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    Biology Among other requirements, you should upload something that is not already on Scribd and that you have permission to use. The best way to make sure what you are uploading will meet our quality standards is to upload something you wrote yourself, which will always be accepted.Among other requirements, you should upload something that is not already on Scribd and that you have permission to use. The best way to make sure what you are uploading will meet our quality standards is to upload something you wrote yourself, which will always be accepted.Among other requirements, you should upload something that is not already on Scribd and that you have permission to use. The best way to make sure what you are uploading will meet our quality standards is to upload something you wrote yourself, which will always be accepted.Among other requirements, you should upload something that is not already on Scribd and that you have permission to use. The best way to make sure what you are uploading will meet our quality standards is to upload something you wrote yourself, which will always be accepted.Among other requirements, you should upload something that is not already on Scribd and that you have permission to use. The best way to make sure what you are uploading will meet our quality standards is to upload something you wrote yourself, which will always be accepted.Among other requirements, you should upload something that is not already on Scribd and that you have permission to use. The best way to make sure what you are uploading will meet our quality standards is to upload something you wrote yourself, which will always be accepted.Among other requirements, you should upload something that is not already on Scribd and that you have permission to use. The best way to make sure what you are uploading will meet our quality standards is to upload something you wrote yourself, which will always be accepted.Among other requirements, you should upload something that is not already on Scribd and that you have permission to use. The best way to make sure what you are uploading will meet our quality standards is to upload something you wrote yourself, which will always be accepted.Among other requirements, you should upload something that is not already on Scribd and that you have permission to use. The best way to make sure what you are uploading will meet our quality standards is to upload something you wrote yourself, which will always be accepted.Among other requirements, you should upload something that is not already on Scribd and that you have permission to use. The best way to make sure what you are uploading will meet our quality standards is to upload something you wrote yourself, which will always be accepted.Among other requirements, you should upload something that is not already on Scribd and that you have permission to use. The best way to make sure what you are uploading will meet our quality standards is to upload something you wrote yourself, which will always be accepted.Among other requirements, you should upload something that is not already on Scribd and that you have permission to use. The best way to make sure what you are uploading will meet our quality standards is to upload something you wrote yourself, which will always be accepted.Among other requirements, you should upload something that is not already on Scribd and that you have permission to use. The best way to make sure what you are uploading will meet our quality standards is to upload something you wrote yourself, which will always be accepted.Among other requirements, you should upload something that is not already on Scribd and that you have permission to use. The best way to make sure what you are uploading will meet our quality standards is to upload something you wrote yourself, which will always be accepted.

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    Biology Among other requirements, you should upload something that is not already on Scribd and that you have permission to use. The best way to make sure what you are uploading will meet our quality standards is to upload something you wrote yourself, which will always be accepted.Among other requirements, you should upload something that is not already on Scribd and that you have permission to use. The best way to make sure what you are uploading will meet our quality standards is to upload something you wrote yourself, which will always be accepted.Among other requirements, you should upload something that is not already on Scribd and that you have permission to use. The best way to make sure what you are uploading will meet our quality standards is to upload something you wrote yourself, which will always be accepted.Among other requirements, you should upload something that is not already on Scribd and that you have permission to use. The best way to make sure what you are uploading will meet our quality standards is to upload something you wrote yourself, which will always be accepted.Among other requirements, you should upload something that is not already on Scribd and that you have permission to use. The best way to make sure what you are uploading will meet our quality standards is to upload something you wrote yourself, which will always be accepted.Among other requirements, you should upload something that is not already on Scribd and that you have permission to use. The best way to make sure what you are uploading will meet our quality standards is to upload something you wrote yourself, which will always be accepted.Among other requirements, you should upload something that is not already on Scribd and that you have permission to use. The best way to make sure what you are uploading will meet our quality standards is to upload something you wrote yourself, which will always be accepted.Among other requirements, you should upload something that is not already on Scribd and that you have permission to use. The best way to make sure what you are uploading will meet our quality standards is to upload something you wrote yourself, which will always be accepted.Among other requirements, you should upload something that is not already on Scribd and that you have permission to use. The best way to make sure what you are uploading will meet our quality standards is to upload something you wrote yourself, which will always be accepted.Among other requirements, you should upload something that is not already on Scribd and that you have permission to use. The best way to make sure what you are uploading will meet our quality standards is to upload something you wrote yourself, which will always be accepted.Among other requirements, you should upload something that is not already on Scribd and that you have permission to use. The best way to make sure what you are uploading will meet our quality standards is to upload something you wrote yourself, which will always be accepted.Among other requirements, you should upload something that is not already on Scribd and that you have permission to use. The best way to make sure what you are uploading will meet our quality standards is to upload something you wrote yourself, which will always be accepted.Among other requirements, you should upload something that is not already on Scribd and that you have permission to use. The best way to make sure what you are uploading will meet our quality standards is to upload something you wrote yourself, which will always be accepted.Among other requirements, you should upload something that is not already on Scribd and that you have permission to use. The best way to make sure what you are uploading will meet our quality standards is to upload something you wrote yourself, which will always be accepted.

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    INTRODUCTION TO BIOLOGY LIFE Life is basically the sense of living.

    But to science, it is explained more specifically in an academic manner of how we should understand that some things are more than itself, an art behind a structure and an awe before its purpose. And when we begin to understand this thing, of how it is, of what it is; we begin to appreciate the purpose of it being here. Defining Biology is easy It is basically the study of LIFE. And in science, Life means anything that breathes and moves, or any functional capabilities that we can definitely conclude something as an organism. If in Physical Science, we have been studying about the physical structures of our surrounding. If we put life to it, and then this organisms interact with their surroundings than we have created a life atmosphere or we simply say Biosphere, which is kind of amazing, like what we always see in educational shows in NatGeo or Discovery channel. And so far, the purpose for this subject is to further enhance and simply to share with others of how we appreciate life, a love and a celebration all in all. SCIENTIFIC PROCESS Science is an iterative process, and continuous learning is a part of this process. Despite new ideas come in, the ideas itself can be reconstructed to present another problem. Science is then infinite, because of the endless possibilities it gives. Since the goal of the scientific process is to find answers, remember that the process of science is not predetermined rather it is proven or rejected through the conduction of tests. STEPS IN THE SCIENTIFIC METHOD: 1. Ask a question. The scientific method starts when you ask a question about something that you observe: How, what, who, when, which, why, or where? And in order for the scientific method to answer the questions it must be about something that you can measure, preferably with a number. 2. Do Background Research. Rather than starting from scratch in putting together a plan for answering your question, you want to be a savvy scientist using library and internet research to help you find the best way to do things and insure that you dont repeat mistakes from the past. 3. Construct a Hypothesis. A hypothesis is an educated guess about how things work: If _____[I do this] _______, then ________[this] _______ will happen. You must state your hypothesis in a way that you can easily measure, and of course, your hypothesis should be constructed in a way to help you answer your original question. 4. Test your Hypothesis by doing an Experiment. Your experiment tests whether your hypothesis is true or false. It is also important for your experiment to be a fair test. You conduct a fair test by making sure that you can change only one factor at a time while keeping all other conditions the same. 5. Analyze your Data and Draw Conclusion. Once your experiment is complete, you collect your measurements and analyze them to see if your hypothesis is true or false. Scientists often find that their hypothesis was false, and in such cases they will construct a new hypothesis starting the entire process of the scientific method over again.

    6. Communicate your Results. To complete your science fair project you will communicate your results to others in a final report and/ or a display board. Professional scientists do almost exactly the same thing by publishing their final report in a scientific journal or by presenting their results on a poster at a scientific meeting. Even though we show the scientific method as a series of steps, keep in mind that new information or thinking might cause a scientist to back up and repeat steps at any point during the process. A process like the scientific method that involves such as backing up and repeating is called an iterative process.

    So What is Its Importance? The study has leaded us to a lot of discoveries in prolonging life. It continues to provide us with valuable information, as well as give us the following aspects for us to survive; namely: 1. Food. All foods are made directly from living things, or indirectly from the products of organisms. 2. Clothing. Most clothing is made from biological products. Examples are wool, silk, and leather. 3. Shelter. Houses are often made from wood. 4. Health. Many illnesses are conquered by medical science. 5. Fuel. Fuels is needed to cook food, heat homes, run cars and other machines. Characteristics of Life 1. Cellular Structure. All living things are made up cells. 2. Living things are highly organized. 3. Responsiveness. All living things respond to the environment. 4. Metabolism. All living things use energy for growth and maintenance. 5. Reproduction. Living things reproduce. 6. Growth and Development. Living things grow and develop. 7. Adaptation. Living things adapt to their environment for survival. 8. Movement. Levels of organization of Life (Hierarchy of Life) 1. Atom the smallest particle of an element that retains the properties of that element. 2. Molecular level atoms and molecules are the simplest parts of a living system. 3. Organelle a structure inside a cell that performs a specific function. 4. Cellular level the smallest unit of life capable of carrying out all the functions of living things is the cell. 5. Tissue level a tissue is a group of cells performing a specific function in a multicellular organism. 6. Organ Level an organ is a group of different tissues that function together for a special purpose. 7. Organs System level several organs working together to perform a function is an organ system. 8. Organism an individual living thing. 9. Population level a group of organisms of the same species that live together in a particular location is a population. 10. Community level all the populations of different kinds of organisms living in the same place is a community. 11. Ecosystem level an ecosystem is a community of organisms in an area, as well as the nonliving factors of the environment. 12. Biosphere that part of the earth inhabited by living organisms; includes both the living and nonliving components. Some Areas of Study in Biology 1. Anatomy Physical structure of humans or other animals. 2. Botany structure and function of plants. 3. Cytology structure and function of cells. 4. Ecology relationships among organisms and their environments. 5. Ethology animal behavior. 6. Marine Biology study of marine life and environment. 7. Genetics heredity. 8. Microbiology microscopic organisms. 9. Physiology the functions of organs and organ system. 10. Taxonomy the scientific classification and naming of organisms.

    11. 12. 13. 14. 15. 16. 17. 18.

    Zoology the structure and function of animals. Agriculture the study of producing crops from the land, with an emphasis on practical applications Entomology the study of insects Biotechnology a new and sometimes controversial branch of biology that studies the manipulation of living matter, including genetic modification and synthetic biology. Mycology the study of fungi Phycology the study of algae. Pharmacology the study and practical application of preparation, use, and effects of drugs and synthetic medicines. Parasitology the study of parasites and parasitism.

    BIOCHEMISTRY : THE CHEMISTRY OF LIFE Biochemistry the study of the chemical reactions required for life to exist and function, usually a focus on the cellular level. Compounds of Life: 4 groups of organic compounds found in living things: 1) Carbohydrates 2) Lipids 3) Proteins 4) Nucleic Acids

    1. Carbohydrates

    includes sugars and starches (polymer) contain the elements C, H, and O, with the ratio 1:2:1 (carbo-hydrate) simplest called monosaccharides (monomers), or simple sugars- examples are glucose, galactose, and fructose. Glucose- made by green plants Galactose- found in milk Fructose- found in fruits; sweetest of these 3 (none of which is very sweet) all have the same formula: C6H12O6 Sugars are used for fuel, containing a large amount of energy stored in their chemical bonds Most organisms use glucose as fuel Sucrose (table sugar) made from glucose + fructose Maltose (malt sugar) made from glucose + glucose Lactose (milk sugar) made from glucose + galactose All 3 disaccharides are: C12H22O11 Polysaccharides: large molecules, formed by many monosaccharide units together used to store excess sugar in the form of starch (plants) or glycogen (animal starch) Cellulose (wood)- gives plants strength and rigidity.

    2. Lipids

    also called fats & waxes (solids), and oils (liquids at room temp.) 3 major roles in living organisms: 1. Can be used to store excess energy 2. Form biological membranes 3. Used as chemical messengers fatty acids have a carboxyl group that contains: 1 C, 1 H, and 2 O (-COOH) glycerol is an organic alcohol, with 3 C each attached to a hydroxyl group (-OH) Saturated and Unsaturated Lipids: Saturated- has only single bonds, thus contains maximum # of H not very healthy; hard to break down common in meats and dairy products usually solids- found in bacon, sausage, butter, milk, steak Unsaturated- if the carbons are linked by double bonds; does not contain the maximum # of H

    Proteins

    tend to be liquids- used in cooking, such as sesame, peanut, corn oil Both plants and animals can use lipids to store energy lipids have less O than carbohydrates, thus less mass per unit of energy Carbohydrates release: 4 calories/gram Lipids release: 9 calories/gram Much more energy from an equal amount of lipid than carbohydrate. Steroids are found in animals within something called hormones. Fat is also know as a triglyceride. (a polymer) formed by the monomer: amino acids contain C, H, O, and also Nitrogen Biological catalysts are called enzymes; usually a type of protein. Protein structure: made of one or more polypeptide chains. Amino acids are used in every cell of your body to build the proteins you need to survive.

    3. Proteins

    Uses: 1. Help carry out chemical reactions 2. Pump molecules in or out of cell 3. Responsible for cell movement 4. Structural components

    4. Nucleic Acids

    1. 2. 3. 1. 2.

    large, complex molecules composed of C, O, H, N, and Phosphorus the monomer forming them is called a nucleotide Nucleotides are made of: A special 5-carbon sugar A phosphate group A nitrogenous base Two types of Nucleic Acids: RNA (ribonucleic acid) - contain the sugar ribose DNA (deoxyribonucleic acid) - contain the sugar deoxyribose Function: to store and transmit the genetic information for life itself Five pieces: uracil, cytosine, thymine, adenine, and guanine.

    METABOLISM AND CYCLES Metabolism is the total of all the chemical reactions an organism needs to survive. Cycles involved among organism: Photosynthesis Carbon Cycle Krebs Cycle / Citric Acid Cycle Calvin Cycle Nitrogen Cycle ______________________________________________________________________________ CELL BIOLOGY Cell biology the study of the cell as a complete unit, and the molecular and chemical interactions that occur within a living cell. CELL STRUCTURE AND FUNCTION Cell Theory All living things are made up of cells. Cells are the smallest working units of all living things.

    All cells come from preexisting cells through cell division.

    A cell is the smallest unit that is capable of performing life functions.

