A

B
1
C
D
A
2
1
B
1
1
2
2
'
''
'''
1
'
''
A
2 1
B
1
1
1
2
2
'
''
'''
'
''
The method of alignment intersection
At this method the points of principal axes of the
structures are set out and marked by nails, on the batter
board and the project points are transferred on the ground by
the plumb lines, suspended at places of wire intersection.
Accuracy. If the points being set out are specified with
required accuracy for constructions, the elements, which
determine the position of these site with respect to control,
can be determined analytically by the solution of the inverse
geodetic problem. The position of individual structures with
respect to the construction net is determined analytically from
the project.
When using a construction net of squares the setting out the
project does not depend on the graphical accuracy of the
plan, but is considerably simplified.
In setting out, not only the values of maximum errors are of importance, but their directions as
well. High accuracy is required only within the limits of the construction proper.
Particular high accuracy is required in setting out the projects connected to mechanization and
automation of industry.
Ranging a line between inaccessible points or over a hill
If between two given points A and B is
rising ground which prevents one point to be
visible from the other one, then will be chosen
two points 1 and 2 such that the surveyor
standing at point 2 to see points 1 and B and
the surveyor standing at point 1 to see points A
and 2.
At the beginning, surveyor from point 1
aligns surveyor from 2 in the position 2, on the
alignment 1- A .
Surveyor 2 brings surveyor 1 in the
position 1 on the alignment 2-B. They will be
interchanging one another, until the pole 2 is
seen from 1 to cover A and the pole 1 is seen
from 2 to cover B.
This will indicate that all of the poles are
aligned in one vertical plane.
If the two given points A and B are
inaccessible, one of the surveyors, standing at
point 1, aligns surveyor from 2 in the position
2, on the alignment 1-A.
Surveyor 2 brings surveyor 1 in the
position 1 on the alignment 2-B. They will be
interchanging one another, until the pole 2 is
seen from 1 to cover A and the pole 1 is seen
from 2 to cover B.

A
3
2 1
B
Sensul jalonarii
v e d e r e i n p l a n
s e c t i u n e v e r t i c a l a
A
B
H A
H B
S u p r a f a t a d e n i v e l " 0 "
s e n s u l m a s u r a t o r i l o r
h A B
s
D t g
i

s H tg D i H
B A
+ + + *
s i tg D H H
A B
+ + *
Ranging across a Ravine
If line AB is to be ranged across a deep ravine,
pole 1 put up on the slope, must be aligned with AB,
and poles 2 and 3 are set on the opposite slops in
alignment with AB. By consulting these poles the pole
4 can be easily put up in line with 2-3. Further on, the
pole 5 can be easily put up on the line 4-2, and pole 6
on the line 5-1.
Alignment with visibility
Suppose line AB is to be ranged point B being
visible from point A. If the ranging is connected by
eye, one of the workers will take a position behind
pole A, and the other, following the formers
instructions, will put in succession poles 1, 2, 3,
beginning from the B end of the line, taking care that
all of them are aligned with point B. The poles are to
be set up vertically. The line ab shows projections of
the ranging pole feet on an imaginary horizontal
plane.
Ranging that is started from the farthest end of
the line is known as ranging toward oneself.
Ranging from oneself, i.e., from the nearest towards
the farthest and fails to give as accurate results as the other method.
Trigonometric leveling-positive slope angle
Suppose it is necessary to determine
the relative elevation hAB of point B over point
A. Let us assume that a theodolite or a
tachometer is positioned at point A.
i=the height of instrument (must be
measured)
We place a pole with height s vertically
at point B. We direct the telescope line of sight
to the top of the pole and measure the vertical
angle .
h
AB
+ s = i + D*tg
h
AB
= D*tg + i s
A
B
H A
H B
S u p r a f a t a d e n i v e l " 0 "
s e n s u l m a s u r a t o r i l o r
h A B
s
D t g
i

