 1990 levels. Bill Clinton hailed the protocol as historic agreement and signed it on November 1998.

Mechanisms of Carbon Trading under the Kyoto Protocol

3 mechanisms of Carbon Trading were established

under the Kyoto Protocol were: International Emissions Tading Clean Development Mechanism (CDM credits earned by sponsoring greenhouse gas reducing projects in developing countries) Joint implementation projects

Carbon Credits under the Kyoto protocol

Countries will get credit for reducing greenhouse gas

totals by planting or expanding forests (removal units) for carrying out joint implementation projects with other developed countries, ususally countries with transition economies and for projects under the protocols clean development mechanism which evolves funding activities to reduce emission by developing nations. Credits earned this way may be bought and sold in the emissions market or banked for future use.