    Two Types of Cell

    Prokaryotic Do not have structures surrounded by membranes Few internal structures One-celled organisms, Bacteria Eukaryotic Contain organelles surrounded by membranes Most living organisms

    CELL PARTS
    Surrounding the Cell Cell Membrane Outer membrane of cell that controls movement in and out of the cell Double layer Cell Wall Most commonly found in plant cells & bacteria Supports & protects cells INSIDE THE CELL Nucleus Directs cell activities Separated from cytoplasm by nuclear membrane Contains genetic material - DNA Nuclear Membrane Surrounds nucleus Made of two layers Openings allow material to enter and leave nucleus Chromosomes In nucleus Made of DNA Contain instructions for traits & characteristics Nucleolus Inside nucleus Contains RNA to build proteins Cytoplasm Gel-like mixture Surrounded by cell membrane Contains hereditary material Endoplasmic Reticulum Moves materials around in cell Smooth type: lacks ribosomes--- major site for lipid synthesis Rough type (pictured): ribosomes embedded in surface --- major site for protein Ribosomes Each cell contains thousands

    Make proteins Found on ribosomes & floating throughout the cell

    Mitochondria Produces energy through chemical reactions breaking down fats & carbohydrates Controls level of water and other materials in cell Recycles and decomposes proteins, fats, and carbohydrates Golgi Bodies Protein 'packaging plant' Move materials within the cell Move materials out of the cell Lysosome Digestive 'plant' for proteins, fats, and carbohydrates Transports undigested material to cell membrane for removal Cell breaks down if lysosome explodes Vacuole Membrane-bound sacs for storage, digestion, and waste removal Contains water solution Help plants maintain shape Chloroplast Usually found in plant cells Contains green chlorophyll Where photosynthesis takes place

    CELL CYCLE

    Cell cycle - sequence of phases in the life cycle of the cell Why Do Cells Divide?
    For growth, repair, and reproduction Mitosis Organisms grow by the addition of cells In multicellular organism some of these cells perform functions different from other cells.

    Meiosis

    The process of a cell becoming different is differentiation. Asexual: CLONES Single parent Passes all genes from one parent Offspring genetically identical

    A division of the nucleus that reduces chromosome number by half. Important in sexual reproduction Involves combining the genetic information of one parent with that of the the other parent to produce a genetically distinct individual Sexual: VARIATION Two parents Each parent passes half of their genes Offspring have unique genetic combination

    The Cell Cycle and Cancer A neoplasm is an abnormal growth of cells. A benign neoplasm is not cancerous; a malignant neoplasm is cancerous. Cancer is a cellular growth disorder that results from the mutation of genes that regulate the cell cycle; i.e., cancer results from the loss of control and a disruption of the cell cycle. Carcinogenesis, the development of cancer is gradualit may take decades before a cell has the characteristics of a cancer cell.

    Signs and Symtoms of Cancer: 1. Persistent cough or blood tinged saliva. 2. A change in bowel habits. 3. Blood in the stool. 4. Unexplained anemia. 5. Breast lump or breast discharge. 6. Lumps in the testicles. 7. A change in urination. 8. Blood in the urine 9. Hoarseness 10. Persistent lumps or swollen glands 11. Obvious change in a wart or a mole. 12. Indigestion or difficulty swallowing. 13. Unusual vaginal bleeding or discharge. 14. Unexpected weight loss, night sweats, or fever 15. Continued itching in the anal or genital area 16. Nonhealing sores 17. Headaches 18. Back pain, pelvic pain, bloating or indigestion Stem Cells Therapeutic cloning to produce human tissues can begin with either adult stem cells or embryonic stem cells. Embryonic stem cells can be used for reproductive cloning, the production of a new individual.

    Human Genome Project The entire genetic makeup of the human cell nucleus. Genes carry the information for making all of the proteins required by the body for growth and maintenance. Made up of ~35,000-50,000 genes which code for functional proteins in the body.

    Includes non-coding sequences located between genes, which makes up the vast majority of the DNA in the genome (~95%). The particular order of nucleotide bases (As, Gs, Cs, and Ts) determines the amino acid composition of proteins. Information about DNA variations (polymorphisms) among individuals can lend insight into new technologies for diagnosing, treating, and preventing diseases that afflict humankind.

    Which Branches of Biology will Benefit from this Knowledge? Medicine o Improvements in diagnostic and therapeutic applications o Implementation of preventative measures. o Increases in gene therapy applications. Biotechnology o Production of useful protein products for use in medicine, agriculture, bioremediation and pharmaceutical industries. o Antibiotics o Protein replacement (factor VIII, TPA, streptokinase, insulin, interferon) o BT insecticide toxin (from Bacillus thuringiensis) o Herbicide resistance (glyphosate resistance) o Bioengineered foods [e.g. Flavr Savr tomato (antisense polygalacturonase) to delay rotting] o Pharm animals Bioinformatics The newest, fastest growing specialty in the life sciences that integrates biotechnology and computer science. Involved in DNA sequence assembly and analysis using computer-based techniques to determine gene function, regulation and control. Unknown gene sequences can be compared to databases of known genes to enable similarities to lead to determination of an unknown genes function. DNA Microarray or DNA Chip Technology A DNA microarray (also commonly known as gene chip, DNA chip, or biochip) is a collection of microscopic DNA spots attached to a solid surface. Scientists use DNA microarrays to measure the expression levels of large numbers of genes simultaneously or to genotype multiple regions of a genome. Genetic Linkage Analyses Studies of families affected by genetic disease have proven useful for genetic linkage analyses (e.g. Huntingtons disease, neurofibramatosis, cystic fibrosis, Duchennes muscular dystrophy).

    TISSUE Tissue a cellular organizational level intermediate between cells and a complete organism. The study of tissue is known as histology. ANIMAL TISSUE Connective Tissue fibrous tissue, made up of extracellular matrix. Examples are blood and bone. It gives shape to organs and holds them in place. Muscle Tissue functions to produce force and cause motion, either locomotion or movement within internal organs. o Smooth muscle found in the inner lining of organs. o Skeletal muscle found attached to bone providing for gross movement. o Cardiac muscle found in the heart, allowing it to contract and pump throughout an organism. Nervous Tissue functions to transmit messages in form of impulse.

    Central nervous system neural tissue forms the brain and spinal cord. Peripheral nervous system forms the cranial nerves and spinal nerves, including the motor neurons. Epithelial Tissues functions to be the outer layer of the skin, protects internal organs such as in the digestive system, help in absorption of water and nutrient, and help in elimination of waste product. o Squamous epithelium o Cuboidal epithelium o Columnar epithelium o Glandular epithelium o Ciliated epithelium o o

    PLANT TISSUES Categories: Epidermis cells forming the outer surface of the leaves and of the young plant body. Vascular tissue the primary components of vascular are the xylem and phloem. These transport fluid and nutrients internally. Ground tissue less differentiated than other tissues. Manufactures nutrients by photosynthesis and stores reserve nutrients. Types: Meristematic tissues consists of actively dividing cells, and leads to increase in length and thickness of the plant. o Apical meristem present at the growing tips of stems and roots and increase the length of the stem and root. o Lateral meristem consist of cells which mainly divide in one plane and cause the organ to increase in diameter and growth. o Intercalary meristem usually present at the base of node, inter node and on leaf base. Responsible for the length of plant. Permanent tissues at some point in time with cellular differentiation, the tissues becomes permanent in shape, size and function. o Parenchyma provides support to plants and also stores food. o Collenchyma acts as a supporting tissue in stems of young plants. It provides mechanical support, elasticity, and tensile strength to the plant body. It helps in maintaining sugar and storing it as starch. o Sclerenchyma gives support to the plant. o Epidermis entire surface of the plant. Complex Permanent Tissue o Xylem or Wood responsible for conduction of water and mineral ions. o Phloem or Bast carries dissolved food substances throughout the plant.

    BIOTECHNOLOGY Biotechnology is a field of applied biology that involves the use of living organisms and bioprocesses in engineering, technology,medicine and other fields requiring bioproducts. Genetic engineering frequently involves the use of recombinant DNA, which is composed of DNA segments from at least two differing organisms. Genetic engineering has many commercial applications. Gene splicing is the process by which a gene from one organism is placed into the DNA of another organism. A change in DNA is called a mutation. Mutations can involve entire chromosomes or specific genes. A series of derived terms have been coined to identify several branches of biotechnology, for example: o Bioinformatics is an interdisciplinary field which addresses biological problems using computational techniques, and makes the rapid organization and analysis of biological data possible. The field may also be referred to as computational biology, and can be defined as, "conceptualizing biology in terms of molecules and then applying informatics techniques to understand and organize the information associated with these

    o o

    o o

    molecules, on a large scale." Bioinformatics plays a key role in various areas, such as functional genomics, structural genomics, and proteomics, and forms a key component in the biotechnology and pharmaceutical sector. Blue biotechnology is a term that has been used to describe the marine and aquatic applications of biotechnology, but its use is relatively rare. Green biotechnology is biotechnology applied to agricultural processes. An example would be the selection and domestication of plants via micropropagation. Another example is the designing of transgenic plants to grow under specific environments in the presence (or absence) of chemicals. One hope is that green biotechnology might produce more environmentally friendly solutions than traditional industrial agriculture. An example of this is the engineering of a plant to express a pesticide, thereby ending the need of external application of pesticides. An example of this would be Bt corn. Whether or not green biotechnology products such as this are ultimately more environmentally friendly is a topic of considerable debate. Red biotechnology is applied to medical processes. Some examples are the designing of organisms to produce antibiotics, and the engineering of genetic cures through genetic manipulation. White biotechnology, also known as industrial biotechnology, is biotechnology applied to industrial processes. An example is the designing of an organism to produce a useful chemical. Another example is the using of enzymes as industrial catalysts to either produce valuable chemicals or destroy hazardous/polluting chemicals. White biotechnology tends to consume less in resources than traditional processes used to produce industrial goods. The investment and economic output of all of these types of applied biotechnologies is termed as bioeconomy.

    AREAS OF WORK IN BIOTECHNOLOGY (ACCORDING TO BIOTECHNOLOGY INDUSTRY ORGANIZATION) Health Care Biopharmaceutical Manufacturing and Distribution Biosimilars Drug Discovery and Development Food and Drug Administration Review Personalized Medicine Vaccines and Biodefense Emerging Companies Capital Formation Funding International Market Access Technology Transfer Therapeutic Discovery Project Credit Food and Agriculture Animal Biotechnology Plant Biotechnology Sustainable Agriculture Industry and Environmental Advanced Biofuels Algae Climate Change Marine Biotechnology Renewable Chemicals and Biobased Materials Renewable Specialty Chemicals Synthetic Biology

    Intellectual Property Biodiversity and Bioprospecting Gene Patenting Patent Law Harmonization Intellectual Property and Trade Technology Transfer

    Patent Reform

    INDUSTRIAL ENZYMES Enzymes allow certain industrial processes to be carried out at normal temperatures and pressures, thereby reducing the amount of energy and expensive equipment needed. Enzymes are also used in the home, for example, in biological detergents. Uses of enzymes: Protease used to pre-digest proteins during the manufacture of baby foods. Lipase used together with protease - in biological detergents to break down digest the substances in stains into smaller, water soluble substances. Carbohydrase used to convert starch syrup, which is relatively cheap, into sugar syrup, which is more valuable for example, as an ingredient in sports drinks Isomerase used to convert glucose syrup into fructose syrup fructose is sweeter than glucose, so it can be used in smaller amounts in slimming foods. Other enzymes; Nutraceutical Enzymes Animal Enzymes Fruit juice enzymes Brewing enzymes Baking enzymes Grain Processiing Enzymes Alcohol & Starch Enzymes Protein Hydrolysis Enzymes Wine Enzymes Detergent Enzymes Dairy processing enzymes Waste Management Enzymes GENETIC MODIFIED ORGANISMS (GMOs) IN THE MARKET Genetic Modified Organism (GMO) is an organism whose genetic material has been altered using genetic engineering techniques. Organisms that have been genetically modified include micro-organisms such as bacteria and yeast, plants, fish, and mammals. GMOs are the source of genetically modified foods, and are also widely used in scientific research and to produce goods other than food. Genetic engineering (genetic modification) is the direct manipulation of an organisms genome using biotechnology. New DNA may be inserted in the host genome by first isolating and copying the genetic material of interest using molecular clong methods to generate a DNA sequence, or by synthesizing the DNA, and then inserting this construct into the host organism. Uses: Used in biological and medical research. Production of pharmaceutical drugs Experimental medicine (gene therapy) Agriculture (golden rice, resistance to herbicides)

    THE HUMAN BODY : ANATOMY AND PHYSIOLOGY Anatomy and Physiology It is concerned with the bodys structural framework and how it works. What happens in the body? Metabolism refers to all of the chemical operations going on within our bodies.

    Homeostasis is the physiologic process that monitors and maintains a stable internal environment or equilibrium.

    Bizarre Signs and Symptoms: 1. Sweating at night may indicate tuberculosis. 2. A desire to eat clay or starchy paste may indicate iron deficiency in the body. 3. Breath that smells like pear drops or fruit flavored chewing gum may be an indication of diabetes. 4. A hairy tongue may mean that your normal mouth flora has died from improper use of antibiotics. Organ Systems: 1. Integumentary System covers the body and protects it. [ skin, hair, nails, sweat glands, sebaceous glands] 2. 3. 4. 5. Skeletal System protects the body and provides support for locomotion and movement. [bones, cartilage, ligaments] Muscular System permits body movement. [skeletal muscle, cardiac muscle, smooth muscles] Nervous System receives stimuli integrates information, and coordinates the body functions. [brain, spinal cord, nerves, sense organs] Endocrine System Chemically coordinates and integrates the activities of the body. [pituitary gland, thyroid gland, parathyroid gland, adrenal glands, pancreas, ovaries, testes, pineal gland, thymus] Digestive System digests food and absorbs soluble nutrients from ingested food. [mouth, tongue, teeth, salivary glands, pharynx, esophagus, stomach, liver and gallbladder, pancreas, small and large intestine] Respiratory System collects oxygen and exchanges it for carbon dioxide. [nasal cavity, pharynx, larynx, trachea, bronchi, lungs] Circulatory System transports cells and materials through out the body. [heart, blood, blood vessels (arteries, veins, capillaries) ] Immune System removes foreign chemicals and microorganisms from the bloodstream. [macrophages, lymph structures, lymphatic vessels, lymph nodes, thymus, spleen]

    6.

    7. 8. 9.

    10. Urinary system removes metabolic wastes from the bloodstream. [Kidneys, ureters, urinary bladder, urethra] 11. Reproductive system produces sex cells for the next generation. Male Reproductive System [ scrotum, testes, epidiymides, ductus deferentia, seminal vesicles, prostate gland, bulbourethral glands, urethra, penis ] Female Reproductive System [ovaries, uterine tubes, uterus, vagina, clitoris, vulva] INTEGUMENTARY SYSTEM

    Structure and Function:


    Integumentary system is composed of the skin and accessory structures Functions of the integumentary system Protects the other body systems from injury and infection Helps the body maintain homeostasis by regulating temperature, retaining body fluids, and eliminating wastes The largest organ of the body

    Skin

    Basic Anatomy of the skin:

    Three Layers of the Skin: 1. Epidermis o Outermost layer of the skin that is composed of a surface of dead cells with an underlying layer of living cells 2. Dermis o Called the true skin; the dermis contains the blood vessels and nerves. 3. Subcutaneous Tissue o Base layer of fatty tissue or cells. Other accessory organs: 4. Hair follicle - the skin is dotted with millions of tiny cavities called follicles. These pits originate in the dermis and are responsible for growing our bodys coat of hair. 5. Capillaries are thin blood vessels that extend throughout the dermis layer and help regulate body temperature. When the body is warm, they widen to increase blood flow and aid heat transfer out of the skin. To warm the body, they narrow, decreasing blood flow and inhibiting heat transfer. Stratum Corneum means horny layer. It is covering of flattened, dead skin cells that make up the topmost layer of the epidermis. Nerve endings relay messages between the skin and the brain. Nerves in the dermis come in two different forms: touch receptors that detect light touch and pressure receptors that detect pressure and vibrations. Arrector pili are tiny muscles attached to the base of the hair follicles. They pull the hair upright and produce goose bumps when the body gets cold or stressed. Sebaceous gland are attached to each hair follicle. They produce an oil called sebum, which moves to the surface and keeps the skin and hair soft and flexible.

