Modelling and Control of Wind Turbines

Jasmin Martinez September 21, 2007

Supervised by: Prof. Pistikopoulos Dr. Kouramas

A thesis submitted to Imperial College London in partial fulfilment of the requirements for the degree of Master of Science in Process Systems Engineering and for the Diploma of Imperial College

Department of Chemical Engineering and Chemical Technology Imperial College London

London SW7 2AZ, UK

Abstract In recent years, wind turbines have become an acceptable alternative for electrical energy generation by fossil or nuclear power plants, because of the environmental and economic benefits. Still, much research remains to be done in order to improve wind turbines behaviour and make them more profitable and reliable. This work covers the modelling of wind turbines for power system studies. The operation of horizontal, variable speed wind turbines with pitch control was investigated. Complexities of various parts of a wind turbine model, such as aerodynamic conversion, drive train and generator representation were analyzed. The mathematical equations describing the dynamic behaviour of a wind energy system were successfully simulated in gPROMS. The wind turbine model was further tested upon step changes in the wind velocity as well as the blade pitch angle, confirming the need of power control. Based on the obtained wind turbine model, a power control structure was developed that takes into consideration the dynamical aspects of the wind turbine as well as constraints. An explicit parametric controller, a novel control method, was designed using MATLAB and the Parametric Optimization (POP) software. A simple explicit optimal control law was constructed that allows the on-line implementation via simple linear function evaluations. The controller was implemented using gO:MATLAB and the simulation results show that the controller accurately adjusts the blade pitch angle to set the wind turbine power output to its reference value.

Acknowledgments First of all I wish to thank my parents for being an example and encouraging me throughout my studies, making this thesis possible. I am also grateful to my favourite sister, Cami. I acknowledge Prof. Pistikopoulos and Dr. Kouramas for their supervision, advice and contribution for the success of this work. I am indebted to Mark Pinto and Lin Zhenhua for their help with gPROMS and gO:MATLAB. Special thanks to my friends at Imperial College, who made this thesis an enjoyable experience. Financial support for this work was provided by Programme Alban. Finally, I would like to express my deepest gratitude for the constant support, patience and love that I received from Nico.

Contents

ABSTRACT ............................................................................................................................................ 2 ACKNOWLEDGMENTS ...................................................................................................................... 3 CONTENTS ............................................................................................................................................ 4 LIST OF FIGURES................................................................................................................................ 6 LIST OF TABLES.................................................................................................................................. 7 CHAPTER 1. INTRODUCTION .......................................................................................................... 8 1.1 1.2 1.3 WORK MOTIVATION............................................................................................................... 8 WORK OBJECTIVE .................................................................................................................. 9 THESIS OUTLINE .................................................................................................................... 9

CHAPTER 2. BACKGROUND AND LITERATURE REVIEW .................................................... 11 2.1 WIND TURBINE DEVELOPMENT AND TYPES OF TURBINES ............................................................ 11 2.1.1 Wind Turbine History........................................................................................................... 11 2.1.2 State-of-the-art Technologies ............................................................................................... 12
2.1.2.1 Definition of a Wind Turbine ....................................................................................................... 12 2.1.2.2 Aerodynamic Lift and Aerodynamic Drag Wind Turbines .......................................................... 12 2.1.2.3 Horizontal-axis and Vertical-axis Wind Turbines ........................................................................ 12 2.1.2.4 Variable-speed and Constant-speed Wind Turbines ..................................................................... 15

2.1.3 Power Control...................................................................................................................... 17

2.1.3.1 Stall Control ................................................................................................................................. 17 2.1.3.2 Pitch Control ................................................................................................................................ 18 2.1.3.3 Active Stall Control...................................................................................................................... 19

2.2 WIND FARMS ................................................................................................................................ 19 2.2.1 Wind Farm Definition and Siting ......................................................................................... 19
2.2.1.1 Definition of Wind Farm .............................................................................................................. 19 2.2.1.2 Wind Farm Siting ......................................................................................................................... 20

2.2.2 Wind Farm Control .............................................................................................................. 21

2.2.2.1 Centralised Control Structure ....................................................................................................... 22 2.2.2.2 Decentralised Control Structure ................................................................................................... 22 2.2.2.3 Partly Centralised, Partly Decentralised Control Structure .......................................................... 22

2.2.3 Requirements for the Interconnection of Wind Farms to the Power System ........................ 23
2.2.3.1 Active Power Control ................................................................................................................... 23 2.2.3.2 Frequency Control ........................................................................................................................ 23 2.2.3.3 Voltage Control ............................................................................................................................ 23 2.2.3.4 Tap Changers ............................................................................................................................... 24 2.2.3.5 Wind Farm Protection .................................................................................................................. 24 2.2.3.6 Modelling Information and Verification ...................................................................................... 24 2.2.3.7 Communication and External Control .......................................................................................... 24

CHAPTER 3. WIND TURBINE MODELLING ............................................................................... 26 3.1 MODELLING OF THE BLADES ......................................................................................................... 27 3.2 MODELLING OF THE DRIVE TRAIN ................................................................................................. 29 3.3 MODELLING OF THE ASYNCHRONOUS GENERATOR ....................................................................... 30 3.3.1 Model assumptions............................................................................................................... 31 3.3.2 0dq reference frame ............................................................................................................. 32 3.3.3 Per unit system ..................................................................................................................... 32 3.3.4 Asynchronous generator model............................................................................................ 33
3.3.4.1 Model including stator transients ................................................................................................. 34 3.3.4.2 Model neglecting stator transients ................................................................................................ 35

3.4 MODELLING AND SIMULATION IN GPROMS ................................................................................. 36 3.4.1 Modelling in gPROMS ......................................................................................................... 36 3.4.2 Simulation results................................................................................................................. 37
3.4.2.1 Base case ...................................................................................................................................... 38 3.4.2.2 Wind velocity step change ........................................................................................................... 40 3.4.2.3 Blade pitch angle step change ...................................................................................................... 41

CHAPTER 4. WIND TURBINE CONTROL .................................................................................... 42 4.1 POWER CONTROL .......................................................................................................................... 42 4.2 EXPLICIT PARAMETRIC CONTROLLER ............................................................................................ 42 4.2.1 Model identification ............................................................................................................. 46 4.2.2 Explicit parametric controller design .................................................................................. 47 4.2.3 Controller implementation (gO:MATLAB) .......................................................................... 50 CHAPTER 5. CONCLUSIONS AND RECOMMENDATIONS FOR FUTURE WORK............. 54 5.1 CONTRIBUTIONS OF THIS THESIS ................................................................................................... 54 5.2 FUTURE WORK RECOMMENDATIONS ............................................................................................. 55 REFERENCES ..................................................................................................................................... 56 APPENDICES ...................................................................................................................................... 61

List of Figures
FIGURE 1. VERTICAL-AXIS WIND TURBINE [WIND-WORKS, 2007] ......................................................... 13 FIGURE 2. HORIZONTAL-AXIS AND VERTICAL-AXIS WIND TURBINES CONFIGURATIONS [SCOTTISH EXECUTIVE, 2007] ......................................................................................................................... 13 FIGURE 3. KEY COMPONENTS OF A HORIZONTAL-AXIS UPWIND TURBINE [NPOWER RENEWABLES, 2007] ...................................................................................................................................................... 14 FIGURE 4.

C p V S.

FOR A TYPICAL WIND TURBINE [DE MONTFORT UNIVERSITY, 2007] ................... 16

FIGURE 5. C p VS. TIP-SPEED RATIO AND PITCH ANGLE FOR A TYPICAL WIND TURBINE WITH PITCH
CONTROL [BALAS ET AL, 2006] ..................................................................................................... 19

FIGURE 6. ONSHORE WIND FARM [ACTNOW, 2007] ............................................................................... 20 FIGURE 7. OFFSHORE WIND FARM [ARTHUS-BERTRAND, 2007] ............................................................. 21 FIGURE 8. WIND TURBINE SCHEME [BOUKHEZZAR ET AL, 2005] ............................................................ 26 FIGURE 9. ANALYTICAL APPROXIMATION OF Cp ( , )
CHARACTERISTICS (

= 2.09 RAD/S, R =35M);

BLADE PITCH ANGLE IN DEGREES [LUBOSNY, 2003] ...................................................................... 28

FIGURE 10. DRIVE TRAIN DYNAMICS [BOUKHEZZAR ET AL, 2005] ......................................................... 29 FIGURE 11. THE WINDINGS IN THE ASYNCHRONOUS GENERATOR [LUBOSNY, 2003] .............................. 31 FIGURE 12. WIND TURBINE CURRENTS ................................................................................................... 39 FIGURE 13. WIND TURBINE ELECTROMAGNETIC TORQUE AND SLIP RATIO .............................................. 39 FIGURE 14. WIND TURBINE POWER ......................................................................................................... 40 FIGURE 15. POWER OUTPUT TOWARDS WIND VELOCITY STEP CHANGE ................................................... 40 FIGURE 16. POWER COEFFICIENT TOWARDS BLADE PITCH ANGLE STEP CHANGE .................................... 41 FIGURE 17. POWER OUTPUT TOWARDS BLADE PITCH ANGLE STEP CHANGE ............................................ 41 FIGURE 18. PARAMETRIC CONTROLLER STRATEGY ................................................................................ 44 FIGURE 19. SIMULINK OVERALL WIND TURBINE MODEL ......................................................................... 45 FIGURE 20. SIMULINK AERODYNAMIC MODEL ........................................................................................ 45 FIGURE 21. SIMULINK DRIVE TRAIN MODEL............................................................................................ 46 FIGURE 22. SIMULINK INDUCTION GENERATOR MODEL .......................................................................... 46 FIGURE 23. PROJECTION OF THE CONTROLLER REGIONS IN Pt 1 t 1 FIGURE 24. PROJECTION OF THE CONTROLLER REGIONS IN Pref
SPACE ...................................... 49 SPACE

t 1

..................................... 49

FIGURE 25. PROJECTION OF THE CONTROLLER REGIONS IN Pref Pt 1

SPACE ...................................... 50

FIGURE 26. GPROMS WIND TURBINE MODEL EXECUTING WITHIN MATLAB ........................................ 51 FIGURE 27. GO:MATLAB POWER PROFILE ............................................................................................ 52 FIGURE 28. GO:MATLAB BLADE PITCH ANGLE PROFILE ...................................................................... 53

List of Tables
TABLE 1. VARIABLES WITH A KNOWN VALUE, VARIABLES WITH AN UNKNOWN VALUE AND NUMBER OF
EQUATIONS FOR WIND TURBINE MODEL ......................................................................................... 37

TABLE 2. WIND TURBINE PARAMETERS [LUBOSNY, 2003], [MARTINS ET AL, 2007] ............................... 38 TABLE 3. CONTROL DESIGN VARIABLES .................................................................................................. 47