a
b
h
A
B
Trigonometric leveling-negative slope angle
Suppose it is necessary to determine
the relative elevation hAB of point A over
point B. Let us assume that a theodolite or a
tachometer is positioned at point A.
i=the height of instrument (must be
measured)
We place a pole with height s vertically
at point B. We direct the telescope line of
sight to the top of the pole and measure the
vertical angle .
h
AB
= H
B
- H
A
h
AB
= - D*tg + i - s
Hydrostatic leveling
One of the best known and most used
methods of leveling, on the construction site,
is the one that uses the principle of
communicating vessels, also known as the
water hose. Knowing the level of the leveling
mark and the level of the point that we are
going to trace, we can compute the value of
the work level h, given by the relation:
h=b-a
By hydrostatic leveling we can
transmit, on the projected points vertical axis,
the height of the leveling mark and after that,
by the help of a roulette, we can apply the computed work level value with respect to the leveling
mark.
For the correct application of the procedure, we mustnt unequally expose it to the sun nor may
the hose have any points of discontinuity.
s Dtg H i H
B A
+ + +
s i tg D H H
A B
+ *
b a
B A
H H h

a 1 b 1
a 2 b 2
a 3 b 3
a 4 b 4
A
B
1
2
3
h 1
h 2
h 3
h 4
h A B
Direct leveling from the midpoint
Suppose we have to determine the
difference in elevation between point B and point
A. We place rods graduated in centimeters,
vertically at points A and B. The level should be
placed at equal distances from these points, if
possible.
Having directed the fixed horizontal line of
sight of the instrument in succession to both
rods, we take readings Ha and Hb.
(the difference in elevation of the front point
with respect to the rear point is equal to the
backsight minus the foresight).
(the elevation of the successive point is equal to the elevation of the preceding point plus the
respective difference in elevation).

(the height of instrument is equal to the elevation of the point plus the
sight of this point).
(the elevation of the point is equal to the height of instrument minus the sight on
this point)
Simple and differential leveling (leveling traverse)
Leveling with one setting of
the instrument (station) is called
simple. If it is needed to
determine the difference in
elevation between remote
points, the leveling is performed
from several stations and it is
called differential or leveling
traverse.
In the case of leveling
traverse it is necessary to pay
special attention to the turning points, since an error in determining elevation of a
turning point will be transmitted to all the others.
In surveying roads, canals, the leveling traverse is applied for defining the
elevations of route points.

b a
A B A A B
H H EL h EL EL + +

a
A
H EL HI +
b
B
H HI EL
b a h
b a h
b a h
b a h
n n n

2 2 2
1 1 1
B A
coord
H H h
B A

coord
B A h
h h err without value err with value e

. _ _ _ _
h h e c
B A h h


x
y
O

N
N
B P
A P
x A x P x B
y P
y B
y C
A
B
P
x
y
O

N
N
A P
A
B
P

C N

A P
A P
Forward intersection
Consider at least two points of known coordinates: old points- that have field visibility between
them. Consider a new point whose coordinates we want to find.
For solving the problem, you must station the old points, and after the angular determination you
compute the angles in the horizontal plane and between the directions of the old points and the
direction created by an old point and the new point.
Resection (backward intersection)
The difference between this method and the forward intersection method is that when using
resection you station the new point and use it to view the old points. From the surveyors point of view
this problem is solved by viewing at least 4 old points through an old point.
A B
A B
AB
AB
AB
y y
x x
y
x
tg

'

B P
B P
BP
BP
BP
A P
A P
AP
AP
AP
y y
x x
y
x
tg
y y
x x
y
x
tg

) (
BA BP
+
+
tg tg
) 400 tg( tg
g
AB AP
BP AP
AP A BP B A B
P
ctg ctg
ctg x ctg x y y
x

'

C P
C P
CP
CP
CP
B P
B P
BP
BP
BP
A P
A P
AP
AP
AP
y y
x x
y
x
tg
y y
x x
y
x
tg
y y
x x
y
x
tg

( ) ( )
( ) ( )
B C C A A B
B C C A A B
AP
x x ctg y y ctg y y
y y ctg x x ctg x x
tg
+
+ +

( ) ( )
( ) ( )
B C C A A B
B C C A A B
AP
y y tg x x tg x x
x x tg y y tg y y
ctg
+
+ +