    6. 7. 8. 9.

    10. Sweat gland every square inch of skin contains about 650 sweat glands. These tiny ducts emit droplets of perspiration that cool the body as they evaporate. Sweat glands are also used by the body to remove certain waste materials from the blood. Stresses on Skin Here are some of the elements that can harm or assault our skin; 1. chemicals 2. infections 3. cuts 4. Scrapes 5. sunlight 6. water Skin Color and Sunlight The body needs sunlight to produce vitamin D, but excessive ultraviolet (UV) radiation from the sun can harm the skin. When exposed to the sun, the skin produces more of the brown pigment melanin, which darkens the skin and gives us limited protection from UV rays. Skin tones a. Dark Skin Dark skinned people can trace their heredity to tropical regions where exposure to the sun is more likely. For this reason, they produce more numerous and deeper-colored melanin. Generally speaking, people with darker complexions can tolerate more exposure to the sun before getting sunburned, but they are still susceptible to sunburn and skin cancer. b. Medium Skin as early humans migrated out of the tropics and into regions farther from the Equator, where UV levels are lower, they developed fairer skin, which let more sunlight penetrate their skin for vitamin D production. People with medium skin color have moderate natural protection from the sun but must take more precautions than dark-skinned people.

    c. Light Skin most people with very light skin can trace their heredity to far northern climes, where exposure to strong sunlight is limited. People with light skin have very low natural protection from the sun. They sunburn easily and are extremely susceptible to skin cancer. Sub-class of skin tones; a. b. c. d. e. Light or Freckled Skin includes the ethnic Caucasian generally, Irish, British, Americans Fair skin to Light brown includes the Asians (specifically Koreans and Japanese, Caucasians (Russian, Americans, etc.), light brown some Asians (Taiwanese, Chinese), and some South American ethnicity. Olive Skin to Moderate brown includes the Morenas and Morenos of Latin countries, and in Asian countries (Philippines, Malaysia, Thailand) Brown skin includes African ethnicity generally, some Indian ethnicity, Sri Lanka, Aborigines from Australia Black Skin includes African ethnicity generally, mostly concentrated in the African region,( Sudan, Zimbabwe, Uganda).

    Here are 7 habits that contribute to aging skin, making you look older than your years: 1. Cigarette smoke: Whether you smoke, or you spend time with a smoker, cigarette smoke is damaging -- and aging -- to your skin. Research has shown that exposure to cigarette smoke significantly increases skin wrinkles and dryness. This is partly due to the behavior of smoking, and also because cigarette smoke depletes your body of Vitamin C, which is a key ingredient for keeping skin plump and moist. Sun exposure: Sun exposure is very aging to skin. Unprotected skin that is exposed to the sun becomes more mottled in appearance. Freckles can turn into brown sun spots, the skin takes on a dry, leathery appearance, and wrinkles and sagging increase. The risk of skin cancer is significantly increased by sun exposure. Lack of exercise: Living a sedentary life contributes to aging skin, because exercise helps to tone your muscles and get your blood flowing. Exercise should be an important part of every anti-aging skin care program. 4. Exposure to cold weather: Cold winds and low temperatures contribute to aging skin by making skin dry, so if you venture out in the cold be sure to use a good moisturizer.

    2.

    3.

    Alcohol use: Alcohol contributes to aging skin by dilating small blood vessels in the skin and increasing blood flow near the skin's surface. Over time, these blood vessels can become permanently damaged, creating a flushed appearance and broken vessels on the skins surface. Stress: Maybe youve heard this expression: Dont frown, your face could stay that way. Stress and worry cause frowning, and over time the muscles in the face actually conform to that movement. Lack of sleep: Too little sleep makes you look and feel tired. One of the first places lack up sleep shows up is on the face, with dark circles and bags under the eyes, and sagging skin.

    SKIN CARE 101: 1. Protect yourself from the sun

    The most important way to take care of your skin is to protect it from the sun. A lifetime of sun exposure can cause wrinkles, freckles, age spots and rough, dry skin. Sun exposure can also cause more-serious problems, such as skin cancer. Avoid the sun between 10 a.m. and 4 p.m. This is when the sun's rays are the strongest. Wear protective clothing. Cover your skin with tightly woven long-sleeved shirts, long pants and wide-brimmed hats. Use sunscreen when you're in the sun. Apply generous amounts of broad-spectrum sunscreen 30 minutes before going outdoors and reapply every two hours, after heavy sweating or after being in water.

    2. Don't smoke

    Smoking makes your skin look older and contributes to wrinkles. Smoking narrows the tiny blood vessels in the outermost layers of skin, which decreases blood flow. This depletes the skin of oxygen and nutrients, such as vitamin A, that are important to skin health.

    3. Treat your skin gently

    Daily cleansing and shaving can take a toll on your skin, so keep it gentle: Limit bath time. Hot water and long showers or baths remove oils from your skin. Limit your bath or shower time, and use warm rather than hot water. Avoid strong soaps. Strong soaps can strip oil from your skin. Instead, choose mild cleansers. Shave carefully. To protect and lubricate your skin, apply shaving cream, lotion or gel before shaving. For the closest shave, use a clean, sharp razor. Shave in the direction the hair grows, not against it. Pat dry. After washing or bathing, gently pat or blot your skin dry with a towel so that some moisture remains on your skin. Moisturize dry skin. Find a moisturizer that fits your skin type and makes your skin look and feel soft.

    4. Eat a healthy diet 5. Manage stress

    A healthy diet can help you look and feel your best. Eat plenty of fruits, vegetables, whole grains and lean proteins. Uncontrolled stress can make your skin more sensitive and trigger acne breakouts and other skin problems.

    9 Best foods for your skin :


    1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. 8. 9. Low fat yogurt because of Vitamin A Salmon essential fatty acid Avocadoes B-complex Berries contains anti-oxidants (Eggplants is from potato family. But yes its also considered a berry.) water always the best. Green tea contains antioxidants and anti-inflammatory effects. Almonds Vitamin E Mangoes Vitamin C as well as Vitamin A Cottage cheese contains selenium, good for skin too.

    SKELETAL SYSTEM Structure and Functions: Support: body structure and shape Protection: vital organs surrounded Movement/Anchorage of Muscles Mineral Storage: calcium & phosphorus Blood Formation There are 206 bones in the adult human body; 270 bones in babies. Important Structure in a Bone: Epiphyseal plate is the portion of bone where growth happens. Bones continue to grow until the plate closes. If an Epiphyseal plate is damaged before it ossifies, elongation of the long bone may cease prematurely, or growth maybe uneven. Two Divisions of Skeletal System: AXIAL a. Skull - Cranium (Temporal bone, Occipital Bone) - Ear Bones - Facial Bones ; (Nasal bones, Zygomatic (cheekbones)) APPENDICULAR a. Shoulder Girdle - Clavicle collar bone - Scapula shoulder blades b. Upper Extremities - Humerus - Ulna

    b. Hyoid

    c. Vertebral Column / Spinal Column - Cervical - Thoracic ; (rib cage) - Lumbar - Sacrum - Coccyx

    - Radius c. Lower Extremities - Femur - Patella; Knee Cap - Tibia - Fibula

    Bone Marrow Marrow is a soft, netlike mass of connective tissue.

    Two Types:

    Red Marrow- makes red blood cells, white blood cells, and platelets. It is red because it contains hemoglobin. It occupies the cavities of most bones in an infant. In an adult, RM is found in the spongy bone of the skull, ribs, sternum, clavicles, vertebrae, and pelvis. Yellow marrow- stores fat and is inactive in blood cell production.

    Some Disorders of Skeletal System; Caries Also called cavities, it is the major cause of tooth loss Carpal tunnel syndrome A disorder caused by pressure on the median nerve of the wrist due to repetitive use or trauma Arthritis A group of disorders evidenced by inflammation of a joint, pain and stiffness during movement Dislocation When bones move out of their proper location, usually in the shoulder or hip Fracture A broken bone caused by trauma Osteoma A bone tumor Osteoporosis A weakening of the bones Postural Disorders; Kyphosis Also called hunchback or humpback, is an abnormal curvature of the thoracic part of the spine Lordosis Also called swayback, is an abnormal curvature of the lumbar spine Scoliosis An abnormal lateral spinal curvature What is good posture? Posture is the position in which you hold your body upright against gravity while standing, sitting or lying down. Good posture involves training your body to stand, walk, sit and lie in positions where the least strain is placed on supporting muscles and ligaments during movement or weight-bearing activities. Proper posture: Keeps bones and joints in the correct alignment so that muscles are being used properly. Helps decrease the abnormal wearing of joint surfaces that could result in arthritis. Decreases the stress on the ligaments holding the joints of the spine together. Prevents the spine from becoming fixed in abnormal positions. Prevents fatigue because muscles are being used more efficiently, allowing the body to use less energy. Prevents strain or overuse problems. Prevents backache and muscular pain. Contributes to a good appearance. PROPER POSTURE REQUIREMENTS

    Correct sitting position

    Sit up with your back straight and your shoulders back. Your buttocks should touch the back of your chair.

    All three normal back curves should be present while sitting. A small, rolled-up towel or a lumbar roll can be used to help you maintain the normal curves in your back. Here's how to find a good sitting position when you're not using a back support or lumbar roll: Sit at the end of your chair and slouch completely. Draw yourself up and accentuate the curve of your back as far as possible. Hold for a few seconds. Release the position slightly (about 10 degrees). This is a good sitting posture. Distribute your body weight evenly on both hips. Bend your knees at a right angle. Keep your knees even with or slightly higher than your hips. (use a foot rest or stool if necessary). Your legs should not be crossed. Keep your feet flat on the floor. Try to avoid sitting in the same position for more than 30 minutes. At work, adjust your chair height and work station so you can sit up close to your work and tilt it up at you. Rest your elbows and arms on your chair or desk, keeping your shoulders relaxed. When sitting in a chair that rolls and pivots, don't twist at the waist while sitting. Instead, turn your whole body. When standing up from the sitting position, move to the front of the seat of your chair. Stand up by straightening your legs. Avoid bending forward at your waist. Immediately stretch your back by doing 10 standing backbends.

    Correct driving position

    Use a back support (lumbar roll) at the curve of your back. Your knees should be at the same level or higher than your hips. Move the seat close to the steering wheel to support the curve of your back. The seat should be close enough to allow your knees to bend and your feet to reach the pedals. If you must lift objects, do not try to lift objects that are awkward or are heavier than 30 pounds. Before you lift a heavy object, make sure you have firm footing. To pick up an object that is lower than the level of your waist, keep your back straight and bend at your knees and hips. Do not bend forward at the waist with your knees straight. Stand with a wide stance close to the object you are trying to pick up and keep your feet firm on the ground. Tighten your stomach muscles and lift the object using your leg muscles. Straighten your knees in a steady motion. Don't jerk the object up to your body. Stand completely upright without twisting. Always move your feet forward when lifting an object. If you are lifting an object from a table, slide it to the edge to the table so that you can hold it close to your body. Bend your knees so that you are close to the object. Use your legs to lift the object and come to a standing position. Avoid lifting heavy objects above waist level. Hold packages close to your body with your arms bent. Keep your stomach muscles tight. Take small steps and go slowly. To lower the object, place your feet as you did to lift, tighten stomach muscles and bend your hips and knees.

    Correct lifting position

    What is the best position for sleeping and lying down? No matter what position you lie in, the pillow should be under your head, but not your shoulders, and should be a thickness that allows your head to be in a normal position. Try to sleep in a position which helps you maintain the curve in your back (such as on your back with a pillow under your knees or a lumbar roll under your lower back; or on your side with your knees slightly bent). Do not sleep on your side with your knees drawn up to your chest. You may want to avoid sleeping on your stomach, especially on a saggy mattress, since this can cause back strain and can be uncomfortable for your neck. Select a firm mattress and box spring set that does not sag. If necessary, place a board under your mattress. You can also place the mattress on the floor temporarily if necessary. If you've always slept on a soft surface, it may be more painful to change to a hard surface. Try to do what's most comfortable for you. Try using a back support (lumbar support) at night to make you more comfortable. A rolled sheet or towel tied around your waist may be helpful.

    When standing up from the lying position, turn on your side, draw up both knees and swing your legs on the side of the bed. Sit up by pushing yourself up with your hands. Avoid bending forward at your waist.

    MUSCULAR SYSTEM Muscular System the muscles that gives features to the body and movement. Muscle - a bunch of fibers or tissues which is contractile, thus causing movement. There are four characteristics associated with muscle tissue: Excitability - Tissue can receive & respond to stimulation Contractility - Tissue can shorten & thicken Extensibility - Tissue can lengthen Elasticity - After contracting or lengthening, tissue always wants to return to its resting state The characteristics of muscle tissue enable it to perform some important functions, including: Movement both voluntary & involuntary Maintaining posture Supporting soft tissues within body cavities Guarding entrances & exits of the body Maintaining body temperature TYPES OF MUSCLE TISSUE 1. Skeletal Muscle Tissue Associated with & attached to the skeleton Under our conscious (voluntary) control 2. Cardiac Muscle Tissue Makes up myocardium of heart Unconsciously (involuntarily) controlled Microscopically appears striated 3. Smooth Muscle Tissue Makes up walls of organs & blood vessels Tissue is non-striated & involuntary Cells are short, spindle-shaped & have a single nucleus When skeletal muscles contract, they may produce two types of contractions: Isotonic contraction Isometric contraction Isotonic contraction as tension increases (more motor units recruited), length of muscle changes usually resulting in movement of a joint. The tension (load) on a muscle stays constant (iso = same, tonic = tension) during a movement. (Example: lifting a baby, picking up object, walking, etc. ) Isometric contraction no change in length of muscle even as tension increases. The length of a muscle stays constant (iso = same, metric = length) during a contraction (Example: holding a baby at arms length, pushing against a closed door.) Necessary in everyday life to counteract effects of gravity (e.g. postural muscles keeping head up)

    Skeletal muscle movements


    1. 2. 3. 4. 5.

    Flexion/extension Abduction/adduction Rotation left/right; internal(medial)/external(lateral) pronation/supination Elevation/depression

    6. 7. 8.