Chapter 1. Introduction

1.1 Work Motivation Wind energy is one of the fastest growing renewable energies in the world. The generation of wind power is clean and non-polluting; it does not produce any byproducts harmful to the environment. Nowadays, modelling is the basic tool for analysis, such as optimization, project, design and control. Wind energy conversion systems are very different in nature from conventional generators, and therefore dynamic studies must be addressed in order to integrate wind power into the power system. According to [Lubosny, 2003], in the case of power systems with classical sources of energy analysis, the modelling is relatively simple because the models of objects and controllers are well known and even standardized; the data are available. But in the case of wind turbine modelling, researchers meet problems related to the lack of data and lack of control-system structures due to strong competition between wind turbine manufacturers. This leads to the situation in which many researchers model the wind energy conversion systems in relatively simple form, almost neglecting the control systems, which significantly influence the reliability of the analytical results. Classical techniques such as proportional (P), integral (PI) and derivative (PID) controllers are typically used to regulate wind power. But by assuming the wind turbine operating in steady state conditions, most of the previous work regarding wind turbine control does not take into consideration the dynamical aspects of the wind and the turbine, which have strong non-linear characteristics [Balas et al, 2006]. Advances in wind turbine technology made necessary the design of more powerful control systems, to improve wind turbines behaviour and make them more profitable and reliable [Boukhezzar et al, 2005]. However, as stated in [Balas et al, 2006] Controlling modern turbines to minimize the cost of wind energy is a complex task, and much research remains to be done to improve controllers. An interesting characteristic of wind energy systems is that wind speed determines the point of operation; it simply defines the available amount of energy that can be converted into electricity. The wind cannot be controlled; in other words the system is driven by noise, which makes wind turbine systems essentially different from most other systems. This explains the need for robust controller design [Bongers et al, 1992]. 8

On the other hand, theoretically, the electrical output from a wind turbine should be smooth and non-fluctuating [Butterfield et al, 2001]. But electricity generated from wind farms can be highly variable on different time scales: from hour-to-hour, daily and seasonally. This represents a considerable challenge when incorporating wind power into a grid system, since in order to maintain grid stability energy supply and demand must remain in balance.

1.2 Work Objective The main objective of this work is to contribute to the topic of wind energy systems modelling and control by developing an accurate model for a wind turbine and based on this model contemplate control issues. The scientific objectives of this research include the following:

Modelling and dynamic behaviour investigation of the aerodynamic, mechanical and electrical parts of a variable speed wind turbine equipped with an induction generator and blade pitch angle control.

Simulation of the overall wind energy system in gPROMS. Formulation of an explicit parametric controller in MATLAB/ Parametric Optimization (POP) software.

A parametric controller is a novel control method that has been recently applied to a number of processes. This work aims at exploiting the properties of explicit parametric control and demonstrate the potential benefits of this control method for wind turbines. The wind turbine configuration considered throughout this work is an aerodynamic lift, 3 blade, horizontal-axis, variable speed, pitch controlled wind turbine.

1.3 Thesis Outline The thesis is divided into five chapters including this introduction chapter. The paper is structured as follows. Chapter 2 contains a background on theoretical fundamentals regarding wind turbines and wind farms. The first part gives an overview of the wind turbine history and development. The main types of wind turbines and their configurations are explained

in detail. Furthermore, the different power control techniques available to control the wind turbine power output are exposed. Wind farms are introduced and classified accordingly to their siting. The main wind farm control structures are described and the requirements for the interconnection of wind farms to the power system are discussed. Chapter 3 presents detailed mathematical models that describe the dynamic behaviour of a wind energy system, including aerodynamic, mechanical and electrical parts. Simulation results of the overall wind turbine model are given for a base case, as well as for wind speed and blade pitch angle step changes. Chapter 4 contains the formulation of an explicit parametric control strategy for a wind turbine. The properties and potential benefits of this control method for wind energy systems are investigated. Moreover, the controller is implemented and tested. Finally, Chapter 5 provides conclusions on the research done and offers recommendations for future work.

10

Chapter 2. Background and Literature review This chapter is aimed at presenting a review on the wind turbines and wind farm state of the art technologies.

2.1 Wind Turbine Development and Types of Turbines

2.1.1 Wind Turbine History Wind-powered machines have been used by humans for thousands of years. Until the 20th century wind power was used to provide mechanical power to pump water or to grind grain. The earliest recorded windmills are vertical-axis mills and were used in Afghanistan in the seventh century BC. Horizontal-axis windmills are found in historical documents from Persia, Tibet and China around 1000 AD. From Persia and the Middle-East, the horizontal-axis windmill spread across Europe in the 12th century, where windmill performance was constantly improved; by the 19th century a considerable part of the power used in the industry in Europe was based on wind energy. Industrialisation then led to a gradual decline in windmills, as the use of fluctuating wind energy was substituted by fossil fuel fired engines which provided a more consistent power source [Ackermann et al, 2000]. In the 1970s, with the first oil price shock, the modern era of wind turbine generators began, focusing in producing electricity instead of mechanical energy. Conventional methods to generate electricity burn fuel to provide the energy to drive a generator, creating pollution, acid rain and contributing to global warming. In recent years there has been a growing interest in wind energy power systems because of the environmental benefits and the economic benefits of fuel savings [Fujita et al, 2006]. The wind is a clean source and it will never run out. Wind energy technology is developing fast; turbines are becoming cheaper and more powerful, bringing the cost of renewably-generated electricity down [British Wind Energy Association, 2006]; The cost of generating electricity from wind has fallen almost 90% since the 1980s [Karrari et al, 2005]. Nowadays, wind energy is one of the most important sustainable energy resources and has become an acceptable alternative for electrical energy

11

generation by fossil or nuclear power plants [Bongers at al, 1992]. A list of wind turbines manufacturers can be found in Appendix 1 [Energy Source Guides, 2007].

2.1.2 State-of-the-art Technologies

2.1.2.1 Definition of a Wind Turbine

A wind turbine is a machine for converting the kinetic energy in the wind into mechanical energy. If the mechanical energy is used directly by machinery, such as a pump or grinding stones, the machine is called a windmill. If the mechanical energy is then converted to electricity, the machine is called a wind generator. Utility-scale turbines range in size from 100 kilowatts to several megawatts [EERE, 2007].

2.1.2.2 Aerodynamic Lift and Aerodynamic Drag Wind Turbines

There are two different types of wind energy conversion devices: those which depend mainly on aerodynamic lift and those which use mainly aerodynamic drag. High speed turbines rely on lift forces to move the blades. To generate electricity from a wind turbine, it is usually desirable that the driving shaft of the generator operates at considerable speed (1500 revolutions per minute). This, together with the higher aerodynamic efficiency of lift devices, means that turbines which rely in aerodynamic drag are not commonly used [Jenkins et al, 1997].

2.1.2.3 Horizontal-axis and Vertical-axis Wind Turbines

Wind turbines can further be classified into horizontal-axis or vertical-axis. The earliest windmills in antiquity rotated about a vertical axis and they were driven by drag. Modern vertical-axis turbines use vertical symmetrical airfoils and the driving force is produced by lift developed by the blade in the moving air stream. The only vertical-axis turbine which has been manufactured commercially at any volume is the Darrieus machine, named after the French engineer Georges Darrieus who patented the design in 1931. The conventional Darrieus turbine has curved blades connected at the top and at the bottom and rotates like an egg whisk [Harrison et al, 2000], as illustrated in Figure 1.

12

Figure 1. Vertical-axis wind turbine [Wind-Works, 2007]

Vertical-axis wind turbines have the advantages that no tower is needed, they operate independently of the wind direction (a yawning mechanism is not needed) and heavy gearboxes and generators can be installed at ground level. But they have many disadvantages: they are not self-starting, the torque fluctuates with each revolution as the blades move into and away from the wind, and speed regulation in high winds can be difficult. Vertical-axis turbines were developed and commercially produced in the 1970s until the end of the 1980s. But since the end of the 1980s the research and production of vertical-axis wind turbines has practically stopped worldwide [Ackermann et al, 2000]. At present, horizontal-axis wind turbines dominate the market; Figure 2 illustrates the different configuration between a horizontal-axis and a vertical axis turbine.

Figure 2. Horizontal-axis and vertical-axis wind turbines configurations [Scottish Executive, 2007]

13

A horizontal-axis wind energy conversion system mainly consists of [Harrison et al, 2000]:

The rotor blades, which extract the kinetic energy present in the wind and transform it into mechanical power. The nacelle, with a power control system that limits and conditions the extracted power; a gear box that transfers the load and increases the rotational speed to drive the generator; and an electrical system which converts the mechanical energy into electrical energy.

A tower that supports the nacelle.

The major components of a modern horizontal-axis wind turbine are shown in Figure 3.

Figure 3. Key components of a horizontal-axis upwind turbine [npower renewables, 2007]

The yaw mechanism turns the turbine so that it faces the wind. Sensors are used to monitor wind direction and the tower head is turned accordingly. Wind turbines can have three, two or just one rotor blades. Two or three blades are usually used for electricity power generation. Two blades cost less than three blades, but they need to operate at higher rotational speed than three-bladed wind turbines. As a result, the individual blades need to be lighter and hence more expensive on a two14

bladed turbine [McNerney et al, 1993]. Besides, three-bladed turbines are generally accepted as more aesthetic than two or one bladed turbines. Hence, turbines with three blades dominate the wind industry.

2.1.2.4 Variable-speed and Constant-speed Wind Turbines

A final distinction is whether the rotor is allowed to run at variable speed or constrained to operate at constant speed. In the early 1970s wind turbines usually operated at constant speed. That means that regardless of the wind speed, the wind turbines rotor speed is fixed. Constant speed wind turbines allow the use of simple generators whose speed is fixed by the frequency of the electrical network. For variable speed wind turbines, a power electronic frequency converter is required in order to connect the variable-frequency output of the wind turbine to the fixed frequency of the electrical system. Although the power electronics needed for variable speed wind turbines are more expensive, this type of turbines can spend more time operating at maximum aerodynamic efficiency than constant speed turbines [Balas et al, 2006]. This can be seen clearly if the performance coefficient, C p of a wind turbine is plotted against the tip speed ratio, . The tip speed ratio, , is defined as the ratio between the speed of the tips of the blades of a wind turbine and the speed of the wind

vTIP R = vWIND v

(2. 1. 1)

where is the blades angular velocity (rad/s), R the rotor radius (m) and v the wind speed (m/s). The coefficient of performance, Cp , is defined as the fraction of energy extracted by the wind turbine of the total energy that would have flowed through the area swept by the rotor if the turbine had not been there
Cp = PEXTRACTED PWIND
(2. 1. 2)

The coefficient of performance C p has a theoretical optimum of 0.59. Only a portion of the power in the wind can be converted to useful energy by a wind turbine. The power available for a wind turbine is equal to the change in kinetic energy of the air

15

as it passes through the rotor. This maximum theoretical C p was first formulated in 1919 by Betz and applies to all types of wind turbines. It is conventional to plot the variation of the performance coefficient, C p , against the tip speed ratio, , rather than against the wind velocity, as this creates a dimensionless graph. A typical C p vs. curve is shown in Figure 4.