Determination of the Structure Height

B is the projection of point A
The theodolite is set up on the site at one of the points
M with a known elevation and the distance d from it to point B
is measured.
h=h1+ h2=d(tg1 + tg2)
1, 2 = the vertical angles
measured at point A and B
at both positions of the vertical
circle
Hm = elevation of the instrument station
HA= Hm+i +d*tg 2
i = the height of instrument at point M
If the elevation of point b is known, HB, then:
HA= HB+ d(tg1 + tg2)
The height of the object is determined twice as different
lengths d, and the value of horizontal distance d will be
determined by the formula:
d=l* cos , where l is the measured value of the slope
distance.
II. When the distances d or l cannot be directly measured on
the ground, then it is necessary to measure a base b, to obtain
the value of the horizontal distance d, indirectly.
The base b is measured by a steel tape; the
horizontal angles i and the vertical angles i will be
measured by a theodolite which will be set up on the
points A and B, successively.
First the sides of triangle ABC2 will be calculated by
the formulas: d1 = b/sin *sin 1
d2 = b/sin *sin 2
then the height of the building or tower will be obtained by the formulas: h1= d1 (tg2 - tg1) ;h1= d2 (tg4
tg3) and finally h=( h1+ h1)/2. If the elevations of points A and B are known, then HC= HA+ i + d1*tg 2, or
HC= HB+ i + d2*tg 4 .
Set out a foundation of a building
In order to ensure the vertical setting out of
structures it is necessary to fix bench marks on the
construction site with absolute elevation known. As a
rule, the points of the construction not serve
simultaneously asbench marks.
In the process of constructions, embedded in the
foundations of buildings are additional bench marks,
which are called construction bench marks, from which
elevations are set out to various parts of the buildings.
The level of a finished floor of the ground story is
accepted as the so-called construction elevation zero in
vertical setting out individual parts of the buildings.
For the vertical setting out it is necessary to calculate the reduced levels reckoned from the
construction elevation zero.
A definite absolute elevation specified in the project corresponds to the construction elevation zero.
Let the known absolute elevation on the bench mark and the unknown elevation zero be respectively
Hb and Hc.
Hi=the height of instrument= Hb+a
H0=the absolute elevation of the zero point= Hi-b(the unknown sight on the rod)
=>b=Hi-H0 This sight having been calculated, the rod is positioned next to the pole and shifted along
the pole until the calculated reading b coincides with the horizontal cross hair of the telescope. This
reading having been obtained, a line, assumed as the construction elevation zero, is marked on the
batter boards pole according to the rod heel. The parts of the building are set out from this line, for
example, window and door openings in erecting walls.
Rectangular coordinates
The rectangular coordinates are a system for specifying the position of an object relative to two
perpendicular axes from a specified origin. The line parallel and perpendicular to the central meridian
form the kilometer grid. Using the kilometer grid it is possible to determine in terms of zonal system
the rectangular coordinates of points on the map, as well as to plot
points on the map according to their coordinates.
X
A
=X
Sw
+x=X
SW
+c
mm
*n*10
-3
*k
X
meters
Y
A
=Y
SW
+y=Y
SW
+a
mm
*n*10
-3
*k
Y
meters
n= the denominator of the numerical scale
kx and ky are the coefficients of deformation along the
coordinate axis
K
X
=D
T
/D
Rx
K
Y
=D
T
/D
Ry
The method of rectangular coordinates (the offset
method):M-needs to be located; AB= the X-axis ; Let point A be the origin of the axis. The X-axis and
its origin will represent a system of coordinates which serves as a system of reference for locating
point M. MN=a perpendicular dropped on the X-axis from the point to be located=> the length AN of
the axis from the origin A is the abscissa of the point M and the length of the perpendicular MN is its
ordinate. The measurement of the abscissa and ordinate will yield two values called the rectangular
1 0 1
1 0 2
1 0 3
x
y
1 0 4
+ y
1 0 0 1
1 0 0 2
1 0 0 3
1 0 0 4
1 0 0 5
d 1
d 2
d 3
d 4
M
N
d M N
h M N
N '
( + )
coordinates of point M. This method is applied in surveys of linear objects such as roads, rivers,
ravines.
The method of radiation (polar coordinates)
This method consists in the determination of the coordinates of the detail points situated in the
field.. We use this method when the unknown points are around a point of known coordinates, called
the triangulation point. The distance between the triangulation point and the points we want to
determine mustnt be greater than 150 m.
Alignment method for detail points
If a series of details are situated on
a straight line, its much easier to
determine the coordinates of the
endpoints, and for the other points
its only necessary to determine
their distance to one of the
endpoint.
Preliminary computations
Horizontal distance computation
Bearings computation
A
1 0 1
1 0 2
1 0 3
x
y
1 0 0 5
1 0 1 1 0 2
1 0 1 1 0 0 1
1 0 0 1 1 0 0 2
1 0 0 3
1 0 0 4
g
1001 A A 101 102 101
400 +