    Protraction/retraction Dorsiflexion/plantarflexion Inversion/eversion

    Some Important muscles in our body; o Tongue one of the toughest muscle in the body responsible for pushing the food to the esophagus and continuous on. o Masseter - another strong muscle in the body responsible for chewing food. o Trapezius the muscle that extends from our nape near the broad shoulders back. o Biceps the muscle which is located anteriorly (front) to our right arm or left arm. o Triceps opposite of Biceps is located at the posterior (back) part of the arm. o Deltoid the muscle just above our biceps, common injection site. o Pectoralis major the chest part of a body. o Abdominus rectus the muscled part of the stomach usually forming a six pack muscles in a muscular formed body. o Gluteus Maximus the biggest muscle in the body, which is located in our buttocks. o Quadriceps the hamstrings, the muscles that forms our thighs. Common Sports Injuries: o Sprains A sprain occurs when you overextend or tear a ligament while severely stressing a joint. Sprains often occur in the following circumstances: Ankle. Walking or exercising on an uneven surface Knee. Pivoting during an athletic activity Wrist. Landing on an outstretched hand during a fall Thumb. Skiing or playing racquet sports, such as tennis Strains A strain is a stretching or tearing of muscle or tendon, a fibrous cord of tissue that connects muscles to bones. Strains often occur in the lower back and in the hamstring muscle in the back of your thigh. There are two types of strains: Acute and chronic. An acute strain occurs when a muscle becomes strained or pulled or may even tear when it stretches unusually far or abruptly. Acute strains often occur in the following ways: Running, jumping or throwing Slipping on ice Lifting a heavy object or lifting in an awkward position A chronic strain results from prolonged, repetitive movement of a muscle. This may occur on the job or during sports, such as: Gymnastics Tennis Rowing Golf R.I.C.E. Treatment Rest, Ice, Compression, Elevation First aid for strains, sprains, contusions, dislocations, or uncomplicated fractures o Rest Stop using injured part Continued activity could cause further injury, delay healing, increase pain, and stimulate bleeding Use crutches to avoid bearing weight on injuries of the leg, knee, ankle, or foot Use splint for injuries of the arm, elbow, wrist, or hand o Ice A sprain is a stretching or tearing of ligaments the tough bands of fibrous tissue that connect one bone to another in your joints. The most common location for a sprain is in your ankle.

    Hastens healing time by reducing swelling around injury Sudden cold contracts blood vessels Helps stop internal bleeding from injured capillaries and blood vessels Keep damp or dry cloth between skin and ice pack Do not apply ice for longer than 15 to 20 minutes at a time For 3 days after injury Apply every hour for 10 to 20 minutes Apply ice after 3 days as long as pain or inflammation persist Apply at least 3 times throughout the day for 15 to 20 minutes Compression Hastens healing time by reducing swelling around injury Decreases seeping of fluid into injured area from adjacent tissue Use elasticized bandage, compression sleeve, or cloth Wrap injured part firmly Do not impair blood supply Too tight of compression may cause more swelling Wrap over ice Loosen the bandage if it gets too tight Elevation Elevate injured part above level of heart Decreases swelling and pain Use objects and pillows for props

    NERVOUS SYSTEM A network of billions of nerve cells linked together in a highly organized fashion to form the rapid control center of the body. Functions include: Integrating center for homeostasis, movement, and almost all other body functions. The mysterious source of those traits that we think of as setting humans apart from animals

    Basic Functions of the Nervous System: Sensation Integration Reaction Monitors changes/events occurring in and outside the body. Such changes are known as stimuli and the cells that monitor them are receptors. The parallel processing and interpretation of sensory information to determine the appropriate response Motor output. The activation of muscles or glands (typically via the release of neurotransmitters (NTs))

    2 cell types

    1. 2.

    Neurons Functional, signal conducting cells Neuroglia Supporting cells

    Three Main types of Nerve cells: 1. Sensory Neurons - Carries impulses from receptors e.g pain receptors in skin to the CNS( brain or spinal cord). 2. Relay Neurons - Carries impulses from sensory nerves to motor nerves. 3. Motor Neuron - Carries impulses from CNS to effector e.g. muscle to bring about movement or gland to bring about secretion of hormone e.g ADH 2 big initial divisions: 1. Central Nervous System

    2.

    The brain + the spinal cord The center of integration and control Peripheral Nervous System The nervous system outside of the brain and spinal cord Consists of: 31 Spinal nerves Carry info to and from the spinal cord 12 Cranial nerves Carry info to and from the brain

    The Central Nervous System The Central Nervous System (CNS) is composed of the brain and spinal cord. The CNS is surrounded by bone-skull and vertebrae. Brain: The brain is composed of three parts: the cerebrum (seat of consciousness), the cerebellum, and the medulla oblongata (these latter two are "part of the unconscious brain"). The medulla oblongata is closest to the spinal cord, and is involved with the regulation of heartbeat, breathing, vasoconstriction (blood pressure), and reflex centers for vomiting, coughing, sneezing, swallowing, and hiccuping. The cerebellum is the second largest part of the brain, after the cerebrum. It functions for muscle coordination and maintains normal muscle tone and posture. The cerebellum coordinates balance. The cerebrum governs intelligence and reasoning, learning and memory. While the cause of memory is not yet definitely known, studies on slugs indicate learning is accompanied by a synapse decrease. Within the cell, learning involves change in gene regulation and increased ability to secrete transmitters. Spinal Cord: The spinal cord runs along the dorsal side of the body and links the brain to the rest of the body. The spinal cord is also involved in reflexes that do not immediately involve the brain. Parts of the Brain and their Functions: Cerebral Cortex 1. Occipital lobe receives and processes visual information 2. Parietal lobe sensory projection and association areas, visual/ spatial abilities. 2. Frontal lobe goal-directed behavior, concentration, emotional control and temperament, motor projection and association areas, coordinates messages from other lobes, complex problem solving, involved in many aspects of personality. 3. Temporal lobe smell, hearing, balance and equilibrium, emotion and motivation, language comprehension, complex visual processing. Central Core 1. Medulla regulates respiration, heart rate, blood pressure. 2. Pons regulates sleep-wake cycles. 3. Cerebellum regulates reflexes and balance, coordinates movement. 4. Thalamus major sensory relay center, regulates higher brain centers and peripheral nervous system. 5. Hythalamus emotion and motication, stress reactions. The Brain and Drugs Drugs are stimulants or depressants that block or enhance certain neurotransmitters. Dopamine is thought involved with all forms of pleasure. Cocaine interferes with uptake of dopamine from the synaptic cleft. Alcohol causes a euphoric "high" followed by a depression. Disorders of the Nervous System: o o o o Phobias - Intense, irrational fear of a specific object or situation Hallucinations: false sensory experiences Delusions: disorders of logical thinking Affective Disturbances: inappropriately strong or absent emotional response

    o o

    A Headache is defined as a pain in the head or upper neck. It is one of the most common locations of pain in the body and has many causes. A neurotic disorder can be any mental imbalance that causes or results in distress. In general, neurotic conditions do not impair or interfere with normal day to day functions, but rather create the very common symptoms of depression, anxiety, or stress. It is believed that most people suffer from some sort of neurosis as a part of human nature. Psychosis, or a psychotic disorder, is believed to be more of a symptom than a diagnosis. As a psychiatric term, psychosisrefers to any mental state that impairs thought, perception, and judgement. Psychotic episodes might affect a person with or without a mental disease. A person experiencing a psychotic episode might hallucinate, become paranoid, or experience a change in personality. Amnesia is a profound memory loss which is usually caused either by physical injury to the brain or by the ingestion of a toxic substance which affects the brain. In addition, the memory loss can be caused by a traumatic, emotional event. Stroke, or Cerebrovascular accident (CVA), is the rapid loss of brain function(s) due to disturbance in the blood supply to the brain, which can be ischemic or hemorrhagic.

    Improving Memory The brains incredible ability to reshape itself holds true when it comes to learning and memory. You can harness the natural power of neuroplasticity to increase your cognitive abilities, enhance your ability to learn new information, and improve your memory.

    Improving memory tip 1: Dont skimp on exercise or sleep When you exercise the body, you exercise the brain. Improve your memory by sleeping on I When youre sleep deprived, your brain cant operate at full capacity. Creativity, problem -solving abilities, and critical thinking skills are compromised. Improving memory tip 2: Make time for friends and fun Healthy relationships: the ultimate memory booster? key is interaction Laughter is good for your brain. Vital to learning and creativity. Laughter seems to help people think more broadly and associate more freely. Improving memory tip 3: Keep stress in check The stress-busting, brain boosting benefits of meditation Studies show that meditation helps improve many different conditions, including depression, anxiety, chronic pain, high blood pressure. Meditation also can improve focus, concetration, creativity, and learning and reasoning skills. Improving memory tip 4: Bulk up on brain-boosting foods Get your omega-3s. Limit saturated fat. (red meat, whole milk, butter, cheese, sour cream, and ice cream. ) Eat more fruit and vegetables. Drink wine (or grape juice) in moderation. Improving memory tip 5: Give your brain a workout Use mnemonic devices to make memorization easier Mnemonics (the initial m is silent) are clues of any kind that help us remember something, usually by helping us associate the information we want to remember with a visual image, a sentence, or a word. Tips for enhancing your ability to learn and remember Pay attention. You cant remember something if you never learned it, and you cant learn somethingthat is, encode it into your brainif you dont pay enough attention to it. It takes about eight seconds of intense focus to process a piece of information into your memory. If youre easily distracted, pick a quiet place where you wont be interrupted.

    Involve as many senses as possible. Try to relate information to colors, textures, smells and tastes. The physical act of rewriting information can help imprint it onto your brain.Even if youre a visual learner, read out loud what you want to remember. If you can recite it rhythmically, even better. Relate information to what you already know. Connect new data to information you already remember, whether its new material that builds on previous knowledge, or something as simple as an address of someone who lives on a street where you already know someone. For more complex material, focus on understanding basic ideas rather than memorizing isolated details. Practice explaining the ideas to someone else in your own words. Rehearse information youve already learned. Review what youve learned the same day you learn it, and at intervals thereafter. This spaced rehearsal is more effective than cramming, especially for retaining what youve learned.

    Brain Facts: Size at birth. At birth, your brain was almost the same size as an adult brain and contained most of the brain cells for your whole life. Read aloud. Reading aloud and talking often to a young child promotes brain development. Bilingual brains. Children who learn two languages before the age of five alters the brain structure and adults have a much denser gray matter. Child abuse and the brain. Studies have shown that child abuse can inhibit development of the brain and can permanently affect brain development. Brain death. The brain can live for 4 to 6 minutes without oxygen, and then it begins to die. No oxygen for 5 to 10 minutes will result in permanent brain damage. Food and intelligence. A study of one million students in New York showed that students who ate lunches that did not include artificial flavors, preservatives, and dyes did 14% better on IQ tests than students who ate lunches with these additives. Decision-making. Women tend to take longer to make a decision, but are more likely to stick with the decision, compared to men, who are more likely to change their mind after making a decision. Everyone dreams. Just because you dont remember your dreams doesnt mean you dont dream. Everyone dreams! Nightly average. Most people dream about 1-2 hours a night and have an average of 4-7 dreams each night. Lost dreams. Five minutes after a dream, half of the dream is forgotten. Ten minutes after a dream, over 90% is forgotten. Write down your dreams immediately if you want to remember them. Blind people dream. Dreams are more than just visual images, and blind people do dream. Whether or not they dream in pictures depends on if they were born blind or lost their vision later. Disney and sleep. A study published in the journal Sleep Medicine describes how Disney creators used real sleep disorders in many of their animated pets. Blinking. Each time we blink, our brain kicks in and keeps things illuminated so the whole world doesnt go dark each time we blink (about 20,000 times a day). Yawns are contagious. Ever notice that you yawned after someone around you did? Scientists believe this may be a response to an ancient social behavior for communication that humans still have. Thoughts. The average number of thoughts that humans are believed to experience each day is 70,000. Stressful job. According to a study by Bristol-Myers Squibb, accountants have the highest incidence of onthe-job headaches, followed by librarians, then bus and truck drivers. Albert Einstein. Einsteins brain was similar in size to other humans except in the region that is responsible for math and spatial perception. In that region, his brain was 35% wider than average. London taxi drivers. Famous for knowing all the London streets by heart, these drivers have a larger than normal hippocampus, especially the drivers who have been on the job longest. The study suggests that as people memorize more and more information, this part of their brain continues to grow.

    ENDOCRINE SYSTEM The endocrine system is one of the bodys main systems for communicating, controlling and coordinating the bodys work. It works with the nervous system, reproductive system, kidneys, gut, liver, pancreas and fat to help maintain and control the following:

    body energy levels reproduction growth and development internal balance of body systems, called homeostasis responses to surroundings, stress and injury

    The endocrine system accomplishes these tasks via a network of glands and organs that produce, store, and secrete certain types of hormones. Hormones are special chemicals that move into body fluid after they are made by one cell or a group of cells. Different types of hormones cause different effects on other cells or tissues of the body. Glands are small but powerful organs that are located throughout the body. They control very important body functions by releasing hormones. The following lists of glands make up the endocrine system. Pituitary Gland - The pituitary gland is sometimes called the "master gland" because of its great influence on the other body organs. Its function is complex and important for overall well-being. Thymus - a gland needed early in life for normal immune function. Pineal Gland - Melatonin may stop the action of (inhibit) the hormones that produce gonadotropin, which causes the ovaries and testes to develop and function. It may also help to control sleep patterns. Testes - Males have twin reproductive glands, called testes, that produce the hormone testosterone. Testosterone helps a boy develop and then maintain his sexual traits. Ovaries - The two most important hormones of a woman's twin reproductive glands, the ovaries, are estrogen and progesterone. These hormones are responsible for developing and maintaining female sexual traits, as well as maintaining a pregnancy. Thyroid - The thyroid is a small gland inside the neck, located in front of your breathing airway (trachea) and below your Adam's apple. The thyroid hormones control your metabolism, which is the body's ability to break down food and store it as energy and the ability to break down food into waste products with a release of energy in the process. Adrenal Glands - The adrenal cortex produces glucocorticoids (such as cortisol) that help the body control blood sugar, increase the burning of protein and fat, and respond to stressors like fever, major illness, and injury. Parathyroid - The parathyroid glands are necessary for proper bone development. Pancreas - The pancreas is a large gland behind your stomach that helps the body to maintain healthy blood sugar (glucose) levels. The pancreas secretes insulin, a hormone that helps glucose move from the blood into the cells where it is used for energy. Disorders of the Endocrine System: Diabetes Mellitus a group of metabolic diseases in which a person has high blood sugar, either because the pancreas does not produce enough insulin or because cells do not respond to the insulin that is produced. Osteoporosis a disease of bones that leads to an increased risk of fracture. Rickets a softening of bones in children due to deficiency or impaired metabolism of vitamin D, phosphorus or calcium. Cushings disease increased secretion of adrenocorticotropic hormone (ACTH) from the anterior pituitary.