Figure 4. C p Vs.

for a typical wind turbine [De Montfort University, 2007]

This curve illustrates that the maximum value of C p is only reached for a specific (approximately 6 in this example). For a fixed-speed wind turbine, where is constant, this corresponds to a particular wind speed. For all other wind speeds the efficiency of the turbine is reduced [Jenkins et al, 1997]. The aim of variable-speed wind turbines is to always run at optimal efficiency, keeping constant the particular that corresponds to the maximum C p , by adapting the blades velocity to the wind speed changes. Hence, variable speed wind turbines are designed to operate at optimum energy efficiency, regardless of the wind speed. On the other hand, due to the fixed-speed operation for constant speed turbines, all fluctuations in the wind speed are transmitted as fluctuations in the mechanical torque and then as fluctuations in the electrical power grid [Ackermann, 2005]. This, together with the increased energy capture obtained by using a variable-speed wind turbine provides enough benefit to make the power electronics (frequency converter)

16

cost effective [Balas et al, 2006]. Therefore, the wind industry trend is to design and construct variable-speed wind turbines.

2.1.3 Power Control The kinetic energy in a flow of air through a unit area perpendicular to the wind direction is

1 2 v per mass flow rate. For an air stream flowing through an area A the 2

mass flow rate is A v , therefore the power in the wind is equal to

1 1 P = ( A v ) v 2 = A v 3 2 2 P the power of the wind (watts or J/s).

(2. 1. 3)

where is the air density (kg/m3), A the area (m2) and v the wind speed (m/s), and

From equation 2.1.3, the power available from the wind is a function of the cube of the wind speed. That means that a doubling of the wind speed gives eight times the power output from the turbine. Therefore, turbines have to be designed to support higher wind loads than those from which they can generate electricity, to prevent them from damage. Wind turbines reach the highest efficiency at a wind speed between 10 and 15m/s. Above this wind speed, the power output of the rotor must be controlled to reduce driving forces on the rotor blades as well as the load on the whole wind turbine structure [Ackermann et al, 2000]. High winds occur only for short periods and hence have little influence in terms of energy production but, if not controlled, they would dominate the design and cost of the drive train and the generator [Harrison et al, 2000]. Accordingly, all wind turbines are designed with a type of power control. There are different ways to control aerodynamic forces on the turbine rotor and therefore limit the power in high winds in order to avoid damage to the wind turbine [Ackermann, 2005]. Three options for the power output control are currently used:

2.1.3.1 Stall Control Stall control is the simplest, cheapest and most robust control method [Ackerman, 2005]. It has long been the preferred control method for small and medium sized Danish commercial turbines [Harrison et al, 2000] and it is also known as passive
17

control, since there are no moving parts to adjust: it is the inherent aerodynamic properties of the blade which determine power output. The twist and thickness of the rotor blade vary along its length in a way that turbulence occurs behind the blade whenever the wind speed becomes too high. This turbulence means that less of the energy in the air is transferred, minimising power output in higher speeds [British Wind Energy Association, 2006]. In other words, the design of the blades aerodynamic causes the rotor to stall (lose power) when the wind speed exceeds a certain level. Thus, the aerodynamic power of the blades is limited. The disadvantages of this control method are low efficiency at low wind speeds, and no assisted start-up [Ackermann, 2005]. Besides, this type of control requires the use of a constant speed turbine which, as already explained, has lower energy efficiency than the variable speed turbine.

2.1.3.2 Pitch Control The blades of pitch controlled wind turbines can be turned out or into the wind as the power output becomes too high or too low, respectively; the angle of the rotor blades can be actively adjusted by the control system in order to shed the unwanted power. Pitch control is relatively fast and can be used to limit the rotor speed by regulating input aerodynamic power flow [Butterfield et al, 2001]. The main advantages of this type of control are good power control (power kept close to the rated power in high winds), assisted start-up and emergency stop. Besides, stall controlled turbines have to be shut down beyond a certain speed, whereas pitch controlled turbines can adjust the angle of the blades to reduce the aerodynamic forces. A disadvantage that may be considered is the complexity arising from the pitching mechanism of the blades [Ackermann, 2005]. In Figure 5, the change of the C p - curve as the pitch angle is adjusted is shown. In low and medium wind speeds, the pitch angle is regulated to allow the wind turbine to operate at its optimum condition. In high wind speeds, the pitch angle is increased in order to shed some of the aerodynamic power and maintain the rotor speed within a controllable limit. As pitch angle increases, the wind turbine operates at lower efficiency [Butterfield et al, 2001].

18

Figure 5.

C p Vs. Tip-Speed Ratio and Pitch angle for a typical wind turbine with pitch control

[Balas et al, 2006]

Nowadays, large wind turbines are increasingly being operated with pitch control systems [Harrison et al, 2000].

2.1.3.3 Active Stall Control As the name indicates, active stall control is a combination of the two techniques explained above. At low and medium wind speeds, the blades are pitched similar to a pitch-controlled turbine; when the wind turbine reaches rated capacity, the turbine will pitch in the opposite direction in order to make the blades go into a deeper stall [Ackermann et al, 2000].

2.2 Wind Farms

2.2.1 Wind Farm Definition and Siting

2.2.1.1 Definition of Wind Farm A wind farm is a collection of wind turbines in the same location and used for the generation of wind power electricity. Installing several turbines in groups at a site leads to large-scale utilisation of wind energy. This has operation, maintenance as well as economic advantages. Any wind energy project will incur fixed costs such as 19

the preparation of the environmental statement, legal fees and project management costs. They are largely independent of the size of the wind farms, so it is desirable to spread them over as large a project as possible [Jenkins et al, 1997]. This had led to the construction of large wind farms, some of them having as many as 150 wind turbines [EERE, 2007] and an output of hundreds of megawatts [Ackermann, 2005].

2.2.1.2 Wind Farm Siting Wind farms can be classified by the location in which they are installed: Onshore developments (Figure 6), where wind farms are constructed inland, usually in hilly or mountainous regions to favour windy conditions.

Figure 6. Onshore wind farm [ActNow, 2007]

Offshore developments (Figure 7), where wind farms are installed in the sea, at least 10 kilometres away from the land. This is attractive because of higher wind speeds over the sea but mainly because of the reduced environmental impact. The major disadvantage of this type of wind farm development is the higher cost involved in terms of foundations, power collection cables, installation and maintenance [Jenkins et al, 1997].

20

Figure 7. Offshore wind farm [Arthus-Bertrand, 2007]

2.2.2 Wind Farm Control

The trend in the wind energy industry is to install wind turbines in large concentrations with hundreds of megawatts of power capacity. Wind farms of this size are often connected directly to the transmission grid, replacing traditional power plants. This means that wind turbines are required to behave as active controllable components in the power system. Such large wind farms need to meet very high technical demands, such as to perform frequency and voltage control, to regulate power and provide quick responses during transient and dynamic situations in the power system. The traditional wind turbines, where the active power is controlled by a simple pitching of the blades, do not have such control capabilities and cannot contribute to power system stability as will be required. Power electronic technology will therefore become more and more attractive for large wind farms that will have to fulfil future high demands [Ackermann, 2005]. There are currently several research activities in progress in order to develop the electrical control of such wind farms. Many control methodologies are being investigated and some are already being implemented in practice. Depending on how the power electronic devices are used inside a wind farm, there are different topology options, each with its particular advantages and disadvantages [Ackermann, 2005]:

21

2.2.2.1 Centralised Control Structure In this type of control structure there is a central power electronic converter. The advantage of such structure is that the internal behaviour of the wind turbines is separated form the grid behaviour, and thus the wind farm is robust to possible failures of the grid. The disadvantage of this concept is that all wind turbines are rotating with the same average angular speed and not at an individual optimal speed, therefore giving up some of the features of the variable-speed concept, for each individual turbine. Furthermore, this type of centralised control structure is difficult to design, sometimes leading to complex optimisation problems [Ackermann, 2005]. In this type of control methodology, there is a hierarchical structure with both a central control level and a local control level. The central wind farm control level controls the power production of the whole farm by sending out reference power signals to each individual wind turbine, while the local wind turbine control level ensures that the reference power signal sent by the central control level is reached [Blaabjerg et al, 2006]. The main trend of wind turbines/wind farms is clearly a variable speed operation and attention is drawn to wind farms with centralised automatic control, which intermediates a wind farm production conditioned by the system operators demands [Blaabjerg et al, 2006].

2.2.2.2 Decentralised Control Structure In this type of configuration, each turbine in the wind farm has its own frequency converter and its own control system. This configuration has the advantage that each wind turbine can operate at its optimum level with respect to its local wind conditions [Ackermann, 2005].

2.2.2.3 Partly Centralised, Partly Decentralised Control Structure This solution has not been implemented in practice yet [Ackermann, 2005]. Another option to these typical wind farm control structures is the use of a highvoltage DC link as power transmission, where all wind turbines are connected to the same power converter, and the entire wind farm is connected to the public supply grid though another power converter. These two converters are connected to each other through a long link cable [Ackermann, 2005]. 22

2.2.3 Requirements for the Interconnection of Wind Farms to the Power System

The integration of large scale wind farms into the grid can have severe impacts on the power system operation. Traditionally, wind turbines were not required to participate in frequency and voltage control; however, in recent years, wind farm performance in the power system has gained attention. Consequently, some grid codes have been defined to specify the steady state and dynamic requirements that wind turbines and wind farms must meet in order to be connected to the grid [Chan, 2005]. This section provides an overview of the relevant technical interconnection regulations for wind power systems. The main requirements, directed towards distribution network companies, wind turbine manufacturers and network operators, are:

2.2.3.1 Active Power Control In theory, power production and consumption have to be in balance within a power system. Changes in power supply or demand can lead to a temporary imbalance in the system and affect operating conditions of power plants as well as consumer. In order to avoid long-term unbalanced conditions the power demand is predicted and power plants adjust their production. The requirements regarding active power control of wind farms aim to ensure a stable frequency in the system, to prevent overloading of transmission lines an ensure compliance with power quality standards [Ackermann, 2005].

2.2.3.2 Frequency Control In the power system, the frequency is an indicator of the balance or imbalance between production and consumption. For normal power system operation, the frequency should be close to its nominal value; in Europe this corresponds to a frequency range of 47-52 Hz. In the case of an imbalance between production and consumption, primary and secondary control is used to return to balanced system. [Ackermann, 2005].

2.2.3.3 Voltage Control Utility and customer equipment are designed to operate at a certain voltage rating. On the local level, voltage variations are the main problem associated with wind power. 23

This can be the limiting factor on the amount of wind power which can be installed [Chen, 2005]. Voltage regulators and the control of reactor power at the generators and consumption connection points is used in order to keep the voltage within the required limits and avoid voltage stability problems [Ackermann, 2005].

2.2.3.4 Tap Changers Tap-changing transformers are used to maintain predetermined voltage levels. This is achieved by alternating the transformer-winding ratio [Ackermann, 2005].

2.2.3.5 Wind Farm Protection Recommendations for the connection of wind farms to distribution networks usually include the disconnection of wind farms in the case of a fault in the network. However, this does not apply for large wind farms, for which an immediate disconnection would put additional stress on the already troubled system. After severe disturbances, several transmission lines may be disconnected and part of the network may be isolated, leading to an imbalance between production and consumption in this part of the network. As a rule, wind farms are not required to disconnect, as long as certain voltage and frequency limits are not exceeded. Undervoltages/overvoltages and overfrequency/underfrequency after a fault can also damage wind turbines and associated equipment. The protection system of the wind farm should therefore be design to pursue two goals [Ackermann, 2005]: -To comply with requirements for normal network operation and support the network during and after a failure. -To secure wind farms against damage from impacts originating from faults in the network.