i i i
cos l d
i i i i i
i i
i i
tg d sin l h
sin d y
cos d x



i statie i
i statie i
i statie i
h H H
y Y Y
x X X
+
+
+
i i i i i i i
tg d sin l h ; cos l d
CD
CD
C D
C D coord
CD
AB
AB
A B
A B coord
AB
x
y
x x
y y
tg
;
x
y
x x
y y
tg

g
f 3 2 1 0 AB
g
f
g
C 103 D C
g
3 2 1 0 AB
g
3
g
103 102 C 103
g
2 1 0 AB
g
2
g
102 101 103 102
g
1 0 AB
g
1
g
101 A 102 101
0 AB 101 A
800 400 200
600 400 200
400 400 200
200 400 200

+ + + + + + +
+ + + + + +
+ + + + +
+ + + +
+

Bearing adjustment

A
B
C
D
1 0 1
1 0 2
1 0 3

1 0 1
0
1
1 0 1 1 02
10 2 1 03
1 0 3 C
C - D
2
3
f
x
y
x A
x C
y A y D
coord
CD CD
e
n
e
c

coordonate
D C D C
comp
D C
C 103
comp
C 103
103 102
comp
103 102
102 101
comp
102 101
101 A
comp
101 A
c 5
c 4
c 3
c 2
c 1





+
+
+
+
+
A
B
C
D
1 0 1
1 0 2
1 0 3

1 0 1
0
1
1 0 1 1 0 2
1 0 2 1 0 3
1 0 3 C
C - D
2
3
f
x
y
x A
x C
y A y D
C C C C C C
A A A A A A
tg d h d y d x
tg d h d y d x
tg d h d y d x
tg d h d y d x








103 103 4 103 103 4 103 103 4
103 102 103 102 3 103 102 103 102 3 103 102 103 102 3
102 101 102 101 2 102 101 102 101 2 102 101 102 101 2
101 101 1 101 101 1 101 101 1
* sin * cos *
* sin * cos *
* sin * cos *
* sin * cos *




comp
1 A 101
comp
1 A 101
comp
1 A 101
h H H y y y x x x + + +
Coordinate adjustment

d*tg h d*sin y d*cos x
C A C A C A


) H (H d*tg e
) y (y d*sin e
) x (x d*cos e
A C h
A C y
A C x



d
e
c
x
x

d
e
c
y
y

d
e
c
h
h

h C
comp
y C
comp
x C
comp
h
comp
y
comp
x
comp
h
comp
y
comp
x
comp
h A
comp
y A
comp
x A
comp
c d h h c d y y c d x x
c d h h c d y y c d x x
c d h h c d y y c d x x
c d h h c d y y c d x x
* * *
* * *
* * *
* * *
103 4 4 103 4 4 103 4 4
103 102 31 3 103 102 3 3 103 102 3 3
102 101 2 2 102 101 2 2 102 101 2 2
101 1 1 101 1 1 101 1 1




+ + +
+ + +
+ + +
+ + +




d
e
c
h
h

d
e
c
y
y

d
e
c
x
x

Curves

T i
T e
O
A
B
V
/ 2
/ 2
b
Elements of a curve: -intersection angle ;radius of
curve;
200
g

;
2
tg R T


;
,
_

1
2
sec R VB VO b

;
g
c
200
R
l

; c T
l 2T D
; coordinates of
the point B:
2
sin R x
B


(abscissa);
,
_

2
cos 1 R OA OT y
i B

(ordinate).
The beginning, the end and the middle of the curve are called principal points of bend.
The method of equal abscissas:
This method is part of the category of drawing details by using the rectangular coordinates on the
tangent. The name of the method comes from the fact that the tangent itself is being used as the axis
of abscissa.
x
2 x
y 1
y 2
1
2
x 1
x 2
T i
1 '
2 '
V
O
2 2
i 1
1
x R R ' O1 OT y
x x