    DIGESTIVE SYSTEM The digestive system is divided into regions that specialize in the process of digestion. The tract is primarily composed of a layer of cells, that secrete digestive juices and mucous as well as absorb nutrients, surrounded by muscle. It includes the mouth, pharynx, esophagus, stomach, small intestine, and large intestine.

    Functions: o Digestion of specific nutrients o Control of metabolism - nutritional requirements - endocrine regulation o Movement of food through the digestive system - chewing and swallowing - peristalsis o Secretions- exocrine (digestive enzymes and other components) o Digestion- catabolism (hydrolysis of macromolecules) o Absorption- into blood o Elimination of indigestible substances Nutrition and Digestion Nutrition process by which organisms obtain and utilize their food 2 Parts: 1. 2. ingestion- process of taking food into the digestive system so that it may be hydrolized or digested. digestion- the breakdown of food (either chemically or mechanically) in order to utilize nutrients Nutrients: Micronutrients- vitamins, minerals, & water o Water, vitamins, and minerals are small molecules that can be absorbed without digestion. (Hydrolysis) Macronutrients- proteins, lipids, carbohydrates, etc o Carbohydrates (sugars and starches) should constitute 50% of the energy for the body. They provide the major source of energy for the body. o Roughage is fiber & cellulose found in vegetables that cannot be digested. o Although technically not a nutrient, fiber is essential in the human diet to help exercise the muscles of the digestive tract. o An adequate amount of fiber in the diet has been shown to reduce the risks of colon and rectal cancers. Digestion: In order to be absorbed by the cells most food must be broken down into smaller pieces. The process by which food molecules are broken downs called DIGESTION. There are two types of Digestion: 1. Chemical Digestion 2. Mechanical (Physical) Digestion Chemical Digestion a. Is carried out by the digestive ENZYMES o Example: Saliva -breaks down starch into disaccharides (contains the enzyme amylase) o Stomach acid (HCL or Hydrochloric Acid) - breaks down gastric protease which digests proteins BILE -produced by the liver and stored in the gall bladder breaks down fats Mechanical Digestion Where food is crushed, broken or cut into smaller pieces (ingestion into MOUTH) INCREASES the surface area of the food in order to aid in chemical digestion Is accomplished by PERISTALSIS and by the churning of the stomach. Human Digestive Tract o Mouth Ingestion occurs o Oral cavity contains the teeth, tongue & openings for salivary glands o Teeth mechanically breakdown food increasing surface area for chemical digestion by ENZYME action

    Salivary glands secrete Saliva (contains the enzyme amylase) 2 Facets of Saliva: Moistens food for easier swallowing Breaks down starches Tongue pushes food around in your mouth & into the esophagus Esophagus muscular tube that connects the pharynx with the next specialized section of the digestive tract the stomach Easier definition: The esophagus is simply a transportation tube from the mouth to the stomach. When we swallow, what we are really doing is closing a trap door in our throat called the epiglottis. This sends food down the esophagus and prevents food from going down the trachea (or windpipe) and into our lungs. Food moves down the esophagus using muscles NOT gravity.

    o o

    THE STOMACH - stretchy sack shaped like the letter J. It has three important jobs: temporarily stores the food you've eaten to break down the food into a liquidy mixture (called CHYME) Begins protein digestion by gastric juices Pyloric sphincter A ring of smooth muscle fibers around the opening of the stomach into the duodenum Controls the movement of food into the small intestines ** Food is usually held 2-4 hours in the stomach. Small intestine Long, narrow convoluted compartment of the digestive tube all chemical digestion is completed and nutrients are absorbed Broken into 3 Parts: 1. Duodenum 2. Jejunum 3. Ileum The small intestine is the largest part of the gastrointestinal tract and is composed of the duodenum which is about one foot long, the jejunum (5-8 feet long), and the ileum (16-20 feet long). Large Intestine Specialized compartment of the digestive tube designed to collect undigested materials and reabsorb water Prepares waste (feces) to be expelled from the body Broken into 3 main parts: o Cecum o Colon o Rectum ** Undigested food and water enter the large intestine where water is absorbed. Appendix Sac-like structure in humans found below the junction of the small and large intestine. Defecation the act or process by which organisms eliminate solid or semisolid waste material from the digestive tract. Waves of muscular contraction known as peristalsis in the walls of the colon move fecal matter through the digestive tract towards the rectum. Accessory Structures: A. Liver - Organ involved with excretion, the recycling of useable materials, and the production of urea & bile What does the Liver do? Synthesize, store, and process (metabolize) fats, including fatty acids (used for energy) and cholesterol.

    Metabolize and store carbohydrates, which are used as the source for the sugar (glucose) in blood that red blood cells and the brain use Eliminate, by metabolizing and/or secreting, the potentially harmful biochemical products produced by the body Detoxify, by metabolizing and/or secreting, drugs, alcohol, and environmental toxins

    B. Gall Bladder - Pouch structure located near the liver which concentrates and stores bile Bile duct a long tube that carries BILE. The top half of the common bile duct is associated with the liver, while the bottom half of the common bile duct is associated with the pancreas, through which it passes on its way to the intestine. Bile emulsifies lipids (physically breaks apart FATS) Bile is a bitter, greenish-yellow alkaline fluid, stored in the gallbladder between meals and upon eating is discharged into the duodenum where it aids the process of digestion. C. Pancreas An organ which secretes both digestive enzymes (exocrine) and hormones (endocrine) ** Pancreatic juice digests all major nutrient types. Nearly all digestion occurs in the small intestine & all digestion is completed in the SI. Digestive Disorders: ULCERS erosion of the surface of the alimentary canal generally associated with some kind of irritant. CONSTIPATION a condition in which the large intestine is emptied with difficulty. o Too much water is reabsorbed and the solid waste hardens DIARRHEA a gastrointestinal disturbance characterized by decreased water absorption and increased peristaltic activity of the large intestine. o This results in increased, multiple, watery feces. o This condition may result in severe dehydration, especially in infants APPENDICITIS an inflammation of the appendix due to infection o Common treatment is removal of the appendix via surgery GALLSTONES an accumulation of hardened cholesterol and/or calcium deposits in the gallbladder o Can either be passed (OUCH!!) or surgically removed. ANOREXIA NERVOSA - a psychological condition where an individual thinks they appear overweight and refuses to eat. o Weighs 85% or less than what is developmentally expected for age and height o Young girls do not begin to menstruate at the appropriate age. HEART BURN ACID from the stomach backs up into the esophagus.

    Six Simple Tips for Improving Digestion Naturally Food is the foundation of good health. And digestion is the foundational tool for using food to achieve good health. Without proper digestion, our bodies may never receive the nutrients we work so hard to include in our diets. Poor digestive function can cause nutrient deficiencies and numerous health problems like fatigue, emotional instability, skin disorders and more. Improving digestive function could very well be one of the most important steps you take in improving your health, and fortunately it can also be one of the easiest if you follow the right protocol. Here are some of the most simple ways you can make big improvements in your digestive health: 1. Drink Your Water... But Not During Meals The digestive system needs to be well hydrated like the rest of the body, but downing glasses of water near mealtime will impair digestive strength and may cause upsets. Water is best sipped lightly during a meal. Otherwise you should get your water in at least 15-30 minutes before a meal and preferably at least an hour after.

    2. Eat Clean

    This one should be obvious but is included for good measure. The body wasnt meant to digest chemical food additives, artificial sweeteners or extruded grains. Eat whole, natural foods as much as possible so your body can concentrate on assimilating the good stuff instead of eliminating the bad stuff. 3. Go Raw It may not be necessary for every food that passes your lips to be uncooked, but including some raw foods in your diet is a great way to get natural enzymes and nutrients that might otherwise be denatured by heat. Getting at least some raw, live foods in with every meal will give your digestion a break and your body a more complete set of nutrients. 4. Get Fermented You could think of fermented foods (like sauerkraut) as raw food on steroids. Fermentation allows probiotics, enzymes and nutrients to flourish and multiply. Fruits and vegetables that have been fermented are so potent only a few tablespoons each day will provide the body with a hefty digestive punch that can make a world of difference in gastrointestinal health. 5. Try a Little Bitterness Bitter herbs were commonly used in traditional cultures as a digestive aid and even to treat general ailments. Herbs like dandelion, gentian and yarrow are just a few examples of bitter herbs that are usually combined in a tincture to use directly before or after meals to stimulate bile production. 6. Say No to Stress Stress cuts off circulation to the digestive tract and can impair the bodys ability to utilize the food you eat. Learn to reduce or manage the stress in your life if your digestion is poor. Before meals, take a deep breath and eat slowly, eat consciously. Try not to rush meals, shovel food down your throat or grab hurried bites between errands. Mealtime should be relaxing and enjoyable. Your digestion will thank you.

    CARDIOVASCULAR SYSTEM: RESPIRATORY SYSTEM Functions: To provide a constant supply of oxygen to keep your body cells functioning To remove carbon dioxide from the body cells. The Respiratory Tract: 1. nostrils: opening to the nasal passages 2. nasal passages: lined with a mucus membrane bearing cilia (warms, moistens, and filters incoming air) 3. pharynx (throat)--cavity in back of mouth 4. glottis: windpipe or trachea opening 5. epiglottis--muscular flap covering the glottis--prevents food from entering the windpipe 6. larynx (voice box) upper part of the windpipe containing sound producing vocal cords 7. trachea: (windpipe)--about 4 inches long & 1 inch in diameter --supported by rings of cartilage --lined with a ciliated mucus membrane which filters incoming air 8. bronchi: two main branches of trachea which enter lungs --lined with cartilage and ciliated 9. bronchioles: smallest air tubes which end at the alveoli or air sacs --cartilage ring support "fades out from this point on 10. alveoli (air sacs): site of respiratory gas exchange by diffusion --resemble bunches of grapes --moist surface aids exchange--each alveolus is surrounded by capillaries & gas exchange occurs with them (oxygen in-carbon dioxide out) Breathing - the mechanical part of respiration ... involves both the diaphragm and rib cage muscles

    Some Respiratory System Malfunctions pneumonia: alveoli fill with fluids and mucus resulting in coughing and breathing difficulties asthma: allergic reaction in which bronchiole contractions create breathing difficulties

    emphysema: air sacs lose their elasticity and breakdown resulting in a loss of respiratory surface in the lungs --shortness of breath is the chief symptom (smoking frequently leads to this disorder)

    CARDIOVASCULAR SYSTEM: CIRCULATORY SYSTEM The main organ is the HEART. Functions: Generating blood pressure Routing blood Heart separates pulmonary and systemic circulations Ensuring one-way blood flow Heart valves ensure one-way flow Regulating blood supply Changes in contraction rate and force match blood delivery to changing metabolic needs The heart functions as a double pump beating in unison. 1. 2. Deoxygenated blood--relatively low in oxygen Oxygenated blood--relatively high in oxygen

    ** Heartbeat is stimulated by an electrochemical impulse. Pacemaker - in the right atrium - initiates the heartbeat 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. Inferior & superior vena cava Right atrium valve Right ventricle valve Pulmonary arteries Pathway of a Red Blood Cell through the Heart

    (BLOOD TO THE LUNGS GAS EXCHANGE) 7. Pulmonary veins 8. Left Atrium 9. valve 10. Left ventricle 11. valve 12. Aorta MALFUNCTIONS AND DISORDERS OF THE HEART AND BLOOD VESSELS Hypertension (High Blood Pressure) --caused by a narrowing of the arterioles resulting in an increased resistance to the flow of blood--increases the strain on the heart Causes implicated: excess sodium intake / stress / cigarettes (nicotine) / saturated fats / alcohol & caffeine / obesity / heredity & aging No cure--may be treated by medication & diet. "Silent killer"--millions don't know they have it Angina pectoris pain in the chest which radiates into the left shoulder and arm occurs especially when physical exertion results in a lack of oxygen supply to the heart muscle

    caused by a reduction of blood supply due to partial blockage(s) of coronary arteries

    Coronary thrombosis - heart attack caused by a blood clot in a coronary artery that stops circulation to part of the heart muscle attack is fatal if much heart muscle is involved BLOOD In general, the blood is a fluid tissue helping to maintain homeostasis for all cells in the body.

    1. Transport of needed substances to body cells. (oxygen, amino acids, glucose, fatty acids, glycerol, salts,
    etc.)

    2. Transport of wastes from cells. (urea, water, carbon dioxide in the form of the bicarbonate ion) 3. Helps to maintain a constant body temperature. 4. Aids the body in fighting disease.
    Blood Composition: Plasma 55% (liquid part of the blood); Blood Cells 45% BLOOD CELL TYPES: Red Blood Cells: most numerous biconcave disc shaped smaller than white blood cells, larger than platelets no nucleus when mature produced in the red marrow of long bones destroyed in the liver and spleen contain the iron protein compound HEMOGLOBIN whose chief function is to combine with oxygen and carry it to the cells Carbon monoxide has 40X the affinity of oxygen for hemoglobin--breathing it may lead to death White Blood cells --largest blood cells--several different types --about 8,000 per drop of blood --most are formed in the bone marrow or in the lymph tissue --most protect the body against diseases by forming antibodies or engulfing bacteria

    Main White Blood Cell Types 1. Phagocytes-- engulf bacteria and viruses by phagocytosis able to leave the bloodstream and move between the cells of the body by squeezing through the capillary walls 2. Lymphocytes--produce antibodies which clump bacterial poisons or bacteria (antigens) (antigens--foreign substances in the body) 3. Platelets --smallest blood cells (fragments) --150,000 to 300,000 per drop of blood --needed for clotting BLOOD VESSELS 1. Arteries carry blood away from the heart usually spurt blood when cut all except the pulmonary artery carry oxygenated blood thick walled and elastic pulse: expansion and contraction of the artery walls in response to the heartbeat 2. Veins carry blood toward the heart contain valves

    closer to the body surface than the arteries all except the pulmonary vein carry deoxygenated blood thinner, less muscular and elastic than arteries depend upon muscle and diaphragm movements for blood flow 3. Capillaries most numerous vessels connect arteries to veins microscopic, one cell thick walls site of much exchange between the blood and the intracellular fluid (lymph) by diffusion 4. Lymph vessels have walls one cell thick present around all body cells Lymph composition is similar to that of blood except for the absence of RBC and some plasma proteins. chief site of material exchange with the tissues Disorders of the blood: Anemia - people with anemia have a low number of red blood cells. It can cause fatigue, pale skin, and shortness of breath with exertion. Leukemia a form of blood cancer in which a white blood cell becomes malignant and multiplies inside bone marrow. Sepsis an infection somewhere in the body spreads into the blood. Symptoms include fever, rapid breathing, respiratory failure, and low blood pressure. Deep venous thrombosis - a blood clot in a deep vein, usually in the leg.