2.2.3.6 Modelling Information and Verification The interaction between wind farm and power system during faults in the power system is usually verified through simulations [Ackermann, 2005].

2.2.3.7 Communication and External Control In most regulations, the wind farm owner is required to provide the signals necessary for the operation of the power system, such as: voltage, active power, reactive power, operating status, wind speed, wind direction, ambient temperature and pressure, 24

generator transformer tap position, regulation capability, frequency control status, abnormalities and external control possibilities [Ackermann, 2005]. It is important to note that interconnection regulations vary considerably and it is difficult to find a general technical justification for the different technical regulations that are currently in use worldwide. Many of the differences in the technical regulations are caused by different wind power penetration levels and different power system robustness depending on the countries [Ackermann, 2005].

25

Chapter 3. Wind Turbine Modelling

Modelling is a basic tool for analysis, such as optimization, project, design and control. Wind energy conversion systems are very different in nature from conventional generators, and therefore dynamic studies must be addressed in order to integrate wind power into the power system. Models utilised for steady-state analysis are extremely simple, while the dynamic models for wind energy conversion systems are not easy to develop. Dynamic modelling is needed for various types of analysis related to system dynamics: stability, control system and optimization. Referring to [Lubosny, 2003], in the case of power systems with classical sources of energy analysis, the modelling is relatively simple because the models and controllers of the processes are well known and even standardized; the data are available. But in the case of wind turbine modelling, researchers face problems related to the lack of data and lack of control-system structures due to strong competition between wind turbine manufacturers. This leads to the situation in which many researchers model the wind energy conversion systems in relatively simple form, almost neglecting the control systems, which significantly influence the reliability of the analytical results. Modern wind turbine generator systems are constructed mainly as systems with a horizontal axis of rotation, a wind wheel consisting of three blades, a high speed asynchronous generator (also known as induction generator) and a gear box. Asynchronous generators are used because of their advantages, such as simplicity of construction, possibilities of operating at various operational conditions, and low investment and operating costs. The wind turbine under study falls under this category and is also equipped with a blade pitch angle control system, which enables the power generated by the wind turbine to be controlled. A typical wind energy conversion system is displayed in Fig. 8.

Figure 8. Wind turbine scheme [Boukhezzar et al, 2005]

26

The wind turbine model, consisting of the aerodynamic, drive train and electrical generator model is described next. These models are proposed by [Lubosny, 2003], [Martins et al, 2007] and [Lei et al, 2006]. A list of the wind turbine variables symbols and units used throughout the model definition can be found in Appendix 2.

3.1 Modelling of the blades

As pointed out in Chapter 2, the wind turbine blades extract the kinetic energy in the wind and transform it into mechanical energy. The kinetic energy in air of an object of mass m moving with speed v is equal to E= 1 m v2 2 dE 1 2 = m v dt 2

(3. 1. 1)

The power in the moving air (assuming constant speed velocity) is equal to Pw =
(3. 1. 2)

where m is the mass flow rate per second. When the air passes across an area A (e.g. the area swept by the rotor blades), the power in the air can be computed as
Pw =

1 A v3 2

(3. 1. 3)

where is the air density. Air density can be expressed as a function of the turbine elevation above sea level H

= 0 1.194 10 4 H
where 0 = 1.225 kg/m3 is the air density at sea level at temperature T=298K. The power extracted from the wind is given by 1 PBLADE = Cp ( , ) Pw = Cp ( , ) A v 3 2 The power factor has a maximum theoretical value equal to Cp=0.593.

(3. 1. 4)

(3. 1. 5)

The rotor power coefficient is usually given as a function of two parameters: the tipspeed ratio and the blade pitch angle (in degrees). The blade pitch angle is defined as the angle between the plane of rotation and the blade cross-section chord. And the tip speed ratio is defined as

m R
v

(3. 1. 6)

27

where m is the angular velocity of the rotor and R the rotor radius (blade length). The rotor torque Tw can be computed as
Tw = PBLADE

1 Cp ( , ) A v 3 = 2

(3. 1. 7)

The area covered by the blades is given by

A = R2
(3. 1. 8)

Substituting Eq. 3.1.8 into Eq. 3.1.7 leads to 1 Cp ( , ) R 2 v 3 Tw = 2

(3. 1. 9)

Based on previous research, the power coefficient Cp can be defined as a function of the tip-speed ratio and the blade pitch angle as follows
C 6 1 x Cp ( , ) = c1 c c c c 2 3 4 5 e
1

(3. 1. 10)

with defined as 1

1 0.035 + 0.08 1 + 3

(3. 1. 11)

while the coefficients c1-c6 are proposed as equal to: c1=0.5, c2=116, c3=0.4, c4=0, c5=5, c6=21 (x is not used here because c4=0). According to [Lubosny, 2003] an example of the power coefficient ( Cp ( , ) ) characteristics computed taking into account equations 3.1.10 and 3.1.11 and the above parameters c1-c6 for a given rotor diameter, rotor speed and for various blade pitch angles is presented in Figure 9.

Figure 9. Analytical approximation of Cp ( , ) characteristics ( = 2.09 rad/s, R =35m); blade pitch angle in degrees [Lubosny, 2003]

28

3.2 Modelling of the drive train

The drive train (mechanical parts) of a wind turbine system in general consists of a blade pitching mechanism, a hub with blades, a rotor shaft (relatively long in wind energy conversion systems with asynchronous generators) and a gearbox with generator. The drive train model presented in this paper includes the inertia of both the turbine and the generator. The moment of inertia of the wind wheel (hub with blades) is about 90% of the drive train total moment, while the generator rotor moment of inertia is equal to about 10%. At the same time, the generator represents the biggest torsional stiffness. The acceptable and common way to model the drive train of a wind turbine in power system operation analysis is based on the assumption of two lumped/masses only: the generator (with gearbox) mass and the hub with blades (wind wheel) mass [Lubosny, 2003]. The structure of the model is presented in Figure 10.

Figure 10. Drive train dynamics [Boukhezzar et al, 2005]

The equation of motion of the induction generator is given by

Hg d g dt

= Te +

Tm n

(3. 2. 1)

Additionally, since the wind turbine shaft and generator are coupled together via a gearbox, the wind turbine shaft system should not be considered stiff. To account for

29

the interaction between the windmill and the rotor, an additional equation describing the motion of the windmill shaft is adopted
H m d m = Tw Tm dt
(3. 2. 2)

The mechanical torque Tm can be modelled with the following equation

Tm = K

+ D

g m
n

(3. 2. 3)

d = g m dt

(3. 2. 4)

where n is the gear ratio, is the angle between the turbine rotor and the generator rotor, m , g , H m and H g are the turbine and generator rotor speed and inertia constant, respectively, K and D are the drive train stiffness and damping constants, Tw is the torque provided by the wind (from section 3.1) and Te is the electromagnetic torque.

3.3 Modelling of the asynchronous generator

The mechanical power of the wind turbine is converted into electric power by an alternating current (AC) generator or a direct current (DC) generator. The AC generator can be either a synchronous machine or an induction (asynchronous) machine. The latter is most widely used in the wind power industry and was selected for this project. The electrical machine works on the principle of action and reaction of electromagnetic induction. The resulting electromechanical energy conversion is reversible. The same machine can be used as a motor for converting mechanical power into mechanical power or a as generator for converting mechanical power into electric power. As pointed out by [Lubosny, 2003], it is assumed that the asynchronous generator, also called induction generator, has three-phase stator armature winding (AS, BS, CS) and a three-phase rotor winding (AR, BR, CR) as shown in Fig. 11. The stator is the outer stationary member and the rotor is the inner rotating member of the machine. The rotor is mounted on bearings fixed to the stator. In the electromagnetic structure of the induction generator, when the stator winding is supplied with three-phase current (waveforms of equal amplitude, displaced in time by one-third of a period), a

30

rotating magnetic field is produced. The angular speed of the rotating magnetic field is called the synchronous speed, s . The relative speed between the rotating field and the rotor induces a current in the rotor. The resulting magnetic field interacts with the stator field to make the rotor rotate in the same direction. In this case, the machine acts as a motor since, in order for the rotor to rotate, energy is drawn from the electric power source. However, if an external mechanical torque (in this case the wind torque) is applied to the rotor to drive it beyond the synchronous speed, then electrical energy is pumped to the power grid, and the machine will act as a generator [Dorf, 2000]. An induction machine needs no electrical connection between the stator and the rotor. Its operation is entirely based on electromagnetic induction. The absence of rubbing electrical contacts and simplicity of its construction make the induction generator a very robust, reliable, and low-cost machine.

Figure 11. The windings in the asynchronous generator [Lubosny, 2003]

3.3.1 Model assumptions

The mathematical model of an asynchronous generator for power system analysis is usually based on the following assumptions [Lubosny, 2003]:

The stator currents are positive when flowing towards the network. The real and reactive power are positive when fed into the grid.

31

The stator and rotor windings are placed sinusoidally along the air-gap as far as the mutual effect with the rotor is concerned. The stator slots cause no appreciable variations of the rotor inductances with rotor position. The rotor slots cause no appreciable variations of the stator inductances with rotor position. Magnetic hysteresis and saturation effects are negligible. The stator and rotor windings are symmetrical. The capacitance of all the windings can be neglected.

More detailed modelling usually encounters difficulties in getting appropriate data. Additionally, for machine modelling, such a type of model is adequately precise.

3.3.2 0dq reference frame

The set of equations of the asynchronous generator model is usually converted into a model related to an arbitrarily set reference frame: the machine is converted into the so-called 0dq reference frame model. The dq axis representation of induction generator is used for simulation, taking flux linkage as basic variable [Jangamshetti et al, 2006]. It is based on fifth-order two axis representations. Mathematical transformations are used in the analysis and simulation of three-phase systems, mostly to decouple variables, to facilitate the solution of difficult equations with time-varying coefficients. Parks transformation [Slemon, 1989] decouples and rotates the stator variables into a dq reference frame. The positive d-axis of the dq frame is aligned with the magnetic axis of the field winding, that of the positive q-axis is ahead in the direction of rotation or lead the positive d-axis by / 2 . ds and qs correspond to stator direct and quadrature axes; dr and qr correspond to rotor direct and quadrature axes.

3.3.3 Per unit system

As stated in [Weedy et al, 1998], in electrical engineering the per unit (p.u.) system is the expression of system quantities as fractions of a defined base unit quantity. These fractions are called per unit and the p.u. value of any quantity is defined as

32

value in p.u. =

actual value (in any unit) base or reference value in the same unit

Parameters of electrical generators are often specified in terms of per unit. Calculations are simplified because quantities expressed as per unit are the same regardless of the voltage level. Similar types of apparatus will have impedances, voltage drops and losses that are the same when expressed as a per-unit fraction of the equipment rating, even if the unit size varies widely. Although the use of p.u. values may at first sight seem a rather indirect method of expression there are several reasons for using a per-unit system:

the use of the constant

3 is reduced in three-phase calculations.

per unit quantities are the same on either side of a generator, independent of voltage level. by normalizing quantities to a common base, both hand and automatic calculations are simplified.