( )
2 2
i 2
2
2x R R ' O2 OT y
2x x

( )
x i x
y OT Oi R R ix
i
i i

'
2
2
The method of the equal arch:
This method too is part of the category of drawing details by using rectangular coordinates on the
tangent. From plane geometry we know that if we have to equal arches then the angles at centre are
also equal.
cc

R
l

cc
= 636620
cc
y 1
y 2
1
2
x 1
x 2
T i
V
O

1 '
2 '
( ) cos 1 R ' O1 OT y
sin R x
i 1
1


( )
) cos2 R(1 ' O2 OT y
2 sin R x
i 2
2


( )
) cosi* R(1 Oi' OT y
i sin R x
i i
i


Polar coordinates method
In the case when there is no accessibility on the length of the tangent, either because of
vegetation or other obstacles.

2R
s
2

sin
2

sin R
2
s

1
2
T i
V
O
/ 2

/ 2
/ 2
2 ( / 2 )
Setting out an angle
Low precision Medium precision
A
B
C

B
A
C
C '
'

q
A
B
a
H A
H B t e r e n
b p r
b t e r e n
H B p r .
s u p r a f a t a d e n i v e l " 0 "
High precision
Setting out elevations direct leveling method
B
A
C
C '
C "

'
tg d q
cc
cc

d q
pr B A
b H a H
pr
+ +
pr
B A pr
H a H b +
A
B
i
H A
H B t e r e n
b p r
b t e r e n
H B p r .
pr B A
b H i H
pr
+ +
pr
B A pr
H i H b +
A
B
H A
H B t e r e n
i

i
c l
D
H B p r .
D
H H
tg
A B
pr


R N
B t e r e n
B p r o i e c t
H R N
a
b p r
c "
H B p r .
c '
S 1
S 2
H R N
a
b p r
c '
c "
H B p r
R N
B S 2
S 1
0
Trigonometric leveling method
Setting out elevations inside foundations
b
pr
= H
RN
+ a - H
Bpr
- (c - c)
Setting out elevation of floors
H
RN
+ a + (c - c)= H
Bpr
+ b
pr

b
pr
= H
RN
+ a + (c - c) - H
Bpr

Types of errors
Systematic (cumulative) errors - they follow some Law:
D
H H
tg
A B
pr


Law may or may not be Known
they can be any Size and Sign
they are the Same under Same Conditions
Random errors
the difference between a true quantity and a measurement of that quantity that is free from
blunders or systematic errors
these are the Remaining Errors after both Blunders & Systematic Errors have been removed
they occur randomly and are present in all Measurements
they are a result of Small Reading Errors, Small Changes in Conditions while surveying
By accuracy
Same weight (equal weight)
Different weights
Error is the small difference between a measured value and the true value of a quantity
systematic error which always occurs (with the same value) when we use the instrument in the
same way, and
random error which may vary from observation to observation
Appearance of errors
apparatus imperfections of the instrument instrumental errors;
Errors due to operator human errors;
Errors due to external conditions, e.g. temperature, tension
Error is the difference between a measured sample and the TRUE value
Correction is the difference between the TRUE value and a measured sample
error = ve vj correction = vj ve
c = - e
Classification of errors
By type
errors
Mistakes, blunders
By propagation mode
systematic
random
By reference value
-real
-errors
Mean square error:
Tape is not horizontal

+ + +
2 1
n
M M M
M
n

M
n
1
+ + M
n
1
+ M
n
1
M
n 2 1

( ) 1 n n
] [
n
e
e
e
n
1
e
n
n
= e
n
1
+ + e
n
1
+ e
n
1
e
q
M
2
q
2
q 2
2
q 2
2
q 2
2
q 2
2
M

t t

vv

h
A
B
Longitudinal and cross profiles leveling
2 2
cos * h l l d
( )
2

sin 2l cos 1 l l cos l l

2
0
* *
( )
2 2
0
h l l l
1 0 0 1
1 0 0 2
1 0 0 3
a i c 1 c 2 c 3 b i
H v
1 0 1
1 0 2
1 0 1
1 0 0 1
1 0 0 2
1 0 0 3
1 0 2
H 1 0 1
H 1 0 0 1 H 1 0 0 2
i v
a H H +
101
2 1002
1 1001
c H H
c H H
v
v