    URINARY SYSTEM Main Functions of Urinary System Kidneys filter blood to keep it pure Toxins Metabolic wastes Excess water Excess ions Dispose of nitrogenous wastes from blood Urea Uric acid Creatinine Regulate the balance of water and electrolytes, acids and bases. Filtration o Fluid is squeezed out of the glomerular capillary bed Resorption o Most nutrients, water ad essential ions are returned to the blood of the peritubular capillaries Secretion o Moves additional undesirable molecules into tubule from blood of peritubular capillaries

    Some Anatomical Parts of the Urinary System: Paired kidneys Bean-shaped organs that remove wastes from the blood. Each kidney contains millions of functional unit called NEPHRONS. A ureter for each kidney The collecting tubule in each kidney enters a larger tube which carry urine. Urinary bladder Temporary storage for urine. Urethra

    Urine passes through the urethra on its way out of the body. Disorders of the Urinary System: Kidney Stone also known as renal calculus, is a solid concretion or crystal aggregation formed in the kidneys from dietary minerals such as sodium, calcium in the urine. Renal Failure kidney failure, a medical condition in which the kidneys fail to adequately filter toxins and waste products may cause either form of renal failure to occur. Elevated creatinine. Proteinuria means the presence of an excess of serum proteins in the urine. Urinary Tract Infection (UTI) a bacterial infection that affects part of the urinary tract. Urinary Incontinence (UI) any involuntary leakage of urine.

    REPRODUCTIVE SYSTEM 1. Reproductive system functions in gamete Production Storage Nourishment Transport Fertilization Fusion of male and female gametes to form a zygote

    2.

    The Male Reproductive System Male Organs: Seminal vesicles Prostate gland Bulbourethral glands Scrotal sac encloses testes Penis Secondary Sexual Characteristics - Male Produced by testosterone Deeper voice Axillary and pubic hair Chest and facial hair Lengthen bones Increased size of testes for sperm production The Female Reproductive System Female Organs: Ovaries Uterine tubes Uterus Vagina Secondary Sexual Characteristics in Females: o Induced by increased LH, FSH, estrogen, and progesterone hormone levels Axillary and pubic hair Widen pelvis Enlarge mammary tissue Begin menstrual cycles The Menstrual Cycle

    o o

    Repeating series of changes in the endometrium Continues from menarche to menopause Menses Degeneration of the endometrium Menstruation Proliferative phase Restoration of the endometrium Secretory phase Endometrial glands enlarge and accelerate their rates of secretion

    DISEASES OF THE REPRODUCTIVE SYSTEM: Sexually Transmitted Disease (STD) diseases transmitted through physical contact, it is also known as venereal diseases (VD). Human Immunodeficiency Virus infection / Acquired Immunodeficiency Syndrome (HIV/AIDS) - a disease of the human immune system caused by the human immunodeficiency virus (HIV). It interferes the immune system, making people more likely to get infections and tumors. Herpes a viral disease presenting blisters, and can be contagious with skin to skin contact. No cure is known.

    PREGNANCY Fertilization o Occurs in upper 1/3 of Fallopian tube o Once one sperm enters, egg membrane changes o Fertilized egg = zygote Implantation: o Implanted into thick walls of uterus o Chorion membranes dig into uterus to form placenta o Embryo supported via umbilical cord o Once pregnant, progesterone levels stay high in mom First Trimester (1-3 Months) o Heart develops first / Neural tube develops o Morning sickness occurs about seventy percent of all pregnant women, and typically improves after the first trimester. o All body systems appear by Week 8 Now a Fetus Second Trimester (4-6 Months) o Mostly growth / Weeks 13 to 28 of the pregnancy. o Looks more like a baby / fetus begins to move / quickening can be felt. o Some preemies survive at this stage Third Trimester (7-9 Months) o More growth / rapid growth / final weight gain takes place by the mother. o Kicking, rolling, stretching / Rotates head down position o Eyes open Week 32 / Lungs mature BIRTHING PROCESS 1. Labor Uterine contractions begin Contraction continues until cervix dilates to 10 cm. Birth Uterus pushes baby through vaginal canal

    2.

    3.

    Placenta delivered after baby comes out.

    IMMUNE SYSTEM IMMUNE SYSTEM - PROTECT THE HOMEFRONT Diseases are everywhere. You may have heard about tuberculosis, SARS, AIDS, malaria, or something as simple as the flu. All of those diseases can kill you. They would definitely kill you if you did not have an immune system. Your immune system is your microscopic armor that protects the cells of your body from bacteria, viruses, and poisons you might encounter every day. While other systems have major organs you can dissect and remove from the body, your immune system is relatively invisible and made of many different types of immune cells. WHAT DOES THIS SYSTEM DO? The immune system is there to keep you alive and healthy. The system can attack foreign invaders or it can go after cells created within your body that could endanger your life. Sometimes cancer cells are the targets of our immune system. As pathogens attack your body, the immune system begins a series of immunological defenses. You know when your immune system is at work because of the symptoms you might have. Fever, swelling, and a runny nose are all examples of symptoms during an immunological response. Your immune system can respond many ways to a problem. There would be one response to a knife wound, a separate response to hay fever and pollen, and a specific response to catching a cold. INTERACTING WITH OTHER SYSTEMS The immune system is like a small police force that constantly patrols every organ and tissue in your body. It works closely with the circulatory system for transportation needs and the lymphatic system for production of lymphocytes. It may surprise you, but one of the most important parts of the immune system is the entire integumentary system (your skin). Your skin is usually the first defense your body has against disease. It just makes sense. There is far more chance you will get dangerous bacteria or viruses on your skin and hands than breathe those microorganisms in your lungs. You have cells and compounds on your skin that help to kill any bacteria that appear. Always remember to wash your hands; most of the microorganisms that get you sick are picked up when you touch things. PROBLEMS WITH THE SYSTEM We wanted to talk a little about diseases and failures of the immune system. AIDS is one of the most well known diseases that can hurt the immune system. AIDS is a disease where specific immune cells such as helperT and inducer-T cells are killed. Without those cells, the immune system cannot work properly and even minor diseases can kill the organism. There are also genetic problems with immune systems. Something as simple as an allergic reaction happens because an individual cannot properly tolerate certainallergens. Inflammation and hay fever occur. Normal individuals can destroy those allergens, but people who are "allergic" cannot defend themselves. You could have allergies to animals, food, or plants. Some allergic reactions are so extreme they can kill. Disorders of the Immune System Allergies result from the immune systems overreaction to a non-threatening foreign substance. Foods and inhaled particles like pollen and pet dander are the most common allergens. Autoimmune Diseases the immune system may begin producing antibodies that instead of fighting infections, attack the bodys own tissues. Psoriasis the immune system activity stimulates skin cells to reproduce rapidly, producing silvery, scaly plaques on the skin.

    HEALTHY LIFESTYLE In the field of medical science, preventive measurement is the best known cure for any diseases. The promotion of healthy lifestyle actually encourages individuals to focus on 3 aspects, that is, diet, exercise, and spiritual needs. For most cases, following Maslows hierarchy is the way to healthy living. There would be then the physiological needs of the person, which includes the basic needs of humans specifically food and water. As the saying goes, You are what you eat, this tells us that our choices of food will reflect on the health that we have. So the right choices would be to take in nutrients which is just at the right amount, too little is bad, too much is also bad, and so just the right amount will just be fine to balance self. Tips for a Safe and Healthy Life (Centers for Disease Control and Prevention) Eat Healthy Eat a variety of fruits, vegetables, and whole grains every day. o Healthy diets rich in fruits and vegetables may reduce the risk of cancer and other chronic diseases. o Fruits and vegetables also provide essential vitamins and minerals, fiber, and other substances that are important for good health. o Most fruits and vegetables are naturally low in fat and calories and are filling. Limit foods and drinks high in calories, sugar, salt, fat and alcohol. Eat a balanced diet to help keep a healthy weight.

    Be Active Be active for at least 2 hours a week. Include activities that raise your breathing and heart rates and that strengthen your muscles. Help kids and teens be active at least 1 hour a day. Include activities that raise their breathing and heart rates and that strengthen their muscles and bones. Physical activity helps to: o Maintain weight. o Reduce high blood pressure. o Reduce risk for type 2 diabetes, heart attack, stroke, and several forms of cancer. o Reduce arthritis pain and associated disability. o Reduce risk for osteoporosis and falls. o Reduce symptoms of depression and anxiety.

    Protect yourself and your family Wear helmets, seat belts, sunscreen, and insect repellent. Wash hands to stop the spread of germs. Avoid smoking and breathing other peoples or (secondhand) smoke. Build safe and healthy relationships with family and friends. Be ready for emergencies. Gather emergency supplies. Make a plan. Be informed.

    Manage stress Balance work, home, and play. Get support from family and friends. Stay positive. Take time to relax. Get 7-9 hours of sleep each night. Make sure kids get more, based on their age. Get help or counseling if needed.

    PLANT ANATOMY AND PHYSIOLOGY Body Organization and Function A plant has two organ systems: 1) shoot system, and 2) root system. The shoot system is above the ground and includes the organs such as leaves, buds, stems, flowers, and fruits. The root system includes those parts of the plant below ground, such as the roots, tubers, and rhizomes. The Vascular Bundle (vascular strand) : a strand of tissue containing primary xylem and primary phloem. Contains axial bundle, leaf trace, leaf gap, vein, sympodium. Bundle Types: a) collateral bundle: contains a mass of phloem toward the exterior and a mass or xylem toward the interior, b) bicollateral bundle: contains one mass of xylem and two masses of phloem, one toward the interior and on toward the exterior. Stele : the arrangement of vascular bundles in roots and stems. Parts consists of protostele, siphonostele, dictyostele, eustele, and atactostele. Leaves An organ of a vascular plant, as defined in botanical terms. Foliage is a mass noun that refers to leaves as a feature of plants. Thin, flattened organ borne above ground and specialized for photosynthesis. Roots and Stems Root, is the organ of a plant that typically lies below the surface of the soil. Four major function of the roots are 1) absorption of water and inorganic nutrients, 2) anchoring of the plant body to the ground, and supporting it,3) storage of food and nutrients, 4) vegetative reproduction. Stem, is one of two main structural axes of a vascular plant. Main functions; 1) support for and the elevation of leaves, flowers, and fruits, 2) transport of fluids between the roots, and the shoots in the xylem and phloem, 3) storage of nutrients. Flowers, fruits and seeds Sometimes known as a bloom or blossom, is the reproductive structure found in flowering plants. Function of a flower is to effect reproduction, usually by providing a mechanism for the union of sperm with eggs. Seed, is a small embryonic plant enclosed in a covering called the seed coat, usually with some stored food. (embryo, seed coat, endosperm) Fruit, a part of a flowering plant that derives from specific tissues of the flower, one or more ovaries, and in some cases accessory tissues. Plant Responses to Environment Stimuli Environmental Modification xeromorphic: characters that are advantageous is dry environments hydromorphic: characters that are advantageous in wet environments. halomorphic: characters that are advantageous in saline environments. xerophyte: a plant with xeromorphic features. mesophyte: a plant with neither hydromorphic nor xeromorphic features. hydrophyte: a plant with hydromorphic features. succulent: having large amounts of water storage tissue. leaf dimorphism: leaves of two distinct types produced by the same plant, examples include: o sun/shade leaves: leaves in the sunnier parts of trees are distinct from more shaded leaves o air/water leaves: in aquatic plants, leaves that grow below the water surface are distinct from those formed above the surface. o heteroblastic leaves: leaves produced during one stage of development are distinct from those formed at another stage, for example leaf from may change when a plant flowers. Organ Specializations aerial root: a root that grows in air, common in epiphytes. cataphyll (=bud scale): a leaf modified to protect a dormant bud. cladode: a stem that is leaf-like in appearance. contractile root: a root that contracts to pull the crown of the plant below the soil surface. corm: an underground stem that is upright.

    haustorial root: a root that is modified for absorbing water or nutrients from another plant. mycorrhizae: a symbiotic relationship between plant roots and fungi. o endomycorrhizae: fungal mycelia are internal. o ectomycorrhizae: fungal mycelia are external phyllode: a leaf that consists of an enlarged midrib and lacks blades. prop roots: roots that help support a plant from above ground. rhizome: an underground stem. root nodules: structures that develop on the roots of plants that form symbiotic associations with nitrogenfixing bacteria. spine: a stem of leaf modified for protection. storage root: a root modified to store relatively large amounts of food. tendril: a stem of leaf modified to coil around other plants or objects. trap: a leaf modified to trap insects to supply the plant with nitrogen. tuber: a swollen underground stem, such as a potato

    Role of Plants in Maintaining Balanced Ecosystem Plants are key regulators of ecosystems functions such as soil fertility and stability, water availability, and pest control. Decisions concerning vegetation management on rangeland should take these multiple considerations into account. Plants respond to and change their environments, actively altering factors such as soil stability, nutrient and water availability, and the distribution of pests and beneficial organisms. By identifying the functions associated with different species and the effects they have on their ecosystems, managers can use plants as tools in agriculture, range management and restoration, since they will be able to choose plants effectively and anticipate unintended consequences of vegetation changes. Because cover crops have been used in agricultural setting for years, much is known about their functioning and response to environmental conditions and management practices. Much less is known about plants in natural systems, GENETICS Genetics is the scientific study of heredity. Heredity is what makes each species unique. Gregor Mendel Austrian Monk Famous for his work with pea plants He is known as the father of genetics Mendel used true-breeding plants which means if they were left to breed with themselves they would produce offspring identical to themselves. Mendel studied 7 different traits in pea plants. A trait is a specific characteristic that varies from one individual to another. Hybrids are offspring from parents with different traits. Genes are the chemical factors that determine a trait. The different forms of a gene are called alleles.

    PRINCIPLES OF INHERITANCE The Principle of Dominance The principle of dominance states that some alleles are dominant and others are recessive. Dominant alleles are always expressed. Recessive alleles are only expressed if both alleles are recessive. Probability and Genetics Probability is the likelihood that an event will happen. The principle of probability can be used to predict the outcomes of genetic crosses. Punnett Squares

    Diagram used to predict genetic crosses. Individuals with identical alleles are called homozygous Individuals with different alleles are called heterozygous Phenotype physical characteristic Genotype genetic makeup

    How to use Punnett Squares 1. Choose a letter to represent the alleles in the cross. 2. Write the genotypes of the parents. 3. Determine the possible gametes (reproductive cells) that the parent can produce. 4. Enter the possible gamete at the top and side of the Punnett square. 5. Complete the Punnett square by writing the alleles from the gametes in the appropriate boxes. 6. Determine the phenotypes of the offspring. 7. Using the results of step E and F write down the genotypic and phenotypic ratios. Punnett Squares Monohybrid & Dihybrid Crosses T T T TT Tt RY RY Ry Ry Ry R Round RRYY RRYy RrYy RrYY T Tt Tt Ry RRYy RRyy Rryy ry RrYy Rryy rryy rY RrYY RrYy rrYy rrYY Y Yellow y Green

    RrYy rrYy r Wrinkled

    Ratio = 9 Round yellow: 3 Round green: 3 Wrinkled yellow: 1 Wrinkled green Incomplete Dominance One allele is not completely dominant over the other. White flower crosses with a red = pink flower. Codominance Both alleles contribute to the phenotype. Red cow X White Cow = Roan Cow. Multiple Alleles More than two alleles control the phenotype. Coat color of rabbits. Polygenic traits Several genes control the trait. Skin color in humans.