Referring to [Slootweg et al, 2001] it is difficult to calculate the per unit value of the power extracted from the wind, because aerodynamic and mechanical wind turbine characteristics such as rotor diameter and wind velocity come into play. Therefore the asynchronous generator equations are given in the per unit system (p.u.), and the aerodynamic and drive train equations in the standard international units.

3.3.4 Asynchronous generator model

An appropriate model of the induction generator is the most complicated part of the total wind generation model. The model of such a system is well described in many books and papers [Karrari et al, 2005]. Two main induction generator models are used when performing power system dynamic studies [Martins et al, 2007]:

A detailed model which includes electromagnetic transients both in the stator and the rotor circuits, containing four electromagnetic state variables. This model is also known as the fifth order model.

33

A simplified model which neglects stator transients, containing two electromagnetic state variables. This model is sometimes referred in the literature as the third order model, accounting for the two electric state variables and the generator speed.

The following is a brief description of both models.

3.3.4.1 Model including stator transients

To be able to simulate the induction generator and wind generation system, an equation relating Vds , Vqs , the stator direct and quadrature axis voltages, to I ds , I qs , the stator direct and quadrature axis currents, is required. The complete model of an asynchronous generator, expressed in a 0dq reference frame rotating at synchronous speed and taking positive currents going out from the machine, consists of the following equations:

Magnetic fluxes
(3. 3. 1) (3. 3. 2) (3. 3. 3) (3. 3. 4)

ds = X s I ds + X m I dr qs = X s I qs + X m I qr dr = X r I dr + X m I ds qr = X r I qr + X m I qs

Voltages
d ds dt

Vds = Rs I ds + s qs

(3. 3. 5)

Vqs = Rs I qs s ds

d qs dt
d dr dt

(3. 3. 6)

0 = Rr I dr + s s qr

(3. 3. 7)

0 = Rr I qr s s dr

d qr dt

(3. 3. 8)

where the sub indexes (s,r) stand for the stator and rotor quantities, respectively, and the sub indexes (d, q) stand for the components aligned with the d- and q- axis in a

34

synchronous rotating reference frame. Variable represents the magnetic flux linkage, V the voltage and I the current. In the case of the traditional induction machine, the rotor voltage Vdr and Vqr is equal to zero, since the current is only fed into the stator. Variables s and g are the synchronous and generator rotor speed, respectively. The slip of the rotor, s, is defined as follows
s=

s g s

(3. 3. 9)

The slip is positive in the motoring mode and negative in the generating mode. The electric parameters of the machine Rs , X s , X m , Rr and X r stand for the stator resistance and reactance, mutual reactance and rotor resistance and reactance, respectively. The electrical torque is given by
Te = qr I dr dr I qr
(3. 3. 10)

The developed torque Te is positive for motoring operation and negative for generation operation. Finally, the wind turbine active, reactive and apparent power output are given by the following equations
Pactive = Vds Ids + Vqs I qs Qreactive = Vqs I ds Vds I qs P = Vds Ids + Vqs I qs + Vqs I ds Vds I qs 3.3.4.2 Model neglecting stator transients
(3. 3. 11) (3. 3. 12) (3. 3. 13)

For power system transient studies, the inclusion of the network transients and generator stator transients increases the order of the overall system model, thus limiting the size of the system that can be simulated. Furthermore, a small time step is required for numerical integration resulting in an increased computational time. For these reasons, it has become conventional to reduce the order of the generator and neglect the network transients for stability analysis [Ekanayake et al, 2003]. Different methods for reducing the generator equations are discussed in [Wasynezuk et al, 1985]. For this project, a standard method of reducing the order of the induction generator model was considered where the rate of change of stator flux linkage is

35

neglected. This is common when performing stability simulations [Martins et al, 2007]. It is done by neglecting terms
d qs d ds and in Equations 3.3.5-3.3.6, which dt dt

is equivalent to assuming infinitely fast electromagnetic transients in the stator windings. Rearranging equations 3.3.1-3.3.13 leads to the following simplified model

ds = X s I ds + X m I dr qs = X s I qs + X m I qr dr = X r I dr + X m I ds qr = X r I qr + X m I qs
Vds = Rs I ds + s qs Vqs = Rs I qs s ds
0 = Rr I dr + s s qr d dr dt

(3. 3. 14) (3. 3. 15) (3. 3. 16) (3. 3. 17) (3. 3. 18) (3. 3. 19) (3. 3. 20)

0 = Rr I qr s s dr
s=

d qr dt

(3. 3. 21)

s g s

(3. 3. 22) (3. 3. 23) (3. 3. 24) (3. 3. 25) (3. 3. 26)

Te = qr I dr dr I qr Pactive = Vds Ids + Vqs I qs Preactive = Vqs I ds Vds I qs P = Vds Ids + Vqs I qs + Vqs I ds Vds I qs

3.4 Modelling and simulation in gPROMS

3.4.1 Modelling in gPROMS

The mathematical equations above consist of a mixed set of ordinary differential and algebraic equations that express the wind turbines physical laws of conservation of energy and momentum. 36

A state of the art software application, gPROMS, which enables the user to specify the order of polynomial and the number of points for discretisation of the spatial domain was used here for dynamic simulation. The software gPROMS is an equation oriented modelling system used for building, validating and executing models. The wind turbine model described in sections 3.1, 3.2 and 3.3 was implemented in gPROMS. Details can be found in Appendix 3. In table 1, the variables with a known value, the variables with an unknown value and the number of equations for the wind turbine are given.

Wind turbine model Known variables Unknown variables

, v , Vds , Vqs
Te , Tm , Tw , g , m , ds , qs , dr ,

qr , I ds , I dr , I qs , I qr , s , , Cp ,
, , P
Number of equations

19 (Appendix 3)

Table 1. Variables with a known value, variables with an unknown value and number of equations for wind turbine model

The table above shows that the number of unknown variables equals the number of equations for the wind turbine model. Therefore the number of degrees of freedom is equal to zero, and a simulation of the wind energy conversion system can be run.

3.4.2 Simulation results

The wind turbine parameters used for the simulation are given in Table 2.

Parameter

Value

Rotor radius, R Air density,

25 1.225

37

Aerodynamic coefficients, c1-c6 Gear ratio, n Damping, D Stiffness, K Rotor inertia, H m Generator inertia, H g Stator resistance, Rs Stator reactance, X s Mutual reactance, X m Rotor resistance, Rr Rotor reactance, X r Synchronous speed, s

c1=0.5, c2=116, c3=0.4, c4=0, c5=5, c6=21 65.27 1E6 6E7 1.6E6 35.184 0.0121 0.0742 2.7626 0.0080 0.1761 1

Table 2. Wind turbine parameters [Lubosny, 2003], [Martins et al, 2007]

It is important to note that for simulation purposes, the initial conditions were taken as steady state (all time derivatives equal to zero).

3.4.2.1 Base case

Wind turbines usually operate at a wind velocity between 5 m/s to 25m/s. Since the rated power is achieved at a wind velocity around 10 m/s, the wind velocity was set to 10 m/s for the base case. The transmission system and some portions of the distribution system are operated at voltages in the kilovolt (kV) range. Therefore Vds and Vqs were assigned a value of 1000 V. The blade pitch angle was set to zero in the base case, which translates in capturing all the available power from the wind. The simulation was run in gPROMS for 10 hours; results are shown in the following graphs.

38

W i nd turbi ne currents
400 300
R o t o r cu r r e n t ( A )

30
S t at o r cu r r e n t ( A ) S lip r at io

20 10 0
5000 10000 15000 20000 25000 30000 35000

200 100 0 -100 0 -200 -300 -400

T ime ( s)

-10 -20 -30

Idr

Iqr

Ids

Iqs

Figure 12. Wind turbine currents

The electromagnetic torque and the generator rotor slip are plotted in Fig. 13. As expected, they have negative values in the generating mode.

W i nd turbi ne el ectrom ag neti c torque and sl i p rati o

0
E le ct r o m ag n e t ic t o r q u e ( N .m )

0 0 5000 10000 15000 20000 25000 30000 35000 -0.2 -0.4 -0.6 -0.8
T ime ( s) Elecromagnetic Torque Slip ratio

-1000 -2000 -3000 -4000

Figure 13. Wind turbine electromagnetic torque and slip ratio

39

The wind turbine output power is presented in the figure bellow.

Wind turbine power

60000 50000
Power (W)

40000 30000 20000 10000 0 0 5000 10000 15000 20000 25000 30000 35000

Time (s) Power

Figure 14. Wind turbine power

3.4.2.2 Wind velocity step change

In order to observe how the wind velocity affects the wind turbine output power, a simulation was run modifying the wind speed. The initial wind speed was set to 8m/s for 10 hours, and then increased up to 10m/s for another 10 hours. Figure 15 shows that an increment in the wind speed results in a higher output power.

Power output towards wi nd vel oci ty s tep chang e

12
W in d V e lo c it y ( m /s )

49300 49200 49100 49000 48900 48800 48700 0 10000 20000 30000 40000 50000 60000 70000
P o w er (W)

10 8 6 4 2 0

T im e ( s )

Wind Velocity

Power

Figure 15. Power output towards wind velocity step change

40

3.4.2.3 Blade pitch angle step change

The response of the wind turbine towards a blade pitch angle step change is shown in Figures 16 and 17. Figure 16 illustrates how an increment in the blade pitch angle accurately translates in a reduction of the wind power coefficient.
Power coefficient towards blade pitch angle step change
12 10
Beta (degrees)

0.25 0.2
Cp

8 6 4 2 0 0 20000 40000 60000

Time (s)

0.15 0.1 0.05 0 80000 100000 120000

Beta

Cp

Figure 16. Power coefficient towards blade pitch angle step change

Figure 17 shows that the angle of the rotor blades can be adjusted in order to shed the unwanted power. When the wind speed becomes too high, a control structure could increase the blade pitch angle in order to reduce the aerodynamic power.
Power output towards bl ade pi tch ang l e s tep chang e
12 10 8 6 4 2 0 0 20000 40000 60000
T ime ( s) Beta Power

49500 49000 48500 48000 47500 47000 46500 80000 100000 120000

B e t g a ( de g r e e s)

Figure 17. Power output towards blade pitch angle step change

Powe r (W)

41

Chapter 4. Wind Turbine Control

4.1 Power control

As explained in section 2, the energy from the wind is not constant and the wind turbine power output is proportional to the cube of the wind speed, which causes the generated power to fluctuate. In general, the electrical power should be smooth and non-fluctuating. Therefore, in order to reduce fluctuation, a blade pitch control strategy can be developed. With pitch control, the power captured ( PBLADE ) from the wind power ( Pw ) can be controlled by a pitch actuator. As the wind speed increases, the power generated by the wind turbine also increases. Once the maximum rated power is reached, the pitch angle is increased (pitch-to-feather) to reduce the power coefficient and hence the aerodynamic power. As stated in section 3, the inputs for the wind turbine model are the wind velocity v and the blade pitch angle . The wind velocity is a disturbance variable; it changes constantly and cannot be controlled. On the other hand, the blade pitch angle is a manipulated variable. It can be adjusted in order to reduce the unwanted power when the wind speed becomes too high.