    THE CHROMOSOME A chromosome is an organized structure of DNA and protein found in cells. It is a single piece of coiled DNA containing many genes, regulatory elements and other nucleotide sequences. The DNA molecule may be circular or linear, and can be composed of 100,000 to over 3,750,000,000 nucleotides in a long chain. In eukaryotes, nuclear chromosomes are packaged by proteins into a condensed structure called chromatin. MOLECULAR BASIS OF INHERITANCE Deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA) molecules are informational molecules encoding the genetic instructions used in the development and functioning of all known living organisms and many viruses. Genetic information is encoded as a sequence of nucleotides (guanine, adenine, thymine, and cytosine) recorded using the letters G, A, T, and C. The backbone of the DNA strand is made from alternating phosphate and sugar residues. The nucleobases are classified into two types: the purines, A and G, being fused five- and six- membered heterocyclic compounds, and the pyrimidines, the six membered rings C and T. A fifth pyrimidine nucleobase, uracil

    (U), usually takes the place of thymine in RNA and differs from thymine by lacking a methyl group on its ring. Uracil is not usually found in DNA. APPLIED GENETICS Applied genetics is the manipulation; of the hereditary characteristics of an organism to improve or create specific traits in offspring. Controlled breeding involves manipulating the hereditary characteristics of offspring by selection parents with specific phenotypic traits. This process enables a breeder to develop new strains of a species or to maintain existing strains. Applying controlled breeding to plants and animals has traditionally been based upon three techniques: mass selection, inbreeding, and hybridization. BIOETHICAL ISSUES : INFORMED CONSENT Informed consent is an important aspect of any genetic test or research study. Because of the often profound impact of genetic testing, patients should be adequately counseled about the specifics of that test. Before an individual agrees to participate in a clinical trial, research project or undergo a genetic test, he or she must be informed of the tests purpose, medical implications, alternatives, and possible risks and benefits. Patients should additionally be made aware of their privacy rights, including where their DNA will be stored and who will have access to their personal information. (NHGRI) An informed consent document, requiring the patients signature, should articulate all of these details. Even after signing, the patient may still opt out of the test or study; the informed consent document is not a contract. (NHGRI) SOCIETYS ALLOCATION OF RESOURCES FOR HEALTH (Philippines Special Report, 2001) o The Department of Health reported that the country had 1,794 hospitals with 83,491 beds nationwide in 1999. Only 648 or 36 percent of these hospitals are government-owned while the remaining 1,146 hospitals or 64 percent are privately owned. For every 10,000 Filipinos, there were only 11.2 hospital beds. The Philippines had 12,218 establishments involved in food and drug production in 1999. Most of these establishments were involved in food production-numbering about 10,914. The Bureau of Food and Drug Administration reported that year that there were 239 drugs manufacturers in the country, 146 of which were in Metro Manila. There were also 197 cosmetic manufacturers, 41 medical device manufacturers, 414 drug traders, 117 cosmetic traders, 10 medical device traders, and 296 traders of household/hazardous substances. Healthcare spending constituted 3.4 percent of the gross national product (GNP) in 1999, below the 5 percent standard set by the World Health Organization (WHO) for developing countries. While there exists a national health insurance program, pension funds and private insurance plans, personal expenses still account for about 57 percent of all health expenditures. Total annual health expenditure in the Philippines amounted to P108.3 billion in 1999 from P35.9 billion in 1991, growing at an annual rate of 6.4 percent at constant 1985 prices. In 1999, the per capita health expenditure was estimated at P1,449. Of this figure, the government contributed P549 or 38 percent; social insurance, P70 or 5 percent; and private individuals, P829 or 57 percent. The governments goal is to increase the share in expense of social insurance from 5 percent of the total health expenditures to 30 percent. At present, the social insurance is the responsibility of the Philippines Health Insurance Corporation (PhilHealth). PhilHealth was created to assume the administration of the former Medicare program from the Government Service Insurance System (GSIS), the pension fund for government workers and the Social Security System (SSS), the pension fund for private employees. The transfer of the health insurance funds, amounting to only a little over P14 billion from the two state pension funds to PhilHealth began only in 1998.

    TAXONOMY Taxonomy / Systemic Biology the field of biology that deals with classifying living organisms. - the study is also concerned with giving scientific names to organisms. In the mid-1700s, Swedish biologist, Carolus Linnaeus, established a simple system for classifying organisms.

    The system of classification developed by Linnaeus is a hierarchy or a ranking systems.

    Kingdom >> Phylum/ Divisions >> Class >> Order >> Family >> Genus >> Species
    The Scientific Names of animals is a binomial nomenclature, wherein we only use two names, the genus name and the species name. For example is the scientific name of human; Homo sapiens.

    The Five Kingdom System Monera. This kingdom includes the prokaryotes such as the bacteria. The cells do not have a nuclear membrane or
    any membrane-bound organelles.

    Protista. This includes unicellular and some multicellular eukaryotes. The protests are divided into plant-like
    protests, the algae, and the animal like protests, the protozoans.

    Fungi. This includes molds, mildews, mushrooms, and yeasts. They are eukaryotic and mostly multicellular. The
    fungi are either decomposers (decay-causing organisms) or parasites. include the mosses, ferns, cone-bearing plants, and flowering plants.

    Plantae. Plants are photosynthetic eukaryotes with cell walls that contain cellulose. They are multicellular and Animalia. Animals are multicellular, eukaryotic, and heterotrophic. The cells have no cell walls. Animals include the
    vertebrates (fish, amphibians, reptiles, birds and mammals) and invertebrates (sponges, jellyfishes, worms, starfishes, insects and mollusks). Basis for Classification Physical Structure (External or Internal) Biochemical analysis (DNA)

    KINGDOM MONERA
    These are the oldest, simplest and most numerous microorganisms. They are distinguished by the following characters: They are prokaryotes. Bacteria are prokaryotes whose cells lack nuclear membrane and membrane bound organelles. They are mostly unicellular, but may be in the form of colonies or filaments of independent cells. Their mode of nutrition is mainly absorptive, but some are photosynthetic or chemosynthetic. They are usually nonmotile, but some may have flagella and gliding movements. Cilia are absent. Their reproduction is primarily asexual, by fission. There are about 5000 species of microorganisms, called bacteria.

    Monerans include;

    1. Archaebacteria (archaeos : old)


    Ancient bacteria which probably evolved 3 billion years ago. Known as living fossils. Methanogens : strictly anaerobic bacteria which produce methane (CH4) from CO2 and formic acid, hence the name. They are present in salty, marshy places, in the stomach of cattle and in organic matter or sewage. Are called halophiles, as they have an affinity for salt. The can cause spoilage of salted fish. Sulphur-dependent bacteria : aerobic bacteria which convert sulphur either into sulphuric acid (H2SO4) or into hydrogen sulphide (H2S). They are present in hot sulphur springs. They can tolerate highly acidic pH (pH=2) and high temperature (about 80 C). They are also called thermoacidophiles.

    a.

    b.

    2. Eubacteria (Eu: true)


    These are true bacteria, ubiquitous in nature, they are found practically in all environments, at all the attitudes and depths, in extremely low and high temperature, in fresh as well as in marine water and in bodies of plants and animals both living and dead.

    Forms of Eubacteria: Shape and size : They are unicellular microorganisms of various shapes and accordingly, they are called cocci (spherical), bacilli (rod-shaped), spirilla (spiral) and vibrios (broken spirals or comma shaped). Their sizes vary from 0.1m to 20 m in breadth and 0.2 m to 80 m in length. Other bacteria, that are harmful and therapeutic; Mycobacterium tuberculae causes tuberculosis. Clostridium botulinum botox (beauty agent), antiperspirant Importance of bacteria: Some bacteria cause serious diseases, including pneumonia, tuberculosis, and cholera. Most bacteria, however, do not cause disease, and many are even beneficial. For example, bacteria that live inside the human intestines help digest food and make vitamins. Biotechnology uses bacteria to make important medical products, such as hormones, and human insulin. Bacteria are also used as nonpolluting insecticides to kill insects that destroy crops. They increase the fertility of soil by converting atmospheric nitrogen into nitrates (nitrogen fixation), by converting ammonia derived from dead bodies into nitrates (nitrification) or by decomposing dead organic matter and forming humus which is the most fertile part of the soil. They form symbolic association with man and animals and help in digestion. In industry they are used in curdling of milk, retting of fibers of jute and hempcuring of tea and tobacco leaves tanning of leather, production of vinegar, etc. They are used in the production of certain antibiotic drugs. They are scavengers of nature and help to keep the environment clean and also play an important role in recycling of nutrients in nature.

    Harmful activities o o o o They cause dreadful diseases in plants, animals and human. They spoil milk, meat, fish and vegetables. Some of them release toxins into spoiled food and cause food poisoning. Denitrifying bacteria reduce fertility of soil by converting nitrates into free nitrogen (denitrification)

    List of common bacterial diseases in man No. 1 2 3 4 5 6 Disease Dysentery Cholera Diphtheria Pneumonia Tuberculosis Tetanus Causative agents Shigella dysenteriae Vibrio cholerae Corynebacterium diphtheriae Diplococcus pneumoniae Mycobacterium tuberculosis Clostridium tetani

    KINGDOM PROTISTA
    Protists are eukaryotes with nuclei and other membrane-bound organelles. Most protests are unicellular but some are multicellular. Protista includes all eukaryotic unicellular microorganisms, either plant-like or animal-like or showing overlapping characters of both plants and animals. Primarily they are aquatic and widely distributed all over the world, occurring in oceans, lakes, ponds and damp soils. They are autotrophic or heterotrophic. The latter are freeliving or parasitic on or within multicellular organisms. Thus it reflects the lifestyles either of plants, animals or fungi. They are first eukaryotes, having a well organized nucleus and complex membranous organelles. They are unicellular or colonial forms without distinct division of labor. They are autotrophic or heterotrophic showing varieties of metabolic systems. Locomotion is by pseudopodia, flagella or cilia. They show mitosis, meiosis and simplest type of sexual reproduction for the first time. Common examples are Ameba, Paramecium, Euglena, diatoms and dinoflagellates.

    Movement: Cilia and Flagella These are microscopic, contractile, motile hair-like locomotary organelles present in ciliated and flagellated protists like Paramecium and Euglena. Their function is to propel the cell through the surrounding liquid medium or move the surrounding medium past the cells, gathering food particles. During movements cilia beat vigorously and rapidly (effective stroke) and they recover slowly (recovery stroke). Cilia and flagella are widely distributed in gametes, unicellular plants and animals and also on cells of more complex organisms forming the internal lining of ducts, such as trachea, oviduct, etc. diversified assembly of different groups of organisms which includes: (A) Unicellular algae-like protista, e.g. Diatoms, Dinoflagellates etc. (B) Fungi-like protista, e.g. slime molds (C) Animal-like protista, e.g. protozoa

    Protista is a

    Diatoms : These are microscopic, usually single-celled or colonial forms. They are found both in fresh water and salt water. In ocean they occur in vast assembly as floating plankton. They show a variety of patterns showing extreme beauty and symmetry because of which they are sometimes called "jewels of the plant world." Economic importance : The diatoms play an extremely important role in the aquatic food web. They are the most abundant component of marine plankton forming the primary food source of marine animals. The imperishable siliceous cells of diatoms are led down in various habitats. When dead, they form thick deposits of diatomaceous earth which is used as an ingredient in many commercial preparations such as detergents, polishes, paint removers, insulators, for decolorizing and deodorizing oils and also as fertilizers. Being abundant, they help in releasing oxygen and maintaining the oxygen cycle. Dinoflagellates : These are one celled, biflagellate organisms, mostly marine and are important photosynthesizers. Some species are bioluminiscent, often seen in ocean waters at nights. They are commonly called fire algae as they emit red light. Economic importance : They form an important constituent of marine plankton and thus play an extremely important role in the aquatic food web. A number of dinoflagellates like Ganyaulux are toxic, forming red tides killing a number of fish. Some species cause dermatitis in swimmers. They reproduce both sexually and asexually and the life history shows alternation of generations as shown by diatoms. A. Protozoans - are protists with animal-like behavior characteristics. It is heterotroph. The protozoans fall into following four groups:

    1.

    2. 3.

    4.

    Sarcodina : They have no definite shape, move by pseudopodia and reproduce by binary fission. Example: Entamoeba : These are ameba-like animals with one or two pseudopodia, single nucleus but no contractile vacuole. It includes a number of species which are parasitic. The best known is Entamoeba histolytica, which causes amebic dysentery. Mastigophora or flagellata : They move by one or two whip-like structures called flagella and reproduce by longitudinal binary fission. Example : Euglena : It is a fresh water protozoon with spindle-shaped body and a single flagellum. It shows cytostome and cytopharynx, but like plant, it also possesses chloroplasts. Ciliophora : They have definite shape, move by cilia and mostly possess two nuclei. Example : Paramecium: A fresh water protozoon with definite shape like the sole of a slipper. Locomotion takes place by cilia. The animal has usually two nuclei and two contractile vacuoles. It reproduces by simple type of sexual reproduction called conjugation. Sporozoa : These are parasitic forms. The locomotory organelles, food vacuoles and contractile vacuoles are absent.Example: Plasmodium: An intracellular blood parasite causing malaria. The life cycle is completed in two hosts, namely man and mosquito.

    Economic importance: Most of the protozoa are harmless but there are a few parasitic forms, such as Plasmodium, which causes malarial fever,Trypanosoma which develops sleeping sickness, and Entamoeba histolyticawhich causes dysentery. Protozoa are useful in sewage disposal. Importance of Protozoans: they are important food source for many small animals. They are scavengers helping on the breaking down of the dead plants or animals, and recycles it back to the environment. B. Algae plantlike protists that are mostly unicellular and live where there is sufficient water. Algae provide food, directly or indirectly for other organisms.

    KINGDOM FUNGI
    The fungi are non-green plant-like organisms which are universal in their distribution. They grow in dark and moist habitat and the substratum containing dead organic matter. Mushrooms, molds and yeast are common examples of fungi. There are more than 100,000 species of fungi which are important to man in many respects. All fungi are heterotrophs, obtaining their nutrition from other organisms. They are mostly saprophytes, obtaining their nutrients by digesting, and absorbing the nutrients from dead organisms. Fungi digest their food outside of their bodies by secreting enzymes that break down organic material and then absorbed through their cell walls.