4.2 Explicit parametric controller

Classical techniques such as proportional (P), integral (PI) and derivative (PID) controllers are typically used to regulate the pitch angle of a wind turbine. Nevertheless, as stated in [Balas et al, 2006], controlling modern turbines to minimize the cost of wind energy is a complex task, and much research remains to be done to improve controllers. Referring to [Bemporad et al, 2002], model predictive control has become the accepted standard for complex constrained multivariable control problems in the process industries. Although in the 1970s industry started implementing model predictive control for many type of processes, considerable research still needs to be carried out regarding the implementation of this type of control for wind turbines [Brosilow et al, 2002]. The main advantage of this control strategy is that it takes into account constraints (such as economic considerations or operating conditions), which are usually not considered by the investigations done in

42

wind energy systems. A model predictive controller predicts the future behaviour of a process using a reduced model, and finds the control actions necessary for regulating the process solving an optimal control problem on a receding horizon. The goal of the optimization problem is to bring the system to the target regulation set point y * in an optimal way, while satisfying all constraints. The optimization satisfies possible constraints and bounds on the states y and inputs u . These constraints can include, for example, limited control authority and bounds on the blade pitch command and its rates, or maximum values of important parameters of the system that need not be exceeded. Model predictive control is a form of control in which the current control action is obtained by solving, at each sampling instant, a finite horizon open-loop optimal control problem, using the current state of the process as the initial state [Mayne et al, 2000]. An important drawback of model predictive control is that it requires on-line computational effort, which limits its applicability to relatively slow and/or small problems. A solution to the implementation problem of model predictive control is given by using novel parametric programming techniques. Parametric programming is an advanced mathematical programming method for solving optimization problems; model predictive controllers obtained via parametric programming are usually referred to as parametric controllers or explicit controllers. This technique [Bemporad et al, 2002] allows to move all the computations necessary for the implementation of the model predictive control off-line, while preserving all its other characteristics, thus increasing the range of applicability of model predictive control. The optimization problem of the model predictive control is solved off-line and the optimization variable (in this case the blade pitch angle) is obtained as a function of the parameters of the process such as the output, states and set points. The feasible region of the parameters space is also obtained. In general any optimization framework in engineering problems can be described mathematically as
z ( ) = min f ( x ) + d T y
x, y

(4. 2. 1)

s.t. g (x ) + Ey b + F

min max

43

x X Rn

y Y {0,1}

Rs
where y is a vector of binary variables, x a vector of continuous variables, f a scalar of continuous differentiable function of x , g a vector of continuous differentiable function of x , is a vector of parameters, b and d are constant vectors. Parametric optimization obtains z and x as explicit functions z ( ) , x( ) of and the regions CR ( ) where these functions are valid. By treating the process operating variables as parameters, the optimization problem of the model predictive control is solved off-line by parametric optimization to obtain the optimal solution as an optimal mapping of the operating variables. The on-line implementation of model predictive control is then reduced to a simple function evaluation at each sampling time instant. The parametric controller design strategy is shown in Figure 18. The main advantage of using explicit parametric controllers is that as the operating conditions of the process fluctuate there is no need to re-optimize since the optimal solution is already given as a function of the set of operating conditions. Hence, parametric controllers can be implemented on inexpensive hardware with inexpensive and less complicated software. This has been successfully demonstrated on several continuous processes [Panga et al., 2005]. More details of parametric control can be found in [Bemporad et al, 2002] and [Pistikopoulos et al, 2002].

Figure 18. Parametric controller strategy

44

This work attempts to design a parametric controller for the power output of a wind turbine, by regulating the pitch angle of the blades. The parametric controller was built in MATLAB. For this reason, the wind turbine model was directly transposed to the MATLAB/Simulink software. An overview of the implemented MATLAB/Simulink model is given in Figures 19-22. All blocks can be internally described with their mathematical relations, defined in section 3.

Figure 19. Simulink overall wind turbine model

Figure 20. Simulink aerodynamic model

45

Figure 21. Simulink drive train model

Figure 22. Simulink induction generator model

4.2.1 Model identification

The parametric controller was developed by first obtaining a linear input/output ARX polynomial representation of the wind energy system. This was done by importing the simulation data of the wind turbine power and blade pitch angle into MATLAB and representing the data in the system identification toolbox. The sampling time for the data acquisition was 1 second. The mathematical description of the resulting ARX model was:
A(q) y (t ) = B(q) u (t ) + e(t )
(4. 2. 2)

46

q 1 y (t ) = y (t 1)

(4. 2. 3) (4. 2. 4) (4. 2. 5)

with A(q ) = 1 q 1 and B (q ) = 219.3 + 219.3 q 1 The modelling mismatch, e(t ) , was neglected for the design of the controller.

4.2.2 Explicit parametric controller design

The following model predictive controller formulation is considered for the wind energy system:
J = min
Ut +1,...UN

t =1

Q ( y t y ref ,t ) + t =1 Ru t2
2 N

(4. 2. 6)

s.t. ARX model (defined in section 4.2.1)

u t = u t u t 1
0 u t 90 0 y t 50000

Q = 50 , R = 1 , = 10 3 , N = 5
where y is the controlled variable (wind turbine power output P in W), u is the manipulated variable (blade pitch angle in degrees), is a positive optimization variable incorporated to perform constraint softening in the presence of output infeasibility, and N (prediction horizon), Q (output cost), R (control moves suppression weight) are the tuning parameters. The values of the constraint bounds (determined by the wind turbine design specifications) along with the tuning parameters are given in Table 3. Constraints Values Tuning parameters Values 50 1 10 3 5

P low

P up

low
0

up
90
N

0
Q

50000

Table 3. Control design variables

47

The specifications of the parametric controller are to reduce the tracking error between the output and the optimal power and satisfy the constraints imposed on the parameters of the wind energy system. The only information needed to solve equation 4.2.6 and compute the control action u (t ) ( (t ) ) are the values of the elements of the state vector x . This vector comprises the past input and output values and the future set-point of the output power spanned until the end of the prediction horizon

t 1 x = Pt 1 Pset po int

(4. 2. 7)

The solution of this problem is obtained using recently developed algorithms [Dua et al, 2002] and the Parametric Optimization (POP) software (property of ParOS Ltd). It consists of a set of explicit linear expressions for the optimal value of the optimization variable in terms of the parameters and a set of regions in space where those expressions are valid. This mapping features an output feedback control law for the wind turbine as it directly relates the control action (current (t ) ) to the controlled output ( P ). The solution gave a polyhedral partition of the state-space into 21 regions. For example in region 1, the expression for the control law (manipulated variable) is:

= [1 0.0045579 - 0.0045579 ] ,
1 -1 - 2.4358e - 014 2.4358e - 014 -1 if 1 0 0 0 0 0.0045579 - 0.0045579 1 -1 0 0 -1 1 0 0 - 0.0045579 0.0045579 -1 1 0 *x 0 0 0 -1 1 90 0 219.4 219.4 0 90 47034 2966 47034 2966

(4. 2. 8)

A two dimension projection of the controller regions, by fixing Pset po int , is given in Figure 23.

48

Figure 23. Projection of the controller regions in Pt 1 t 1 space

Similar 2D plots of the polyhedral space partition are given in Figures 24 and 25, by fixing Pt 1 and t 1 respectively.

Figure 24. Projection of the controller regions in Pref t 1 space

49

Figure 25. Projection of the controller regions in Pref Pt 1 space

4.2.3 Controller implementation (gO:MATLAB)

For the controller implementation, the measured output value y (t ) and the values of the past output/input variables and future set-point are substituted into the set of the inequalities for each region. If all the inequalities are satisfied, the region where the parameters lie is identified. Then, the processor substitutes the parameter values to the obtained optimal control function to calculate the value of the blade pitch angle that needs to be adjusted. Since the wind turbine model was built in gPROMS and the parametric controller was designed in the MATLAB environment, a link was created in order to connect these two programmes and implement the controller. gO:MATLAB, licensed as an optional component of the gPROMS family, allows an entire gPROMS model to be called as a single function from inside MATLAB, enabling to solve a complex set of algebraic and ordinary differential equations within a single call. gO:MATLAB avoids the need for existing models to be simplified and rewritten for the MATLAB environment. Therefore, the validated, detailed gPROMS wind turbine model was called as a

50

MATLAB function for use in control analysis and design. The model was exported from gPROMS using a simple export facility, which packages the model and all the solvers and support software required for its solution within MATLAB. For this purpose, a schedule was created in the gPROMS process entity that introduces the communication protocols that defined the data to be exchanged with MATLAB (Appendix 5). Data exchange was implemented on the gPROMS side using the gPROMS Foreign Process Interface (FPI). This was carried out by using the FPI GET and SEND statements:

The GET statement is used to read data from MATLAB for input to the gPROMS simulation. The SEND statement is used to send simulation results from gPROMS to MATLAB.

The FPI communication schedule was implemented using a task entity which is itself called by the Process Entity. Details can be found in Appendix 6. The gO:MATLAB function was called inside the MATLAB environment using the syntax: gOMATLAB. The script file is shown in Appendix 7. Figure 26 presents the gPROMS wind turbine model executing correctly within MATLAB.

Figure 26. gPROMS wind turbine model executing within MATLAB

51

The explicit parametric controller was successfully implemented using gO:MATLAB. Results are plotted in Figures 27 and 28. Once the maximum rated power is reached, the blade pitch angle is increased to reduce the power coefficient and hence the aerodynamic power. The figures illustrate how in less than one minute the blade pitch angle is adjusted by the controller in order to set the wind turbine power output to the reference value. As explained in section 2, as the wind speed increases, the turbine extracts more power from the wind. Above 10-15 m/s wind speeds, the power output of the rotor must be controlled to reduce driving forces on the rotor blades as well as the load on the whole wind turbine structure. As shown in the graphs bellow, once the rated power is achieved, the controller accurately increments the blade pitch angle to shed some of the unwanted power and prevent the wind turbine from damage.

Power profile 49,500

49,000

48,500 Power (W)

48,000

47,500

47,000

46,500

20

40

60

80

100 120 Time (s)

140

160

180

200

Figure 27. gO:MATLAB power profile

52

Blade pitch angle profile 0.012

0.01 Blade pitch angle (degrees)

0.008

0.006

0.004

0.002

20

40

60

80

100 120 Time (s)

140

160

180

200

Figure 28. gO:MATLAB blade pitch angle profile

53

Chapter 5. Conclusions and Recommendations for future work 5.1 Contributions of this thesis

A wind energy conversion system consisting of the blades, mechanical parts and induction generator was modelled. Using the presented model, the output power for wind turbines was simulated in a simple way in gPROMS. To test the performance of the proposed model, wind turbine responses both to a step increase in wind speed and blade pitch angle were simulated. In both cases, the proposed model gave valuable insight into the performance of the variable speed wind turbine. As expected, the power generated increases with the wind speed, confirming the need of some sort of power control. On the other hand, an increment in the blade pitch angle proved to shed the aerodynamic power. As a normal dynamic simulation time step was adopted, this model was proven to be computationally efficient. Based on the obtained rigorous wind turbine model, a blade pitch angle control strategy for output power levelling was developed. An explicit parametric controller was formulated using MATLAB and the Parametric Optimization (POP) software. The controller design was based on an input-output ARX model and a predictive optimization problem formulation. The controller was derived off-line by recasting the current and past control input and process output together with the future reference trajectory as a set of parameters. Then parametric optimization was used to derive a mapping of the control actions in the parameter space. The solution gave a polyhedral partition of the state-space into 21 regions. Hence, a simple explicit optimal control law was constructed that allows the on-line implementation via simple linear function evaluations. The controller was successfully implemented using gO:MATLAB, a tool for calling the wind turbine gPROMS model from inside MATLAB. The simulation results show that the parametric controller performs well, accurately adjusting the blade pitch angle in order to set the power output to the reference value, in less than one minute. Although a comparison of the parametric controller with classical control techniques such as PI was not made, an important advantage of the parametric controller over standard controllers is worth mention. The PI controller is designed to operate for the nominal operating conditions. When a perturbation of the nominal operating conditions occurs, re-optimization of the PI parameters is required to cope with the 54

new scenario. On the contrary, the explicit parametric controller does not need reoptimization since the optimal solution is already a function of the set of operating conditions. Thus, for any change in the operating conditions the explicit parametric controller can successfully produce a control action to counteract for these changes.

5.2 Future work recommendations

The results obtained during this investigation are encouraging. The potential benefits of parametric control for wind energy systems were analysed; it appears that this control method allows for smooth wind turbine operation. However, a comparison of this control method with classical PI controllers would be desirable to demonstrate if substantial performance improvement of the parametric controller approach over standard controllers is possible. Furthermore, validating the developed wind turbine model and parametric controller with an experimental real-time implementation on an actual turbine would be very valuable. Moreover, this study is limited to the available data, and further validation of the model with other wind turbines, other operating points and different disturbances would be advisable. For instance, this study can be improved by taking into account wind gusts and other practical problems. The inclusion of the power electronics, converter, inverter, rectifier, capacitor, transformer and grid connection would make the wind energy system model more complete. Further research includes modelling and control of a group of interconnected wind turbines or wind farm. It should be noticed that the design of the parametric controller did not take into account any robustness requirements. Since this work is a first attempt to develop an explicit controller for a wind turbine, the design of a robust explicit controller is recommended as future work.

55

References

Ackermann, T. (ed). (2005) Wind Power in Power Systems. Wiley, England. Ackermann, T. Sder (2000) Wind energy technology and current status: a review.

Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews, [Online] 315-374 Available from:

www3.imperial.ac.uk/library/digitallibrary/electronicjournals December 2006]. ActNow (2007) [Online] Available [Accessed from:

Green

Power

http://actnow.com.au/Action/Flick_the_switch_Green_Power.aspx [Accessed in February 2007]. Arthus-Bertrand, Y. (2007)

aiimages.

[Online]

Available

from:

www.amiimages.com/en/17-middelgrunden-offshore-wind-farm-nearcopenhagen-denmark.htm [Accessed in February 2007]. Balas, M. Fingersh, L. Johnson, K. Pao, L. (2006) Control of Variable-Speed Wind Turbines: standard and adaptive techniques for maximizing energy capture.

IEEE Control Systems Magazine, [Online] 26, 70-81 Available from:

www3.imperial.ac.uk/library/digitallibrary/electronicjournals November 2006]. Bemporad, A. Morari, M. Dua, V. Pistikopoulos, E. (2002) The explicit linear quadratic regulator for constrained systems, Automatica, [Online] 38, 3-20 Available from: www3.imperial.ac.uk/library/digitallibrary/electronicjournals [Accessed May 2007]. Blaabjerg, F. Hansen, A. Iov, F. Srensen, P. (2006) Centralised power control of wind farms with doubly fed induction generators. Renewable Energy, [Online] 31, January 2007]. Bongers, P. Van Baars, G. (1992) Wind turbine control design and implementation based on experimental models. IEEE, [Online] 2, 2454-2459 Available from: www3.imperial.ac.uk/library/digitallibrary/electronicjournals December 2006]. Boukhezzar, B. Siguerdidjane, H. (2005) Nonlinear Control of Variable Speed Wind Turbines without wind speed measurement. IEEE Conference on Decision and [Accessed 935-951 Available from: [Accessed www3.imperial.ac.uk/library/digitallibrary/electronicjournals [Accessed

Control,

[Online]

3456-3461

Available

from: 56

www3.imperial.ac.uk/library/digitallibrary/electronicjournals December 2006].

[Accessed

Bouscayrol, A. Delarue, P. Guillaud, X. Lancigu, G. Tounzi, A. (2002) Modelling, control and simulation of an overall wind energy conversion system.

Renewable

Energy,

[Online]

28,

1169-1185

Available

from:

www3.imperial.ac.uk/library/digitallibrary/electronicjournals February 2007].

[Accessed

British Wind Energy Association (2006) The technology of turbines. [Online] Available from: www.bwea.com/ref/tech.html [Accessed in October 2006]. Brosilow, C. Joseph, B. (2002) Techniques of Model-Based Control. Prentice Hall, New Jersey. Butterfield, C. Muljadi, E. (2001) Pitch-Controlled Variable-Speed Wind Turbine Generation. IEEE Transactions on Industry Applications, [Online] 37, 240246 December 2006]. Chen, Z (2005) Issues of Connecting Wind Farms into Power Systems. IEEE Available from: [Accessed www3.imperial.ac.uk/library/digitallibrary/electronicjournals

Transmission and Distribution Conference & Exhibition: Asia and Pacific.

[Online] February 2007]. De Montfort University (2007) Wind Energy Training Course. [Online] Available from: www.iesd.dmu.ac.uk/wind_energy/m32extex.html [Accessed in February 2007]. Dorf, R. (2000) The Electrical Engineering Handbook. CRC Press LLC, Florida. EERE (2007) 2007]. Dua, V. Bozinis, N. Pistikopoulos, E. (2002) A multiparametric programming approach for mixed integer and quadratic engineering problems. Comp. Chem. Eng., 2007]. Ekanayake, J. Holdsworth, L. Jenkins, N. (2003) Comparison of 5th and 3rd order 57 [Online] 26, 715-733 Available from: www3.imperial.ac.uk/library/digitallibrary/electronicjournals [Accessed June 1-6 Available from: [Accessed www3.imperial.ac.uk/library/digitallibrary/electronicjournals

Wind

Power.

[Online]

Available

from:

www1.eere.energy.gov/windandhydro/wind_how.html [Accessed in January

machine models for doubly fed induction generator (DFIG) wind turbines.

Electric Power Systems Research, [Online] 67, 207-215 Available from:

www3.imperial.ac.uk/library/digitallibrary/electronicjournals [Accessed July 2007]. Energy Source Guides (2007) Large Wind Turbine Manufacturers in the World by

Business

Name.

[Online]

Available

from:

http://energy.sourceguides.com/businesses/byP/wRP/lwindturbine/byB/mfg/b yN/byName.shtml [Accessed in February 2007]. Fujita, H. Funabashi, T Sekine, H. Senjyu, T. Sakamoto, R Urasaki, N. (2006) Output Power Levelling of Wind Turbine Generator for All Operating Regions by Pitch Angle Control. IEEE Transactions on Energy Conversion, [Online] 21, 467-475 December 2006]. Gerogiorgis, D. Kouramas, K. Bozinis, N. Pistikopoulos, E. (2006) Design and Performance of an Explicit Parametric Controller for a Solid Oxide Fuel Cell (SOFC) System. Presented at the AIChE Annual Meeting. San Francisco, California, USA. Harrison, R. Hau, E. Snel, H. (2000) Large Wind Turbines. Wiley, England. Jangamshetti, S. Naik, R. (2006) Dynamic Simulation Model of Wind Energy Conversion System. WWEA, [Online] Available from: www.wwec2006.com [Accessed June 2007]. Jenkins, N. Walker, J. (1997) Wind Energy Technology. Wiley, England. Karrari, M. Malik, O. Rosehart, W. (2005) Comprehensive Control Strategy for a Variable Speed Cage Machine Wind Generation Unit. IEEE Transactions on Available from: [Accessed www3.imperial.ac.uk/library/digitallibrary/electronicjournals

Energy

Conversion,

[Online]

20,

415-423

Available

from:

www3.imperial.ac.uk/library/digitallibrary/electronicjournals January 2007].

[Accessed

Lei, Y. Mullane, A. Lightbody, G. Yacamini, R. (2006). IEEE Transactions on

Energy
2007].

Conversion,

[Online]

21,

257-263

Available

from

www3.imperial.ac.uk/library/digitallibrary/electronicjournals [Accessed May Lubosny, Z. (2003) Wind Turbine Operation in Electric Power Systems. Springer, Germany. 58

Martins, M. Perdana, A. Ledesma, P Agneholm, E. Carlson, O. (2007) Validation of fixed speed wind turbine dynamic models with measured data. Renewable

Energy, [Online] 32, 1301-1316 Available from: www.sciencedirect.com

[Accessed March 2007]. Mayne, D. Rawlings, J. Rao, C. Scokaert, P. (2000) Constrained model predictive control: Stability and optimality. Automatica [Online] 36, 789-814 Available from www.elsevier.com/locate/automatica [Accessed May 2007]. McNerney, G. Richardson, D. (1993) Wind Energy Systems. IEEE, [Online] 81, 378389 December 2006]. Npower s (2007) Available from: [Accessed from: www3.imperial.ac.uk/library/digitallibrary/electronicjournals

Project

Components.

[Online]

Available

www.natwindpower.co.uk/gwyntymor/components.asp [Accessed in February 2007]. Panga, A. Sakizlis, V. Kosmidis, V. Boustras, G. Ross, R. Charles, G. Kenchington, S. (2005) Output feedback Parametric Controllers for an Active Valve Train Actuation System. ECC/CDC Conference, [Online] Available from: www3.imperial.ac.uk/library/digitallibrary/electronicjournals [Accessed July 2007]. Pantelides, C. (2005) The Mathematical Modelling of the Dynamic Behaviour of

Process Systems. Imperial College Lecture Notes, London.

Pistikopoulos, E. Dua, V. Bozinis, N. Bemporad, A. Morari, M. (2002) On-line optimization via off-line optimization tools. Computers and Chemical

Engineering, 26 (2), 175 185.