    Fungi are heterotrophic in nutrition i.e., they may be saprophytic, (living on dead organic matter) or parasitic (subsisting on other living organisms). The parasitic forms may be ectoparasite, living on the body of the host, or endoprasitic, living inside the body of the host. Some forms are symbiotic. The fungi are classified as follows:

    Four Divisions of Fungi: a. b. c. d. Zygomycota / Common molds. Example is the black bread mold, is a familiar mold which grow not only on bread but wherever there are water and nutrients. Basidiomycota / Club Fungi. They include mushrooms, bracket fungi, shell fungi. Some moldlike fungi, called rusts, can damage grains, food crops, and other plants. Ascomycota / Sac Fungi. They include the yeasts, truffles, and morels. Deuteromycota / Imperfect Fungi. This causes Athletes foot, ringworm and other fingernail/ fungal infections in humans.

    Importance of Fungi: They have a role in recycling nutrients that are essential for ecosystems. Most fungi are either saprophytes or decomposers that break down and feed on decaying organic materials or dead organisms. Other molds are used to create the distinct flavors, aromas, and tastes of many cheese varieties. Some mushrooms are used as food for their delicacy and high nutritive value. Some basidiomycetes are used as a source of medicinal compounds. Some are also used for "recreational" purposes. Some like rusts and smuts cause destruction of crop plants. The fungus Penicillium is used for the production of antibiotic penicillin. A few species are used to give flavor and texture to cheese. Some are also commercially used for the preparation of organic acid like citric acid, fumaric acid, oxalic acid, etc. Some members cause ring worm and athlete's foot. Some cause diseases in plants.

    Decomposers Examples: Rhizopus, Mucor, Agaricus, Penicillium, If it was not for the actions of decomposers, nutrients would get locked up in the dead matter of organisms. Life on earth without these organisms eventually would become impossible. Role of decomposers: They decompose the dead matter of plants and animals and disperse their nutrients, thus acting as scavangers of nature. They help in the formation of humus (superficial layer of soil rich in organic compounds) which is important to increase the fertility of soil and healthy growth of plants. They play an important role in converting complex organic components into simple forms to continue biogeochemical cycles.

    KINGDOM PLANTAE

    Kingdom Plantae includes all organisms which are truly multicellular and photosynthetic exept for algal protists. They are complex autotrophs preparing food material by photosynthesis for themselves as well as for rest of the other organisms. Hence, they are the chief producers of the world. They are found in all the types of environment: aquatic algae, amphibian mosses, and terrestrial ferns and seed-bearing plants.

    Two Vascular Structures of plants:


    Xylem made up of a series of dead tubular cells that transport H2O and dissolved minerals upward from
    roots to leaves. Phloem made up of a series of living tubular cells that transport sugars from leaves to all parts of the plant.

    Different Divisions of Kingdom Plantae: 1. 2. 3. Division Bryophyta mosses, liverworts, hornworts. All are non-vascular and non-seed. Division Pterophyta whisk ferns, horsetails, and ferns vascular and non-seed.

    Division Coniferophyta a. Coniferophyta is the largest and most diverse division of the gymnosperms. b. Gymnosperms are vascular plants that produce seeds on scales of woody strobili called cones.
    c. d. e. f. In other words, they have naked seeds - seeds not enclosed in a fruit. Cycads have a terminal rosette of leaves and bear seeds in cones. Most are evergreen keeping their leaves year-round. A very few are deciduous dropping all of their leaves at the same time

    4.

    Angiosperms include one division - Anthophyta

    Multi-cellular Algae : 1. 2. 3. Chlorophyta (Green Algae) these algae are green; lives in fresh water or in moist soil. Rhodophyta (Red Algae) These algae grow mainly in warm saltwater habitats. Most red algae are red but some appear green, orange, and others look almost black. Phaeophyta (Brown Algae) these algae mostly grow in cool saltwater habitats. Ex. Giant kelps.

    Importance of Algae: algaes are important components of plankton. Photosynthetic plankton called, phytoplankton, is an important food source for many heterotrophs marine organisms including, fish, shrimp, and whales. Other Economic importance of algae : The gelatinous substance extracted from red algae ( Gelidium, Gracilaria) is used to prepare agar as a medium for bacterial and fungal cultures, in preparation of ice-cream, jelly, cosmetics, medicines, etc. in Japan. Agar is also used in printing and dying processes in textile industry. Some species (Porphyra) are used as food. Algae are of certain economic importance to mankind. They serve as initial food producers and the first link in the aquatic food chain, both fresh water and marine. Some of the fresh water algae and sea-weeds are used as vitaminrich food. Brown algae contain iodine and algin. Some red algae are the source of agar jelly, used in the preparation of ice creams and culture media. However, algae sometimes cause contamination of water and some of them release many toxic substances killing millions of fish and other animals drinking this water.

    KINGDOM ANIMALIA
    Animals are a major group of multicellular, eukaryotic organisms of the kingdom Animalia or Metazoa.

    FEEDING HETEROTROPHS
    a. HERBIVORES- eat vegetation such as plants b. CARNIVORES- eat other animals c. OMNIVORES- feed on both vegetation & other animals d. FILTER FEEDERS- feed by straining tiny floating plants. e. DETRITUS FEEDERS- feed on tiny bits of decaying matter f. PARASITES- feed on living organisms usually destroying or injuring the host organism

    PROTECTION AND SUPPORT


    Those with an exoskeleton a hard, waxy coating on the outside of the body that protects internal organs, provides a framework for support, and a place for muscle attachment. Those with an endoskeleton support framework within the body that protects some organs and a brace for muscles to pull against.

    INVERTEBRATE
    An invertebrate is an animal without a backbone. The group includes 95% of all animal species all animals except those in the chordate Subphylum Vertebrata.

    DIVISIONS OF KINGDOM ANIMALIA (INVERTEBRATE)


    1. Phylum Porifera Sponges / live in water / Pores (holes) all over body / 5000 species Filter Feeders: a sponge filters particles of food from water using collar cells and then pumps the water out the osculum. Examples: Tube Sponge, Glass Sponge, Sea Sponge 2. Phylum Cnidaria Live in water / Most have tentacles / catch food with stinging cells gut for digesting 2 different shapes Medusa - like a jellyfish Polyp - like a hydra Examples - Jellyfish, Hydra, sea anemones, and corals 3. Phylum Platyhelminthes Flatworms / Flat, ribbon-like body

    Live in water or are parasites Examples: Tapeworm--Parasite that lives in intestines of host absorbing food

    4. Phylum Nematoda Roundworms Round, tubular body / small or microscopic bilateral symmetry / have both a mouth and anus Live in water or are parasites Examples: Hookworm / Trichinella 5. Phylum Mollusca Soft bodies / Hard Shells / Live on land or in water / Important food source for humans. Class Gastropoda Snail and Slugs Class Bivalves Clams, Oysters, Scallops and Mussels Class Cephalopods Squids and octopuses

    6. Phylum Annelida Segmented worms / Body divided into segments(sections) / Live in water or underground have a nervous and circulatory system. Class Earthworms Eat soil and breakdown organic matter, wastes provide nutrients to soil. Class Leeches Parasites that feed on blood of other animals.

    7. Phylum Echinodermata Hard, spiny skin / Live in salt water / Radial symmetry name means spiny skinned / endoskeleton Examples: seastar, sea urchin, sand dollar and sea cucumber 8. Phylum Arthropoda Body divided into sections/segments Exoskeleton / Jointed legs / well developed nervous system largest group of organisms on earth Subphylum Chilicerata Arachnida spiders, scorpions, ticks, mites Merostamata-horseshoe crabs (Ancient group of species) Crustacea 2 body regions or segmented Shrimp, lobsters, crabs, barnacles, isopods Subphylum Uniramia Class Insectagrasshoppers, ants, butterflies, bees Class Diploda Millipedes Class Chilopoda centipedes, usually terrestrial carnivores

    VERTEBRATE
    About 58,000 species of vertebrates have been currently described. Vertebrata is the largest subphylum of chordates, and contains many familiar groups of large land animals.

    PHYLUM CHORDATA
    a. b. c. Class Agnatha (jawless fish) known as gnathostomes Class Chondrichthyes (cartilaginous fishes) jawed fish with paired fins, paired nares, scales, a two chambered heart and skeletons made of cartilage rather than bone. (Examples: sharks, rays, skates) Class Osteichthyes (bony fishes)- extremely diverse and abundant group consisting of over 29,000 species. (Examples: ocean sunfish, black marlin, sturgeon, dwarf pygmy goby)

    d. e. f. g.

    Class Amphibia (amphibians) cold blooded, tetrapod vertebrates, living in fresh water or on land. Class Reptilia (reptiles) tetrapod vertebrates, either having four limbs or like snakes. Do not have an aquatic larval stage. Class Aves (birds) feathered, winged, bipedal, endothermic, egg laying, vertebrae animals. (10,000 living species) Class Mammalia (mammals) air breathing vertebrate animals characterized by the possession of endothermy, hair, three middle ear bones, and mammary glands functional in mothers with young. i. Three Types of Mammals Based on their mode of Reproduction; 1. Monotremes lays eggs. (platypus and echidna) 2. Marsupial have young that develop in the uterus for a short term. At birth, marsupial young crawl through mothers fur and into a pouch on the females body to fee on mothers milk. (kangaroo, koala, possum, squirrel glider) 3. Placental mammals like humans, develop through advanced stages in the uterus and receive maternal nutrients across the placenta.

    ECOLOGY AND BIODIVERSITY The scientific study of the relationships that living organisms have with each other and with their natural environment. Ecosystems are composed of dynamically interacting parts including organisms, the communities they make up, and the non-living components of their environment. Biodiversity refers to the varieties of species in ecosystems, the genetic variations they contain, and the processes that are functionally enriched by the diversity of ecological interactions. Includes; Species diversity the effective number of different species that are represented in a collection of individuals. Ecosystem diversity refers to the diversity of a place at the level of ecosystems. Genetic diversity refers to the total number of genetic characteristics in the genetic make up of a species. Biodiversity plays an important role in ecological health as much as it does for human health. Preventing species extinctions is one way to preserve biodiversity, but factors such as genetic diversity and migration routes are equally important and are threatened on global scales. An understanding of biodiversity has practical application for ecosystem-based on conservation planners as they make ecologically responsible decisions in management recommendations to consultant firms, governments, and industry.

    ENDANGERED SPECIES An endangered species is a populations of organisms which is facing a high risk of becoming extinct because it is either few in numbers, or threatened by changing environmental or predation parameters. The International Union for Conservation of Nature (IUCN) has calculated the percentage of endangered species. Causes of Endangerment: Habitat Destruction, Introduction of Exotic Species, Overexploitation, Diseases, Pollution, and Limited Distribution. IUCN categories, and some animals in those categories, include: Extinct: Examples: Atlas bear, Aurochs, Bali Tiger, Blackfin Cisco, Caribbean Monk Seal, Carolina Parakeet, Caspian Tiger, Dinosaurs, Dodo, Dusky Seaside Sparrow, Elephant Bird, Golden Toad, Great Auk, Haast's Eagle, Japanese Sea Lion, Javan Tiger, Labrador Duck, Moa, Passenger Pigeon, Pterosaurs, Saber-toothed cat, Schomburgk's deer, Short-faced bear, Steller's Sea Cow, Thylacine, Toolache Wallaby, Western Black Rhinoceros, Woolly Mammoth, Woolly Rhinoceros.

    Extinct in the wild: captive individuals survive, but there is no free-living, natural population. Examples: Barbary Lion (maybe extinct), Catarina Pupfish, Hawaiian Crow, Northern White Rhinoceros, Scimitar Oryx, Socorro Dove, Wyoming Toad. Critically endangered: faces an extremely high risk of extinction in the immediate future. Examples: Addax, African Wild Ass, Alabama Cavefish, Amur Leopard, Arakan Forest Turtle,Asiatic Cheetah, Axolotl, Bactrian Camel, Brazilian Merganser, Brown Spider Monkey, California Condor, Chinese Alligator, Chinese Giant Salamander, Gharial, Hawaiian Monk Seal, Iberian Lynx, Island Fox, Javan Rhino, Kakapo, Leatherback Sea Turtle, Mediterranean Monk Seal, Mexican Wolf, Mountain Gorilla, Philippine Eagle, Red Wolf, Saiga, Siamese Crocodile, Spix's Macaw, Southern bluefin tuna, Sumatran Orangutan, Sumatran Rhinoceros, Vaquita Endangered: faces a very high risk of extinction in the near future. Examples: African Penguin, African Wild Dog, Asian Elephant, Asiatic Lion, Blue Whale, Bonobo, Bornean Orangutan,Chimpanzees, Dhole, Ethiopian Wolf, Hispid Hare, Giant Otter, Giant Panda, Goliath Frog, Gorillas, Green Sea Turtle, Grevy's Zebra, Hyacinth Macaw, Japanese Crane, Lear's Macaw,Malayan Tapir, Markhor, Persian Leopard, Proboscis Monkey, Pygmy Hippopotamus, Red-breasted Goose, Rothschild Giraffe, Snow Leopard, Steller's Sea Lion, Scopas tang, Takhi, Tiger,Vietnamese Pheasant, Volcano Rabbit, Wild Water Buffalo Vulnerable: faces a high risk of extinction in the medium-term. Examples: African Elephant, American paddlefish, Clouded Leopard, Cheetah, Dugong, Far Eastern Curlew, Fossa, Galapagos Tortoise, Gaur, Blueeyed cockatoo, Golden Hamster, Whale Shark, Crowned Crane, Hippopotamus, Humboldt Penguin, Indian Rhinoceros, Komodo Dragon, Lesser White-fronted Goose,Lion, Mandrill, Maned Sloth, Mountain Zebra, Polar Bear, Red Panda, Sloth Bear, Takin, Yak Near threatened: may be considered threatened in the near future. Examples: African Grey Parrot, American Bison, starry blenny, Asian Golden Cat, Blue-billed Duck, Emperor Goose,Eurasian Curlew, Jaguar, Leopard, Magellanic Penguin, Maned Wolf, Narwhal, Okapi, Solitary Eagle, Southern White Rhinoceros, Striped Hyena, Tiger Shark, White Eared Pheasant Least concern: no immediate threat to the survival of the species. Examples: American Alligator, American Crow, Indian Peafowl, Baboon, Bald Eagle, Brown Bear, Brown Rat, Brown-throated sloth, Canada Goose, Cane Toad, Common Wood Pigeon, Cougar, Emperor Penguin, Common Frog, Orca, Giraffe, Grey Wolf, House Mouse,[5] Human, Palm cockatoo, cowfish,Mallard, Meerkat, Mute Swan, Platypus, Red-billed Quelea, Red-tailed Hawk, Rock Pigeon, Scarlet Macaw, Southern Elephant Seal, Milk shark, Red howler monkey

    Thoughts for the day; What do you think would its impact to biodiversity?

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