Rawlings, J. (1999) Tutorial: Model Predictive Control Technology. ACC, [Online] 1, 662-676 February 2007]. Scottish Executive (2007) [Online] Available from: www.scotland.gov.uk [Accessed in January 2007]. Slemon, G. (1989) Modelling Induction Machines for Electric Drives. IEEE Available from: [Accessed www3.imperial.ac.uk/library/digitallibrary/electronicjournals

Transaction on Industry Application, [Online] 25, 1126-1131 Available from:

www3.imperial.ac.uk/library/digitallibrary/electronicjournals [Accessed June 2007]. 59

Slootweg, J. Polinder, H. Kling, W. (2001) Initialization of Wind Turbine Models in Power System Dynamic Simulations. IEEE Power Tech Proceedings, [Online] 4, 6-11 Available from: www.ieeexplore.ieee.org Wasynezuk, O. Yi-Min, D. Krause, P. (1985) Theory and comparison of reduced order models of induction machines. IEEE Transaction Power Apparatus

Systems, [Online] 3, 598-606.

Weedy, B. Cory, B. (1998) Electric power systems. Wiley, England. Wind-Works (2007) [Online] Available from: www.windworks.org/photos/PhotosVAWTs.html [Accessed in February 2007].

60

Appendices

Appendix 1 List of wind turbines manufacturers [Energy Source Guides, 2007]:

ABB Ltd.- Wind turbine generators Bergey Windpowers DeWind Ecotcnia sccl- Spanish manufacturer Electric Energy Ltd- UK manufacturer of small wind turbines Emergya Wind Technologies Enercon GmbH, Germany- wind turbines up to 6 MW Eoltec, France- wind turbines from 6 KW to 250 KW Gamesa Corporacin Tecnolgica Garrad Hassan and Partners Ltd General Electric, through its subsidiary GE Energy Martifer Group, Portugal Nordex Pauwels Trafo Belgium/Ireland- Major wind turbine generator transformer manufacturers REpower, Germany- wind turbines up to 5 MW Selsam Innovations/Superturbine Inc., California- multi-rotor wind turbines Siemens Wind Power A/S (formerly Bonus Energy A/S) Southwest Windpower Suzlon Energy Ltd Vergnet french manufacturer of wind turbines from 5 KW to 250 KW Vestas Wind Systems, Denmark- the worlds largest wind turbine producerwind turbines up to 4.5 MW Wind Harvest- manufacturers of straight bladed, vertical-axis wind turbines Win WinD Oy- manufacturer of 1 and 3 MW turbines based in Finland

61

Appendix 2

Wind turbine variables symbols and units

Symbol
v

Variable

Units

wind speed air density rotor radius area covered by blades power in the wind aerodynamic power extracted by blade aerodynamic torque tip speed ratio pitch angle

m.s-1 kg.m-3 m m2 W W N.m no units degrees no units rad.s-1 rad.s-1 N.m N.m N.m kg.m2 kg.m2 Nm.rad-1.s-1 Nm.rad-1 no units p.u. amperes volts no units

R A Pw
P BLADE

Tw

Cp ( , ) power coefficient

m g
Te Tm Tw Hm Hg D K

rotor speed generator speed generator (electromagnetic) torque mechanical torque wind torque rotor inertia generator inertia damping stiffness gear ratio magnetic flux current voltage slip ratio

angle between turbine rotor and generator rotor rad

I
V

62

X R

inductance reactance synchronous speed active power reactive power apparent power

p.u. p.u. p.u. W W W

s
Pactive Preactive

63

Appendix 3

gPROMS wind turbine model

#####################################################################
Model Entity ################################################################################### PARAMETER Rho AS REAL R AS REAL Rs AS REAL Xs AS REAL Xm AS REAL Rr AS REAL Xr AS REAL Ws AS REAL Hg AS REAL Hm AS REAL K AS REAL D AS REAL C1 AS REAL C2 AS REAL C3 AS REAL C5 AS REAL C6 AS REAL VARIABLE Te Tm Tw Wg Wm FLUXds FLUXqs FLUXdr FlUXqr Ids Idr Iqs Iqr Vds Vqs S Theta Cp V Lamda Beta P Q

AS AS AS AS AS AS AS AS AS AS AS AS AS AS AS AS AS AS AS AS AS AS AS

Torque Torque Torque AngularSpeed AngularSpeed Flux Flux Flux Flux Current Current Current Current Voltage Voltage Ratio Angle Ratio Speed Ratio Ratio Power Power

64

Gama

AS

Ratio

EQUATION # Induction Generator model FLUXds=Xs*Ids+Xm*Idr; FLUXqs=Xs*Iqs+Xm*Iqr; Vds=-Rs*Ids+Ws*FLUXqs; Vqs=-Rs*Iqs-Ws*FLUXds; FLUXdr=Xr*Idr+Xm*Ids; FLUXqr=Xr*Iqr+Xm*Iqs; 0=-Rr*Idr+S*Ws*FLUXqr-$FLUXdr; 0=-Rr*Iqr-S*Ws*FLUXdr-$FLUXqr; Te=FLUXqr*Idr-FLUXdr*Iqr; S=(Ws-WG)/Ws; P=Vds*Ids+Vqs*Iqs+Vqs*Ids-Vds*Iqs; #2 mass drive train model (mechanical parts) Hg*$Wg=Te+Tm/n; Hm*$Wm=Tw-Tm; Tm=K*(Theta/n)+D*((Wg-Wm)/n); $Theta=Wg-Wm; #aerodynamic model (blades) Tw=(0.5*Rho*3.1416*(R^2)*Cp*V^3)/Wm; Cp=C1*(C2/Gama-C3*Beta-C5)*exp(-C6/Gama); Gama=1/((1/(Lamda+0.08*Beta))-(0.035/(1+Beta^3))); Lamda=Wm*R/V;

#####################################################################
Process Entity ################################################################################### UNIT Turbine AS windturbine SET Turbine.Rs Turbine.Xs Turbine.Xm Turbine.Rr Turbine.Xr Turbine.Ws Turbine.Hg Turbine.Hm Turbine.K Turbine.D Turbine.R Turbine.n Turbine.Rho Turbine.C1 Turbine.C2 Turbine.C3 Turbine.C5

:=0.0121; :=0.0742; :=2.7626; :=0.0080; :=0.1761; :=1; :=35.184; :=1.6E6; :=6E7; :=1E6; :=25; :=65.27; :=1.225; :=0.5; :=116; :=0.4; :=5;

65

Turbine.C6 ASSIGN Turbine.V Turbine.Beta Turbine.VQS Turbine.VDS

:=21;

:=10; :=0; :=1000; :=1000;

INITIAL STEADY_STATE SOLUTIONPARAMETERS REPORTINGINTERVAL :=100; SCHEDULE Continue for 3600*10

66

Appendix 4

Parametric Optimization (POP) software (property of ParOS Ltd) to derive wind turbine explicit parametric controller
% Minimum values for u (pitch angle) and y (power) vnom= [0]; ynom= [47033.97]; % Number of inputs mpc.nu = 1; % Output and control horizon mpc.hy= [5]; mpc.hc= [5]; mpc.bMismatch = 0; % Upper and lower bounds for y mpc.y_up = [50000] - ynom; mpc.y_low= [0] - ynom; % Upper and lower bounds for u mpc.u_up= [90] - vnom; mpc.u_low= [0] - vnom; mpc.bLimitDU =[1]; mpc.DU_up = [1]; mpc.DU_dn = [1]; mpc.wu = [0]; mpc.yridx=[1]; % Q value mpc.wy=[50]; % R value mpc.wdu = [1]; % Rho value mpc.rho = [1e-3]; mpc.termul = 10; mpc.lin_mv= [0]; % mpc.e_penalty = [0]; % mpc.sp_prof{1}=[{1:mpc.hy}]; % mpc.sp_prof{1}=[{1:mpc.hy}]; % Define wind turbine model m.A = [1 -1]; % Enter A(q) here

67

m.B = [-219.4 219.4]; m.na = [1]; m.nb = [2]; m.nk = [0];

% Enter B(q) here % Enter order of A(q) % Enter order of B(q) % Enter time delay here

arxm = m; % The arx model is stored with the name arxm: this is needed later % Parameters low and upper bounds t_low = [mpc.u_low mpc.y_low mpc.y_low]; t_up = [mpc.u_up mpc.y_up mpc.y_up]; % Procedure for parametric controller calculation [mpver, trans] = arx2qp(arxm, mpc); cri = mpqp2(mpver, bound2constr(t_low,t_up), zeros(length(t_low),1), 10000); psol = cri; inQP = inv(mpver.Q)*trans.P'; nt = length(t_low); for i=1:length(cri) % x = v - inv(Q)P't; %psol(i).X = cri(i).X(:,1:nt+1) - [inQP; zeros(size(inQP,1),1)]; psol(i).X = cri(i).X(:,1:nt+1) - [inQP zeros(size(inQP,1),1)]; % psol(i).X(:,1:nt) = cri(i).X(:,1:nt) - inQP; % constant term unchanged end % Algorithm ends and the variable psol contains the solution save windturbine psol

68

Appendix 5

gPROMS process entity schedule to exchange data with MATLAB

UNIT Turbine AS windturbine SET Turbine.Rs Turbine.Xs Turbine.Xm Turbine.Rr Turbine.Xr Turbine.Ws Turbine.Hg Turbine.Hm Turbine.K Turbine.D Turbine.R Turbine.n Turbine.Rho Turbine.C1 Turbine.C2 Turbine.C3 Turbine.C5 Turbine.C6 ASSIGN Turbine.V Turbine.Beta Turbine.VQS Turbine.VDS

:=0.0121; :=0.0742; :=2.7626; :=0.0080; :=0.1761; :=1; :=35.184; :=1.6E6; :=6E7; :=1E6; :=25; :=65.27; :=1.225; :=0.5; :=116; :=0.4; :=5; :=21;

:=10; :=0; :=1000; :=1000;

INITIAL STEADY_STATE SOLUTIONPARAMETERS gRMS := OFF; FPI := "eventFPI"; ReportingInterval := 1 ; SCHEDULE sequence gMATLAB(wind is Turbine) end

69

Appendix 6 gPROMS task entity to exchange data with MATLAB

PARAMETER wind as MODEL windturbine

SCHEDULE SEQUENCE while True Do sequence GET wind.Beta; END continue for 1 SEND wind.A; END end end END

70

Appendix 7

gO:MATLAB script file

gOMatlab('startONLY'); gOMatlab('select', 'varpitch', 'varpitch'); gOMatlab('simulate', 'varpitch'); ee=1; %Length of each simulation interval L=1; %Number of results from gPROMS M=21; %Number of control regions N=5; %Number of control horizons y=0; u=0; Uout=zeros(N,1); count=0; %to calculate how many regions are being met ReturnMatrix=zeros(1,L+1); %exports the simulation results from gPROMS to MATLAB Time=0; tempu=u; tempy=y+47033.97; while Time <=200 i=1; while i<=M if psol(i).cr.A*[u;y;2193]<=psol(i).cr.b Uout=psol(i).X*[u;y;2193;1]; disp ('***********find feasible region************') count=count+1; break; end i=i+1; end ReturnMatrix(1,:)=gOMATLAB('evaluate',[Uout(N)],L); y=ReturnMatrix(1,1)-47033.97; u=Uout(N); tempu=[tempu u]; tempy=[tempy y+47033.97]; Time=Time+ee; end plot(tempu); figure plot(tempy); count Time gOMATLAB('stop'); % -min(y)

71